Introduction to SQL

SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.

What is SQL?

SQL stands for Structured Query Language SQL lets you access and manipulate databases SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard

What Can SQL do?

SQL can execute queries against a database SQL can retrieve data from a database SQL can insert records in a database SQL can update records in a database SQL can delete records from a database SQL can create new databases SQL can create new tables in a database SQL can create stored procedures in a database SQL can create views in a database SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

SQL is a Standard - BUT....

Although SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard, there are different versions of the SQL language. However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the major commands (such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE) in a similar manner. Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary extensions in addition to the SQL standard!

Using SQL in Your Web Site

To build a web site that shows data from a database, you will need:

An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL) To use a server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP To use SQL to get the data you want To use HTML / CSS

RDBMS
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems such as MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access. The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. A table is a collection of related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.

SQL Syntax
Database Tables
A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g. "Customers" or "Orders"). Tables contain records (rows) with data. In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database (included in MS Access and MS SQL Server). Below is a selection from the "Customers" table: CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address 1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 2 3 4 5 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp Ana Trujillo Antonio Moreno Thomas Hardy Christina Berglund Avda. de la Constitucin 2222 Mataderos 2312 120 Hanover Sq. City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany Mexico Mexico

Mxico 05021 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F.

London WA1 1DP UK S-958 22 Sweden

Berguvsvgen 8 Lule

The table above contains five records (one for each customer) and seven columns (CustomerID, CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode, and Country).

SQL Statements
Most of the actions you need to perform on a database are done with SQL statements. The following SQL statement selects all the records in the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers;

SQL SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

The SQL SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database. The result is stored in a result table, called the result-set.
SQL SELECT Syntax SELECT column_name,column_name FROM table_name;

and
SELECT * FROM table_name;

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID 1 CustomerName Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera ContactName Maria Anders Address Obere Str. 57 City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F.

Mexico

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico

4 5

Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

UK Sweden

SELECT Column Example

The following SQL statement selects the "CustomerName" and "City" columns from the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT CustomerName,City FROM Customers;

SELECT * Example
The following SQL statement selects all the columns from the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers;

SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to return only distinct (different) values.

The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

In a table, a column may contain many duplicate values; and sometimes you only want to list the different (distinct) values. The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct (different) values.
SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax SELECT DISTINCT column_name,column_name FROM table_name;

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID 1 CustomerName Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp ContactName Maria Anders Address Obere Str. 57 City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F. London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

Mexico

3 4 5

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico UK Sweden

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

SELECT DISTINCT Example

The following SQL statement selects only the distinct values from the "City" columns from the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Customers;

SQL WHERE Clause

The WHERE clause is used to filter records.

The SQL WHERE Clause

The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified criterion.
SQL WHERE Syntax SELECT column_name,column_name FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value;

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID 1

CustomerName Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp

ContactName Maria Anders

Address Obere Str. 57

City Berlin

PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F. London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

Mexico

3 4 5

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico UK Sweden

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

WHERE Clause Example

The following SQL statement selects all the customers from the country "Mexico", in the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country='Mexico';

Text Fields vs. Numeric Fields

SQL requires single quotes around text values (most database systems will also allow double quotes). However, numeric fields should not be enclosed in quotes:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerID=1;

Operators in The WHERE Clause

The following operators can be used in the WHERE clause:
Operator = <> > < >= <= BETWEEN LIKE IN Equal Not equal. Note: In some versions of SQL this operator may be written as != Greater than Less than Greater than or equal Less than or equal Between an inclusive range Search for a pattern To specify multiple possible values for a column Description

SQL AND & OR Operators

The AND & OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition.

The SQL AND & OR Operators

The AND operator displays a record if both the first condition AND the second condition are true. The OR operator displays a record if either the first condition OR the second condition is true.

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table: CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address 1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 2 3 4 5 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp Ana Trujillo Antonio Moreno Thomas Hardy Christina Berglund Avda. de la Constitucin 2222 Mataderos 2312 120 Hanover Sq. City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany Mexico Mexico

Mxico 05021 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F.

London WA1 1DP UK S-958 22 Sweden

Berguvsvgen 8 Lule

AND Operator Example

The following SQL statement selects all customers from the country "Germany" AND the city "Berlin", in the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country='Germany' AND City='Berlin';

OR Operator Example
The following SQL statement selects all customers from the city "Berlin" OR "Mnchen", in the "Customers" table:

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City='Berlin' OR City='Mnchen';

Combining AND & OR

You can also combine AND and OR (use parenthesis to form complex expressions). The following SQL statement selects all customers from the country "Germany" AND the city must be equal to "Berlin" OR "Mnchen", in the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country='Germany' AND (City='Berlin' OR City='Mnchen');

SQL ORDER BY Keyword

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set.

The SQL ORDER BY Keyword

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set by one or more columns. The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default. To sort the records in a descending order, you can use the DESC keyword.
SQL ORDER BY Syntax SELECT column_name,column_name FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name,column_name ASC|DESC;

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID 1 CustomerName Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp ContactName Maria Anders Address Obere Str. 57 City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F. London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

Mexico

3 4 5

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico UK Sweden

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

ORDER BY Example
The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted by the "Country" column:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country;

ORDER BY DESC Example

The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted DESCENDING by the "Country" column:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country DESC;

ORDER BY Several Columns Example

The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table, sorted by the "Country" and the "CustomerName" column:

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country,CustomerName;

SQL INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.

The SQL INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.
SQL INSERT INTO Syntax

It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two forms. The first form does not specify the column names where the data will be inserted, only their values:
INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...);

The second form specifies both the column names and the values to be inserted:

INSERT INTO table_name (column1,column2,column3,...) VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...);

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID 87 CustomerName Wartian Herkku Wellington Importadora ContactName Pirkko Koskitalo Address Torikatu 38 City Oulu PostalCode Country 90110 Finland

88

Paula Parente Rua do Mercado, 12 305 - 14th Ave. S. Suite 3B Keskuskatu 45 ul. Filtrowa 68

Resende 08737-363 Brazil

89

White Clover Markets Karl Jablonski Matti Karttunen Zbyszek

Seattle 98128

USA

90 91

Wilman Kala Wolski

Helsinki 21240 Walla 01-012

Finland Poland

INSERT INTO Example

Assume we wish to insert a new row in the "Customers" table. We can use the following SQL statement (without specifying column names):
INSERT INTO Customers VALUES ('Cardinal','Tom B. Erichsen','Skagen 21','Stavanger','4006','Norway');

or this SQL statement (including column names):

INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode, Country) VALUES ('Cardinal','Tom B. Erichsen','Skagen 21','Stavanger','4006','Norway');

The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:
CustomerID 87 CustomerName Wartian Herkku Wellington Importadora White Clover Markets Wilman Kala Wolski Cardinal ContactName Pirkko Koskitalo Address Torikatu 38 City Oulu PostalCode Country 90110 Finland

88

Paula Parente Rua do Mercado, 12 Resende 08737-363 Brazil 305 - 14th Ave. S. Suite 3B Keskuskatu 45 ul. Filtrowa 68 Skagen 21

89

Karl Jablonski Matti Karttunen Zbyszek Tom B. Erichsen

Seattle

98128

USA

90 91 92

Helsinki Walla

21240 01-012

Finland Poland Norway

Stavanger 4006

Did you notice that we did not insert any number into the CustomerID field? The CustomerID column is an AutoNumber field and is automatically updated with a unique number for each record in the table. AutoNumber is a type of data used in Microsoft Access tables to generate an automatically incremented numeric counter. The default AutoNumber type has a start value of 1 and an increment of 1.

Insert Data Only in Specified Columns

It is also possible to only insert data in specific columns.

The following SQL statement will insert a new row, but only insert data in the "CustomerName", "City", and "Country" columns (and the CustomerID field will of course also be updated automatically):
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, City, Country) VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Stavanger', 'Norway');

The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:
CustomerID 87 CustomerName Wartian Herkku Wellington Importadora White Clover Markets Wilman Kala Wolski Cardinal ContactName Pirkko Koskitalo Address Torikatu 38 City Oulu PostalCode Country 90110 Finland

88

Paula Parente Rua do Mercado, 12 Resende 08737-363 Brazil 305 - 14th Ave. S. Suite 3B Keskuskatu 45 ul. Filtrowa 68

89

Karl Jablonski Matti Karttunen Zbyszek

Seattle

98128

USA

90 91 92

Helsinki Walla Stavanger

21240 01-012

Finland Poland Norway

SQL UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to update records in a table.

The SQL UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table.

SQL UPDATE Syntax UPDATE table_name SET column1=value1,column2=value2,... WHERE some_column=some_value;

Notice the WHERE clause in the SQL UPDATE statement! The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that should be updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be updated!

