LECTURE # 10 Sets Continued

EXERCISE Suppose R and S are binary relations on a set A. a. If R and S are reflexive, is R S reflexive? b. If R and S are symmetric, is R S symmetric? c. If R and S are transitive, is R S transitive? SOLUTION a. R S is reflexive Suppose R and S are reflexive. Then by definition of reflexive relation a A (a,a) R and (a,a) S a A (a,a) R S (by definition of intersection) Accordingly, R S is reflexive. b. R S is symmetric Suppose R and S are symmetric. To prove R S is symmetric we need to show that a, b A, if (a,b) R S then (b,a) R S. Suppose (a,b) R S. (a,b) R and (a,b) S ( by the definition of Intersection of two sets ) Since R is symmetric, therefore if (a,b) R then (b,a) R. Similarly S is symmetric, so if (a,b) S then (b,a) S. Thus (b,a) R and (b,a) S (b,a) R S (by definition of intersection) Accordingly, R S is symmetric. c. RS is transitive Suppose R and S are transitive. To prove RS is transitive we must show that a,b,c, A, if (a,b) RS and (b,c) RS then (a,c) RS. Suppose (a,b) RS and (b,c) RS (a,b) R and (a,b) S and (b,c) R and (b,c) S Since R is transitive, therefore if (a,b) R and (b,c) R then (a,c) R. Also S is transitive, so (a,c) S Hence we conclude that (a,c) R and (a,c) S and so (a,c) RS (by definition of intersection) Accordingly, RS is transitive. EXAMPLE: Let A = {1,2,3,4} and let R and S be transitive binary relations on A defined as: R = {(1,2), (1,3), (2,2), (3,3), (4,2), (4,3)} and S = {(2,1), (2,4),(3,3)} Then R S = {(1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,4), (3,3), (4,2), (4,3)}

We note (1,2) and (2,1) RS, but (1,1) RS Hence RS is not transitive. IRREFLEXIVE RELATION Let R be a binary relation on a set A. R is irreflexive iff for all aA,(a,a) R. That is, R is irreflexive if no element in A is related to itself by R. REMARK R is not irreflexive iff there is an element aA such that (a,a) R. EXAMPLE Let A = {1,2,3,4} and define the following relations on A: R1 = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,4)} R2 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)} R3 = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,3), (3,4)} Then R1 is irreflexive since no element of A is related to itself in R1. i.e. (1,1) R1, (2,2) R1, (3,3) R1,(4,4) R1 R2 is not irreflexive, since all elements of A are related to themselves in R2 R3 is not irreflexive since (3,3) R3. Note that R3 is not reflexive. NOTE A relation may be neither reflexive nor irreflexive. DIRECTED GRAPH OF AN IRREFLEXIVE RELATION Let R be an irreflexive relation on a set A. Then by definition, no element of A is related to itself by R. Accordingly, there is no loop at each point of A in the directed graph of R. EXAMPLE Let A = {1,2,3} and R = {(1,3), (2,1), (2,3), (3,2)} be represented by the directed graph.

MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF AN IRREFLEXIVE RELATION Let R be an irreflexive relation on a set A. Then by definition, no element of A is related to itself by R. Since the self related elements are represented by 1s on the main diagonal of the matrix representation of the relation, so for irreflexive relation R, the matrix will contain all 0s in its main diagonal. It means that a relation is irreflexive if in its matrix representation the diagonal elements are all zero, if one of them is not zero the we will say that the relation is not irreflexive. EXAMPLE: Let A = {1,2,3} and R = {(1,3), (2,1), (2,3), (3,2)} be represented by the matrix
1 2 3 1 0 0 1 M = 2 1 0 1 3 0 1 0

Then R is irreflexive, since all elements in the main diagonal are 0s. EXERCISE Let R be the relation on the set of integers Z defined as: for all a,b Z, (a,b) R a > b. Is R irreflexive? SOLUTION R is irreflexive if for all a Z, (a,a) R. Now by the definition of given relation R,for all a Z, (a,a) R since a > a. Hence R is irreflexive. ANTISYMMETRIC RELATION Let R be a binary relation on a set A.R is anti-symmetric iff a, b A if (a,b) R and (b,a) R then a = b. REMARK 1) R is not anti-symmetric iff there are elements a and b in A such that (a,b) R and (b,a) R but a b. 2) The properties of being symmetric and being anti-symmetric are not negative of each other. EXAMPLE Let A = {1,2,3,4} and define the following relations on A. R1 = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)} R2 = {(1,2),(2,2), (2,3), (3,4), (4,1)} R3={(1,3),(2,2), (2,4), (3,1), (4,2)} R4={(1,3),(2,4), (3,1), (4,3)} R1 is anti-symmetric and symmetric . R2 is anti-symmetric but not symmetric because (1,2) R2but (2,1) R2. R3 is not anti-symmetric since (1,3) & (3,1) R3 but 1 3. Note that R3 is symmetric. (1,3) & (3,1) R4 but 1 3 nor symmetric R4is neither anti-symmetric because because (2,4) R4 but (4,2) R4 DIRECTED GRAPH OF AN ANTISYMMETRIC RELATION Let R be an anti-symmetric relation on a set A. Then by definition, no two distinct elements of A are related to each other. Accordingly, there is no pair of arrows between two distinct elements of A in the directed graph of R. EXAMPLE Let A = {1,2,3} And R be the relation defined on A is R ={(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (3,1)}.Thus R is represented by the directed graph as

