Lecture 7 and 8

Earth Processes: Plate Tectonics

Dr. K. Vijaya Kumar School of Earth Sciences SRTM University, Nanded 431 606 Maharashtra, INDIA (E-mail: [email protected])

Global Problems in Geology

The Distribution of Continents Mid-ocean Ridges Trenches Orogenic Belts Volcanism Earthquakes

are very significant problems in geology. Many scientists have realized that there is pattern in the distribution of continents and oceans on the earth. Two important theories were evolved in the 20th Century: Continental Drift and Sea-floor spreading. Eventually these two theories are evolved into a unique theory that explains the distribution of oceans, continents, volcanism and earthquakes on a global scale. This global theory is called as PLATE TECTONICS.

Development of Continental Drift

Lots of people had noticed that the coastlines of Africa and South America are similar Frank Taylor (1910) Alfred Wegener (1912) Die Entstehung Der Kontinente Und Ozeane

One of the early evidences that supported the continental drift theory comes from solving the Permian Ice problem. It is found that the southern continental masses India, South Africa, Southern America, Australia and Antarctica contain some sedimentary deposits that are formed by glacial action during the Permian period (300 250 million years ago from present). Wegner has explained this phenomenon by proposing that all these continents were together during the Permian, thereby suggesting that these continents drifted away from each other.

The Permian Ice Age Problem The Permian Period follows the Carboniferous and extends from 299.0 0.8 to 251.0 0.4 Mya (million years before the present). It is the last period of the Paleozoic Era and famous for its ending epoch event, the largest mass extinction known to science. The climate in the Permian was quite varied. At the start of the Permian, the Earth was still at the grip of an Ice Age from the Carboniferous. Glaciers receded around the midPermian period as the climate gradually warmed, drying the continent's interiors. In the late Permian period, the drying continued although the temperature cycled between warm and cool cycles

Wegeners Theory to explain Permian Ice Age

Wegner has proposed that during the Permian, all the Earth's major land masses were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean ("Panthalassa", the "universal sea").

Fit of Continents across the Atlantic

Further evidence that supports the continental drift theory comes from the fit of coast lines of the continents across Atlantic.

Fossil Evidence
Presence of same extinct animal life (fossils) across the continental masses that are considered to have been together further supports the Continent Drift theory.

Discovery of Sea-Floor Spreading

Harry Hess (an American scientist) has shown that the Atlantic sea-floor does not have constant area but is continuously increasing with time. He coined the term Sea-floor spreading this phenomenon.

Vine and Mathews (Cambridge University) have provided very strong evidence for the Sea-floor spreading in the form of magnetic anomalies across Atlantic Ocean. On either side of Mid-Atlantic Ridge the ages of the oceanic crust continuously increase towards the African and South America coasts. The magnetic anomalies systematically change on either side of Mid-Atlantic ridge (Red strip in the figure).

Age of Oceanic Crust

It is found that the oldest oceanic crust existing today < 200 Ma but the continental crust as old as 4200 Ma does exist. This is an extremely important observation for the progress of the continental drift and Sea-floor spreading theories and their final culmination into the grand theory of Plate Tectonics. It is not rationale to presume that there were no oceans before 200 Ma. We have ample evidence that oceans existed on the Earth as back as 4500 Ma. A fundamental question that immediately comes up is what happened to the oceanic crust older than > 200 Ma?

Where Does Ocean Crust Go?

Based on earthquake distribution and seismic data observations, Benioff has suggested that the oceanic crust sinks below another oceanic crust or continental crust at trenches. The sinking of oceanic crust at trenches is called as Subduction or Benioff zone. As the crust becomes older it becomes cooler and denser. This cooler and denser oceanic crust sinks into the mantle. The absence of oceanic crust older than > 200 Ma is thus explained by its subduction into the mantle. The Continental Drift theory has proposed that the Continents were not stable landforms but have been wandering through the geological time. The Sea-floor Spreading concept documented that the ocean floor is expanding and new oceanic crust is being created with time. The Subduction model explained the absence of older oceanic crust and its recycling into the mantle. Combination of these three phenomenon are the cornerstones of the modern Plate Tectonic theory.

The Plate Tectonics Model

By combining the theories of Continental Drift, Sea-floor Spreading and Subduction, Tuzo Wilson (Canada) has proposed the Plate Tectonic theory. Tuzo Wilson suggested that it is crust alone that is mobile but crust + upper most rigid mantle (Lithosphere). The lithosphere is designated as Plate. The Plate Tectonic theory proposes that new oceanic crust is created at Mid-Ocean ridges and gets destroyed at Subduction zones. The complete sequence of formation and destruction of oceanic crust is called as Wilson Cycle. Tuzo Wilson has proposed three types of plate boundaries: 1) Constructive or Divergent, 2) Destructive or Convergent and 3) Conservative or transform fault

What are tectonic plates made of?

Plates are made of rigid lithosphere. Lithosphere is crust + rigid upper mantle (Av. 100 km). The thickness of Continental and Oceanic plates is highly variable. The Cratonic lithosphere could be as thick as 300 km and newly formed oceanic lithosphere could be only 50 km thick.

Plate Tectonics and Plate Motions

The Earths crust is divided into 9 major plates (Pacific, Antarctica, Indo-Australian, Eurasian, North American, South American, African, Philippine and Nazca plates). In addition to the major plates there are 6 small plates (Juan De Fuca, Caribbean, Scotia, Arabian, Cocas and Fiji plates) and 6 very small plates (Solomon, Bismarck, Adriatic, Hellenic, Turkish and Iran Plates).