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID 1 CustomerName Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp ContactName Maria Anders Address Obere Str. 57 City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F. London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

Mexico

3 4 5

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico UK Sweden

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

SQL UPDATE Example

Assume we wish to update the customer "Alfreds Futterkiste" with a new contact person and city. We use the following SQL statement:
UPDATE Customers SET ContactName='Alfred Schmidt', City='Hamburg' WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';

The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:
CustomerID 1 CustomerName Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp ContactName Address City PostalCode Country Germany

Alfred Schmidt Obere Str. 57

Hamburg 12209

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico D.F. London Lule

05021

Mexico

3 4 5

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

05023 WA1 1DP S-958 22

Mexico UK Sweden

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

Update Warning!
Be careful when updating records. If we had omitted the WHERE clause in the example above, like this:
UPDATE Customers SET ContactName='Alfred Schmidt', City='Hamburg';

The "Customers" table would have looked like this:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

Alfreds Futterkiste

Alfred Schmidt

Obere Str. 57 Avda. de la Constitucin 2222 Mataderos 2312

Hamburg 12209

Germany

Ana Trujillo Alfred Emparedados y helados Schmidt Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Alfred Schmidt Alfred Schmidt Alfred Schmidt

Hamburg 05021

Mexico

Hamburg 05023

Mexico

120 Hanover Sq.

Hamburg WA1 1DP

UK

Berglunds snabbkp

Berguvsvgen 8

Hamburg S-958 22

Sweden

SQL DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete records in a table.

The SQL DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.
SQL DELETE Syntax DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_column=some_value;

Notice the WHERE clause in the SQL DELETE statement! The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that should be deleted. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be deleted!

Demo Database

In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID 1 CustomerName Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp ContactName Maria Anders Address Obere Str. 57 City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F. London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

Mexico

3 4 5

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico UK Sweden

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

SQL DELETE Example

Assume we wish to delete the customer "Alfreds Futterkiste" from the "Customers" table. We use the following SQL statement:
DELETE FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste' AND ContactName='Maria Anders';

The "Customers" table will now look like this:

CustomerID 2 CustomerName ContactName Address Avda. de la Constitucin 2222 Mataderos 2312 City Mxico D.F. Mxico D.F. PostalCode Country 05021 Mexico

Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Antonio Moreno

05023

Mexico

4 5

Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

UK Sweden

Delete All Data

It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the table structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
DELETE FROM table_name; or DELETE * FROM table_name;

Note: Be very careful when deleting records. You cannot undo this statement!

SQL SELECT TOP Clause

The SQL SELECT TOP Clause
The SELECT TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return. The SELECT TOP clause can be very useful on large tables with thousands of records. Returning a large number of records can impact on performance. Note: Not all database systems support the SELECT TOP clause.
SQL Server / MS Access Syntax SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s) FROM table_name;

SQL SELECT TOP Equivalent in MySQL and Oracle

MySQL Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name LIMIT number; Example SELECT * FROM Persons LIMIT 5; Oracle Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE ROWNUM <= number; Example SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE ROWNUM <=5;

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID 1 CustomerName Alfreds Futterkiste ContactName Maria Anders Address Obere Str. 57 City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F.

Mexico

3 4 5

Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mxico 05023 D.F. London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

Mexico UK Sweden

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

SQL SELECT TOP Example

The following SQL statement selects the two first records from the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT TOP 2 * FROM Customers;

SQL SELECT TOP PERCENT Example

The following SQL statement selects the first 50% of the records from the "Customers" table:

Example
SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM Customers;

SQL LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.

The SQL LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used to search for a specified pattern in a column.

SQL LIKE Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name LIKE pattern;

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID 1 CustomerName Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp ContactName Maria Anders Address Obere Str. 57 City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F. London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

Mexico

3 4 5

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico UK Sweden

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

SQL LIKE Operator Examples

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with the letter "s":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE 's%';

Tip: The "%" sign is used to define wildcards (missing letters) both before and after the pattern. You will learn more about wildcards in the next chapter. The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City ending with the letter "s":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE '%s';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a Country containing the pattern "land":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country LIKE '%land%';

Using the NOT keyword allows you to select records that does NOT match the pattern. The following SQL statement selects all customers with a Country NOT containing the pattern "land":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Country NOT LIKE '%land%';

SQL Wildcard
A wildcard character can be used to substitute for any other character(s) in a string.

SQL Wildcard Characters

In SQL, wildcard characters are used with the SQL LIKE operator. SQL wildcards are used to search for data within a table. With SQL, the wildcards are: Wildcard Description % A substitute for zero or more characters _ A substitute for a single character [charlist] Sets and ranges of characters to match [^charlist] or Matches only a character NOT specified within the brackets [!charlist]

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table: CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address 1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 2 3 4 5 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp Ana Trujillo Antonio Moreno Thomas Hardy Christina Berglund Avda. de la Constitucin 2222 Mataderos 2312 120 Hanover Sq. City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany Mexico Mexico

Mxico 05021 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F.

London WA1 1DP UK S-958 22 Sweden

Berguvsvgen 8 Lule

Using the SQL % Wildcard

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "ber":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE 'ber%';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City containing the pattern "es":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE '%es%';

Using the SQL _ Wildcard

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with any character, followed by "erlin":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE '_erlin';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "L", followed by any character, followed by "n", followed by any character, followed by "on":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE 'L_n_on';

Using the SQL [charlist] Wildcard

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "b", "s", or "p":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE '[bsp]%';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "a", "b", or "c":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE '[a-c]%';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City NOT starting with "b", "s", or "p":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City LIKE '[!bsp]%';

SQL IN Operator
The IN Operator
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.
SQL IN Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...);

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID 1 CustomerName Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp ContactName Maria Anders Address Obere Str. 57 City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F. London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

Mexico

3 4 5

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico UK Sweden

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

IN Operator Example
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City of "Paris" or "London":

Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City IN ('Paris','London');

SQL BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator is used to select values within a range.

The SQL BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator selects values within a range. The values can be numbers, text, or dates.
SQL BETWEEN Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Products" table:
ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price

1 2 3 4 5

Chais Chang Aniseed Syrup

1 1 1

1 1 2 2 2

10 boxes x 20 bags 18 24 - 12 oz bottles 19 12 - 550 ml bottles 10 48 - 6 oz jars 36 boxes 22 21.35

Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 1 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 1

BETWEEN Operator Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a price BETWEEN 10 and 20:

Example
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20;

NOT BETWEEN Operator Example

To display the products outside the range of the previous example, use NOT BETWEEN:

Example
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE Price NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 20;

BETWEEN Operator with IN Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a price BETWEEN 10 and 20, but products with a CategoryID of 1,2, or 3 should not be displayed:

Example
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE (Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20) AND NOT CategoryID IN (1,2,3);

BETWEEN Operator with Text Value Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a ProductName beginning with any of the letter BETWEEN 'C' and 'M':

Example
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE ProductName BETWEEN 'C' AND 'M';

NOT BETWEEN Operator with Text Value Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a ProductName beginning with any of the letter NOT BETWEEN 'C' and 'M':

Example
SELECT * FROM Products WHERE ProductName NOT BETWEEN 'C' AND 'M';

Sample Table
Below is a selection from the "Orders" table:
OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID 10248 10249 90 81 5 6 7/4/1996 3 7/5/1996 1

10250 10251 10252

34 84 76

4 3 4

7/8/1996 2 7/9/1996 1 7/10/1996 2

BETWEEN Operator with Date Value Example

The following SQL statement selects all orders with an OrderDate BETWEEN '04-July-1996' and '09-July-1996':

Example
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate BETWEEN #07/04/1996# AND #07/09/1996#;

Notice that the BETWEEN operator can produce different result in different databases! In some databases, BETWEEN selects fields that are between and excluding the test values. In other databases, BETWEEN selects fields that are between and including the test values. And in other databases, BETWEEN selects fields between the test values, including the first test value and excluding the last test value. Therefore: Check how your database treats the BETWEEN operator!

SQL Aliases
SQL aliases are used to temporarily rename a table or a column heading.

SQL Aliases
SQL aliases are used to give a database table, or a column in a table, a temporary name. Basically aliases are created to make column names more readable.
SQL Alias Syntax for Columns SELECT column_name AS alias_name FROM table_name; SQL Alias Syntax for Tables SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name AS alias_name;

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID 1 2 CustomerName Alfreds Futterkiste ContactName Address City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 05021 Germany Mexico

Maria Anders Obere Str. 57

Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Antonio Moreno

Avda. de la Mxico Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mataderos 2312 Mxico D.F.

05023

Mexico

And a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID 10643 10644 1 88 6 3 1997-08-25 1 1997-08-25 2

10645

34

1997-08-26 1

Alias Example for Table Columns

The following SQL statement specifies two aliases, one for the CustomerName column and one for the ContactName column. Tip: It require double quotation marks or square brackets if the column name contains spaces:

Example
SELECT CustomerName AS Customer, ContactName AS [Contact Person] FROM Customers;

In the following SQL statement we combine four columns (Address, City, PostalCode, and Country) and create an alias named "Address":

Example
SELECT CustomerName, Address+', '+City+', '+PostalCode+', '+Country AS Address FROM Customers;

Alias Example for Tables

The following SQL statement selects all the orders from the customer "Alfreds Futterkiste". We use the "Customers" and "Orders" tables, and give them the table aliases of "c" and "o" respectively (Here we have used aliases to make the SQL shorter):

Example
SELECT o.OrderID, o.OrderDate, c.CustomerName FROM Customers AS c, Orders AS o WHERE c.CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';

The same SQL statement without aliases:

Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Orders.OrderDate, Customers.CustomerName FROM Customers, Orders WHERE Customers.CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';

Aliases can be useful when:

There are more than one table involved in a query Functions are used in the query Column names are big or not very readable Two or more columns are combined together

SQL Joins
SQL joins are used to combine rows from two or more tables.

