Thunder Among The Pines: Defining A Pan-Asian Soma
Thunder Among The Pines: Defining A Pan-Asian Soma
Thunder Among The Pines: Defining A Pan-Asian Soma
By Frederick R. Dannaway
religion are the starting point for this theory of a common, ancient entheogenic legacy that
survived into Medieval Japan in the form of Tantric Esoteric Buddhism. Needham’s evidence,
with a few notable exceptions (Spess 2000), has not been specifically treated by scholars of
entheogenic studies. This fact is surprising as his work on alchemy combines arguments of early
transmissions of religious practices that included sexual yoga, entheogens, and “macrobiotics”
as core doctrines that spread from the dawn of civilization across the ancient world. Needham
“The idea of a herb of immortality was not at all a new invention of Indo-Iranian
cultures, for we can find it already in the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh, datable
before 2000 B.C.E. What relation that legend had to hallucinogenic mushrooms
His discussion then draws upon the investigations of Wasson and Michel Strickmann (1966)
whose research does suggest a Taoist cult of entheogenic mushrooms. A most interesting
supposition, especially for the theory of a continued Japanese soma, comes from Dubs
(1947;1961) which suggests that the “Indo-Iranian soma-haoma was the trigger for the searches
of the First Emperor of the Han Wu Ti, even it was only a stimulus diffusion (Needham 1974).”
Anticipating the hopeless task of separating out which geographic group was earliest and most
influential, Needham writes “…whatever news it was that came from Persia or India {…} the
properties of Amanita muscaria or related fungi were indeed known to, and used by ancient
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Taoists, perhaps also medieval ones, though it will be no easy task to reveal the details,
The Taoist tradition of China and Japan are fused together in the tales of before
Common Era emperors of China who dispatched envoys abroad to find the Isles of the
Immortals (Penglai) and to find the source for the “Elixir of Immortality”, which Needham
surmises, is a mushroom. This occurred in the reign of Shih Huang Ti (219 B.C.) who
dispatched one Hsu Fu, in Japanese Jofuku, of whom Needham thinks it probable that he and
his people settled in Japan as they never returned to China and there is a tomb of Jofuku in
symbolism with entheogenic Soma-Haoma cults is simply too massive to recount here. But he
recounts later legends of these Taoist “plant of immortality” missions, in the text “magic
mushrooms that nourishes the spirit (yang shen chih), as clearly partaking of this truly ancient
heritage (Needham 1974). His works on the earlier dates of Tantra, such as the commonly cited
origins of 7th century CE (Davidson 2003; Bhattacharyya 1982) and the influence of Taoism on
Tantrism are essential to link this “esoteric technology” with an ancient current that persisted
muscaria not only founded the discipline of ethnomycology but it also help change our
understanding of the most basic principles of religion. Many see psychoactive plants as inciting
the religious impulse in humanity in the earliest forms of primordial shamanism (Wasson 1968;
Ruck 1976;La Barre 1980) and the world’s oldest known religious literature, the Vedas, sing
devotional hymns to this psychoactive Soma. The mushroom has been implicated in rites of
Greek mysteries by Ruck (1978), as the foundation of Christianity by Allegro (1970), as well as in
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countless magic, ritual and divination system the world over (Ott 1986; Pendell 2005). Wilson
(1999) has traced the “sacred drift” of the Indo-European mushroom cult and found an Irish
soma and Heinrich (1995) has traced the symbolism into Grail mythos and European alchemical
tradition. Hajicek-Dobberstein (1995) and Crowley (2005) have taken Wasson’s foundation of
Asian Shamanism and Vedic use and traced evidence of continued use in Tibet and China.
Spess’s (2000) work describes the Indo-Aryan entheogenic cults spread throughout the ancient
world while confirming the research of scholars such as Wasson, Ruck and Needham of the
symbolic connections with the alchemical traditions that veil the botanical associations (though
Spess argues for Nymphaea and Nelumbo, water lilies and the lotus plant, as the primary
candidate). Ruck (2006) has also traced mushrooms at the heart of many fairy tales.
That entheogenic sacraments can be found at the heart of most if not all of the world’s
major religions and mystery traditions has far reaching implications on the dynamics that
mediate and control the religious and ecstatic experience which were, perhaps, not so distinct in
the past. The death of Socrates has been implicated in the revealing of sacred knowledge of
entheogenic rituals and the brutal Inquisition, like the modern War on Drugs, indicate just some
of the prejudice and persecution of a plant orientated mysticism (Ruck 1981). The observations
of the “friction” of entheogens and orthodox Buddhism of the pioneer researcher Dr. Strassman
as related in his article DMT and the Dharma reveals the complicated relationship between
(Kalyanaraman 2004) to a revisiting of the “ephedera” argument (Falk 1989) to past arguments
presenting such candidates as Cannabis sativa (Ray 1939), rhubarb (Stein 1931), Nelumbo
nucifera (Spess 2000) or to even the sun or moon (Hillebrandt 1965). There are too many plants
associated with Soma/Haoma to give adequate attention to competing theories but a good
synopsis of the discussion can be found in O’Flaherty (1968), Emboden (1980), and Flattery
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(1989).
that culminated in various religions in India and China and related traditions. As scholars such
as Eliade and Needham have exhaustively documented, this mystical technology was expressed
and concealed in alchemical and metallurgical language. This esoteric semiotics can be found
from ancient India, into China and in the esoteric Islamic Shia and Sufism and thus into the
Western “mystery” tradition of Middle Age elixir alchemy(Needham 1976). These arts came to
encompass both internal and external alchemical transmutations of emotions and sexual energy
into higher spiritual states and preserve techniques which are remarkably similar between Taoist
to Buddhist to Tantrika. They often shared many of the same herbs and similar systems of
healing, martial arts, and cosmologies and many followed similar ascetic practices and
macrobiotic hygiene as well as a fondness for what Giradot calls a “mystical primitivism”
expressed in their fondness for rugged terrains, wilderness and remote mountains. Many of the
Taoists and Buddhists culminated into practices of seclusion in dark caves which itself is
as Terrence Mckenna and Taoist teacher Mantak Chia (2006), Lowenthal (2003) and others
describe. This practice, of self-enclosure in the dark, needs serious scientific inquiry as the
implications of an endogenous DMT ritual are quite profound and references to such practices
The controversies as to the origins of sexual yoga might be laid to rest by a careful
reading of Needham’s arguments and observations. Briefly, these range from examples such as
from the Mohenjo-Daro civilization, in the 3rd millenium BCE, which created statues of “yogis”
and naked yoginis sitting in the lotus position, which Needham suggests “are the predecessors
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of the Sakti consorts.” His evidence continues through instances in the Atharva Veda of sexual
yogic priests,the vratya, who used sexual yoga with their prostitute consorts (pumscali), which
Needham calls the original devadasis. Scholars that interrupt data through political contexts and
full blown crystallizations of doctrine will insist on a 7th century CE date for Tantra but as
Neeham writes “"Tantrism of Asanga flourished at 400 CE and was translated into Chinese as
early as 5th century" but says these are based on older texts such as the known Guhya-samaja
Tantra ascribed to 3rd century ad.” Tantra did not just arise in a vacuum nor was it limited in
terms of regions.
Entheogenic plant substances have a unique quality in uniting the primordial, “chaotic”
associations of creation with contrived and imposed qualities of civilization. These philosophical
polarities clearly come into play in the various traditions such as in various levels of Vedic duty,
or dharma, or in China with the Confucian social order of which the mystic is often in direct
conflict even if their particular religion enjoys state protection. From the wandering, hashish
(charas) smoking sadhu with unkempt locks (jata) who shuns worldly matters to build heat
(tapas) and life off energy (prana) to the Daoist hermit cultivating inner spirits and living off chi
and specifically “avoiding the grains” (bigu) of post-agricultural society. Where as theorists
speculate as to what was the identity of the soma, there is no doubt that Chinese Taoists rarely
hesitated in consuming “magic mushrooms” and the massive Science and Civilization in China
by Needham is fairly saturated with their various employments and uses along with other various
substances that would produce psychoactive effects, such as the burning of hemp incense in
Mao Shan rituals (Robinet 1993, Needham 1974) as well as many other substances and drugs
Buddha himself left his family and became a sadhu and no doubt experimented in the
techniques of his master the Shaivate Makkhali Gosala (560-484 B.C.) was said to practice
“dance and divine drunkenness” (Storl 2004). This Shaivate influence seems to have survived in
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Buddhism only updated linguistically and cosmologically as many Tantric sects, such as in
Nepal, join Shiva and Buddha into one. Buddha was protected by a cobra, the serpent kundalini
force coiled at the base of the spine, during his deepest mediation thus linking him clearly with
this esoteric technology. As the last line of the “hymn of the longhaired sages” reads “The
Wind-God churned it, and ground it, then the longhaired one drank the elixir from the vessel,
together with Shiva” with the elixir being on par with the Soma (Hartsuiker 1993). Tantra often
calls for the aspirant to venture into uncharted territory or as Bharati writes, “experimenting with
Esoteric Buddhism is philosophically more Vedic and Indo-European with a common link
being the “cosmic man”(the Sun Buddha of Tibetan and Japanese traditions) that unites the
macrocosm, mesocosm and microcosm in a complicated and strenuous process that best
termed “alchemical” consisting of sexual yoga, ritual adoration (puja) and herbal based alchemy.
