OA Guide to Map & Compass - Part 1

part of

The Backpacker's Field Manual by Rick Curtis

published by Random House 1998
Buy it now at Amazon.com

This material is taken from Chapter 6 - Wilderness Travel from The Backpackers Field Manual by Rick Curtis. For more details on this exciting book check out The Backpacker's Field Manual Page.
This material is provided by the author for educational use only and is not a substitute for specific training or experience. Princeton University and the author assume no liability for any individual's use of or reliance upon any material contained or referenced herein. When going into outdoors it is your responsibility to have the proper knowledge, experience, and equipment to travel safely. This material may not be reproduced in any form for commercial or Internet publication without express written permission of the author. Copyright 1999, all rights reserved, Random House Publishing & Rick Curtis, Outdoor Action Program, Princeton University.

Table of Contents
Maps & Map Reading Using the Compass Using Map and Compass Using Map and Compass Together Wilderness Navigation Real Life Scenarios Other Tools Traveling anywhere in the wilderness means determining where you want to go. Maps and guidebooks are the fundamental tools both for trip planning see (Chapter 1 - Trip Planning) and while you are out on the trail.

Maps & Map Reading

A map is a two-dimensional representation of the three-dimensional world you'll be hiking in. All maps will have some basic features in common and map reading is all about learning to understand their particular "language." You'll end up using a variety of maps to plan and run your trip but perhaps the most useful map is a topographic map. A topographic map uses markings such as contour lines (see page 00) to simulate the three-dimensional topography of the land on a two-dimensional map. In the U.S. these maps are usually U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) maps. Other maps that you'll find helpful are be local trail maps which often have more accurate and up-to-date information on specific trails than USGS maps do. Here's a brief overview of the basic language of maps.

Latitude and Longitude:

Maps are drawn based on latitude and longitude lines. Latitude lines run east and west and measure the distance in degrees north or south from the equator (0 latitude). Longitude lines run north and south intersecting at the geographic poles. Longitude lines measure the distance in degrees east and west from the prime meridian that runs through Greenwich, England. The grid created by latitude and longitude lines allows us to calculate an exact point using these lines as X axis and Y axis coordinates. Both latitude and longitude are measured in degrees ().

1 = 60 minutes 1 minute = 60 seconds Therefore: 7 minutes = 1/8 of 60 minutes = 1/8 of a degree 15 minutes = of 60 minutes = of a degree

Scale:
All maps will list their scales in the margin or legend. A scale of 1:250,000 (be it inches, feet, or meters) means that 1 unit on the map is the equivalent of 250,000 units in the real world. So 1 inch measured on the map would be the equivalent of 250,000 inches in the real world. Most USGS maps are either 1:24,000, also known as 7 minute maps, or 1:62,500, known as 15 minute maps (the USGS is no longer issuing 15 minute maps although the maps will remain in print for some time). Standard topographic maps are usually published in 7.5-minute quadrangles. The map location is given by the latitude and longitude of the southeast (lower right) corner of the quadrangle. The date of the map is shown in the column following the map name; a second date indicates the latest revision. Photo-revised maps have not been field checked. Map Size 7 minute Scale 1:24,000
1

Covers /8 of a degree

Map to Landscape 1 inch = 2,000 feet (3/8 mile) 2.64 inches = 1 mile 1 inch = ~1 mile

Metric (1 centimeter = 240 meters)

15 minute

1:62,500

of a degree

(1 centimeter = 625 meters)

Map Symbols and Colors:

1. USGS topographic maps use the following symbols and colors to designate different features (see Figure 6.2) Black - man-made features such as roads, buildings, etc. Blue - water, lakes, rivers, streams, etc. Brown - contour lines (see page 00) Green - areas with substantial vegetation (could be forest, scrub, etc.) White - areas with little or no vegetation; white is also used to depict permanent sn owfields and glaciers Red - major highways; boundaries of public land areas Purple - features added to the map since the original survey. These features are based on aerial photographs but have not been checked on land.