SQL JOIN
An SQL JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a common field between them. The most common type of join is: SQL INNER JOIN (simple join). An SQL INNER JOIN return all rows from multiple tables where the join condition is met. Let's look at a selection from the "Orders" table: OrderID 10308 2 10309 37 10310 77 CustomerID OrderDate 1996-09-18 1996-09-19 1996-09-20

Then, have a look at a selection from the "Customers" table: CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Country

1 2 3

Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera

Maria Anders Ana Trujillo Antonio Moreno

Germany Mexico Mexico

Notice that the "CustomerID" column in the "Orders" table refers to the customer in the "Customers" table. The relationship between the two tables above is the "CustomerID" column. Then, if we run the following SQL statement (that contains an INNER JOIN):

Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderDate FROM Orders INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID=Customers.CustomerID;

it will produce something like this: OrderID 10308 10365 10383 10355 10278 CustomerName Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp OrderDate 9/18/1996 11/27/1996 12/16/1996 11/15/1996 8/12/1996

Different SQL JOINs

Before we continue with examples, we will list the types the different SQL JOINs you can use:

INNER JOIN: Returns all rows when there is at least one match in BOTH tables LEFT JOIN: Return all rows from the left table, and the matched rows from the right table RIGHT JOIN: Return all rows from the right table, and the matched rows from the left table FULL JOIN: Return all rows when there is a match in ONE of the tables

SQL INNER JOIN Keyword

SQL INNER JOIN Keyword
The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables as long as there is a match between the columns in both tables.
SQL INNER JOIN Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

or:
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

PS! INNER JOIN is the same as JOIN.

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera

Maria Anders Obere Str. 57

Berlin

12209

Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F.

Mexico

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico

And a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID 10308 10309 10310 2 37 77 7 3 8 1996-09-18 3 1996-09-19 1 1996-09-20 2

SQL INNER JOIN Example

The following SQL statement will return all customers with orders:

Example
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID FROM Customers INNER JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

Note: The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables as long as there is a match between the columns. If there are rows in the "Customers" table that do not have matches in "Orders", these customers will NOT be listed.

SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword

SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table1), with the matching rows in the right table (table2). The result is NULL in the right side when there is no match.
SQL LEFT JOIN Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 LEFT JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

or:
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 LEFT OUTER JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

PS! In some databases LEFT JOIN is called LEFT OUTER JOIN.

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera

Maria Anders Obere Str. 57

Berlin

12209

Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F.

Mexico

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico

And a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID 10308 10309 10310 2 37 77 7 3 8 1996-09-18 3 1996-09-19 1 1996-09-20 2

SQL LEFT JOIN Example

The following SQL statement will return all customers, and any orders they might have:

Example
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID FROM Customers LEFT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

Note: The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Customers), even if there are no matches in the right table (Orders).

SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword

SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the right table (table2), with the matching rows in the left table (table1). The result is NULL in the left side when there is no match.
SQL RIGHT JOIN Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 RIGHT JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

or:
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 RIGHT OUTER JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

PS! In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera

Maria Anders Obere Str. 57

Berlin

12209

Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F.

Mexico

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico

And a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID 10308 10309 10310 2 37 77 7 3 8 1996-09-18 3 1996-09-19 1 1996-09-20 2

SQL RIGHT JOIN Example

The following SQL statement will return all orders, and any customers that might have placed them:

Example
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID FROM Customers RIGHT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

Note: The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the right table (Orders), even if there are no matches in the left table (Customers).

SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword

SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword
The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table1) and from the right table (table2). The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword combines the result of both LEFT and RIGHT joins.
SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 FULL OUTER JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID 1 CustomerName Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados ContactName Address City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Maria Anders Obere Str. 57

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F.

Mexico

Antonio Moreno Taquera

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mxico 05023 D.F.

Mexico

And a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID 10308 10309 10310 2 37 77 7 3 8 1996-09-18 3 1996-09-19 1 1996-09-20 2

SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Example

The following SQL statement selects all customers, and all orders:
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID FROM Customers FULL OUTER JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

A selection from the result set may look like this:

CustomerName Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados 10308 Antonio Moreno Taquera 10365 10382 10351 OrderID

Note: The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table (Customers), and all the rows from the right table (Orders). If there are rows in "Customers" that do not have matches in "Orders", or if there are rows in "Orders" that do not have matches in "Customers", those rows will be listed as well.

SQL UNION Operator

The SQL UNION operator combines the result of two or more SELECT statements.

The SQL UNION Operator

The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements. Notice that each SELECT statement within the UNION must have the same number of columns. The columns must also have similar data types. Also, the columns in each SELECT statement must be in the same order.
SQL UNION Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;

Note: The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow duplicate values, use the ALL keyword with UNION.
SQL UNION ALL Syntax SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 UNION ALL SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;

PS: The column names in the result-set of a UNION are usually equal to the column names in the first SELECT statement in the UNION.

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID 1 CustomerName Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera ContactName Address City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Maria Anders Obere Str. 57

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F.

Mexico

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico

And a selection from the "Suppliers" table:

SupplierID 1 SupplierName Exotic Liquid New Orleans Cajun Delights Grandma Kelly's Homestead ContactName Charlotte Cooper Shelley Burke Address City PostalCode Country EC1 4SD UK

49 Gilbert St. Londona P.O. Box 78934 707 Oxford Rd. New Orleans

70117

USA

Regina Murphy

Ann Arbor 48104

USA

SQL UNION Example

The following SQL statement selects all the different cities (only distinct values) from the "Customers" and the "Suppliers" tables:

Example

SELECT City FROM Customers UNION SELECT City FROM Suppliers ORDER BY City;

Note: UNION cannot be used to list ALL cities from the two tables. If several customers and suppliers share the same city, each city will only be listed once. UNION selects only distinct values. Use UNION ALL to also select duplicate values!

SQL UNION ALL Example

The following SQL statement uses UNION ALL to select all (duplicate values also) cities from the "Customers" and "Suppliers" tables:

Example
SELECT City FROM Customers UNION ALL SELECT City FROM Suppliers ORDER BY City;

SQL UNION ALL With WHERE

The following SQL statement uses UNION ALL to select all (duplicate values also) German cities from the "Customers" and "Suppliers" tables:

Example
SELECT City, Country FROM Customers WHERE Country='Germany' UNION ALL SELECT City, Country FROM Suppliers WHERE Country='Germany' ORDER BY City;

SQL SELECT INTO Statement

With SQL, you can copy information from one table into another. The SELECT INTO statement copies data from one table and inserts it into a new table.

The SQL SELECT INTO Statement

The SELECT INTO statement selects data from one table and inserts it into a new table.
SQL SELECT INTO Syntax

We can copy all columns into the new table:

SELECT * INTO newtable [IN externaldb] FROM table1;

Or we can copy only the columns we want into the new table:
SELECT column_name(s) INTO newtable [IN externaldb] FROM table1;

Tip: The new table will be created with the column-names and types as defined in the SELECT statement. You can apply new names using the AS clause.

SQL SELECT INTO Examples

Create a backup copy of Customers:
SELECT * INTO CustomersBackup2013 FROM Customers;

Use the IN clause to copy the table into another database:

SELECT * INTO CustomersBackup2013 IN 'Backup.mdb' FROM Customers;

Copy only a few columns into the new table:

SELECT CustomerName, ContactName INTO CustomersBackup2013 FROM Customers;

Copy only the German customers into the new table:

SELECT * INTO CustomersBackup2013 FROM Customers WHERE Country='Germany';

Copy data from more than one table into the new table:
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID INTO CustomersOrderBackup2013 FROM Customers LEFT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID;

Tip: The SELECT INTO statement can also be used to create a new, empty table using the schema of another. Just add a WHERE clause that causes the query to return no data:
SELECT * INTO newtable FROM table1 WHERE 1=0;

SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Statement

With SQL, you can copy information from one table into another. The INSERT INTO SELECT statement copies data from one table and inserts it into an existing table.

The SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Statement

The INSERT INTO SELECT statement selects data from one table and inserts it into an existing table. Any existing rows in the target table are unaffected.
SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Syntax

We can copy all columns from one table to another, existing table:
INSERT INTO table2 SELECT * FROM table1;

Or we can copy only the columns we want to into another, existing table:
INSERT INTO table2 (column_name(s)) SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1;

SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Examples

Copy only a few columns from "Suppliers" into "Customers":
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, Country) SELECT SupplierName, Country FROM Suppliers;

Copy only the German suppliers into "Customers":

INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, Country) SELECT SupplierName, Country FROM Suppliers WHERE Country='Germany';

SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement

The SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement
The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a database.
SQL CREATE DATABASE Syntax CREATE DATABASE dbname;

SQL CREATE DATABASE Example

The following SQL statement creates a database called "my_db":
CREATE DATABASE my_db;

Database tables can be added with the CREATE TABLE statement.

SQL CREATE TABLE Statement

The SQL CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database. Tables are organized into rows and columns; and each table must have a name.
SQL CREATE TABLE Syntax CREATE TABLE table_name ( column_name1 data_type(size), column_name2 data_type(size),

column_name3 data_type(size), .... );

The column_name parameters specify the names of the columns of the table. The data_type parameter specifies what type of data the column can hold (e.g. varchar, integer, decimal, date, etc.). The size parameter specifies the maximum length of the column of the table. Tip: For an overview of the data types available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL Server, go to our complete Data Types Reference.