Buddhist alchemy dropped the goal of metal transmutation and, in contrast to “Hindu” schools,
became more internalized (rasayana) being “quite identical to the Taoist, Mahayana and Hindu
hatha yogic techniques of urethral suction and the ‘hydraulic’ raising of the semen along the
spinal column as in the Kundalini tradition. The Yogic tradition of Patanjali states that ausadhi
“botanicals” are one of the four means to obtaining siddhis or powers” (White 1996). An ancient
Buddhist text speaks of five kinds of powers (riddhi): those attained by being inborn, by the use
Tantric practice bridges these ontological rifts in the mesocosmic aspirant who, through
his/her alchemy, unities the microcosmic aspect with the macrocosmic in a process and
language that is not typical associated with orthodox Buddhism. But as both schools employ
various techniques ranging from simple but intense chanting (mantra) to highly ritualized use of
“drugs and minerals” to transmute themselves, they are not that different in theory. Amanita
muscaria is a special example being both a potential entheogen and cited as a medicinal herb in
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rejuvenating therapy (rasayana) with its effects described as hallucinogenic and stimulating the
nervous system, invoking “vivid dreams” and “recollections of old memories and supernatural
feelings (Puri 1977, 2003). Tantra, medicine, psychology and alchemy often converge into
interdisciplinary practices that aid the adept to cultivate a sound mind and body for longevity
which was an obsession from the earliest Vedic periods to the immortal concerns of Taoists.
Tibetan medicine (gSoba Rig-pa), like Ayurveda, incorporates all these aspects into a spiritual
and healing Tantra. A work on the subject, The Tibetan Art of Healing, which has a forward by
the Dalai Lama himself, mentions the use of Amanita in alchemical applications and mentions
pilgrimage sites in Tibetan borderlands that are brimming with magical plants that “bestow the
eight siddhis and cause one to remember past lives” (Baker 1997).
experiences, were used in all aspects of the traditions from medicine to stimulant, sedative,
entheogen for meditation, initiation ordeal and perhaps, (as discussed below), to aid in martial
arts combat. The rich, ancient heritage of esoteric botany with the continuing mystical
associations, especially of spontaneously appearing fungi suddenly there for the adept to use,
demonstrate that psychoactive substance paid a critical role in the various training of devotees.
As Aldrich (1977) writes, “Regardless of the preachings of contemporary orthodox swamis who
urge their followers not to use drugs, the tradition of drug yoga is an ancient and honorable one
in India, developed to its fullest extent in Tantric practice.” These also include ascetic practices
of strict diets, fasts, yoga and physical exertion, sensory deprivation, the “techniques of ecstasy”
as discussed by Eliade, and martial arts. Thus much of Esoteric Buddhism, Tantra and Taoism
is a systematic, organized shamanic training that conditions the body and mind to be able to
Taoist literature makes frequent references to what scholars often translate as “magic
mushrooms” (ling chih). Despite “pop-culture” associations with this term it must be understood
to literally be magic and capable of producing anything from immortality to visionary states to
shamanic journeys. The soma was certainly not just one plant or mushroom, as the multitude of
descriptions Soma in the scriptures attest, but rather a complex of potent plants and healthful,
strengthening herbs that served as tonics for physical and spiritual ills (RigVeda X.97.7).
Likewise, in China there was a complex of Chih plants that shared some ritual, entheogenic or
medicinal correspondences that, like the soma, were described in alchemical terms and possibly
even prepared with gold. This no doubt irrevocably linked the plants with alchemical operations
and “potable gold.” Perhaps it is both the colors of the respective male and female genital fluids
(sperm and menstrual blood) and the color of the Amanita muscaria of red and white that
The most potent and sought after Chih plant would certainly be mushrooms. As
mentioned, both Wasson and Needham suspected entheogenic fungi as one of the highest secrets
in Taoism in a tradition already obsessed with immortality and longevity. Health and spirituality
are inseparable in Chinese culture. A long life was testament to a life lived in harmony with the
Tao as well as providing the necessary life-span to complete the lengthy process of alchemy,
internal (nei tan) or external (wei tan). Alchemical language, born of truly archaic metallurgical
and proto-tantric cults, would continue to exert a dominant influence on these various religions
and cultures by perpetuating a belief in magic plants that were, to paraphrase Needham, passports
Beyond many ancient texts of Taoist urine drinking and chih plants there is emerging
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evidence of much earlier contact between Indo-Iranian and Chinese cultures (Mallory and Mair
2000). Needham and Wasson accepted that the Chinese “plant of deathlessness” (pu ssu chih
tshao) could be the agaric which grew under the “tree of deathlessness” or birch (pu ssu chih
shu). Mushrooms, shamanism and sexuality are found very early in Chinese literature, such as
the shamanistic invocations Nine Songs of the 3rd century. Here a “Mountain Goddess” is
invoked by a shaman whose mission is to capture the “Thrice-herb” in the mountains for, as
Strickmann writes, “the goddess, his lover” and records the commentators state the plant is a
mushroom. This little study aspect of Goddess worship and entheogenic mushrooms in China
may well be the original source for proto-Tantric and Tantric schools that emerged in the “The
Great China” (Mahacina). Needham (1983) describes this current as “religious sexuality” or
cinacara as flowering into Tantra with the important note that much of this philosophy was
already present in Chinese mysticism since recorded history. This erotic mysticism which
developed into Tantra proper emerged in Buddhism as early as the 3rd Century C.E. and spread
Evidence of mushrooms as hallucinogens and aphrodisiacs are also found in a text from
the 3rd century C.E. involving a certain Chiao-fu and two nymphs of the Blue River (Strickmann
1966) The hero falls in love with the pair and issued forth the following verses of poetry:
At this point the nymphs quote his poetry back to him and vanish after presenting him with their
gem laden girdles. Strickmann notes this story is charged with themes of ancient fertility rites,
and it must be mentioned that some descriptions of soma have it growing near water (Frawley
2006). Other sexual themes follow mushroom lore in China, such as is found in the The Classic
of Mountains and Seas (Shan Hai Ching), which Strickmann describes as from an “early and
unknown date.” Here another nymph, Yao Chi, dies a virgin and is “apotheosized as the Goddess
of the Mountain of the Sorcerers. Her spirit became the plant Yao, of which the fruit is the sacred
mushroom. The mushroom is described here as a love-charm, enabling its possessor to seduce
whomever he wishes. Strickmann research on Chinese mushroom cults recounts many cultural
themes that follow this relationship of goddess worship and sexuality as well as deducing that
The syncretic nature of these religions is found in the Tripitaka (Ta Tsang) in words of
the Buddhist Master Ssu of the Southern Sacred Mountain who was the teacher of Chhen Te-An
founder of the Tien-Tai sect of Buddhism. His blending of Taoist alchemical and Buddhist
concepts, more fully discussed below, with magic mushroom lore can be found in the following
passage:
“I am now going into the mountains to meditate and practice austerities, repenting
of the numerous sins and infractions of the Law which have been so many
seeking for the longevity in order to defend the Faith, not in order to enjoy
worldly happiness. I pray that all the saints and sages will come to my help, so
that I may get some good magic mushrooms, and numinous elixirs (shen tan),
enabling me to cure all illnesses and to stop both hunger and thirst. In this way I
shall be able to practice continually the way of the Sutras and to engage in the
several forms of mediations. I shall hope to find a peaceful dwelling in the depths
of the mountains, with enough numinous elixirs and medicine to carry out my
plans. Thus by the aids of external elixirs (wai tan) I shall be able to cultivate the
The 8th century eccentric Buddhist hermit-poet Cold Mountain (Han Shan)
Scholars such as Strickmann and Needham, with the aid of Wasson, note the continued
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use of psychotropic drugs in ancient Taoist practices that persisted until at least medieval times.
The revolutionary alchemists and herbalists of the Mao Shan traditions from the 1st century
B.C.E.(the date of the three Mao brothers) produced scriptures which Needham says were “aided
almost certainly by cannabis” and notes that Lady Wei of the Southern Peak, a founder of Taoist
liturgiology was “a great teacher of mediation and psychotropic drugs.” A 6th century example
from the Wu Tsang Cing, says, “If you wish to command demonic apparitions to present
themselves you should constantly eat the inflorescences of the hemp plant.” Robinet’s work
contains constant references to magic mushrooms and magic plants from remote regions that the
adept must seek out and consume. Wasson (1968) references an incident of a Chinese official
named Lu Yu (1125-1209) who seemed to be against the fungal use of the Manicheans. As Ott
writes,
“The Chinese, as is well known, are hardly mycophobes, and surely there must
have been something special about those red mushrooms to have attracted the
and early eighth centuries, and had considerable impact on the Taoists, with their
famous icon of the ling chih, or the 'divine mushroom of immortality' (Ott 1995).