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R is anti-symmetric, since there is no pair of arrows between two distinct points in A. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF AN ANTISYMMETRIC RELATION Let R be an anti-symmetric relation on a set A = {a1, a2, , an}. Then if (ai, aj) R for i j then (ai, aj) R. Thus in the matrix representation of R there is a 1 in the ith row and jth column iff the jth row and ith column contains 0 vice versa. EXAMPLE Let A = {1,2,3} and a relation R = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (3,1)}on A be represented by the matrix.
1 2 3 1 1 1 0 M = 2 0 0 1 3 1 0 0

Then R is anti-symmetric as clear by the form of matrix M. PARTIAL ORDER RELATION Let R be a binary relation defined on a set A. R is a partial order relation,if and only if, R is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive. The set A together with a partial ordering R is called a partially ordered set or poset. EXAMPLE Let R be the set of real numbers and define theless than or equal to on R as follows: for all real numbers x and y in R.x y x < y or x = y Show that is a partial order relation. SOLUTION is reflexive For to be reflexive means that x x for all x R But x x means that x < x or x = x and x = x is always true. Hence under this relation every element is related to itself. is anti-symmetric For to be anti-symmetric means that x,y R, if x y and y x, then x = y. This follows from the definition of and the trichotomy property, which says that given any real numbers x and y, exactly one of thefollowing holds: x < y or x = y or x > y is transitive For to be transitive means that x,y,z R, if x y and y z then x z.

This follows from the definition of and the transitive property of order of real numbers, which says that given any real numbers x, y and z, if x < y and y < z then x < z Thus being reflexive, anti-symmetric and transitive is a partial order relation on R. EXERCISE Let A be a non-empty set and P(A) the power set of A. Define the subset relation, , as follows: for all X,Y P(A), X Y x, iff x X then x Y. Show that is a partial order relation. SOLUTION 1. is reflexive Let X P(A). Since every set is a subset of itself, therefore X X, X P(A). Accordingly is reflexive. 2. is anti-symmetric Let X, Y P(A) and suppose X Y and Y X.Then by definition of equality of two sets it follows that X = Y. Accordingly, is anti-symmetric. 3. is transitive Let X, Y, Z P(A) and suppose X Y and Y Z. Then by the transitive property of subsets if U V and V W then U Wit follows X Z. Accordingly is transitive. EXERCISE Let | be the divides relation on a set A of positive integers. That is, for all a, b A, a|b b = k a for some integer k. Prove that | is a partial order relation on A. SOLUTION 1) | is reflexive. [We must show that, a A, a|a] Suppose a A. Then a = 1a and so a|a by definition of divisibility. 2) | is anti-symmetric [We must show that for all a, b A, if a|b and b|a then a=b] Suppose a|b and b|a By definition of divides there are integers k1, and k2 such that b = k 1 a and a = k 2 b Now b = k1 a = k1(k2 b) (by substitution) = (k1 k2) b Dividing both sides by b gives 1 = k1 k2 Since a, b A, where A is the set of positive integers, so the equations b = k1aand a = k 2 b implies that k1 and k2 are both positive integers. Now the equation k1k2 =1 can hold only when k1 = k2 = 1 Thus a = k2b=1 b=b i.e., a = b

3)| is transitive [We must show that a,b,cA if a|b and b|c than a|c] Suppose a|b and b|c By definition of divides, there are integers k1 and k2 such that b = k 1 a and c = k 2 b Now c = k2 b = k2 (k1 a) (by substitution) = (k2 k1) a (by associative law under multiplication) = k3 a where k3= k2k1 is an integer a|c by definition of divides Thus | is a partial order relation on A. EXERCISE Let R be the relation defined on the set of integers Z as follows: r for all a, b Z, aRb iff b=a for some positive integer r.Show that R is a partial order on Z. SOLUTION Let a, b Z and suppose aRb and bRa. Then there are positive integers r and s such that r s b = a and a=b s Now, a=b r s = (a ) by substitution rs =a rs =1 Since r and s are positive integers, so this equation can hold if, and only if, r =1 and s = 1 1 and then a = bs = b = b i.e., a = b Thus R is anti-symmetric. 3. Let a, b, c Z and suppose aRb and bRc. Then there are positive integers r and s such that r s b = a and c=b r Now c = b r s = (a ) (by substitution) rs t =a =a (where t = rs is also a positive integer) Hence by definition of R, aRc. Therefore, R is transitive. Accordingly, R is a partial order relation on Z.