SQL CREATE TABLE Example

Now we want to create a table called "Persons" that contains five columns: PersonID, LastName, FirstName, Address, and City. We use the following CREATE TABLE statement:
CREATE TABLE Persons ( PersonID int, LastName varchar(255), FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) );

The PersonID column is of type int and will hold an integer. The LastName, FirstName, Address, and City columns are of type varchar and will hold characters, and the maximum length for these fields is 255 characters. The empty "Persons" table will now look like this:
PersonID LastName FirstName Address City

Tip: The empty table can be filled with data with the INSERT INTO statement.

SQL Constraints
SQL Constraints
SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table. If there is any violation between the constraint and the data action, the action is aborted by the constraint. Constraints can be specified when the table is created (inside the CREATE TABLE statement) or after the table is created (inside the ALTER TABLE statement).
SQL CREATE TABLE + CONSTRAINT Syntax CREATE TABLE table_name ( column_name1 data_type(size) constraint_name, column_name2 data_type(size) constraint_name, column_name3 data_type(size) constraint_name, .... );

In SQL, we have the following constraints:

NOT NULL - Indicates that a column cannot store NULL value UNIQUE - Ensures that each row for a column must have a unique value PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Ensures that a column (or combination of two or more columns) have an unique identity which helps to find a particular record in a table more easily and quickly FOREIGN KEY - Ensure the referential integrity of the data in one table to match values in another table CHECK - Ensures that the value in a column meets a specific condition DEFAULT - Specifies a default value when specified none for this column

The next chapters will describe each constraint in detail.

SQL NOT NULL Constraint

By default, a table column can hold NULL values.

SQL NOT NULL Constraint

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values. The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always contain a value. This means that you cannot insert a new record, or update a record without adding a value to this field. The following SQL enforces the "P_Id" column and the "LastName" column to not accept NULL values: CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) )

SQL UNIQUE Constraint

SQL UNIQUE Constraint
The UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table. The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints both provide a guarantee for uniqueness for a column or set of columns. A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint defined on it. Note that you can have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only one PRIMARY KEY constraint per table.

SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created: MySQL: CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255), UNIQUE (P_Id) ) SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access: CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL UNIQUE, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) ) To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access: CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255), CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE (P_Id,LastName) )

SQL UNIQUE Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a UNIQUE constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already created, use the following SQL: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access: ALTER TABLE Persons ADD UNIQUE (P_Id) To allow naming of a UNIQUE constraint, and for defining a UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access: ALTER TABLE Persons ADD CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID UNIQUE (P_Id,LastName)

To DROP a UNIQUE Constraint

To drop a UNIQUE constraint, use the following SQL: MySQL: ALTER TABLE Persons DROP INDEX uc_PersonID SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access: ALTER TABLE Persons DROP CONSTRAINT uc_PersonID

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint

Previous Next Chapter

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table. Primary keys must contain unique values. A primary key column cannot contain NULL values. Each table should have a primary key, and each table can have only ONE primary key.

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created: MySQL: CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255), PRIMARY KEY (P_Id) ) SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access: CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255),

City varchar(255) ) To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access: CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255), CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY (P_Id,LastName) ) Note: In the example above there is only ONE PRIMARY KEY (pk_PersonID). However, the value of the pk_PersonID is made up of two columns (P_Id and LastName).

SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already created, use the following SQL: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access: ALTER TABLE Persons ADD PRIMARY KEY (P_Id) To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access: ALTER TABLE Persons ADD CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID PRIMARY KEY (P_Id,LastName) Note: If you use the ALTER TABLE statement to add a primary key, the primary key column(s) must already have been declared to not contain NULL values (when the table was first created).

To DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint

To drop a PRIMARY KEY constraint, use the following SQL: MySQL: ALTER TABLE Persons DROP PRIMARY KEY SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access: ALTER TABLE Persons DROP CONSTRAINT pk_PersonID

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint

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SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint

A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY KEY in another table. Let's illustrate the foreign key with an example. Look at the following two tables: The "Persons" table: P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger

The "Orders" table: O_Id 1 2 3 4 OrderNo 77895 44678 22456 24562 P_Id 3 3 2 1

Note that the "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table points to the "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table. The "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons" table. The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders" table. The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy links between tables. The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents invalid data from being inserted into the foreign key column, because it has to be one of the values contained in the table it points to.

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is created: MySQL:

CREATE TABLE Orders ( O_Id int NOT NULL, OrderNo int NOT NULL, P_Id int, PRIMARY KEY (O_Id), FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id) )
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Orders ( O_Id int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY, OrderNo int NOT NULL, P_Id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Persons(P_Id) )
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Orders ( O_Id int NOT NULL, OrderNo int NOT NULL, P_Id int, PRIMARY KEY (O_Id), CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id) )

SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a FOREIGN KEY constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Orders" table is already created, use the following SQL: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Orders ADD FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)

To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Orders ADD CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders FOREIGN KEY (P_Id) REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)

To DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint

To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL: MySQL:

ALTER TABLE Orders DROP FOREIGN KEY fk_PerOrders

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Orders DROP CONSTRAINT fk_PerOrders

SQL CHECK Constraint

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SQL CHECK Constraint

The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a column. If you define a CHECK constraint on a single column it allows only certain values for this column.

If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain columns based on values in other columns in the row.

SQL CHECK Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column when the "Persons" table is created. The CHECK constraint specifies that the column "P_Id" must only include integers greater than 0. MySQL:

CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255), CHECK (P_Id>0) )
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL CHECK (P_Id>0), LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) )
To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255), CONSTRAINT chk_Person CHECK (P_Id>0 AND City='Sandnes') )

SQL CHECK Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a CHECK constraint on the "P_Id" column when the table is already created, use the following SQL: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons ADD CHECK (P_Id>0)

To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax: MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons ADD CONSTRAINT chk_Person CHECK (P_Id>0 AND City='Sandnes')

To DROP a CHECK Constraint

To drop a CHECK constraint, use the following SQL: SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons DROP CONSTRAINT chk_Person

MySQL:

ALTER TABLE Persons DROP CHECK chk_Person

SQL DEFAULT Constraint

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SQL DEFAULT Constraint

The DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a default value into a column. The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.

SQL DEFAULT Constraint on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the "Persons" table is created: My SQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

CREATE TABLE Persons ( P_Id int NOT NULL, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes' )
The DEFAULT constraint can also be used to insert system values, by using functions like GETDATE():

CREATE TABLE Orders ( O_Id int NOT NULL, OrderNo int NOT NULL, P_Id int, OrderDate date DEFAULT GETDATE() )

SQL DEFAULT Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the table is already created, use the following SQL: MySQL:

ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER City SET DEFAULT 'SANDNES'

SQL Server / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER COLUMN City SET DEFAULT 'SANDNES'

Oracle:

ALTER TABLE Persons MODIFY City DEFAULT 'SANDNES'

To DROP a DEFAULT Constraint

To drop a DEFAULT constraint, use the following SQL:

MySQL:

ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER City DROP DEFAULT

SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER COLUMN City DROP DEFAULT

SQL CREATE INDEX Statement

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The CREATE INDEX statement is used to create indexes in tables. Indexes allow the database application to find data fast; without reading the whole table.

Indexes
An index can be created in a table to find data more quickly and efficiently. The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used to speed up searches/queries. Note: Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table without (because the indexes also need an update). So you should only create indexes on columns (and tables) that will be frequently searched against.

SQL CREATE INDEX Syntax

Creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are allowed:

CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name)

SQL CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Syntax

Creates a unique index on a table. Duplicate values are not allowed:

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name)

Note: The syntax for creating indexes varies amongst different databases. Therefore: Check the syntax for creating indexes in your database.

CREATE INDEX Example

The SQL statement below creates an index named "PIndex" on the "LastName" column in the "Persons" table:

CREATE INDEX PIndex ON Persons (LastName)

If you want to create an index on a combination of columns, you can list the column names within the parentheses, separated by commas:

CREATE INDEX PIndex ON Persons (LastName, FirstName)

SQL DROP INDEX, DROP TABLE, and DROP DATABASE

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Indexes, tables, and databases can easily be deleted/removed with the DROP statement.

The DROP INDEX Statement

The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete an index in a table.

DROP INDEX Syntax for MS Access:

DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name

DROP INDEX Syntax for MS SQL Server:

DROP INDEX table_name.index_name

DROP INDEX Syntax for DB2/Oracle:

DROP INDEX index_name

DROP INDEX Syntax for MySQL:

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP INDEX index_name

The DROP TABLE Statement

The DROP TABLE statement is used to delete a table.

DROP TABLE table_name

The DROP DATABASE Statement

The DROP DATABASE statement is used to delete a database.

DROP DATABASE database_name

The TRUNCATE TABLE Statement

What if we only want to delete the data inside the table, and not the table itself? Then, use the TRUNCATE TABLE statement:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name

SQL ALTER TABLE Statement

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The ALTER TABLE Statement

The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table.

