Linear Algebra, Spring 2013

Gerhard Gierz
Department of Mathematics, University of California,
Riverside
E-mail address: [email protected]
Contents
Preface v
Chapter 1. Groups, Rings, Fields and Vector Space 1
1. Groups 1
iii
Preface
These are the lecture notes for Math 131, Spring 2013. When you
are reading these notes, you might nd them very hard to read, because
it might be the rst time that you are reading abstract mathematics.
Here are a few guidelines:
(1) Read the lecture notes. Read every word! Draw pictures!
Read a book!
(2) Understood everything? Then go to step 5.
(3) Ask questions. You can ask friends, ask questions in discussion
or in oce hours.
(4) Go back to step 1.
(5) If you got to this point, do the homework. If you have prob-
lems, go back to step 1.
(6) Go to the next lecture, and then go back to step 1.
And remember: Math is hard! Very hard! No matter what the
geniuses tell you, all went through this. Even Euclid, Gauss, Cauchy,
Hilbert and the rest. So turn o the iPhone and get to it. TVs dont
help you either.
v
CHAPTER 1
Groups, Rings, Fields and Vector Space
1. Groups
Groups are used to nd an abstract frame work for many structures
in Mathematics. They encompass the relevant properties that deal with
addition, multiplication, compositions of maps, and others:
Definition 1. Let A be a set. A binary operation on A is a
function : A A A. We abbreviate
(r. ) = r
There are many examples of binary operation. For example, addi-
tion + is a binary operation + : + + + dened by
+(:. :) = : + :
Other binary operations on + are : + + + dened by
(r. ) = r
and : + + + given by
(r. ) = r
Another example comes from composition of maps. If A is any set,
then we let
1 = , : , : A A is a function
In this case, a binary operation on 1 is dened by composition of
functions:
(,. q) = , q
where of course
(, q) (r) = , (q (r))
Definition 2. A group (G. ) is a set G together with a binary
operation : GG G so that the following three laws are valid:
(A) For all r. . . G we have r ( .) = (r ) . (Associative
Law)
(N) There is an element c G so that for all r G we have c r =
r c = r (Existence of a neutral element)
1
2 1. GROUPS, RINGS, FIELDS AND VECTOR SPACE
(I) For each r G there is an element G so that r = r = c
(Existence of Inverses)
A group that also satises
(C) For all r. G we have r = r (Commutative Law)
is called an abelian group or sometimes a commutative group.
Example 1. The integers 2 form an abelian group under addi-
tion. Indeed, the associative law was taught to everybody in elementary
school. Also, in this case c = 0, since 0 + r = r + 0 = r for all
r. so (N) holds. Further, if r A is given, we let = (r) . Then
(r) +r = r+(r) = 0. and hence (I) is valid. The commutative law
was also taught to us in elementary school.
Example 2. Let be an equilateral triangle with vertices c. /. c.
We let G be the set of all symmetries of . Here, a symmetry is a
mapping t : c. /. c c. /. c so that edges are mapped to edges. So
in particular, every symmetry is a bijection from c. /. c to c. /. c.
We can easily identify some of the symmetries: There are either rota-
tions of the triangle, or they keep one of the vertices xed and swap the
other two ("ips", draw a picture! draw a picture! and again, draw a
picture!).
We can rotate the triangle either by 0
o
. by 120
0
or by 240
0
. And we can
swap / and c and keep c xed, or we can swap c and c and keep / xed,
or swap c and / and keep c xed.
Those are 6 dierent possibilities. Since there are only 3! = 6 dierent
possibility to map the vertices c. /. c on c. /. c . those are all ways
to nd a symmetry of .
We now produce a list of all those maps. If t is a symmetry, then we
write
t =

c / c
t (c) t (/) t (c)

So if t (c) = /. t (/) = c and t (c) = c. then we write this as

c / c
/ c c

We then have the following 6 symmetries:

c / c
c / c

(rotation by 0
o
)
j
120
=

c / c
/ c c

(rotation by 120
o
)
j
240
=

c / c
c c /

(rotation by 240
o
)
1. GROUPS 3
, =

c / c
/ c c

c / c
c / c

c / c
c c /

All of those are mappings, so we can compose them as mappings. For

=
, j
120
=

c / c
c c /

=
In this way, we arrive at a group. The neutral element c is given by
j
0
. since j
0
changes none of the vertices of the triangles. Inverses can
be are given as follows:
Inverse of j
0
= j
0
Inverse of j
120
= j
240
Inverse of j
240
= j
120
Inverse of , = ,
Inverse of =
Inverse of =
The whole group can be represented by a "group table":
j
0
j
120
j
240
,
j
0
j
120
j
240
, = ,

= j
120
So in the row labeled by and in the column label by j
120
we put the
element j
120
. Similarly, in the row labeld by , and the column labeled
4 1. GROUPS, RINGS, FIELDS AND VECTOR SPACE
by we put , , and so on. This leads to
j
0
j
120
j
240
,
j
0
j
0
j
120
j
240
,
j
120
j
120
j
240
j
0

j
240
j
240
j
0
j
120
, , j
0
j
0
j
0
It is a homework assignment to complete this table.