Unit 2

Problem solving: State space search and control strategies
Introduction
Problem solving State space Difference between AI and traditional search method Methods of problem solving:
General purpose method Special purpose method
General problem solving

Methods of modeling of problems: Production system State space search How to achieve the goal ? Control strategies
Production system
Helps AI programs to do search process more
conveniently in state space problems.
It Consists of: start state and final state Knowledge representation schemes Production rules on the left side(current state) that
determines the applicability of the rule and the right side(new state) describes the action to be performed if the rule is applied. Control strategies
Example of water jug problem and formulate the production rules to solve the problem.
Problem statement: 2 jugs- 5 gallon and 3 gallon
with no measuring mark on them. There is endless supply of water through tap. Our task is to get 4 g of water in 5 g jug.
Solution
State space for this problem can be described as the
set of ordered pair of integers(X,Y) such that X represents the no. of gallons of water in 5 g and Y for 3 g jug.
Start state is (0,0)
Goal state is (4,N) for any value N3.
Possible operations:
Fill 5 g jug from the tap and empty the 5 g jug by
throwing water down the drain Fill 3 g jug from the tap and empty the 3 g jug by throwing water down the drain. Pour some or 3 g water jug from 5 g jug into the 3 g jug to make it full. Pour some or full 3 jug water into the 5 g jug.
Production rules for water jug problem.
Solution path -1
State space search

Using this search, one can find path from start state
to goal state Consists of four components A set S containing start states of the problem. A set G containing goal states of the problem. Set of nodes. Set of arc connecting the nodes
Problem Formulation
11
A Problem Space consists of

The current state of the world (initial state)
A description of the actions we can take to
transform one state of the world into another (operators). to the goal state.
A solution consists of the goal state, or a path
Missionaries and cannibals problem

Problem statement: Three missionaries and three
cannibals are on the left bank of a river.

There is one boat which can hold one or two people. Find a way to get everyone to the right bank, without
ever leaving a group of missionaries in one place outnumbered by cannibals in that place.
Possible Operators
2M0C 1M1C 0M2C 1M0C 0M1C
Solution
State space for this problem can be described as set
of ordered pair of left and right banks of the river as (L,R) where each bank is represented as a list [nM, mC, B] n= no. of missionaries M m= no. of cannibals C B= boat
Solution
Start state: ([3M, 3 C, 1B], [0M, 0C, 0B])or
[331:000] 1B means boat is present and 0B means boat is absent. Goal state : ([0M, 0 C, 0B], [3M, 3C, 1B]) 0r [000:331]
Missionaries and Cannibals

(331): Initial State(000)
16

A missionary and cannibal cross
17

(220:111)
18

One missionary returns
19

(321:010)
20

Two cannibals cross
21

(300:031)
22

A cannibal returns
23

(311:020)
24

Two missionaries cross
25

(110:221)
26

A missionary and cannibal return
27

(221:110)
28

Two Missionaries cross
29

(020:311)
30

A cannibal returns
31

(031:300)
32

Two cannibals cross
33

(010:321)
34

A cannibal returns
35

(021:310)
36

The last two cannibals cross
37

(000) : Goal State(331)
38

Solution = the sequence of actions within the path : [ (3,3,1) (2,2,0)(3,2,1) (3,0,0) (3,1,1)
(1,1,0) (2,2,1) (0,2,0) (0,3,1) (0,1,0) (0,2,1) (0,0,0)]; Cost
= 11 crossings
39
Solution
Start state: ([3M, 3 C, 1B], [0M, 0C, 0B]) 1B means boat is present and 0B means boat is
absent. Any state : ([n1M, m1C,_],[n2M, m2C_]) with constraints and conditions at any state as n1(0)m1; n2(0)m2; n1+n2=3, m1+m2=3; Boat can be either side. Goal state : ([0M, 0 C, 0B], [3M, 3C, 1B])
Production rules
Solution path
Problem Formulation of 8 puzzle problem

It has 3*3 grid with 8 random no.s (1 to 8) tiles
arranged on it with empty cell. At any point, the adjacent tile can move to the empty cell, creating a new empty cell. We have to arrange the tiles such that we get the goal state from the start state.
Partial search tree for Eight puzzle problem
Problem Formulation 8-Puzzle Problem

46
1 4 7
2 8 6
1 4
2 5 8
3 6
Initial state
Goal state
Operators: slide blank up, slide blank down, slide blank left, slide blank right
1 4 7 2 8 6 5 3 1 4 7 2 8 6 3 5 1 4 7 2 8 3 5 6 1 4 7 8 2 3 5 6 1 4 7 2 5 8 6 3 1 4 7 2 5 8 3 6
Solution: sb-down, sb-left, sb-up,sb-right, sb-down Path cost: 5 steps to reach the goal
Control Strategies
There are two direction in which a search can
proceed:
Data driven search i.e. forward chaining(8 puzzle) Goal driven search i.e. backward chaining(NIM game
playing)
Characteristics of the problem

Type of problem: Ignorable(Proving Mathematical theorems) Recoverable (Water jug, Single player games) Irrecoverable(Chess, snake and ladder , Two player games) Decomposability of the problem(Integration)
Role of knowledge(Rules , facts)