SQL ALTER TABLE Syntax

To add a column in a table, use the following syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype

To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some database systems don't allow deleting a column):

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name

To change the data type of a column in a table, use the following syntax: SQL Server / MS Access:

ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype

My SQL / Oracle:

ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY COLUMN column_name datatype

SQL ALTER TABLE Example

Look at the "Persons" table: P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger

Now we want to add a column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table. We use the following SQL statement:

ALTER TABLE Persons ADD DateOfBirth date

Notice that the new column, "DateOfBirth", is of type date and is going to hold a date. The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold. For a complete reference of all the data types available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL Server, go to our complete Data Types reference. The "Persons" table will now like this: P_Id 1 2 3 LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen FirstName Ola Tove Kari Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20 City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger DateOfBirth

Change Data Type Example

Now we want to change the data type of the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table. We use the following SQL statement:

ALTER TABLE Persons ALTER COLUMN DateOfBirth year

Notice that the "DateOfBirth" column is now of type year and is going to hold a year in a two-digit or four-digit format.

DROP COLUMN Example

Next, we want to delete the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table. We use the following SQL statement:

ALTER TABLE Persons DROP COLUMN DateOfBirth

The "Persons" table will now like this:

P_Id 1 2 3

LastName Hansen Svendson Pettersen

FirstName Ola Tove Kari

Address Timoteivn 10 Borgvn 23 Storgt 20

City Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger

SQL AUTO INCREMENT Field

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Auto-increment allows a unique number to be generated when a new record is inserted into a table.

AUTO INCREMENT a Field

Very often we would like the value of the primary key field to be created automatically every time a new record is inserted. We would like to create an auto-increment field in a table.

Syntax for MySQL

The following SQL statement defines the "ID" column to be an auto-increment primary key field in the "Persons" table:

CREATE TABLE Persons ( ID int NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255), PRIMARY KEY (ID) )
MySQL uses the AUTO_INCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-increment feature. By default, the starting value for AUTO_INCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new record.

To let the AUTO_INCREMENT sequence start with another value, use the following SQL statement:

ALTER TABLE Persons AUTO_INCREMENT=100

To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will NOT have to specify a value for the "ID" column (a unique value will be added automatically):

INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName) VALUES ('Lars','Monsen')

The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "ID" column would be assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".

Syntax for SQL Server

The following SQL statement defines the "ID" column to be an auto-increment primary key field in the "Persons" table:

CREATE TABLE Persons ( ID int IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) )
The MS SQL Server uses the IDENTITY keyword to perform an auto-increment feature. In the example above, the starting value for IDENTITY is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new record. Tip: To specify that the "ID" column should start at value 10 and increment by 5, change it to IDENTITY(10,5). To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will NOT have to specify a value for the "ID" column (a unique value will be added automatically):

INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName) VALUES ('Lars','Monsen')

The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "ID" column would be assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".

Syntax for Access

The following SQL statement defines the "ID" column to be an auto-increment primary key field in the "Persons" table:

CREATE TABLE Persons ( ID Integer PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT, LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL, FirstName varchar(255), Address varchar(255), City varchar(255) )
The MS Access uses the AUTOINCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-increment feature. By default, the starting value for AUTOINCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1 for each new record. Tip: To specify that the "ID" column should start at value 10 and increment by 5, change the autoincrement to AUTOINCREMENT(10,5). To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will NOT have to specify a value for the "ID" column (a unique value will be added automatically):

INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName) VALUES ('Lars','Monsen')

The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "P_Id" column would be assigned a unique value. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".

Syntax for Oracle

In Oracle the code is a little bit more tricky. You will have to create an auto-increment field with the sequence object (this object generates a number sequence). Use the following CREATE SEQUENCE syntax:

CREATE SEQUENCE seq_person MINVALUE 1 START WITH 1 INCREMENT BY 1 CACHE 10

The code above creates a sequence object called seq_person, that starts with 1 and will increment by 1. It will also cache up to 10 values for performance. The cache option specifies how many sequence values will be stored in memory for faster access.

To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will have to use the nextval function (this function retrieves the next value from seq_person sequence):

INSERT INTO Persons (ID,FirstName,LastName) VALUES (seq_person.nextval,'Lars','Monsen')

The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table. The "ID" column would be assigned the next number from the seq_person sequence. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be set to "Monsen".

SQL Views
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A view is a virtual table. This chapter shows how to create, update, and delete a view.

SQL CREATE VIEW Statement

In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement. A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or more real tables in the database. You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as if the data were coming from one single table.

SQL CREATE VIEW Syntax

CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition
Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the data, using the view's SQL statement, every time a user queries a view.

SQL CREATE VIEW Examples

If you have the Northwind database you can see that it has several views installed by default. The view "Current Product List" lists all active products (products that are not discontinued) from the "Products" table. The view is created with the following SQL:

CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS SELECT ProductID,ProductName FROM Products WHERE Discontinued=No
We can query the view above as follows:

SELECT * FROM [Current Product List]

Another view in the Northwind sample database selects every product in the "Products" table with a unit price higher than the average unit price:

CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice FROM Products WHERE UnitPrice>(SELECT AVG(UnitPrice) FROM Products)
We can query the view above as follows:

SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price]

Another view in the Northwind database calculates the total sale for each category in 1997. Note that this view selects its data from another view called "Product Sales for 1997":

CREATE VIEW [Category Sales For 1997] AS SELECT DISTINCT CategoryName,Sum(ProductSales) AS CategorySales FROM [Product Sales for 1997] GROUP BY CategoryName
We can query the view above as follows:

SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]

We can also add a condition to the query. Now we want to see the total sale only for the category "Beverages":

SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997] WHERE CategoryName='Beverages'

SQL Updating a View

You can update a view by using the following syntax:

SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition
Now we want to add the "Category" column to the "Current Product List" view. We will update the view with the following SQL:

CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS SELECT ProductID,ProductName,Category FROM Products WHERE Discontinued=No

SQL Dropping a View

You can delete a view with the DROP VIEW command.

SQL DROP VIEW Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name

SQL Date Functions

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SQL Dates
The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure that the format of the date you are trying to insert, matches the format of the date column in the database. As long as your data contains only the date portion, your queries will work as expected. However, if a time portion is involved, it gets complicated. Before talking about the complications of querying for dates, we will look at the most important builtin functions for working with dates.

MySQL Date Functions

The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in MySQL: Function NOW() CURDATE() CURTIME() DATE() EXTRACT() DATE_ADD() DATE_SUB() DATEDIFF() DATE_FORMAT() Description Returns the current date and time Returns the current date Returns the current time Extracts the date part of a date or date/time expression Returns a single part of a date/time Adds a specified time interval to a date Subtracts a specified time interval from a date Returns the number of days between two dates Displays date/time data in different formats

SQL Server Date Functions

The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in SQL Server: Function GETDATE() DATEPART() DATEADD() DATEDIFF() CONVERT() Description Returns the current date and time Returns a single part of a date/time Adds or subtracts a specified time interval from a date Returns the time between two dates Displays date/time data in different formats

SQL Date Data Types

MySQL comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in the database:

DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS TIMESTAMP - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS YEAR - format YYYY or YY

SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in the database:

DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS SMALLDATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS TIMESTAMP - format: a unique number

Note: The date types are chosen for a column when you create a new table in your database! For an overview of all data types available, go to our complete Data Types reference.

SQL Working with Dates

You can compare two dates easily if there is no time component involved! Assume we have the following "Orders" table: OrderId 1 2 3 4 ProductName Geitost Camembert Pierrot Mozzarella di Giovanni Mascarpone Fabioli OrderDate 2008-11-11 2008-11-09 2008-11-11 2008-10-29

Now we want to select the records with an OrderDate of "2008-11-11" from the table above. We use the following SELECT statement:

SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'

The result-set will look like this: OrderId 1 3 ProductName Geitost Mozzarella di Giovanni OrderDate 2008-11-11 2008-11-11

Now, assume that the "Orders" table looks like this (notice the time component in the "OrderDate" column): OrderId 1 ProductName Geitost OrderDate 2008-11-11 13:23:44

2 3 4

Camembert Pierrot Mozzarella di Giovanni Mascarpone Fabioli

2008-11-09 15:45:21 2008-11-11 11:12:01 2008-10-29 14:56:59

If we use the same SELECT statement as above:

SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'

we will get no result! This is because the query is looking only for dates with no time portion. Tip: If you want to keep your queries simple and easy to maintain, do not allow time components in your dates!

SQL NULL Values

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NULL values represent missing unknown data. By default, a table column can hold NULL values. This chapter will explain the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators.

SQL NULL Values

If a column in a table is optional, we can insert a new record or update an existing record without adding a value to this column. This means that the field will be saved with a NULL value. NULL values are treated differently from other values. NULL is used as a placeholder for unknown or inapplicable values. Note: It is not possible to compare NULL and 0; they are not equivalent.

SQL Working with NULL Values

Look at the following "Persons" table: P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 2 3

Hansen Svendson Pettersen

Ola Tove Kari Borgvn 23

Sandnes Sandnes Stavanger

Suppose that the "Address" column in the "Persons" table is optional. This means that if we insert a record with no value for the "Address" column, the "Address" column will be saved with a NULL value. How can we test for NULL values? It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =, <, or <>. We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.

SQL IS NULL
How do we select only the records with NULL values in the "Address" column? We will have to use the IS NULL operator:

SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons WHERE Address IS NULL

The result-set will look like this: LastName Hansen Pettersen FirstName Ola Kari Address

Tip: Always use IS NULL to look for NULL values.

SQL IS NOT NULL

How do we select only the records with no NULL values in the "Address" column? We will have to use the IS NOT NULL operator:

SELECT LastName,FirstName,Address FROM Persons WHERE Address IS NOT NULL

The result-set will look like this:

LastName Svendson

FirstName Tove

Address Borgvn 23

In the next chapter we will look at the ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE() functions.