Courtesy US Geological Survey

Courtesy US Geological Survey

Map Legend
The map legend contains a number of important details. The figures below display a standard USGS map legend. In addition, a USGS map includes latitude and longitude as well as the names of the adjacent maps (depicted on the top, bottom, left side, right side and the four corners of the map). The major features on the map legend are show in Figure 6.3 and labeled below. 1. Map Name 2. Year of Production and Revision 3. General Location in State 4. Next Adjacent Quadrangle Map 5. Map Scale 6. Distance Scale 7. Contour Interval 8. Magnetic Declination 9. Latitude and Longitude

Contour Lines
Contour lines are a method of depicting the 3-dimensional character of the terrain on a 2-dimensional map. Just like isobars in the atmosphere depict lines of equal atmospheric pressure, contour lines drawn on the map represent equal points of height above sea level. Look at the three-dimensional drawing of the mountain below. Imagine that it is an island at low tide. Draw a line all around the island at the low tide level. Three hours later, as the tide has risen, draw another line at the water level and again three hours later. You will have created three contour lines each with a different height above sea level. As you see in Figure 6.4, the three dimensional shape of the mountain is mapped by calculating lines of equal elevation all around the mountain, and then transferring these lines onto the map. On multi-colored maps, contour lines are generally represented in brown. The map legend will indicate the contour intervalthe distance in feet (meters, etc.) between each contour line. There will be heavier contour lines every 4th> or 5th contour line that are labeled with the height above sea level . Figure 6.5 illustrates how a variety of surface features can be identified from contour lines.

3D View of Mountain showing how contours relate to height

Top View of Mountain showing contours

Drawn Contour Lines Steep slopes - contours are closely spaced Gentle slopes - contours are less closely spaced Valleys - contours form a V-shape pointing up the hill - these V's are always an indication of a drainage path which could also be a stream or river. Ridges - contours form a V-shape pointing down the hill

Summits - contours forming circles Depressions - are indicated by circular contour with lines radiating to the center

Measuring Distances
There are a number of ways to measure distance accurately on a map. One is to use a piece of string or flexible wire to trace the intended route. After tracing out your route, pull the str ing straight and measure it against the scale line in the map legend. Another method is to use a compass (the mathematical kind) set to a narrow distance on the map scale like mile and then "walk off" your route. It is a good idea to be conservative and add 5-10% of the total distance to take into account things like switchbacks that don't appear on the map. It's better to anticipate a longer route than a shorter one. > Continue to Part 2 >

OA Guide to Map & Compass - Part 2

part of

The Backpacker's Field Manual by Rick Curtis

published by Random House 1998
Buy it now at Amazon.com

This material is taken from Chapter 6 - Wilderness Travel from The Backpackers Field Manual by Rick Curtis. For more details on this exciting book check out The Backpacker's Field Manual Page.
This material is provided by the author for educational use only and is not a substitute for specific training or experience. Princeton University and the author assume no liability for any individual's use of or reliance upon any material contained or referenced herein. When going into outdoors it is your responsibility to have the proper knowledge, experience, and equipment to travel safely. This material may not be reproduced in any form for commercial or Internet publication without express written permission of the author. Copyright 1999, all rights reserved, Random House Publishing & Rick Curtis, Outdoor Action Program, Princeton University.