Consistency of a problem Requirement of solution
ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE SOLUTION ANY PATH AND BEST PATH PROBLEM
Basic search algorithms

Uninformed( Blind) search/Exhaustive
searches: breadth-first, depth-first, depth limited, iterative deepening, and bidirectional search
Informed (Heuristic) search: search is guided
by an evaluation function: Branch and Bound, Hill climbing,Greedy best-first, A*, IDA*, and beam search Constraint satisfaction
Blind search
Types of Blind search :

Breadth first search Depth first search Depth first iterative deepening(DFID) Bidirectional search
Breadth first search

Expands all the states one step away from the first
state, expands two steps away from the start state and so on. Until a goal state is reached. Implemented using two steps
OPEN list- those states that are to be expanded CLOSED lists- those states that are already expanded.
Breadth First Search

52
Application1: Given the following state space (tree search), give the sequence of visited nodes when using BFS (assume that the nodeO is the goal state):
A
B F G
C H I
D J N

53
A,
A B C D E

54

A, B,
A B F G C D E

55
A, B,C
A B F G C H D E

56
A, B,C,D
A B F G C H I D J E

57
A, B,C,D,E
A B F G C H I D J E

58
A, B,C,D,E, F,
A B F G C H I D J E

59
A, B,C,D,E, F,G
A B F G C H I D J E

60
A, B,C,D,E, F,G,H
A B F G C H I D J E

61
A, B,C,D,E, F,G,H,I
A B F G C H I D J E

62
A, B,C,D,E, F,G,H,I,J,
A B F G C H I D J N E

63
A, B,C,D,E, F,G,H,I,J, K,
B F G C
A D H I J N E

64
A, B,C,D,E, F,G,H,I,J, K,L

B F G C
A D H I J N E

65
A, B,C,D,E, F,G,H,I,J, K,L, M,

B F G C
A D H I J N E

66
A, B,C,D,E, F,G,H,I,J, K,L, M,N,

B F G C
A D H I J N E

67
A, B,C,D,E, F,G,H,I,J, K,L, M,N, Goal state: O

B F G C
A D H I J N E

68
The returned solution is the sequence of operators in the path: A, B, G, L, O

Water Jug problem using BFS
What Criteria are used to Compare different search techniques ? 70

Completeness: Is the technique guaranteed to find an answer (if
there is one).
Optimality :Highest quality solution when there are several
solution for the problem
Time Complexity: How long does it take to find a solution.
Space Complexity: How much memory does it take to find a solution.
Time and space complexity are measured in terms of:

The (maximum) branching factor b is defined as the maximum nodes created when a new node is expanded. The length of a path to a goal is the depth d. The maximum length of any path in the state space m.
Breadth First Search (BFS)

71
Complete? Yes. Optimal? Yes(unit cost) Time Complexity: O(bd) Space Complexity: O(bd)
Algorithm
Input: START and GOAL states Local variables: OPEN, CLOSED, STATE-X, SUCCs, FOUND; OUTPUT: Yes Or No Method: Initalize OPEN list with START and CLOSED=; FOUND= false; While(OPEN and FOUND= false) do { Remove the first state from OPEN and call it STATE-X; Put STATE-X in the front of closed list{maintained as stack}; If STATE-X=GOAL then FOUND= true else { Perform EXPAND operation on STATE-X, producing a list of SUCCs; Remove the successors from those states, if any that are in the CLOSED list; Append SUCCs at the end of OPEN list; /*queue*/ } } /* end of while*/ If FOUND= true then return Yes else return No Stop
Depth First Search (DFS)

73

74
Application2: Given the following state space (tree search), give the sequence of visited nodes when using DFS (assume that the nodeO is the goal state):
A
B F G
C H I
D J N
Depth First Search

75
A,
A B C D E
Depth First Search

76
A,B,
A B F G C D E
Depth First Search

77
A,B,F,
A B F G C D E
Depth First Search

78
A,B,F, G,
A B F G C D E
Depth First Search

79
A,B,F, G,K,
A B F G C D E
Depth First Search

80

A,B,F, G,K, L,
A B F G C D E
Depth First Search

81
A,B,F, G,K, L, O: Goal State

A B F G C D E
Depth First Search

82

A B F G C D E

83
Main idea: Expand node at the deepest level (breaking ties left to right).
Complete? No (Yes on finite trees, with no loops). Optimal? No Time Complexity: O(bd), where d is the maximum depth. Space Complexity: O(d), where d is the maximum depth.
Depth First Iterative Deepening Search (DFID)
DFID combines the benefits of BFS and DFS: Like DFS the memory requirements are very modest (O(d)). Like BFS, it is complete when the branching factor is finite.
In general, iterative deepening is the preferred uninformed search method when there is a large search space and the depth of the solution is not known.
Depth First Iterative Deepening Search 85

Given the following state space (tree search), give the sequence of visited nodes when using IDS:
Limit = 0 Limit = 1 Limit = 2
Limit = 3
Limit = 4
Depth First Iterative Deepening Search