SQL NULL Functions

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SQL ISNULL(), NVL(), IFNULL() and COALESCE() Functions

Look at the following "Products" table: P_Id 1 2 3 ProductName Jarlsberg Mascarpone Gorgonzola UnitPrice 10.45 32.56 15.67 UnitsInStock 16 23 9 20 UnitsOnOrder 15

Suppose that the "UnitsOnOrder" column is optional, and may contain NULL values. We have the following SELECT statement:

SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+UnitsOnOrder) FROM Products

In the example above, if any of the "UnitsOnOrder" values are NULL, the result is NULL. Microsoft's ISNULL() function is used to specify how we want to treat NULL values. The NVL(), IFNULL(), and COALESCE() functions can also be used to achieve the same result. In this case we want NULL values to be zero. Below, if "UnitsOnOrder" is NULL it will not harm the calculation, because ISNULL() returns a zero if the value is NULL: SQL Server / MS Access

SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+ISNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0)) FROM Products

Oracle Oracle does not have an ISNULL() function. However, we can use the NVL() function to achieve the same result:

SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+NVL(UnitsOnOrder,0)) FROM Products

MySQL MySQL does have an ISNULL() function. However, it works a little bit different from Microsoft's ISNULL() function. In MySQL we can use the IFNULL() function, like this:

SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+IFNULL(UnitsOnOrder,0)) FROM Products

or we can use the COALESCE() function, like this:

SELECT ProductName,UnitPrice*(UnitsInStock+COALESCE(UnitsOnOrder,0)) FROM Products

SQL General Data Types

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A data type defines what kind of value a column can contain.

SQL General Data Types

Each column in a database table is required to have a name and a data type. SQL developers have to decide what types of data will be stored inside each and every table column when creating a SQL table. The data type is a label and a guideline for SQL to understand what type of data is expected inside of each column, and it also identifies how SQL will interact with the stored data. The following table lists the general data types in SQL: Data type CHARACTER(n) VARCHAR(n) or CHARACTER VARYING(n) Description Character string. Fixed-length n Character string. Variable length. Maximum length n

BINARY(n) BOOLEAN VARBINARY(n) or BINARY VARYING(n) INTEGER(p) SMALLINT INTEGER BIGINT DECIMAL(p,s)

Binary string. Fixed-length n Stores TRUE or FALSE values Binary string. Variable length. Maximum length n

Integer numerical (no decimal). Precision p Integer numerical (no decimal). Precision 5 Integer numerical (no decimal). Precision 10 Integer numerical (no decimal). Precision 19 Exact numerical, precision p, scale s. Example: decimal(5,2) is a number that has 3 digits before the decimal and 2 digits after the decimal Exact numerical, precision p, scale s. (Same as DECIMAL) Approximate numerical, mantissa precision p. A floating number in base 10 exponential notation. The size argument for this type consists of a single number specifying the minimum precision Approximate numerical, mantissa precision 7 Approximate numerical, mantissa precision 16 Approximate numerical, mantissa precision 16 Stores year, month, and day values Stores hour, minute, and second values Stores year, month, day, hour, minute, and second values Composed of a number of integer fields, representing a period of time, depending on the type of interval A set-length and ordered collection of elements A variable-length and unordered collection of elements Stores XML data

NUMERIC(p,s) FLOAT(p)

REAL FLOAT DOUBLE PRECISION DATE TIME TIMESTAMP INTERVAL

ARRAY MULTISET XML

SQL Data Type Quick Reference

However, different databases offer different choices for the data type definition. The following table shows some of the common names of data types between the various database platforms:

Data type boolean integer

Access Yes/No Number (integer)

SQLServer Bit Int

Oracle Byte Number

MySQL N/A Int Integer Float

PostgreSQL Boolean Int Integer Numeric

float

Number (single)

Float Real Money Char Varchar

Number

currency string (fixed) string (variable)

Currency N/A Text (<256) Memo (65k+) OLE Object Memo

N/A Char Varchar Varchar2 Long Raw

N/A Char Varchar

Money Char Varchar

binary object

Binary (fixed up to 8K) Varbinary (<8K) Image (<2GB)

Blob Text

Binary Varbinary

Note: Data types might have different names in different database. And even if the name is the same, the size and other details may be different! Always check the docum

SQL Data Types for Various DBs

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Data types and ranges for Microsoft Access, MySQL and SQL Server.

Microsoft Access Data Types

Data type Text Memo Description Use for text or combinations of text and numbers. 255 characters maximum Memo is used for larger amounts of text. Stores up to 65,536 characters.Note: You cannot sort a memo field. However, they are searchable Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 Single precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals 1 byte 2 bytes 4 bytes 4 bytes Storage

Byte Integer Long Single

Double Currency

Double precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals Use for currency. Holds up to 15 digits of whole dollars, plus 4 decimal places.Tip: You can choose which country's currency to use AutoNumber fields automatically give each record its own number, usually starting at 1 Use for dates and times

8 bytes 8 bytes

AutoNumber

4 bytes

Date/Time Yes/No

8 bytes

A logical field can be displayed as Yes/No, True/False, or On/Off. In code, use the 1 bit constants True and False (equivalent to -1 and 0). Note: Null values are not allowed in Yes/No fields Can store pictures, audio, video, or other BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects) Contain links to other files, including web pages Let you type a list of options, which can then be chosen from a drop-down list 4 bytes up to 1GB

Ole Object Hyperlink Lookup Wizard

MySQL Data Types

In MySQL there are three main types : text, number, and Date/Time types. Text types: Data type CHAR(size) Description Holds a fixed length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters). The fixed size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters Holds a variable length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters). The maximum size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255 characters. Note: If you put a greater value than 255 it will be converted to a TEXT type Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535 characters For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 65,535 bytes of data Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 characters For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 16,777,215 bytes of data Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295 characters For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 4,294,967,295 bytes of data Let you enter a list of possible values. You can list up to 65535 values in an ENUM list. If a

VARCHAR(size)

TINYTEXT TEXT BLOB MEDIUMTEXT MEDIUMBLOB LONGTEXT LONGBLOB ENUM(x,y,z,etc.)

value is inserted that is not in the list, a blank value will be inserted. Note: The values are sorted in the order you enter them. You enter the possible values in this format: ENUM('X','Y','Z') SET Similar to ENUM except that SET may contain up to 64 list items and can store more than one choice

Number types: Data type TINYINT(size) Description -128 to 127 normal. 0 to 255 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis -32768 to 32767 normal. 0 to 65535 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis -8388608 to 8388607 normal. 0 to 16777215 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis -2147483648 to 2147483647 normal. 0 to 4294967295 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807 normal. 0 to 18446744073709551615 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis A small number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter A large number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter A DOUBLE stored as a string , allowing for a fixed decimal point. The maximum number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter

SMALLINT(size)

MEDIUMINT(size)

INT(size)

BIGINT(size)

FLOAT(size,d)

DOUBLE(size,d)

DECIMAL(size,d)

*The integer types have an extra option called UNSIGNED. Normally, the integer goes from an negative to positive value. Adding the UNSIGNED attribute will move that range up so it starts at zero instead of a negative number. Date types: Data type DATE() Description A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01' to '9999-12-31'

DATETIME()

*A date and time combination. Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01 00:00:00' to '9999-12-31 23:59:59'

TIMESTAMP()

*A timestamp. TIMESTAMP values are stored as the number of seconds since the Unix epoch ('1970-01-01 00:00:00' UTC). Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS Note: The supported range is from '1970-01-01 00:00:01' UTC to '2038-01-09 03:14:07' UTC

TIME()

A time. Format: HH:MM:SS Note: The supported range is from '-838:59:59' to '838:59:59'

YEAR()

A year in two-digit or four-digit format. Note: Values allowed in four-digit format: 1901 to 2155. Values allowed in two-digit format: 70 to 69, representing years from 1970 to 2069

*Even if DATETIME and TIMESTAMP return the same format, they work very differently. In an INSERT or UPDATE query, the TIMESTAMP automatically set itself to the current date and time. TIMESTAMP also accepts various formats, like YYYYMMDDHHMMSS, YYMMDDHHMMSS, YYYYMMDD, or YYMMDD.

SQL Server Data Types

String types: Data type char(n) varchar(n) Description Fixed width character string. Maximum 8,000 characters Variable width character string. Maximum 8,000 characters Storage Defined width 2 bytes + number of chars 2 bytes + number of chars 4 bytes + number of chars Defined width x 2

varchar(max)

Variable width character string. Maximum 1,073,741,824 characters

text

Variable width character string. Maximum 2GB of text data

nchar nvarchar nvarchar(max) ntext bit

Fixed width Unicode string. Maximum 4,000 characters Variable width Unicode string. Maximum 4,000 characters Variable width Unicode string. Maximum 536,870,912 characters Variable width Unicode string. Maximum 2GB of text data Allows 0, 1, or NULL

binary(n) varbinary varbinary(max) image Number types: Data type tinyint smallint int bigint

Fixed width binary string. Maximum 8,000 bytes Variable width binary string. Maximum 8,000 bytes Variable width binary string. Maximum 2GB Variable width binary string. Maximum 2GB

Description Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647 Allows whole numbers between -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 and 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 Fixed precision and scale numbers. Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 1. The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that can be stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p must be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18. The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0

Storage 1 byte 2 bytes 4 bytes 8 bytes

decimal(p,s)

5-17 bytes

numeric(p,s)

Fixed precision and scale numbers. Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 1. The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that can be stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point). p must be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18. The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to the right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p. Default value is 0

5-17 bytes

smallmoney money float(n)

Monetary data from -214,748.3648 to 214,748.3647 Monetary data from -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to 922,337,203,685,477.5807 Floating precision number data from -1.79E + 308 to 1.79E + 308. The n parameter indicates whether the field should hold 4 or 8 bytes. float(24) holds a 4-byte field and float(53) holds an 8-byte field. Default value of n is 53.

