Chemistry-is the science of the composition, structure, properties and reactions of a substance or of a matter, especially of atomic and molecular

systems. Geber-Development of scientific method Robert Boyle- the skeptical chemist Antoine Lavoisier-development of law of conservation of mass BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY Physical Chemistry-is the study of patterns of chemical behavior in chemical reactions under various conditions. Inorganic Chemistry-is the study of all the elements and their compounds. Organic Chemistry-refers to the study of all carbon containing compound.

Matter-is anything that has mass and occupies space and possesses inertia. Protons Neutrons Particles that made-up Atom Electrons Atom-is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties and characteristics of its elements. Compound-is a substance that contains atoms of two or more different elements. Elements -is a pure substance that contains only one kind of atom. Molecule-is a chemical unit made up of two or more atoms joined together. Macromolecules- giant molecules

Chemical Compounds-hold compounds together. Two main types: Covalent Bond-neighboring atoms share some of their outermost particles or electrons. Ionic Bond-atoms lose or gain electrons instead of sharing them. Physical change-change of state LEVELS OF Change STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION THE Chemical -alter the composition of IN a substance HUMAN EnergyBODY: -the ability to do work and produces a change in Chemical level matter either in its position or state of being. Cellular level Kinetic Energy-energy in motion Potential TissueEnergy level -energy in position Organ level System level Organism-any living individual Individual-distinguish by peculiar characteristics; peculiar to one person distinctive. Community-is a group of people living in the same locality or under the same local government. Population-the total number of inhabitants of a

FORMS OF ENERGY: 1. Chemical Energy-the energy stored in the chemical substances 2. Electrical Energy-produced from the movement of charged particles, ions. 3. Heat Energy-an intense or pathological manifestation of such a perception or sensation. Ecosystem -are of organisms interacting with each group Fructose-a very of sweet sugar, also called 4. Light Energy -the sensation perception of such other and their environment fruit sugar or levulose radiation Biosphere -the totality of region of derived the earth that a sugar from the milk 5. Mechanical Galactose Energy -the energy directly involved support self-sustaining and self-regulating ecological sugar (lactose) in the moving of matter. system B. -double sugar, two monosaccharides 6. Dissacharide Nuclear Energy -the energy released by a nuclear Protoplasmis the living matter of the cell bounded together reaction Biochemistry-the that the chemistry of Lactose is science a sugar that studies provides energy 7. Radiant Energy -the energy transferred by for the living organisms infants. Inorganic components of the protoplasm Maltose-also called malt sugar 1. Water-is a liquid essential to life -formed during the digestion of starch and Salts-formed from the neutralization of an acid also occurring in germinating cereal grains. and a base Sucrose-cane sugar Acids-are compounds which contain the hydrogen on and which dissolve in water

2. Carbon Dioxide- a colorless, odorless gas that is present in small amounts in the air and is also important as a by-product of normal metabolism in the body 3. Oxygen- a colorless, odorless gas that makes up 21% of the Earths atmosphere. ORGANIC COMPONENTS OF THE PROTOPLASM 1. Carbohydrates-are the bodys main chemical fuel. Classified into: A. Monosaccharide-simple sugar; important source of energy for the cells. Glucose or blood sugar-the most abundant sugar in the body.

TYPES OF LIPIDS: Simple Lipids-also called triglycerides Compound lipids Steroids-are complex lipids in which the carbon atoms are arranged in rings TYPES OF LIPIDS IN THE BODY AND THEIR FUNCTIONS: Triglycerides-protection, insulation energy storage Phospholipids-make up the plasma membranes around cells Steroids Cholesterol Bile salts Vitamin D

C. Polysaccharide-complex sugar; multiple monosaccharides Starch-energy storage in plants and main carbohydrates in food Glycogen-the principal carbohydrate storage material in the body. Cellulose-structural materials in plants Chitin- a semitransparent horny substance. 2. lipid-storage of energy and important component of the cell membrane.

Sex hormones Eicosanoids-have diverse effects on blood clotting Other Lipids: Fatty Accids-catobilized to generate adenosine triphosphate Carotenes-needed for synthesis of vitamin A Robert Hooke - observed mass of tin cavities from code thin Vitamin E-promotes would healing Har Gobind Khorana -helped to crack the genetic slices cork with his self made microscope ofVitamin K -required for synthesis ofby blood clothing by identifying which amino acid is specified all the Anton Van Leeuwanhoek -pioneering discoveries proteins. possible codons. concerning protozoa Watson Lipoproteins -transport lipids blood James -deduced that DNA hasin a the double helix Marie Francois Bichat -showed that organs are structure Protein-the most complicated substance in themade body of different of cells Matthew Meseison -investigated how DNA cpies itself TYPES group OF PROTEINS AND FUNCTIONS: Robert Brown -observed plant cells with a distinct central or replicates Fibrous protein part Max (nucleus) Knoil and Ernst Ruska-built the first transmission Dujardin -observed that cells were not empty but filled electron microscope with thick, jelly-like fluid (protoplasm) Matthias Schieiden-concluded that plants are Kinds of Cell: composed ofcells cells-an organism in which the genetic Eukaryotic Theodore Schwann - concluded that animals material is enclosed by a membrane to form a are nucleus. composed of cells Prokaryotic Cells-any organism in which the genetic