The strong influence of Chinese traditions exerted on other Asian countries, such as
Korea, seems to also have brought much of this esoteric influence. There are the Jade girls
picking magic mushrooms in frescoes of the Koguryo tombs of the 6th and 7th Century C.E. As
Needham records, many Koreans studied in China bringing back “special pharmaco-sexual
techniques of the Silla masters.” Likewise in Burma an alchemical tradition persisted to “work
with fire” (aggiya) which, as again Needham writes, is orientated towards the attainment of
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zawgyi (=siddhi?) hsien in Chinese, through sexual arts and elixir drugs, such as were cultivated
the Arabs. Beyond mundane science and proto-chemical influences there is curious mention of
“laughing mad stones” from China that the Arabs called al-bahit of which shows up in the
Jabirian Corpus of alchemical scripts. This links in with Shia esoteric cults as Jabir’s master was
the 6th Imam Ja'far ibn Muhammad and Jabir even has a whole book dedicated to the subject, the
Book of the Surprising (Kitab al-Bahit) and need traces these legends back to a Chinese source
that describes a hallucinogenic mushroom that incites uncontrollable laughter and even in death
in excessive doses. Clearly these associations with alchemists and mushrooms or similar
entheogenic compounds and elixirs fairly saturated the region continuing into Western
alchemical traditions, which also are linked with mushrooms (Heinrich 2002).
Chinese herbalists no doubt experiment with entheogenic plants from the earliest times.
Taoist alchemists like Ko Hung, in works perhaps based on alchemical treatises from Nagarjuna,
describe many plants and their expected effects on the adept (Ware 1984). Dr. Li (1977)
discusses the literature of hallucinogenic plants in their diverse contexts and use amongst Taoists
and sorcerers and the history of the inclusion of mind-altering plants in Chinese herbals. A
continued use of such plants, such as evidenced above, provides ample possibilities for a
continued use of entheogenic mushrooms into regions infused with cults that retained the
The father of ethnomycology Gordon Wasson has proposed the most reasonable
suggestion of species for the famed Soma of the Vedic traditions with the mushroom Amanita
muscaria. Though the debate as to what exact plant was used or substituted will no doubt rage
on, the most important aspect of Wasson’s work lies in the expressed possibility of an
entheogenic plant ritual at the foundation world’s earliest revealed religions, though opponents
seem a bit overzealous and indeed personal in their attacks on this theory. The focuses on the
movements of various cults across the ancient lands reveal a vast network of influence from India
nomads brought specific doctrines, such as the Soma or Haoma, that then absorbed local
indigenous traditions of shamanism and animism. The result was an often tenuous syncretism,
such as is found in the Rig Veda and Avesta, which became entwined in the local cosmologies
and practices until doctrinal evaluations formalized these into elitist legalism and obsession with
elaborate ritual.
This period, after the Upanishads, coincides with the revision and assimilation of the
various competing pantheons into an Aryan framework adjusting their status as the godly
Brahmans. The relatively simple rites of the hearth then become the homa or agnihotra ritual that
spreads all through Asia. According to Wasson, the Soma cult seems to have diminished with the
migrations of the Aryans towards the Indus Valley. While this theory, and the “political reality”
affecting such movements, may indeed be a chief cause of the “cultural amnesia” as to what was
the original Soma plant, another alternative could be that the cult went “underground” to evade
various suppressions and persecutions at the hands of that old familiar state-caste based
orthodoxy. It is clear that these fire rituals, entheogenic plants, and complex philosophies
became firmly established in the context of metallurgy. The mastery of fire and the shaman have
long been poetically and mythically intertwined. The obvious metaphors of the metallurgical
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refining process from gross ore to useful metal would give all such endeavors a spiritual
dimension. The pressures of agricultural or cattle herding-based authorities link metals with
security, survival and “religion” would further contribute to the mystery of “smithing.” As the
technology became more widespread the specific fire rituals evolved an intentional esoteric
complexity to perhaps pace the streaming influences or to satiate the need for an esoteric
doctrine in which to contextualize the entheogenic rites (Eliade 1962). The diffusion of fire rites,
metallurgical/shamans/smiths and cremation rites that arise in the twilight of Copper/Bronze age
enshrine and link these associations with the purification of ores, potentially poisonous or
Some Indian scholars, in the course of the deep study of their own traditions such as the
RigVeda, have suggested that the Soma itself was the metal electrum, which is a gold and silver
alloy. Alchemy of a metallic and plant nature is intimately linked with the various Vedic and Tantric
spiritual sciences that spread amongst various cults (Jaggi 1973;Kazanas 2002, Kalyanaraman
2004). A type of Soma was used in the incessant fire mentioned in the Khila Sukta of the Rig
Veda which Dr. Kalyanaraman links it to a metallurgical process that was of, as its inclusion in the
Rig Veda attests, religious devotion. The theory of Wasson can combine with this alchemical
symbolism to give the ritual considerations many dimensions from which to draw. The actual
smelting and combining of metals and incessant fires has obvious implications to a mystic. The
clay, earthenware pot of the Mahavira vessel filled with Putika plants and water over a fire begins
to take on alchemical metaphors of the elements. The fragrance of the fire, the way the gods
enjoy their sacrifice, wafts like incense in the perpetual prayer in the fire of the Soma sacrifice.
The inner homa is an offering of all the impediments and obstacles to the peace of
enlightenment.
The Buddha himself is implicated, though this is contested, with both mushrooms and
metal-smiths. As Wasson notes the Pali canon of Buddhist texts records the last meal of the
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Buddha as a mushroom served to him by the metal-worker Cunda. Wasson’s deductions follow
many years of academic debate as to if the final substance was pork or a fungus as the Pali and
other South Asian Canons maintain. As to the noted objections that the mushroom account does
not appear in the, to paraphrase Kornfield’s comments, “mainstream” canonical literature this
mirror the Christian-Roman hybridization under Constantine and the subsequent councils to
define doctrine. The suspected vegetarianism of Buddha would suggest some deeper esoteric
The so-called “silence” of the Buddha, a religious and social reformer, has always been
linked with certain early Buddhist sects with an esoteric doctrine. This foundation of esoteric
Buddhism, allegedly entrusted to Ananda, then seems to have taken a radically different course
from the prevailing, basically “mirror-polishing” exoteric teaching. If this Esoteric Buddhism was a
purified Hinduism– one without class distinctions, animal-sacrifice and “distilled rituals”– then the
esoteric doctrine begins to take shape. The acknowledged master of expounding this Buddhist
silence is the legendary Nagarjuna who is still famed in India today as an alchemist and wizard
and who personifies the erotico-mystical side of Tantric Buddhism, and whose writings feature
debates between Hindus and Buddhist, as well as transmutational alchemy (White 1996).
Though his existence and authorship of certain texts are a problematic to some
academics, the significance of the clear associations connected with Nagarjuna betrays an
esoteric hermeneutics. The secrets of myth and folklore are in a sense more “true” in their
capturing of the prevailing spirits of sympathy these traditions were connected with. So popular
legend of the wizard and alchemist adept of plants and herbs does give an added dimensions to
his numerous writings on subjects as broad as philosophy and Tantra. His allusions to the
“amrita” or ambrosia or nectar, as it is translated, would then follow the deliberate semantic shift
that the Buddha himself established as a precedent in rejecting the caste system. This subtle shift
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from soma to amrita may also indicate a growing sense of sophistication in understanding what is
still today advanced neurochemistry. Indian medical systems connect the amrita, the “nectar of
immortality” with the third-eye and pineal gland. As other scholars have already connected the
amrita with the soma and Nagarjuna there is no need to repeat (Crowley 2005).What is important
is to note the link of philosophical and ontological orientation back through Esoteric Buddhism as
reformed Hinduism that was based on the soma-agnihotra-homa ritual and metallurgy.
Nagarjuna, like Cunda who served Buddha’s meal, was said to be an alchemist who knew
the secrets of the amrita and thus of immortality. Yet a further link is the legendary be-heading of
Nagarjuna from a bow of Kusa Grass in the popular folklore. As Kramrish again demonstrates in
the paper subtitled “The Secret of the Cut-Off Heads,” this symbolism is intimately connected
with the soma and Mahavira vessel, the descriptions of which match the pot or cup of elixir in
Nagarjuna’s hand in popular iconography (Wasson 1986). With the abounding connections of
esoteric teachings, symbolism, folklore and literal and symbolic allusions it is hard to ignore of all
of the evidence (Crowley 2005). There are many of these legendary adepts that define these
interrelated influences of immortality plants, such as the Tantric South Indian Siddhar Bogar or
Bhogar (3rd A.D.), born of goldsmiths, of whom it is said to have brought the siddha science into
China. He was said to have come from China and joined the Saivite lineage of the Nathas As
Needham’s research shows would there would have already had a thriving indigenous tradition
ready to receive it. Indeed, Bogar in some accounts is said to even have been Chinese himself,
as some also say of his guru K l ngi N thar. This lineage describes a system of healing and
attaining power from “kaya kalpa herbs”(literally “kaya=body kalpa=immortal”) in a poem that
With great care and patience I made the (kaya kalpa) tablet and then swallowed it:
Not waiting for fools and skeptics who would not appreciate its hidden meaning
and importance.
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Steadily I lived in the land of the parangis (foreigners) For twelve thousand years,
my fellow!
Given the social, political and religious climate of India, even well before the Buddha, it
would seem there was “the syndrome of the secret” (Urban 2003, 2005). This atmosphere of
secrecy in religious or occult practices is one of the very foundations of the power over lower
castes. To have knowledge of something, the name of a god or demon– to have its “true” name–
was to be able to control and bind it to one’s will. Who can fathom the secrecy necessitated by
internal strife and external “cult” strife, diminishing supply of the plant(s), regime changes, etc. all
the while operating on the cherished notion that the more discretion employed the better?