 The plates are moved in different directions with variable velocities.

This plate motion causes them to collide, pull apart, or scrape against each other. Each type of interaction causes a characteristic set of Earth structures or tectonic features. The word, tectonic, refers to the deformation of the crust as a consequence of plate interaction.

 The plates are composed of either completely oceanic or continental or mixed lithospheres.

Types of Plates
Continental Plate North American Plate Oceanic Plate Pacific Plate Continental and Oceanic Plates Indo-Australian Plate

Plate Boundaries
Divergent Boundary (where new oceanic crust is created) moving apart

 Convergent Boundary (where old oceanic crust is destroyed) moving towards each other

Conservative Boundary (Transform Fault; crust is neither created nor destroyed) sliding past each other

Divergent Boundaries
There are two styles of divergent plate boundaries Continent-continent divergence continental rift valleys) (rifting and formation of

Ocean-ocean divergence (rifting and formation of Mid-ocean ridges)

 Divergent boundary of two continental plates

Divergent Boundary within the Oceanic Plate

Convergent Boundaries
There are three styles of convergent plate boundaries Continent-continent collision Continent-oceanic crust collision Ocean-ocean collision

 Convergent boundary of two oceanic plates

When two oceanic plates collide, one runs over the other which causes it to sink into the mantle forming a Subduction Zone. The subducting plate is bent downward to form a very deep depression in the ocean floor called a Trench. The worlds deepest parts of the ocean are found along trenches. E.g. the Mariana Trench is 11 km deep! A volcanic chain is created on the overriding plate by the eruption of lavas. This volcanic chain is called Island Arc (ex. Japan and Philippines Islands).

 Convergent boundary of an oceanic plate and a continental plate

Oceanic lithosphere subducts underneath the continental lithosphere Oceanic lithosphere heats and dehydrates as it subsides The melt rises forming a volcanic chain on the Continental plate (ex. The Andes mountain chain) The Continental masses are produced at the Subduction environments by the recycling of oceanic lithosphere Convergent boundary of two continental plates When two continental plates collide then the continental plate with higher density and velocity underthrusts (getting beneath) below the other continental plate. There will not be subduction of continental plate. Due to this underthrusting, the thickness of the continental crust gets doubled (~ 70 km). Thats why the Himalayas are the tallest mountain chain in the world!!

Transform-fault boundary

Along the Transform-fault boundaries (Conservative boundaries), crust is neither created nor destroyed. The adjacent plates only slide past each other without getting separated or subducted. San Andreas Fault between Pacific plate and North American plate is the best example of conservative plate boundary. Low intensity shallow earthquakes are significant of this boundary.

All the three types of plate boundaries are depicted in the figure below.

Hot Spots (Plume Activity)

Major magmatic and tectonic activity is concentrated at the plate boundaries. However, there are segments well within the plates (called intraplate), which experience magmatism unrelated to plate boundary activities. Hotspot or Plume concept is put forth to explain this phenomenon. Hotspot is very high temperature small stationary zone within the earth (generally at upper mantle lower mantle boundary or core-mantle boundary). Jets of hot partially molten material is released from these hotspots in the form of diapirs (called plumes) and are erupted to form chains of small islands on the oceanic plates (Ex. Hawaii island chain). One of the important consequences of the movement of tectonic plate over a fixed hotspot is progressive decrease in ages along the chain of volcanoes.

Mechanism of Plate Movement

Plates of lithosphere are moved around by the underlying hot mantle convection cells Convection Currents

Plates move because heat is being released from deep inside the earth in the form of convection. Convection currents causes hot material to rise and expand (plates diverge) and cooler material to sink and contract (plates converge). In other words, where the convection currents rise is the region of new crust formation and where the convection currents sink is the region of oceanic crust destruction.

Plate Tectonics and Global Volcanism, Earthquakes and Mountain chains

The plate tectonic theory is fundamental to our understanding the global volcanism, earthquake activity and presence of gigantic mountain chains across continents.

Volcanism
It is observed that all most all the global volcanism is concentrated along the plate boundaries.

Pacific Ring of Fire

Volcanoes are formed by: - Subduction - Rifting - Hotspots

Volcanism related to Rifting Iceland: An example of continental rifting Iceland has a divergent plate boundary running through its middle

Volcanism related to Subduction

Volcanism related to Plume activity

Plate Boundaries and Earthquakes As with volcanoes, earthquakes are not randomly distributed over the globe At the boundaries between plates, friction causes them to stick together. When built up energy causes them to break, earthquakes occur.

Where do earthquakes form?

Formation of Mountain Chains: Himalayas The Indian plate was migrating towards north for past 70 million years and finally collided with Eurasian plate. The collision of Indian plate with Eurasian plate has duplicated the crust (the Indian plate thrusted below the Eurasian Plate) generated highest mountain chain of Himalayas. This collision and highland formation is also responsible for the onset of Indian Monsoon as the Himalayas modulated the Atmospheric convection currents.

In Summary..
The Earth is made up of 3 main layers (core, mantle, crust) On the surface of the Earth are tectonic plates that slowly move around the globe Plates are made of crust and upper mantle (lithosphere) There are 3 types of plates (Continental, Oceanic and Mixed) There are 3 types of plate boundaries New ocean crust is created along mid-ocean ridges Old ocean crust is recycled at subduction zones Subduction zones are where mountain-building (orogeny) occurs Hot spots are long lived stationary magma sources Volcanoes, Earthquakes and Mountain Belts are closely linked to the margins of the tectonic plates