Conjugated protein Structural protein Regulatory protein Contractile protein Immunological protein Transport protein Thomas Morgan - developed the theory that Catalytic protein genetic information 4.chromosomes Nucleic Acid-carry are the bodys equivalent of a computer Rudolf Virchow-concluded that cells must come only program. from preexisting cells Linus Pauling-investigated protein structure, and helped to shape ideas about the structure of DNA. Erwin Chargaff-showed how the four different bases pair up in a DNA molecule Rosalind Franklin-used X-rays to investigate the shape of DNA molecules Francis Crick-built a model that showed the double helix shape of the DNA molecule for the first time

Assimilation-ability of the cells to utilize absorbed substances to build up protoplasm Excretion-ability of the cells to eliminate waste products of metabolism Secretion-ability of the cells to produce substances from the body and extrude them through ducts Respiration- ability of the cells to take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide Growth-increase in the amount of protoplasm mainly as a result of an increase in number of cells Reproduction- ability of the cells to form new individuals Organization- ability of the systems to function for the benefit of the whole body

Cells-are the basic unit of life Cell theory-All organisms are made up of cells and a cells is the structural and functional unit of organisms. Cells are capable of self reproduction and cells come only from pre-existing cells Properties of a Living Matter Conductivity-is the ability of the cells to transmit a wave of excitation from one cell to another Contractility-is the ability of the cells to shorten, thereby, producing movement Cells in the body are classified into: Absorption -ability of Red blood Cells- the cells to take substances into the protoplasm White Blood Cell Secreting cells in gland Nerve cells Cells that form fingernailsTypes of Cells: Epithelial Cells-make up the tissue that cover the outside of the body and line the digestive, respiratory and urinary tract. Muscular Tissue-made up of different muscle cells that are specialized to contract Connective Tissue- protects and supports the body and its organs

Parts of the Cells: Cell Membrane-It is semi-fluid in nature allowing the mobility of a double layer of lipids and proteins within the membrane Cytoplasm-is a jelly-like substance 90% of which is water Components: 1. Cytosol-is a fluid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds organelles and constitutes about 55% of total cell volume. 2. Organelles-are specialized structures that Golgi body-a stack of flattened sacs receives and have characteristic shapes and perform processes small vesicles Types of Nucleic Acid: of protein that have been specific functions. dispatched by rough ER. (DNA)-the genetic material Deoxyribonucleic Acid Cytoskeleton-is a network of several or different kinds Mitochondria -these are shaped like coffee beans and from which the chromosomes of a cells are formed. consists of a smooth outer membrane Ribonucleic Acid-large, complex molecules which work Krebs cycle -referout to a series of biochemical reactions with DNA to carry the instructions of the genetic code that occurs in the matrix of mitochondria in which Nucleolus-small bodies within the nuclei made up of electrons are transferred to coenzymes and carbon RNA and protein; also called plasmosomes. dioxide is formed. Nucleoplasm -the protoplasm of a cell nucleus, also Lysosomes -arc membrane-enclosed vesicles that called karyoplasms. contain digestive enzymes Peroxisomes-contain oxidases that oxidize amino acids, fatty acids, and toxic substances and in the process, produce hydrogen peroxide Proteasome-tiny structures that contain proteases

Microfilaments-the thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton are composed of a protein acttin and arc most prevalent at the periphery of a cell. Intermediate Filaments-are thicker than microfilaments, but thinner than microtubules. Microtubules-the largest of the cytoskeleton components, are long, unbranched hollow tubes composed mainly of protein tubulin. Endoplasmic reticulum-a network of tubules and flat curved sac (twisted) which help transport materials through the cells Rough Endoplasmic reticulum-site of attachment for Nucleus-the control center of the cell ribosomes Endoplasmic Nuclear pores which control movement Smooth reticulumsite the of calcium and of substances between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Nucleoli-which produce ribosomes; and genes arranged on chromosomes Nucleoplasm-also called karyolymph, which is the colloidal solution enclosed by the nuclear membrane, more viscous than cytoplasm Nucleolus-counterpart of the ribosomes in the cytoplasm for protein synthesis Chromatin material-which contain the linear arrangement of the basic unit of heredity called genes Nucleic Acid-substances found in all living matter that have a fundamental role in the propagation of life