Written, and even oral, discourses were already suspect by the time of Buddha as witnessed in
his radical rejection of all “expert testimony” which indeed is the very foundation of all Hindu
Writers who focus on the more “occult” aspects of these traditions, such as some of the
accusations made against those linking Buddhism and entheogens, neglect the radical social
implications that would topple the whole social structure of Hinduism/India should it be fully
realized. This very fact alone renders these mystics subversives first and foremost. The men that
shunned society in ascetic autonomy merely reinforce and validate its existence by giving such
attention. Compound this “sharing the secret” of “ecstatic technology” with the masses, which
may have been the undoing of Socrates, and no wonder Buddhism withered in India. This hostility
may have shaped a gradually more militant resistance of warrior monks/initiatory brotherhoods
19
that may have been modeled on ancient metallurgical guilds (Giradot 1983).
The ancient world’s many mystery traditions and cults nearly all betray some ecstatic
technology be it in the form of a potion, magic or ritual endeavor. The practice of self-enclosure,
from Zalmoxis and Pythagoras to the Egyptian tomb ascetics in the cult of the dead, all employ
practices that could mimic DMT in the brain. The evidence can be found through out China and
India as well as quite a particular strain in the context of Indo-European religions from the already
mentioned Zalmoxis to the cave rites of Mithras (Eliade 1970;Ulansey 1991). The cave
revelations of the many prophets of Semitic extraction also would seem some to retain some
aspect of this “chthonic shamanism.” The lengths of time are astounding, ranging from three
days such as in the case of Christ, to 3 year intervals with Zalmoxis. Others extend up to a
quarter of a decade or more and Tibetan oral lore from the Lamas themselves record examples
of whole lifetimes spent in such dark meditations. The practice seems to have been a very
important practice in Chinese mysticism as enclosing oneself in dark caves, gourds, and grottos
is a constant topic in various literatures (Robinet 1993; Giradot 1983) This common heritage
seems to emerge with the metallurgical brotherhoods that came with various waves of Scythians
and Thracians. No doubt comfort and protection was sought in caves since prehistory, but the
evolution to a mystic practice may stem from observing animals that hibernate only to be reborn
after a symbolic death in winter, as many of the martial arts systems are said to have been
Suddenly the travels of the tea-soaked Bodhidharma might make more sense. Perhaps in
fleeing a hopeless and hostile political situation he went to the land of the Taoists of China, who
in their turn viewed teachings of the Buddha as stemming from a reincarnation of Lao-tzu who
went to the land of the “Barbarians” to teach the Way It is possible that the lack of or restriction
20
of soma or soma-substitutes may have prompted scores of Esoteric Buddhists to wander to the
land of the Immortals whose scriptures contained countless references to plants that matched the
descriptions of their amrita. While Bodhidharma, Damo as he is known in China, might seem the
quintessential no nonsense “monk” his lineage back to Nagarjuna cast him in a slightly more
esoteric shadow. His seclusion in a cave, for seven years no less, would then indicate some bold
“ego-death” ritual to behold pure mind in the incessant flow of pure cognition. The seven years
could indicate an actual increment or just an extended period though it should be noted seven
days in darkness will have a person at about 5-Me0-DMT. Indeed much of the bias in terms of
drugs stems from these gross-generalizations and over simplifications of these esoteric practices.
differences in effects of a mushroom verses a “potion”– then the discussion can relax enough to
consider the correlative reactions in the brain. This is not to render the entire, for lack of a better
drinking a hallucinogenic brew in being identical in chemical experience and structure to “sober”
Buddhist cave meditations opens the discussion as to the full possibilities kinetically present in
the tryptamines/amrita of the pineal gland/third eye. While Bodhidharma remains secluded
in his cave, the legendary associations as the founder of martial arts, especially the Pure
The Thunder
One critically insurmountable paradox will cloud any inquiry into these or any other
admittedly esoteric schools. This investigative double-bind will taint every conclusion with the real
possibility that the groups in question did possess a very real and practical knowledge that would
then be guarded and protected with the utmost religious fervor. The cult’s skillful dissimulation
and semiotic abstractions would nearly render any inferences hopelessly lost in a stream of blinds
21
and bluffs if not further marred by intentional and accidental mistranslations. It is literally amazing
that so much consistent imagery is still found littered and scattered across space and time
despite attempts by various states and religious institutions to obliterate them from the historical
record (as in the Taoist changing of their sacred mushroom from Amanita to the ling-chi
suggested by Wasson as discussed below). The “oral” nature of the teachings gives the
consistency an almost miraculous ability to survive intact in foreign cultures. This spiritual
sterilization, similar perhaps in scope to the Chinese cultural genocide of traditional medicine,
Tibet and the United Nation’s apathy, suffers from oblivion or worse: a disgusting appropriation
By the time Buddhism arrived in China Taoism, and other loosely associated mystical
encroaching legalism and the institutionalization of Taoism cast all heterodox plants, persons and
rituals in sympathy with a chaos (Hun-Tun) that by its very nature was against the orthodoxy
(Giradot 1983; Robinet 1993). The synergy of Taoism and Esoteric Buddhism/Hinduism may
have indeed shared a distinct cultural exchange from ancient times as witnessed in confluence of
practices and theories (White 1996). The gradual revealing of the core doctrines of esoteric
Buddhism continued through the elucidations of the various “Mahayana” schools that gained
popularity amongst the rural and the poor. The practices and teachings were not necessarily
created outside the line of Dharma transmission, as the other schools insist, but were rather a
refinement in the approach of dissemination. As the exoteric doctrines of all the faiths mostly
centered on morality and mediation, they differed little in the mundane contexts of the diverse
state traditions that, in turn, differ very little from Vedic injunctions to the Confucian ethics or
Buddhist precepts.
concessions to animist and “savage” indigenous cultures such as the Bon shamans of Tibet.
22
While there is no doubt an assured blend and assimilation from “gods” to “bodhisattvas” the
natures of the rituals seem similar enough to suggest a collective merging of technologies rather
than a hostile tactic of missionaries. The basically shamanic fire rites of the old Homa would find
a kindred spirit in native fire rituals that then seemed to have a special inclination for herbal
supplements. “Tantra” has an etymological root meaning “to expand” and it is in this context that
Mahayana esoteric philosophy was taken to its theoretical and practical conclusion. The resulting
hyper-path is a thunderous distillation of rapid and sudden enlightenment known variously as the
Vajrayana.
Buddhism which is then, in some way anyway, a purified Hinduism (Crowley 2005). The
relationship and associations with mushrooms and thunder are nearly universal in scope attesting
to the relationship with precipitation and fungal appearance. Soma was always associated with
Indra as the Soma Pavanana of the Rig Veda attests with verse 15 “Over the cleansing sieve
have flowed the Soma, blent with curdled milk, Effused for Indra Thunder-armed.” As Wasson’s
and others’ research shows, the mushroom is always connected with the thunderous
“suddenness” of both the storm and the subsequent seemingly instantaneous appearance of the
mushroom. This is quite a perfect metaphor for the sudden enlightenment, even if the
mushrooms did not expedite the situation with instantaneous stages of experience that
substitutions of “thunder plants” that recall the Soma/thunder connections to the Chinese “divine
mushroom of immortality” or ling chi. Wasson notes its alternative names is lei zhi or “thunder
mushroom” etc. in his groundbreaking chapter in Persephone’s Quest entitled Lightningbolt and
Mushrooms. This ling zhi would then transfer its immortal connotations to the reishi mushroom of
23
Japan. He records the Indian traditions of “thunder mushrooms”, and certain putka mushrooms,
of the genus Phallus which is clearly indicative of the shape of the hood. Interestingly enough, the
Tantric science of Vajrayana would then conceal multiple meanings as thunderbolt and
mushroom with the added sexual dimension of the word vajra which can also mean a penis
(Heinrich 2002).
As other scholars have treated of these sexual tantric matters to some extent, and with a
variety of success, the discussion would then turn to the accrued similarities that are then
becoming more and more defined as Mahayana and Vajrayana permeate China. All the while this
is mixing and blending esoteric discourses from the mountains of Mao Shan Temples to the
yantra shaped monasteries of Tibetan Lamas. Jin Dynasty era transmissions from Tibet, India
and Mongolia managed to maintain key concepts such as the retention of specific ritual formula
and symbolism to an astonishing degree of consistency, even or especially in the cases where
some “adepts” did not know the meaning of the Sanskrit letters. Later during the Tang Dynasty
Esoteric Buddhism reached a peak of influence with open dissemination of the esoteric Dharma
conducted, in some cases, under the auspices of the court. The Chinese Esoteric Buddhism best
known as the school of Sanlun also had a much more informal following of wanderers and
vagabond mystics that would probably purposely avoid both attention and arbitrary designations
let alone the dogmatic adherence of a school. Esoteric Buddhism is thought to have fizzled away
like an unattended Homa fire. While this may be the case– that I s just vanished due to lack of
interest– it is more likely and less often said that it may have just remained.
understand the immediacy of the possibility of Buddhahood in one’s lifetime. The Tibetan
rejection of establishments (Rdzogs-chen) and the maverick yogis (Rnying-ma) found a particular
attraction to the mad hermits of Taoism and shamans who were influenced and influencing the
stream of defecting Buddhists from India into the churning ontological ocean of China. Various
24
institutional and governmental restrictions seem to have limited the degree to which the full scope
of the Esoteric teachings could be safely revealed. Their influence in Tibet seems to logically
have allowed them more public breadth in terms of open teaching where as in China the climate
was not that conducive to such doctrines. The demise of Esoteric Buddhism in China can be
seen as a nationalistic reaction to the foreign influence of Buddhism, that was all the more
pronounced in occult sects with the retention of the Hindu pantheon and Sanskrit languages. The
Chinese ruling family would then support Taoism, “related” as they were to Lao Tzu, or even
Hinayana Buddhism as more moderate in theory, practice and expectations. As scholars note is
what is the melding of Confucian ethics with Buddhism during the Tang Dynasty that was
responsible for the more decisive “support.” The Tang dynasties influence faded with these
persecutions of 845.