Using the Compass

The compass consists of a magnetized metal needle that floats on a pivot point. The needle orients to the magnetic field lines of the earth. The basic orienteering compass is composed of the following parts: (See Figure 6.6) Base plate Straight edge and ruler Direction of travel arrow Compass housing with 360 degree markings North label Index line Orienting arrow Magnetic needle (north end is red)

What is North?
No, this is not a silly question, there are two types of north. True North: (also known as Geographic North or Map North - marked as H on a topographic map - see Figure 6.8) is the geographic north pole where all longitude lines meet. All maps are laid out with true north directly at the top. Unfortunately for the wilderness traveler, true north is not at the same point on the earth as the magnetic north Pole which is where your compass points. Magnetic North: Think of the earth as a giant magnet (it is actually). The shape of the earth's magnetic field is roughly the same shape as the field of a bar magnet. However, the earth's magnetic field is inclined at about 11 from the axis of rotation of the earth, so this means that the earth's magnetic pole doesn't correspond to the Geographic North Pole and because the earth's core is molten, the magnetic field is always shifting slightly. The red end of your compass needle is magnetized and wherever you are, the earth's magnetic field causes the needle to rotate until it lies in the same dire ction as the earth's magnetic field. This is magnetic north (marked as MN on a topographic map). Figure 6.7 shows the magnetic lines for the United States (as of 1985). If you locate yourself at any point in the U.S., your compass will orient itself parallel to the lines of magnetic force in that area.

Declination
You can see that location makes a great deal of difference in where the compass points. The angular difference between true north and magnetic north is known as the declination and is marked in degrees on your map as shown in Figure 6.7. Depending on where you are, the angle between true north and magnetic north is different. In the U.S., the angle of declination varies from about 20 degrees west in Maine to about 21 degrees east in Washington. (See Figure 6.7). The magnetic field lines of the earth are constantly changing, moving slowly westward (to 1 degree every five years). This is why it is important to have a recent map. An old map will show a declination that is no longer accurate, and all your calculations using that declination angle will be incorrect. As you will see, understanding this distinction becomes important when navigating with a map and a compass. Tricks of the Trail Buy Your Compass for the Right Area: As well as the magnetic deviation east or west, compasses also show a vertical "dip" up and down. This dip varies in different parts of the world and compasses are specially calibrated for that dip. So you can't take a compass made for North America and use it in South America and get accurate readings.

Which North to Use

So we have two types of north to contend with. When you look at your map, it is drawn in relation to true north;, when you look at your compass, it points to magnetic north. T to make the map and compass work together you must decide on one North as your point of reference and base all your calculations on that. As you can see the following chart, failure to take declination into account can put you way off target. Declination or Degrees Off Course 1 5 Error Off Target after Walking 10 Miles

920 feet (280meters) 4,600 feet (1,402 meters)

10

9,170 feet (2,795 meters)

Using Map and Compass

Even after years of using a map and compass I could never remember how to correct for declination. Do I add declination or subtract it? What if I'm out west versus in the east? While navigating through dense fog on a sea kayaking trip, I finally came up with an easy way to remember. As long as you remember the basic principles, you can easily work it out in your head.

What's your Map Declination?

The first thing you need to know is where you are in relation to magnetic north. You can find this information by looking on your map legend. If you look at the map of North America in Figure 6.8 you will see the line roughly marking 0 declination. If you are on the line where the declination is 0 degrees, then you don't have to worry about any of this, since magnetic north and map north are equivalent. (Wouldn't it be nice if all your trips were on the 0 degree of declination line?) If you are to the right of that line, your compass will point toward the line (to the left) and hence the declination is to the west. If you are to the left of the line, your compass will point toward the line (to the right) and hence the declination is to the east.

Bearings:
The compass is used primarily to take bearings. A bearing is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from north (either magnetic north or true north) to some point (either a point on a map or a point in the real world) (see Figure 6.8). Bearings are used to accurately travel to a destination or to locate your position. If you are working from your map, it is called a map bearing and the angle you are measuring is the angle measured clockwise from true north on your map to this other point on the map. If you are taking a bearing off a real point on the landscape with a compass, you are using your compass to measure the angle clockwise from magnetic north to this point on the landscape. This is called a magnetic bearing. Remember that the bearing is measured clockwise. If you think of true north as 12 o'clock then a bearing to the right of that (1 o'clock) is greater than true north and a bearing to the left of True north (11 o'clock) is less than true north.