4 bytes 8 bytes 4 or 8 bytes

real Date types: Data type datetime

Floating precision number data from -3.40E + 38 to 3.40E + 38

4 bytes

Description From January 1, 1753 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 3.33 milliseconds From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds From January 1, 1900 to June 6, 2079 with an accuracy of 1 minute Store a date only. From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 Store a time only to an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds The same as datetime2 with the addition of a time zone offset

Storage 8 bytes

datetime2

6-8 bytes

smalldatetime date time datetimeoffset

4 bytes 3 bytes 3-5 bytes 8-10 bytes

timestamp

Stores a unique number that gets updated every time a row gets created or modified. The timestamp value is based upon an internal clock and does not correspond to real time. Each table may have only one timestamp variable

Other data types: Data type sql_variant uniqueidentifier xml cursor table Description Stores up to 8,000 bytes of data of various data types, except text, ntext, and timestamp Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID) Stores XML formatted data. Maximum 2GB Stores a reference to a cursor used for database operations Stores a result-set for later processing

SQL has many built-in functions for performing calculations on data.

SQL Aggregate Functions SQL aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a column. Useful aggregate functions:

AVG() - Returns the average value COUNT() - Returns the number of rows FIRST() - Returns the first value LAST() - Returns the last value MAX() - Returns the largest value MIN() - Returns the smallest value SUM() - Returns the sum

SQL Scalar functions SQL scalar functions return a single value, based on the input value. Useful scalar functions:

UCASE() - Converts a field to upper case LCASE() - Converts a field to lower case MID() - Extract characters from a text field LEN() - Returns the length of a text field ROUND() - Rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals specified NOW() - Returns the current system date and time FORMAT() - Formats how a field is to be displayed

Tip: The aggregate functions and the scalar functions will be explained in details in the next chapters. SQL AVG() Function

 Previous Next Chapter

The AVG() Function The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column. SQL AVG() Syntax SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Products" table: ProductID ProductName 1 2 3 4 5 Chais Chang Aniseed Syrup SupplierID CategoryID Unit 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 Price

10 boxes x 20 bags 18 24 - 12 oz bottles 19 12 - 550 ml bottles 10 48 - 6 oz jars 36 boxes 21.35 25

Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2

SQL AVG() Example The following SQL statement gets the average value of the "Price" column from the "Products" table: Example SELECT AVG(Price) AS PriceAverage FROM Products;

Try it yourself The following SQL statement selects the "ProductName" and "Price" records that have an above average price: Example SELECT ProductName, Price FROM Products WHERE Price>(SELECT AVG(Price) FROM Products);

Try it yourself SQL COUNT() Function Previous Next Chapter

The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criteria.

SQL COUNT(column_name) Syntax The COUNT(column_name) function returns the number of values (NULL values will not be counted) of the specified column: SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name; SQL COUNT(*) Syntax The COUNT(*) function returns the number of records in a table: SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name; SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Syntax The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) function returns the number of distinct values of the specified column: SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) FROM table_name; Note: COUNT(DISTINCT) works with ORACLE and Microsoft SQL Server, but not with Microsoft Access.

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Orders" table: OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID 10265 10266 10267 7 87 25 2 3 4 1996-07-25 1 1996-07-26 3 1996-07-29 1

SQL COUNT(column_name) Example The following SQL statement counts the number of orders from "CustomerID"=7 from the "Orders" table: Example SELECT COUNT(CustomerID) AS OrdersFromCustomerID7 FROM Orders WHERE CustomerID=7;

Try it yourself

SQL COUNT(*) Example The following SQL statement counts the total number of orders in the "Orders" table: Example SELECT COUNT(*) AS NumberOfOrders FROM Orders; SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Example The following SQL statement counts the number of unique customers in the "Orders" table: Example

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT CustomerID) AS NumberOfCustomers FROM Orders;

Try it yourself SQL FIRST() Function Previous Next Chapter

The FIRST() Function The FIRST() function returns the first value of the selected column. SQL FIRST() Syntax SELECT FIRST(column_name) FROM table_name; Note: The FIRST() function is only supported in MS Access.

SQL FIRST() Workaround in SQL Server, MySQL and Oracle SQL Server Syntax SELECT TOP 1 column_name FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name ASC; Example SELECT TOP 1 CustomerName FROM Customers ORDER BY CustomerID ASC; MySQL Syntax SELECT column_name FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name ASC LIMIT 1; Example SELECT CustomerName FROM Customers ORDER BY CustomerID ASC LIMIT 1;

Oracle Syntax SELECT column_name FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name ASC WHERE ROWNUM <=1; Example SELECT CustomerName FROM Customers ORDER BY CustomerID ASC WHERE ROWNUM <=1;

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table: CustomerID CustomerName 1 Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp ContactName Address Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F. London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

Mexico

3 4 5

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico UK Sweden

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

SQL FIRST() Example The following SQL statement selects the first value of the "CustomerName" column from the "Customers" table:

Example SELECT FIRST(CustomerName) AS FirstCustomer FROM Customers;

Try it yourself SQL LAST() Function Previous Next Chapter

The LAST() Function The LAST() function returns the last value of the selected column. SQL LAST() Syntax SELECT LAST(column_name) FROM table_name; Note: The LAST() function is only supported in MS Access.

SQL LAST() Workaround in SQL Server, MySQL and Oracle SQL Server Syntax SELECT TOP 1 column_name FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name DESC; Example SELECT TOP 1 CustomerName FROM Customers ORDER BY CustomerID DESC; MySQL Syntax SELECT column_name FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name DESC LIMIT 1; Example

SELECT CustomerName FROM Customers ORDER BY CustomerID DESC LIMIT 1; Oracle Syntax SELECT column_name FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name DESC WHERE ROWNUM <=1; Example SELECT CustomerName FROM Customers ORDER BY CustomerID DESC WHERE ROWNUM <=1;

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table: CustomerID CustomerName 1 Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp ContactName Address Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F. London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

Mexico

3 4 5

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico UK Sweden

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

SQL LAST() Example

The following SQL statement selects the last value of the "CustomerName" column from the "Customers" table: Example SELECT LAST(CustomerName) AS LastCustomer FROM Customers;

Try it yourself SQL MAX() Function Previous Next Chapter

The MAX() Function The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column. SQL MAX() Syntax SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name;

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Products" table: ProductID ProductName 1 2 3 4 5 Chais Chang Aniseed Syrup SupplierID CategoryID Unit 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 Price

10 boxes x 20 bags 18 24 - 12 oz bottles 19 12 - 550 ml bottles 10 48 - 6 oz jars 36 boxes 21.35 25

Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2

SQL MAX() Example The following SQL statement gets the largest value of the "Price" column from the "Products" table: Example SELECT MAX(Price) AS HighestPrice FROM Products; SQL MIN() Function Previous Next Chapter

The MIN() Function The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column. SQL MIN() Syntax SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name;

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Products" table: ProductID ProductName 1 2 3 4 Chais Chang Aniseed Syrup SupplierID CategoryID Unit 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 Price

10 boxes x 20 bags 18 24 - 12 oz bottles 19 12 - 550 ml bottles 10 48 - 6 oz jars 21.35

Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2

Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix

36 boxes

25

SQL MIN() Example The following SQL statement gets the smallest value of the "Price" column from the "Products" table: Example SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestOrderPrice FROM Products; SQL SUM() Function Previous Next Chapter

The SUM() Function The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column. SQL SUM() Syntax SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name;

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "OrderDetails" table: OrderDetailID OrderID ProductID Quantity 1 2 3 10248 10248 10248 11 42 72 12 10 5

4 5

10249 10249

14 51

9 40

SQL SUM() Example The following SQL statement finds the sum of all the "Quantity" fields for the "OrderDetails" table: Example SELECT SUM(Quantity) AS TotalItemsOrdered FROM OrderDetails; SQL GROUP BY Statement Previous Next Chapter

Aggregate functions often need an added GROUP BY statement.

The GROUP BY Statement The GROUP BY statement is used in conjunction with the aggregate functions to group the result-set by one or more columns. SQL GROUP BY Syntax SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value GROUP BY column_name;

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID 10248 10249 10250 90 81 34 5 6 4 1996-07-04 3 1996-07-05 1 1996-07-08 2

And a selection from the "Shippers" table: ShipperID ShipperName 1 2 3 Phone

Speedy Express (503) 555-9831 United Package (503) 555-3199 Federal Shipping (503) 555-9931

And a selection from the "Employees" table: EmployeeID LastName FirstName BirthDate Photo 1 2 3 Davolio Fuller Nancy Andrew Notes

1968-12-08 EmpID1.pic Education includes a BA.... 1952-02-19 EmpID2.pic Andrew received his BTS.... 1963-08-30 EmpID3.pic Janet has a BS degree....