Its perhaps strange to posit a radical, even militant, Buddhism but the history of martial
arts indeed stems, in legend, to Bodhidharma. The refinements in the Pure Land temples of
Shaolin, which contained esoteric practices ( Chinese: Mi Tsung, Japanese: Miyyko) and exoteric
martial arts, that further links fighting techniques with militant autonomy in popular Chinese lore.
Bodhidhrama’s alleged movements formed the basis for a martial art tradition that appears in
various forms all over Asia. One must consider the Indian tradition of Vajramushti which is a
brutal hand to hand art practiced by the warrior class, the Kshatriya, of which Bodhidharma
belonged as providing a context for his teachings. Tibetan warrior monks retain traditions of
Shakyamuni Buddha, a kshatriya or Warrior-Caste Hindu, trained in The Five Arts of the Warrior
Kshatriya's in style practiced day called Simhavikridatta (Lion's Skill) of the Vajramushti Diamond-
Thunderbolt Fist Martial Art which has survived and is practiced in the modern era (Goldstein
1964). Likewise, in Tamil there is the Kalarippayattu style of martial arts, which though perhaps of
a later date, certainly had more ancient precedents in the area. This semi-wildman/sage with
25
supreme martial arts and esoteric knowledge is a very common theme that links much of this lore
together such the Tibetan Guru Padmasambhava - The Lotus Born, "The Lion Roaring Guru"
who introduced Tantric Buddhism into Tibet circa 750 CE . These masters seem to be the model
for the holders of the Japanese Soma, the Yamabushi, who are associated with the Shugendo
which are a sect of the Shingon and are linked to the enigmatic En-no-Gyoja of the 7th century
AD, an ingenious and secretive synthesis of Shinto, Zen and Tantric Buddhism. They are know
as the tengu or crowman and later become associated with the shinobi or ninja.
The physical defenses and combinations of mudra and ritual techniques would then seem
to date back to Vedic India with the system known as Simhanada Vajramushti. Certainly a noble
tradition of Buddhist Warrior- monks (Ldab Ldob), with a complicated martial arts, exist in this
very precise system of Tantric Buddhism. They employ a similar cosmology, pantheon, ritual,
liturgical language (in many cases) as well as a long history of heated and violent internal
conflicts from remote castles. As modern scholars have demonstrated, there is a strong
possibility that Amanita mushrooms were used in the alchemical process in the Buddhist Tantric
traditions of Tibet which may then be in line with the Soma of India in a reformed Buddhist context
with the Tibetan martial system of “wild wisdom” with the mythological “Yeti” of the Himalayas. It
will prove extraordinarily relevant that there should be a martially adept “wild-demon creature”
associated with Tantric Buddhist Warrior-Monks, Amanita mushroom alchemy, and the furious
defense of their autonomy. I suggest that the Yeti, connected in the Tibetan martial arts with a
certain “style,” were these very same Buddhist monks, wild like their Indian founder
Padmasambhava, in the skins of wild animals roaming their territories like agitated demons. This
Indo- Tibetan-Chinese Martial Art then finds an esoteric counterpart in the so-called Bodhisattva
warriors of certain sects. Contrary to the unified picture of most publications on Tibetan
Buddhism, there is a very violent history between the different sects who have skirmished and
26
fought for power since their inceptions under the (translated) designations that are variously: the
yellow, the red and the black “hats.” Yet all these groups retain and share these very distinct
ritual systems.
At this point, I would pause to present yet a further dimension of the Amanita muscaria
mushroom, which was presented in a PBS documentary that hypothesized the use of the fungi in
the “Day of the Zulu” (Knight 2002). The victory against such odds has prompted scholars like
Knight and botanist Ben-Erik van Wyk of Rand Afrikaans University in Johannesburg, South
Africa to suggest psychoactive species at play in stimulating the warriors to battle. “Warriors who
consumed those mushrooms, researchers speculate, might have been utterly without fear,
believing themselves impervious to British bullets” (Knight 2002). The documentary followed the
presentation of this theory with two martial artists previously equally matched in combat who were
then each given a substance: one a placebo, one the preparation of the mushroom. The placebo
martial artists stuck to his trained form while his opponent, under the influence of the mushroom,
erupted with a ferocity that easily defeated his opponent. The results were startling in showing the
martial applications of the fungus, which now is not only ritual entheogen and medicine but also a
potentially deadly weapon in a fighter’s arsenal. Spess (2000) notes, “Indra, the man god who
drinks soma, becomes stimulated for battle after drinking soma (See Rig Veda
9.44.3;9:97.37;5.44.13) and it is possible that Amanita based lycanthropy is the instigation for
wolfmen in fairytales as well as of the marauding Beserkers. Ruck recent book revisits mushroom
lore and the Beserkers as well as other associations image lycanthropic mushroom use.
The Tantric ritual implements include the symbolic vajra or thunderbolt (Tibetan:dorje) and
bell with the dagger familiar in most magical ceremonies the world over. The cup or kalapa from
the Sanskrit is always best if from the upper cranial area, nearest the pineal gland, of a human
skull. That same militant Tibetan Padmasambhava is commonly depicted holding such a bowl
filled with the nectar of immortality in Tibetan art. The other curved “chopper” style knife is
27
suggested by most as a symbolic weapon that defends the Dharma and severs the bonds of
attachment. This is certainly correct on one level, but given the known homa/soma influences and
the sudden organization into near military fraternities this might indicate a deeper ritual meaning?
The curved dagger might then be a stylized pestle to the mortar of the skull in a more Tantric
updating of the soma/hoama (lit. “to pound” as in extracting the juice of the rehydrated
mushroom) of the shared Indo-European heritage. If the Tibetans were indeed using Amanita
then they would have possibly some how managed to retain the essence of the homa/soma
(homa is agnihotra, a fire ritual, and not to become confused with the haoma entheogen of the
Mazdeans and Zoroastrians though they are related) with the fire rite. The Tibetan offering of the
Zho-zan or shozen, which is a sweet dairy mixture, may function as the ritual offering of the soma,
which pounded would have been imbibed, perhaps, in such a liquid( Tulku 1987).
The 8th century of the common era was an important one for Tantric Vajrayana. Like a
sudden storm it rained forth an eruption of translations and doctrines, usually associated with
some semi-legendary wild-man, upon all of Asia. The similarities and consistencies in Tibet,
China and Japan attest to the supreme organizational skills, dissemination techniques, and
kinetic energy of the Tantric message. The complete sophistication of such an exact esoteric
doctrine speaks to the level of refinement of the exoteric Mahayana with its diamond in the rough
counterpart of Vajrayana. The ability of the Tantra to mesh with indigenous shamanism may have
been equal parts tactic and conscious willingness for technological appropriation and
assimilation. As writers such as Ott (insert date) and others maintain, the shamans were simple
the psychopharmacologists of the ancient tribal worlds. The Tantrikas then show extreme
discretion and intelligence for the local gods and customs as representative of the prevailing
animist landscape. As the plants were thought of as the gods themselves, the foods or abodes of
the gods or “their” offerings, the plants would then partake of theocentric relationships to the
particular area’s divinities. This would include Taoist personas in the Chinese material as well as
28
Whatever the specific routes of transmission, the full expression of Tantra in the
encountered society would depend on the state sentiment. The vast, chaotic and competing
landscape of China had three main versions of religions in Taoism, Confucian and Buddhism to
even permit, despite the brief period with the Tang, any real flowering of Esoteric Buddhism. The
nearly parallel unfolding in Japan and Tibet, again, suggest the coherent nature of the
transmission that maintained a core set of distinct features. The mentioned ritual connections are
as present in Japan as they are in Tibet with both beginning to display some new, yet similar,
dharma(duty) to his caste and family as rulers for the Buddha-Dharma, would have natural
implications on what amounts to it’s political stance. Its various guises, exoteric and esoteric, still
often retain a disdain for this world of mundane concerns. This anarchist sentiment can suddenly
turn utopian, nearly reminiscent of Plato’s Republic and the philosopher-king, with what amounts
to a golden “Buddhacratic” society. It was either the smiles of the “lord of the world”, or clever
missionary activity that suddenly transformed both Tibet and Japan into state-sanctioned,
however briefly, Esoteric Buddhist centers. The Japanese Kukai’s triumphant return led him to a
complete autonomy, secure in a mountain stronghold, in no more than two years time. The
subsequent campaigns and military struggles are too well known to need treatment. Suffice to
say that the violence may very will indicate the conclusions of rituals of empowerment in cultural
and political vacuum like Japan during this most bloody time. The Japanese Shingon sect(literally
“True word” from the Sanskrit “Mantrayana”) arrived to the island via the aristocratic Kukai. His
well known story has him besting all the Chinese natives in his understanding of the esoteric
His Chinese master, Hui-kuo, initiated him into the highest levels of the cult even passing
his “mantle of authority” shortly before his death. This secret teaching (Japanese Mikkyo) then
29
comes from India through China. The mentioned entheogenic connections with India, and
subsequently in Tibet, will also find the already touched upon “thunder” connections noted by
Wasson of China. The works of Taoist scholars as Giradot, Robinet, Saso and especially the
encyclopedic work of Joseph Needham, as stated, reveal literally hundreds of episodes and
anecdotes related to magic plants more often than not identified as mushrooms. The Tantrikas
pouring in from various directions could not have failed to notice the nearly exact terminology of
their native traditions with that of native cultures. It is folly to think these Esoteric Buddhists would
keeping of many of the traditions and schools treated. Ancient pharmacopeias (Chinese pen-
tsao) and Asiatic shamanic heritages literally guarantee a fertile substrate for mycological
alchemy to fruit. As Dr. Li (1978) writes of ancient Chinese ethnobotany “Plants with
hallucinogenic effects were recorded in the earliest herbals nearly two thousand years ago.” The
Light) had spread to China at an early date eventually getting banned as a secret society in 732
AD (Ruck 2001). They were, like the Buddhists, vegetarian and held strange occult rituals all
night in “vegetarian halls”(chai-tang) where they are reported to “dabble in magic and unseemly
rites and had the reputations for extraordinary shamans...” and as to the ban “but it continued
underground, often resurfacing with quasi-legal acceptance”(Ruck 2001). Like the Tantrics, they
were using entheogenic and sexual technology from a common Indo-European heritage of secret
societies and what nearly amount to fraternal military organizations. They were “repeatedly
associated with fomenting revolutionary unrest” and were called “vegetarian demon worshipers”
(ch’ih-ts’ai shihmo)
an allegation that could be and was leveled at the Tantrikas as well (Ruck 2001). They were
associated with“drug induced ecstacy” as the prophet Mani himself was often associated with
30
fungus. Wasson notes that the ling chi was “a small plant, not woody” that had become scarce
much to the dismay of the “necromancers.” Wasson suggests, with some persuasion, that their
was a conscious religious furor to replace the popular designation in art, poetry and iconography
to the “not woody” zhi, the soft (A. Muscaria) known to the Taoists through the shamanic Nivkhi,
with the very “woody” ling chi (Ganoderma lucida) in a brilliant ploy to secure the supply for the
elite. This would seem the fate of the mushroom from India to Japan as the Shingon tradition
made specific “connected” progress and was allowed to flourish under the sponsorship of a
powerful aristocracy.