Tissues-a group of similar cells that usually have a common embryonic origin and function together to carry out specialized activities Histology-the study of tissues, including their cellular structure and function Biopsy-is a diagnostic test in which tissue or cells are removed from the body for examination under the microscope Classification of tissue according to their structure and function: Epithelial-a tissue that forms a lining in or on the body Connective tissue-bind organs together, store energy reserves as fat, and help provide immunity to disease-causing organisms

Nervous Tissue-detects changes in a variety of conditions inside and outside the body and responds by generating electrochemical nerve impulses that help maintain hemostasis Cell junctions-are points of contact between adjacent plasma membranes Epithelial Tissue: Simple squamous epithelium-consists of a single layer of flat cells Simple cuboidal epithelium-consists of a single layer of cube-shaped cells ;functions in secretion and absorption Nonciliated simple columnar- consists of a single layer of nonciliated rectangular cells.

Ciliated simple columnar- consists of a single layer of ciliated rectangular cells. Stratified squamous epithelium- consists of a several layers of cells; cells of the apical layer and several layers deep to it are flat Stratified columnar epithelium- consists of a several layers of cells; cells of the apical layer have a columnar shape Transitional epithelium- consists of a several layers whose appearance varies with theh degree of stretching Pseudostratified columnar epithelium-has only one layer but gives appearance of many Connective Gland-is a tissue single cell or group of epithelial cells that Is one of the abundant body tissues manufactures andmost releases chemical substances, such as - Consists of cells and a matrix of ground substance and fibers Muscle Tissue - Is a very specialized tissue that has boththe ability to contract and the ability to conduct electrical impulses. Type of Muscles: 1. Smooth MuscleTissue-is made up of thinkelongated muscle cells Sarcoplasm-specialized cytoplasm Sarcolemma-thin cell membrane

Endocrine Glands-do not have ducts and thus release their secretions directly into the bloodstream. Exocrine Glands-secrete into ducts and release their secretions either onto a free surface of the skin or into the hallow structure such as the mouth or digestive tract Structural classification of exocrine glands: Holocrine gland-a type of gland in which entire secretory cells, along with their accumulated secretions, make up the secretory product of the gland Appocrine glands-a type of gland in which the secretory products gather at the free end of the secreting cell and are pinched off 2. Skeletal Muscle Merocrine glands-gland madeup of secretory cells that Is the most abundant tissue in vertebrate remain intact throughout the process of the formation and body - Are attached to and bring about the movement of discharge of the secretory product various bones of the skeleton 3. Cardiac (Heart) Muscle Tissue - This is a unique tissue found only in the walls of the heart Nerve Tissue - Is the fourth major class of vertebrate tissue - Is made of nerve cells that come in many varieties - Nuerons Specialized cells Are easily stimulated and transmit impulses very rapidly

Integument systems - Are a collection of organs and a structure that protects the bodys exterior and plays an important role in hemeostasis. Hair - Is a threadlike structure composed of tubes of dead cells filled with keratinthe protein that makes up nails grow upward and above the surface of the skin from living, dividing cells in the base of the follicles. - Consist of: Medulla-spongy semihollow core Cortex-a surrounding layer of long; thin fibers

Bulb -

Supplies the hair with keratin Is the pale of swelling that sometimes can be seen when hair is pulled out. TYPES OF HUMAN HAIR 1. Lanugo-from the 4th month of gestation, the fetus is covered with downy hair, which is shed during the ninth month. 2. Vellus Hai- after birth and until puberty, which is fine, short, and colorless, covers most of the body 3. Terminal Hair-is thicker, longer, and often pigmented

Melanin - Determines the color of the hair - Is produced by special pigment producing cells called malanocytes at the base of the hair follicle Brittle Hair - Breaks and splits at the ends - Is usually due to excessive shampooing, combing and blow-drying Very Dry Hair - Is often the result of excessive use of hot rollers or curling irons, or frequent perming, tinting or bleaching Nails-are scaly extensions of the epidermis that cover Sratum lucidum-is a thin, clear layer of dead skin and protect the upper distal ends of the finger and toes cells and is named for its translucent appearance. Sratum corneum-the outermost layer that is flat and completely dead Dermis - Is thicker than the epidermis and contains only living cells. Sebaceous glands - are usually connected to hair follicles. - They produce an oily substance called

Is the outermost covering of the body tissue, which protects the internal organs the environment Epidermis - is made up of flat cells that resemble paving stones when viewed under the microscope Different layers of the epidermis: Stratum basale-this contains a single row of cells that continuously divide, with the new cells being pushed outwards Stratum spinosum- this contains of 8-10 rows of cells covered in spin-like protections Sweat Glands Stratum granulosum-here, their nucleic start to break - Lie in the dermis down and they become filled with keratin - Each one is connected to a small depression in the surface called sweat pore. Epidermal ridge - Hands and feet spend a lot of the time gripping or pushing against the ground

Skin -