Leverling Janet

SQL GROUP BY Example Now we want to find the number of orders sent by each shipper. The following SQL statement counts as orders grouped by shippers: Example SELECT Shippers.ShipperName,COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders FROM Orders LEFT JOIN Shippers ON Orders.ShipperID=Shippers.ShipperID GROUP BY ShipperName;

Try it yourself

GROUP BY More Than One Column We can also use the GROUP BY statement on more than one column, like this: Example SELECT Shippers.ShipperName, Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders FROM ((Orders INNER JOIN Shippers ON Orders.ShipperID=Shippers.ShipperID) INNER JOIN Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID) GROUP BY ShipperName,LastName; SQL HAVING Clause Previous Next Chapter

The HAVING Clause The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used with aggregate functions. SQL HAVING Syntax SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value GROUP BY column_name HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value;

Demo Database

In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Orders" table: OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID 10248 10249 10250 90 81 34 5 6 4 1996-07-04 3 1996-07-05 1 1996-07-08 2

And a selection from the "Employees" table: EmployeeID LastName FirstName BirthDate Photo 1 2 3 Davolio Fuller Nancy Andrew Notes

1968-12-08 EmpID1.pic Education includes a BA.... 1952-02-19 EmpID2.pic Andrew received his BTS.... 1963-08-30 EmpID3.pic Janet has a BS degree....

Leverling Janet

SQL HAVING Example Now we want to find if any of the customers have a total order of less than 2000. We use the following SQL statement: The following SQL statement finds if any of the employees has registered more than 10 orders: Example SELECT Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders FROM (Orders INNER JOIN Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID) GROUP BY LastName HAVING COUNT(Orders.OrderID) > 10; Now we want to find the if the employees "Davolio" or "Fuller" have more than 25 orders We add an ordinary WHERE clause to the SQL statement: Example

SELECT Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders FROM Orders INNER JOIN Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID WHERE LastName='Davolio' OR LastName='Fuller' GROUP BY LastName HAVING COUNT(Orders.OrderID) > 25 SQL UCASE() Function Previous Next Chapter

The UCASE() Function The UCASE() function converts the value of a field to uppercase. SQL UCASE() Syntax SELECT UCASE(column_name) FROM table_name; Syntax for SQL Server SELECT UPPER(column_name) FROM table_name;

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table: CustomerID CustomerName 1 Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera ContactName Address Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F.

Mexico

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico

4 5

Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

UK Sweden

SQL UCASE() Example The following SQL statement selects the "CustomerName" and "City" columns from the "Customers" table, and converts the "CustomerName" column to uppercase: Example SELECT UCASE(CustomerName) AS Customer, City FROM Customers; SQL LCASE() Function Previous Next Chapter

The LCASE() Function The LCASE() function converts the value of a field to lowercase. SQL LCASE() Syntax SELECT LCASE(column_name) FROM table_name; Syntax for SQL Server SELECT LOWER(column_name) FROM table_name;

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

CustomerID CustomerName 1 Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp

ContactName Address Maria Anders Obere Str. 57

City Berlin

PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F. London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

Mexico

3 4 5

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico UK Sweden

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

SQL LCASE() Example The following SQL statement selects the "CustomerName" and "City" columns from the "Customers" table, and converts the "CustomerName" column to lowercase: Example SELECT LCASE(CustomerName) AS Customer, City FROM Customers; SQL MID() Function Previous Next Chapter

The MID() Function The MID() function is used to extract characters from a text field. SQL MID() Syntax SELECT MID(column_name,start[,length]) FROM table_name;

Parameter column_name start length

Description Required. The field to extract characters from Required. Specifies the starting position (starts at 1) Optional. The number of characters to return. If omitted, the MID() function returns the rest of the text

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table: CustomerID CustomerName 1 Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp ContactName Address Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F. London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

Mexico

3 4 5

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico UK Sweden

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

SQL MID() Example The following SQL statement selects the first four characters from the "City" column from the "Customers" table: Example

SELECT MID(City,1,4) AS ShortCity FROM Customers; SQL LEN() Function Previous Next Chapter

The LEN() Function The LEN() function returns the length of the value in a text field. SQL LEN() Syntax SELECT LEN(column_name) FROM table_name;

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Customers" table: CustomerID CustomerName 1 Alfreds Futterkiste Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Antonio Moreno Taquera Around the Horn Berglunds snabbkp ContactName Address Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 City Berlin PostalCode Country 12209 Germany

Ana Trujillo

Avda. de la Mxico 05021 Constitucin 2222 D.F. Mxico 05023 D.F. London WA1 1DP Lule S-958 22

Mexico

3 4 5

Antonio Moreno

Mataderos 2312

Mexico UK Sweden

Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. Christina Berglund Berguvsvgen 8

SQL LEN() Example The following SQL statement selects the "CustomerName" and the length of the values in the "Address" column from the "Customers" table: Example SELECT CustomerName,LEN(Address) as LengthOfAddress FROM Customers; SQL ROUND() Function Previous Next Chapter

The ROUND() Function The ROUND() function is used to round a numeric field to the number of decimals specified. SQL ROUND() Syntax SELECT ROUND(column_name,decimals) FROM table_name;

Parameter

Description

column_name Required. The field to round. decimals Required. Specifies the number of decimals to be returned.

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Products" table: ProductID ProductName 1 Chais SupplierID CategoryID Unit 1 1 Price

10 boxes x 20 bags 18

2 3 4 5

Chang Aniseed Syrup

1 1

1 2 2 2

24 - 12 oz bottles 19 12 - 550 ml bottles 10 48 - 6 oz jars 36 boxes 21.35 25

Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2

SQL ROUND() Example The following SQL statement selects the product name and the price rounded to the neares integer from the "Products" table: Example SELECT ProductName, ROUND(Price,0) AS RoundedPrice FROM Products; SQL NOW() Function Previous Next Chapter

The NOW() Function The NOW() function returns the current system date and time. SQL NOW() Syntax SELECT NOW() FROM table_name;

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Products" table:

ProductID ProductName 1 2 3 4 5 Chais Chang Aniseed Syrup

SupplierID CategoryID Unit 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2

Price

10 boxes x 20 bags 18 24 - 12 oz bottles 19 12 - 550 ml bottles 10 48 - 6 oz jars 36 boxes 21.35 25

Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2

SQL NOW() Example The following SQL statement selects the product name, and price for today from the "Products" table: Example SELECT ProductName, Price, Now() AS PerDate FROM Products; SQL FORMAT() Function Previous Next Chapter

The FORMAT() Function The FORMAT() function is used to format how a field is to be displayed. SQL FORMAT() Syntax SELECT FORMAT(column_name,format) FROM table_name;

Parameter

Description

column_name Required. The field to be formatted.

format

Required. Specifies the format.

Demo Database In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database. Below is a selection from the "Products" table: ProductID ProductName 1 2 3 4 5 Chais Chang Aniseed Syrup SupplierID CategoryID Unit 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 Price

10 boxes x 20 bags 18 24 - 12 oz bottles 19 12 - 550 ml bottles 10 48 - 6 oz jars 36 boxes 21.35 25

Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 2 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2

SQL FORMAT() Example The following SQL statement selects the product name, and price for today (formatted like YYYY-MMDD) from the "Products" table: Example SELECT ProductName, Price, FORMAT(Now(),'YYYY-MM-DD') AS PerDate FROM Products; SQL Quick Reference From W3Schools Previous Next Chapter

SQL Statement

Syntax

AND / OR

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition AND|OR condition ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype or ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name

ALTER TABLE

AS (alias)

SELECT column_name AS column_alias FROM table_name or SELECT column_name FROM table_name AS table_alias

BETWEEN

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2 CREATE DATABASE database_name CREATE TABLE table_name ( column_name1 data_type, column_name2 data_type, column_name2 data_type, ... ) CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name) or CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column_name)

CREATE DATABASE CREATE TABLE

CREATE INDEX

CREATE VIEW

CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_column=some_value or DELETE FROM table_name (Note: Deletes the entire table!!) DELETE * FROM table_name (Note: Deletes the entire table!!)

DELETE

DROP DATABASE DROP INDEX

DROP DATABASE database_name DROP INDEX table_name.index_name (SQL Server) DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name (MS Access) DROP INDEX index_name (DB2/Oracle) ALTER TABLE table_name DROP INDEX index_name (MySQL) DROP TABLE table_name SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value GROUP BY column_name SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value GROUP BY column_name HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,..) INSERT INTO table_name

DROP TABLE GROUP BY

HAVING

IN

INSERT INTO

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....) or INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,...) VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....) INNER JOIN SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 INNER JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 LEFT JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 RIGHT JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 FULL JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name LIKE pattern SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name [ASC|DESC] SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name SELECT * FROM table_name SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)

LEFT JOIN

RIGHT JOIN

FULL JOIN

LIKE

ORDER BY

SELECT

SELECT *

SELECT DISTINCT

FROM table_name SELECT INTO SELECT * INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase] FROM old_table_name or SELECT column_name(s) INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase] FROM old_table_name SELECT TOP SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s) FROM table_name TRUNCATE TABLE table_name SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2 SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1 UNION ALL SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2 UPDATE table_name SET column1=value, column2=value,... WHERE some_column=some_value SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value

TRUNCATE TABLE UNION

UNION ALL

UPDATE

WHERE