No one would suggest that these highly secretive cults would out and out reveal the basis
of their power. Wasson takes the above example all the way to the Taoist veneration of the
mushroom in what he calls a “remarkable and successful ‘public relations ploy’” to secure their
supply. Even in a safe climate the esoteric nature of the highest truths would be heavily guarded
and protected. The city where Kukai landed, Chang-an, was a veritable cultural center of Asia. It
was know to have contained, in addition to the many Buddhist and Taoist temples, at least three
or more known foreign temples of which were definitely Manichaean, Zoroastrian and Nestorian
Christian. This hot-bed of cultural and religious transmission then has a rather potent
entheogenic foundation in the various cults, all of which display marked “ecstatic technologies” at
their core doctrines. Kukai’s critical catechism of Esoteric Buddhism even phrases the exoteric
oversights of other Buddhist sects in terms of a magical herb “on the roadside that passed
unnoticed.” He even makes a subtle allusion to plants and alchemical metallurgy combing the
metaphors as missed gems/plants in the ore or road in his various commentaries on the Lotus
Sutra. His works on the arguments of the Taoist suggest his rather deep knowledge of their
doctrines, especially the ones concerned with magic herbs, flying elixirs and fungus (Ryuichi
1999).
The theoretical dualism of Taoism and Manichaeaism would not satisfy the fervently
31
“unified vision” of Kukai. But some doctrines, such as the light of Mani and the Great Sun or
Mahavairocana (Japanese dainichi) would no doubt find a common solar accordance in the
concept of the Sun Buddha. This in turn would find a common theme in the Shinto Sun Goddess
Amaterasu who would eventually become the avatar of Dainichi Nyorai(Thathagata) or the Ryobu
Shinto, even further illustrating the cross-influences and the ease of which the symbolism is
transferred and re-expressed (Ryuichi 1999). It is no doubt this solar devotion, especially linked
with dawn and sunset agnihotra/homa/goma fire rituals, that binds these cults across the broader
Kukai, fresh off his discussion of the elixirs and fungi of the Taoists, then proceeds to
monk” (Abishido). The conversation with the Buddhist explains the attainment of the golden and
silver pavilions in the Buddhist tradition using the term for the “deathlessness” achieved with the
consistent offering of the “ambrosial nectars” linking them again with this Tantric tradition. Even
one of the most central mantras to Shingon, “Om amrita teje hara hum” is basically an invocation
to the revised soma/bliss discussed from the Vedic times through Nagarjuna and now into the
Japanese sects. The various Tantric rites of empowerment (kaji) and sacrifice together illustrate
Japan’s warrior monks(sohei), the Yamabushi (those who lay down in mountains), like their
Tantric Tibetan counterparts are associated with Esoteric Buddhism. Like the Tibetans who are
associated with the “yeti” the Yamabushi are clearly linked with the tengu “goblins” of Japan. The
mysterious synthesis of Taoism, Buddhism and Shinto of the Shugendo relates the synthetic nature
of the various occult groups of Japan. The relationship between the mountain ascetic Yamabushi is
well attested to in the wealth of legends in popular Japanese folklore dating from at least the 7
century th A.D.. The relationship may well be found in the bird-like masks and feathered fans
32
(hauchiwa) that might, with their wild antics, might given them a demonic if not terrifying appearance.
Explanations, like the those dealing with the yeti, would then indicate a conscious defense technique
of the monks to scare away unwanted intrusions into their Tantric utopia. It is rather a striking find to
have two Tantric Buddhist sects have such a marked commonality in these goblin-warrior monks with
inner-alchemical mystic teachings and fire rituals. Their “wild man” antics and military prowess recall
the above descriptions of Bodhidharma and Padmasambhava with the Yamabushi retiring in a similar
manner to caves for long cave meditations. The religious influences exerted on Japan include
indigenous shamanism, influxes of mystical traditions via China and Korea of Buddhism and the Tao,
both in the form of Shinto or with the hermit Senin who were like the magician/Taoists of China (fang-
shi) in their fabled powers. These cave dwellers generated their power (Ki) by consorting with the
spirits of the forest (kama). Wasson (1986), in Persephone's Quest, has a subchapter entitled The
Chinese and the Nivkhi who were a shamanic tribe said to be an "important cultural contact" with the
Taoists and of course, Amanita muscaria is their entheogen of choice, until recently under the influx
of modern culture.
This seclusion, in Japanese called komori, resonates with the sentiments expressed by
the Japanese authority Origuchi Shinobu. He writes “Sacred power is often manifested in
Japan...in a sealed vessel. In the darkness of this vessel it gestates and grows, until eventually it
bursts its covering and emerges into the world” (Blacker 1986). The similarity of this language is
found in the world over but with a special distinct flavor as found in the traditions of China as
discussed in the works of Giradot and Robinet. The former’s work on early Taoism elaborates the
extensive language of enclosing of a master in gourds for long periods, as does the works of
Needham and Eliade. In Japan this supernatural principle is known as utsubo, This association is
used to designate certain gourds and fruits as utsubo vessels. Blacker (1986) writes:
“Likewise the ascetic who wishes to acquire sacred power undergoes a gestation in the
nearest he can find to an utsubo vessel, a cave or darkened room. In this womb-like
33
stillness he undergoes his fasts and recites his words of power, emerging only to stand
under a waterfall.”
This descent in to the womb-world mandala or Taizokai is a supreme initiation into the
highest mysteries of Tantra in Shingon. It may even be that Yamabushi or kamigakushi actually
would kidnap unsuspecting youth and take them to their lairs for possible induction into the sects.
As Blacker records this is particularly a masculine phenomena which hold the consistent
elements: “magical flight to strange places, the weird sights the boy witnesses Elixir, Herb or
jewel that are occasionally bestowed upon him...” which lends a certain entheogenic charm to the
legends. These creatures are distinct from the yamaotoko, who descend upon women covered in
bark, skins, and leaves (Blacker 1986). The links of the Yamabushi, the tengu and Shingon or
Tendai Esoteric Buddhism are well known in scholarly and religious literature. The subtle hints of
the tengu as guardians of huge trees might prompt speculation as to their exact relationship with
all these groups that seamlessly incorporated ancient Shinto lore into their ever expanding literal
and metaphysical arsenal. Considering the overall associations with this Tantric Buddhism and
Hindu Soma to the Amanita muscaria mushroom then it is all the more telling that one of the
principle chemicals in the mushroom is ibotenic acid that takes its name from these same Tengu.
In fact, the entheogenic Amanita mushrooms are actually known under a variety of names in
Japan, the most common of which might be “beni-tengutake” literally “scarlet Tengu mushroom
(Ott 1996). The tengu, described as licentious, are always associated with mushrooms and are
said to get “drunk from eating mushrooms” (Strickmann 2002; Imazeki 1973).