Map Bearings & Magnetic Bearings:

If, you think about your map as an artist's rendition of the world. It displays true north, but it doesn't include magnetic fields as the real world does, so you need to make accommodations when going from your map to the real world. The real world doesn't have a true northit's merely a construct of the mapso you have to make accommodations when going from the real world to your map.. The basic principle is this: to correct for

declination, you want the map bearing and the magnetic bearing to be equivalent. If you are lucky enough to be on the line where the declination is 0, both are already equivalent, or if you orient your map with your compass (see page 00) then you have made the two equivalent. Otherwise, you will need to make your own bearing corrections by adding or subtracting the declination amount. That gives us 4 possible permutations to work with: 1. 2. 3. 4. West Declination - Going from a Map Bearing to a Magnetic Bearing West Declination - Going from a Magnetic Bearing to a Map Bearing East Declination - Going from a Map Bearing to a Magnetic Bearing East Declination - Going from a Magnetic Bearing to a Map Bearing

West Declination:
If your declination is west, then magnetic north is less than true north and the map bearing is less than (<) the magnetic bearing . You need to make the two bearings equivalent by adding or subtracting the declination. This is illustrated in Table 6.2 and Figure 6.8b. Map Bearing to Magnetic Bearing: If you are taking a bearing from one point on your map to another point on the map with respect to true north, then you are working with the map bearing. Now you want to figure out where your position is in the magnetic bearing. In order to transfer this information back to your magnetic bearing you need to add the declination to your map bearing bearing to create the proper magnetic bearing. Map bearing + Declination = Magnetic Bearing. Magnetic Bearing to Map Bearing: If you use your compass to take a bearing from your current position to a point on the landscape, then you are working with the magnetic bearing. Now you want to figure out where your position is on the map. In order to transfer this information back to your map you need to subtract the declination from your magnetic bearing compass bearing to create the proper map bearing. Magnetic Bearing - Declination = Map Bearing.

East Declination:
If your declination is East then magnetic north is greater than true north the map bearing is greater than the magnetic bearing. You need to make the two worlds equivalent by adding or subtracting the declination. This is illustrated in Table 6.2 and Figure 6.8a. Map Bearing to Magnetic Bearing: If you are taking a bearing from one point on your map to another point on the map with respect to true north, then you are working with the map bearing. Now you want to figure out where your position is in the magnetic bearing. In order to transfer this information back to your magnetic bearing you need to subtract the declination from your map bearing compass bearing to create the proper magnetic bearing bearing. Map bearing - Declination = Magnetic Bearing. Magnetic Bearing to Map Bearing: If you use your compass to take a bearing from your current position to a point on the landscape, then you are working with the magnetic bearing. Now you want to

figure out where your position is on the map. In order to transfer this information back to your map you need to add the declination from your magnetic bearing compass bearing to create the proper map bearing. Magnetic bearing + Declination = Map Bearing.

If the declination is... West

Then...

Map Bearing to Magnetic Bearing

Magnetic Bearing to Map Bearing

Magnetic North < True North Map Bearing is < the Magnetic Bearing Magnetic North > True North Map Bearing is > the Magnetic Bearing

Map Bearing + Declination = Magnetic Bearing. Map Bearing Declination = Magnetic Bearing.

Magnetic Bearing Declination = Map Bearing. Magnetic Bearing + Declination = Map Bearing.

East

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This material is provided by the author for educational use only and is not a substitute for specific training or experience. Princeton University and the author assume no liability for any individual's use of or reliance upon any material contained or referenced herein. When going into outdoors it is your responsibility to have the proper knowledge, experience, and equipment to travel safely. This material may not be reproduced in any form for commercial or Internet publication without express written permission of the author. Copyright 1999, all rights reserved, Random House Publishing & Rick Curtis, Outdoor Action Program, Princeton University.