The Tengu as guardians of the forest suddenly have a much more concise entheogenic
context. Their avowed link with the Shingon sect of Kukai and the Yamabushi strains of this
specific Thunder Tantra further establish concrete relationships with the scholarship of
mushrooms and Soma. I suggest that the esoteric Buddhists of Japan followed the switching of
the identity of the their precious Amanita muscaria, in the manner of the Taoists to protect its
34
identity, though instead of switching to ling-chi (Japanese Reishi) the species was Hericium
erinaceus or, as its still called in Japan, the Yamabushitake, a gourmet and medicinal mushroom
The fire rituals of the homa, called the saito-goma by the Yamabushi, retain utterly similar
symbolism. The texts of the Japanese Goma ceremony, such as translated by Saso, retains the
same language for the Soma oil in the fire offering illustrating that the even in the exoteric rituals
the soma is at least symbolically present (Snodgrass 1997). The examples in these different, yet
spiritually linked, cultures shed light on a dynamic mystical system that to various degrees came
to be expressed with the mentioned symbolism. These include the metallurgical, often martial,
fire-tenders who operated under a paradigm that was saturated with mushroom, herb, or plant
elixirs of bliss, immortality or both. The warrior-monks of both Tibet and Japan become clearly
linked with mushrooms and ascetic mountain practices as well as cryptozoological creatures that
are associated with wild mystics in popular legend. The tengu, again associated with particularly
with the Shingon sect of Kukai and the related Yamabushi, lend their name to the mushroom
which they are said to eat in a forest clearing in “convivial parties” to get drunk and carouse
(Imazeki 1973).
“Teetotalers
Must be afraid of it
The tengudake”
The straw-boss
Alchemy, with its symbolic language of fusing and transmuting, is the perfect system to
encode these specific esoteric teachings which seem to emerge everywhere there is an
35
alchemical tradition. When diffused through Indo-European sources, partial as they were for metal
weapons, sun, fire rituals and psychotropic substances, there are clear sacred associations that
are to unite in the “cosmic man/Buddha/Imam/Microcosm” depending on the group, sect or cult.
Indeed, the Sufi use the same language of alchemy and “the Way” which some have conjectured
was passed via a Sufi philosopher al-Simnani who founded the whadat al-shuhud or Unity of
Vision school (Needham 1983). The constant symbolism, first connected to fungal cults by
tradition, with the one leg aspect clearly representing the mushroom stem. The “one-eyed” look on
the bellows, symbolic in pranayama (which includes techniques of “bellow breathing”) might
partake of Shiva’s legends of closing off his exterior senses to open up his third eye, thus he is
“one-eyed,” to destroy kama or desire. Indian alchemical materia medica, or rasayana, lists
Amanita muscaria as Som Ras, as used in medicinal and rejuvenative therapies and it is found as
well in Tibetan medical texts that also clearly deal with both a physical and spiritual alchemy (Puri
2003.)
Ruck’s research in particular connects this ancient fungal/metallurgical cult with such
people as the "Telchines, magic metallurgists with a reputation for sorcery and drugs" who partake
of a very specific ancient and widespread tradition that reached from Ireland to furthest points of
Asia. The descriptions always remain strikingly consistent; as we will see with the Japanese
name for the Hyperboreans or, as a separate people, were the first intermediaries in the
transmission of the subterranean gold that was mined by the griffins, are a personification of one
of the attributes of Soma as the 'single eye'. These one-eyed creatures are a variant of another
attribute of Soma as the figure with a single foot, a characteristic of a supposed race of people
called the Shade-foots {...} just as his Titanic brother in the east, Prometheus, when presented as
36
a Shade-foot, impersonates the sacred plant as a 'parasol,' (see image 1) which is the Sanskrit
Perhaps, as Wasson suggested, the world is composed of cultures that embrace the
spored kingdom of fungi while others loathe and fear it. In any case, the Japanese culture has a
long history of decidedly mycophilic reverence for the mushrooms, some of which are the most
medicinal in the whole world. Their folklore and vast, descriptive nomenclature exhibit the
familiarity from the culinary delights of the kitchen to the apparent use as entheogens in temples
and mountains. The vast numbers of species include the gourmet and medicinal mushrooms for
which Japan continues to be famous for to the hallucinogenic varieties that pop up in Japanese
folklore. Incidentally, Wasson confessed he never approached the entheogenic heights with
Mexico. Though there is a story that a member of one of his parties, a Japanese fellow, became
“drunk” from the Amanita which might have indicated to Wasson a genetic predisposition to that
sensation.
The drinking of urine, an ancient medical therapy known in India as shivambu, was of
interest to many of these mystical groups which a key component in Wasson’s Amanita
deductions in the Vedic hymns which recount drinking urine, a practice also used in recycling the
“drug” amongst Siberian and American shamans. Crowley (2005) has also focused in on the
drinking of urine as indicative of the survival of these cults. Needham describes in great detail
Chinese fascination with urine in medical and alchemical rites, in the forming of a complex “proto-
endocrinology” and the associations of “urine with sexual activity” and longevity techniques as
Western culture as well. Of interest in his exposition of these intricate matters is mention of a
Japanese scroll from the 13th century entitled Mabutsu Ichinyo Ekotoba which illustrates the
famous Buddhist priest Ippen, founder of the Jishu sect, using nuns to distribute his urine from a
37
bamboo tube to “kneeling believers with that assurance that it would cure gastro-intestinal
ailments and blindness” (Image 2). As if on instinct, Joseph Needham retreats to footnotes to
voice subconscious hunches on this scroll and “cannot refrain from recalling here, in a kind of
arriere-pensee, the fact mentioned in Vol.5 {…} that certain psychotropic substances pass out in
the urine unchanged. But probably in this case the intent was purely medicinal.” In light of the
occurring in the scroll, a Japanese ritual taking of urine that echoes part of the key evidence on
Wasson’s identification of the Soma. He certainly was convinced of the continued legacy of
entheogenic mushroom use persisting into Taoism which merged and influenced Tantra proper
take to the o-warai-take, or warai-take, which is the “big laughing mushroom” mentioned in the
above poem. Wasson and Sanford both bring to light the curious episode of Buddhist nuns and
woodcutters who meet in the forest as the nuns, tellingly reminiscent of the various ascetics of
those lofty regions, descend from a remote mountain pass. The designation of their mushroom
may well indicate a possible misnomer as to species in the popular retelling with the designation of
the chemically inactive but culinary and medical favorite, the maitake or Grifolia frondosa. Ott, in
discussing the context of the account, relates that several contemporary Chinese sources to the
collection of the tales, the Konjaku Monogatari, describe a Hsiao-ch’un or “laughing mushroom.”
He describes this as “doubtless the Japanese psilocybin species” which is identified with the
(Ott 1996).
The woodcutters, as the story goes, are scared and hungry in the wild, goblin
38
infested mountain terrain when they decide to eat mushrooms at which point they dance and sing
around in intoxicated bliss (Sanford 1972). These Buddhists nuns, like the tengu and Yamabushi
are first thought demons or goblins (tengu) by the frightened woodcutters in a scene that seems to
blend a variety of traditions into one central myth that was later adopted into an official version of
stories. The old cult of female Shinto shamans, the miko, seem to have then blended with
Buddhist and ethnomycological lore to form this popular story that then might be seen to have a
deeper meaning, perhaps reflecting a strange relationship with the lay community of woodcutters
and craftsmen that support the shamans and temples. Shinto colors are red and white, like our
mushroom, and the architecture and even hats are often quite often mushroom shaped.
The Japanese word for mushroom, take, participates in colloquial association with
bamboo, that starts with “to grow” to “grow high”, “to attain full growth”, “to become furious”, “to
roar”, “to excel” etc. all of which become perfect symbols for the variety of uses and experiences
laughing mushroom, respectively. The Amanita seems to retain some of its “fly agaric” notions,
from is near universal use as a fly-catcher, with the names haitori(-goke), haitori-take due to its fly
Wasson was the first to link the “one-footed” and “one-eyed,” beings that haunt and
inhabit folklore from many sources from the Cyclops to the soma itself which is Aja Ekapad, in
Sanskrit literally “not-born single-foot,” to the mushroom. The mushroom is “not-born” in its
sudden and mature appearance, associated with the thunder or Vajra, and is “one-footed” with it’s
singular base or foot. The associations with metallurgy and “one-eyed” creatures is familiar from
the Cyclops that forged, of all things, “lightening-bolts” for Zeus in his war with the Titans. They
retain this metallurgical connection as then becoming the aids the metal-smith of the god
Hephaestus. Interestingly these Cyclops were three in number and named Brontes “thunder”,
39
Steropes, “lightening” and Arges “light” all of which are associated with mushroom lore. This clear
Indo-European tradition has precedents with the one-eyed Odin which probably spread from
Asiatic and Oriental sources related to the “all-seeing eye”that was brought by Thracian
blacksmiths who had a “sun” painted over their third-eye spot on the forehead.
The relationship with the bellows and fires of the blacksmiths would find sympathy in the
reverence for the flames. The added dimension of refining and/or transmuting ore to workable and
useable metal would have the obvious spiritual associations of alchemy. The associations of
smiths would have further connections in the weapons(practical and ritual);magical tools,
mandalas, yantra, statues, etc.; and the copper fire pits as are mostly used in the various homa
rituals. This passage from The Mahabharata, Anusanasana, Section CLXI will then return the
discussion directly to India with identifications of Shiva, both one and three-eyed, Soma, Agni and
many names of Rudra as also the high blessedness of that high-souled one. The Rishis
describe Mahadeva as Agni, and Sthanu, and Maheswara; as one-eyed, and three eyed,
Brahmanas conversant with the Vedas say that Shiva has two forms. One of these is
terrible, and the other mild and auspicious. Those two forms again, are subdivided into
many forms. That form which is fierce and terrible is regarded as identical with Agni
and Lightning and Surya (fire, lightning and sun). The other form which is mild and
again, it is said that half his body is fire and half is Soma (or the moon). That form of
his which is mild and auspicious is said to be engaged in the practice of the
Brahmacharya (Celibacy) vow. The other form of his which is supremely terrible is
Wasson and Ruck (1986) catalyzed the search for these specific associations which seem
to have spread via the tenacious nomadic wanderings of proto-Indo and Indo-European races that
then expended through India, Tibet and China. The connections with metallurgy and herbal magic
is known then from the dangerous Telechines to the one-eyed Arimaspeans which is, as Ruck
notes, just another designation for these bemushroomed travels “of beyond the northern winds,”
the Hyperboreans. This technologically advanced culture seems, based on recent archeological
finds, to have penetrated from Asia to Ireland perhaps bringing with it a mushroom cult rendered
all the more occult in its use of “alchemical metaphors” for working with fire and ore (Mallory and
Mair 2000). Herodotus records of a Scythian tribe that participated in some fantastic trade-route
that concluded with the a strange group of metal-smiths. These are the Arimapsi, literally one-
eyed, who are said to, interestingly, steal gold from “griffins” and are associated with wild “goat-
footed” Hyperboreans who march to the sea. Solar-birds of mythical and sometimes terrible
descriptions seemed to have some deep heritage in Persia. The Pahlavi text of the Bundahis,
which is based on archaic sources, mentions solar birds of creation as do Chinese sources with
the Luan, which have quite similar, multicolor descriptions. Giradot links this bird with the hun-tun
chaos correspondence also discussed by Needham and Granet as partaking in the theme of
“legendary rebels” who are always linked with “archaic religio-cultural traditions of metallurgy and
Metallurgy, like Tantra, then can be seen to function as weapons of immediacy to resist
cultural, political and dogmatic religious control. As Needham again discusses, the god-like ability
to work with metals would contrast to the proto-feudal lords that used such technologies as the
basis for their authority. The formation of these “religiopolitical guilds” would evolve into the
prototype of nearly every mystical fraternity or order since. (note: this was marked as to be omitted,
but I think it rather crucial in establishing the vibe of martial arts and the Tantric wars that both
groups fought. Its not commentary or speculation but rather a pivotal element of their movements
41
and doctrine. The logical designation of the sun as a solar bird that flies to light the sky coincides
with the agnithotra lighting of the homa pit at sunrise and sunset. The sun and metallurgical
Buddha or any other number of considerations of the “cosmic man” doctrine that is as essential to
Taoism as it is to Hermetics, Sufism or Esoteric Christianity. The Luan bird functions as a symbol
for life and passing in a variety of rather complex associations and symbols which Girardot notes
are rather strange. He concludes that the Luan bird is a metallugical “solar symbol for death”
which blends the mystical births and rebirths with a certain metaphorical potency. He also notes
that wild bird-men, possibly bringing this specific mushroom cult lore and metallurgical technology,
as foreigners were derided as “barbarian” and “not Chinese.” He further notes it is these
foreigners, possibly these same mentioned mycophilic smiths, brought with them the solar egg
“There are many traces of the Thunder-egg type of mythology here that directly
suggest the deluge and cosmic egg cycles of mythology linked with hun-tun theme
these in the development of the Taoist ideas of the “feathered immortal (hsien)
This digression returns to the Japanese mountains with bird-like mystics and
feathered-goblins with the Tantric Yamabushi and mushroom Tengu. This must be compared to
Japanese metallurgical technology is from a common tradition from the Asiatic mainland. While
many of the Chinese legends retain some of these key discussed concepts it is rather striking to
consider the depth of influence indelibly painted onto Japanese folklore that must have proceed
from this common tradition. Scholars trace many of the specific details from S. China but find
42
affinities from the Fukien regions to Cambodia and Korea. The legends of supernatural birds and
one-eyed monsters in Japan may find their filtered source in southern and central China with the
foot-bellows of the legendary one-legged ghost bird. The “one-eyed one-legged” connections
between these mushrooms and metallurgy may have some ones with the mentioned
considerations of the fungi as well as with the logical deductions of an eyepatch( one-eye) at the
forge with “one-foot” on the bellows. Needham notes that clearly these techniques of metallurgy
and mystical herbology, especially elixir alchemy traveled to Japan, but the lack of Japanese
alchemical gold traditions proper he explains stems from the situation that Japan was not as
interested in the idea of transmuting gold, as their own supply of real gold was sufficient
elements of Chinese alchemy and spagyrical arts, with the attendant legends of immortals deep in
the mountains, flying through the air, and abstaining from the cereal foods. Needham mentions the
“yamabushi” in this continuing connection of Taoist adepts and mountain monks who remarks are
ascetic and yet “almost Tantric valuation of sex which made it right for yamabushi to marry (often
shamanesses) and to be Shinto priests as well.” Needham recounts too many instances of
exchanged traditions of “potable gold” and prescriptions for things like Numinous mushrooms and
sweet flag to recount, with Chinese adepts showing up at Japanese courts paying tribute in
Japan has a specific cult of the one-eyed god of metalworkers with the “Deity of Heaven”
Ame-no-me-hitotsu-no-kami who persists into modern day folklore as the “one-eyed one-legged”
monster of the ironworking industry, Hitotsu-me-tatara. The god might have its origins in the
mentioned Chinese birds and its said to have made its debut in Japan as the ancestral god of
blacksmiths, Kanaeyako, who arrived on the back of a white bird. This arrival introduced a
heretofore unheard of rite in Japan that links the mentioned solar-death-metal links with the new
practice of setting a corpse in the fireplace while bellows are blown. Similar practices throughout
43
Asia with metallurgy attest to the vast and influential network that maintained such a consistency.
That Japan could maintain this cohesive symbolism in the obscure myths of smiths is an
testament to a long tradition of metallurgical arts. The confluence of data in concert yields too
many common factors to dismiss. Mystical and martial wild men haunting the forests in perpetual
meditation preserve fire rituals and plant designations across an astounding span of time and
space. The retention of languages, symbolism, techniques and technology proves the infectious
and powerful nature of the teachings that ingeniously adopted and transformed local shamanism
with a deliberate and sophisticated method. The Japanese Ainu and Shinto exhibit markedly
shamanic heritages, the latter’s colors are the familiar red and white of Amanita and soma, that
clearly merged seamlessly with most esoteric aspects of Tantric Buddhism that arrived in Japan. It
was this synthesis of various traditions that produces the finest example of the powerful and even
dangerous Buddhist-shaman-warriors known as the Yamabushi and Tengu who continue to this
The debates as to the identity of the sacred Soma will likely continue unabated as each
theory satisfies a certain criterion, often elegantly, only to fail to answer for some other
descriptions in the various scriptures. Like alchemy, or the Philosopher’s Stone itself, no single or
simple reduction presents itself as fulfilling all of the various specific details ranging from
descriptions or effects. Falk (1989) rather dismissively asserts of Wasson’s theory: “The only
the well-known Labasukta, RV 10.119. There it is said that some winged creature, after
consumption of Soma, touches sky and earth with its wings.” Geldner discusses the Soma in Indic
tradition as a ritual drink that is drunk and it is an intoxicant or hallucinogenic (madira’) (Geldner
1951; Watkins 1978) But even staunch critics of Wasson (Brough 1971) admited that partaking of
44
Soma can induce "an ecstatic stupor." This brings up a point made by Houben (2003), who
writes an interesting article on the various identification controversies, and his agreement
with Brough’s chief objection to Wasson which should be quoted in its entirety:
Siberia, Brough points out that there are repeated references to coma
induced by the fly-agaric. Those who consume the mushroom attain "an
"in a stupor from three sun-dried agarics" the hero of one of Wasson's
sources "is unable to respond to the call to arms. But time passes and the
urgency grows, and when the messengers press their appeal to throw off
his stupor he finally calls for his arms." Brough rightly observes: "Here, it
Wasson’s own response was of the nature that Brough was ignorant of chemistry
and of the use of wine as a sacrament, but space precludes a proper digression into
these debates. Falk’s (1989) conclusion in favor of ephedera as the soma also uses this
argument in ruling out Amanita muscaria for “Indra in his knightly combat.” But this
warrior. This paper is a humble attempt to instigate far more qualified experts to
45
investigate and decipher a definitive Soma symbolism linked with mushrooms that runs
and Tantra. Primary sources and the richly symbolic artwork of Tantric and alchemical
groups in the region will no doubt yield even more evidence of an enduring legacy that
Scan from a Japanese Tantric fire manual, showing a parasol mushroom. “Umbrella, the
most ancient and common metaphor in Sanskrit (for mushrooms) is 'umbrella', 'parasol':
chattra(ka), chattrika” (Morgenstierne 1957). Clearly this parasol is quite small and in the
.Acknowledgments:
Thanks to Victor Mair, Mike Crowley, Mark Hoffmann III, InYo, Somananada, and
Laura Hoinowski.
46
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