DLS WITH BOUND = 0
A,
Limit = 0

88
A, Failure
Limit = 0

DLS WITH BOUND = 1
A,
A Limit = 1 B C D E

91
A,B,
A Limit = 1 B C D E

92

A,B, C,
A
Limit = 1

93

A,B, C, D,
A
Limit = 1

94

A,B C, D, E,
B C
A D E
Limit = 1

95

A,B, C, D, E, Failure
B C
A D E
Limit = 1

96
A,
A B Limit = 2 C D E

97
A,B,
A B Limit = 2 F G C D E

98
A,B,F,
A B Limit = 2 F G C D E

99

A,B,F, G,
A B C G D E
Limit = 2

100

A,B,F, G, C,
A B C G H D E
Limit = 2

101

A,B,F, G, C,H,
A B C G H D E
Limit = 2

102

A,B,F, G, C,H, D,
B C G
A D H I J E
Limit = 2

103

A,B,F, G, C,H, D,I

B C G
A D H I J E
Limit = 2

104

A,B,F, G, C,H, D,I J,

B C G
A D H I J E
Limit = 2

105

A,B,F, G, C,H, D,I J, E

F
A B G C H I D J E
Limit = 2

106

A,B,F, G, C,H, D,I J, E, Failure

F
A B G C H I D J N E
Limit = 2

DLS WITH BOUND = 3

108
A,
A B C D E
Limit = 3

109
A,B,
A B F G C D E
Limit = 3

110
A,B,F,
A B F G C D E
Limit = 3

111

A,B,F, G,
A B F G C D E
Limit = 3

112

A,B,F, G,K,
A B F G C D E
Limit = 3

113

A,B,F, G,K, L,
A B F G C D E
Limit = 3

114

A,B,F, G,K, L, C,
B F G C
A D H E
Limit = 3
Search
115
A,B,F, G,K, L, C,H,

B F G C
A D H E
Limit = 3

116

A,B,F, G,K, L, C,H, D,

B F G C
A D H I J E
Limit = 3

117

A,B,F, G,K, L, C,H, D,I,

B F G C
A D H I J E
Limit = 3

118

A,B,F, G,K, L, C,H, D,I,M,

B F G C
A D H I J E
Limit = 3

A,B,F, G,K, L, C,H, D,I,M, J,

F
A B G C H I D J N E
Limit = 3

120

A,B,F, G,K, L, C,H, D,I,M, J,N,

F
A B G C H I D J N E
Limit = 3
Depth First Iterative Deepening 121 Search

A,B,F, G,K, L, C,H, D,I,M, J,N, E,

F
A B G C H I D J N E
Limit = 3

122

A,B,F, G,K, L, C,H, D,I,M, J,N, E,Failure

F
A B G C H I D J N E
Limit = 3

DLS WITH BOUND = 4

124
A,
A B C D E
Limit = 4

125
A,B,
A B F G C D E
Limit = 4

126
A,B,F,
A B F G C D E
Limit = 4

127

A,B,F, G,
A B F G C D E
Limit = 4

128

A,B,F, G,K,
A B F G C D E
Limit = 4

129

A,B,F, G,K, L,
A B F G C D E
Limit = 4

130

A,B,F, G,K, L, O: Goal State

A B F G C D E
Limit = 4

131

A B F G C D E

Advantage: It gives the best solution by combining BFS and DFS. Disadvantage: It performs wasted computation before reaching the
goal depth
Bi-directional Search (BDS)

133
Main idea: Start searching from
both the initial state and the goal state, meet in the middle.
Complete? Yes Optimal? Yes Time Complexity: O(bd/2), where
d is the depth of the solution. Space Complexity: O(bd/2), where d is the depth of the solution.
Bi-directional Search (BDS)

ADVANTAGES The merit of bidirectional search is its speed. Sum of the time taken by two searches (forward and backward) is much less than the O(bd) complexity. It requires less memory. DISADVANTAGES Implementation of bidirectional search algorithm is difficult because additional logic must be included to decide which search tree to extend at each step. One should have known the goal state in advance. The algorithm must be too efficient to find the intersection of the two search trees.
Basic Search Algorithms

COMPARISON OF SEARCH ALGORITHMS
Comparison of search algorithms

136
b: Branching factor d: Depth of solution m: Maximum depth l : Depth Limit
Travelling Salesman Problem

Above mentioned searches are blind and are not
much use in real life applications. We need to have some intelligent searches which take into account some relevant problem info an finds solution faster.
Statement: In TSP ,one required to find the
shortest route of visiting all the cities once and return back to starting point. Assume that there are n cities and distance between each pair of cities is given.
It would require (n-1) ! paths to be examined. If the number of cities grows then the time require
would be large enough.This phenomena is called combinatorial explosion.

This consist of: A)Start generating complete paths ,keeping track of the shortest path found so far. B) Stop exploring any path as soon as its partial length becomes greater than the shortest path length found so far.

Table shows possible paths generated using modified
approach.
Continue till all the paths have been explored .In this
case 4! =24 possible paths .

Therefore ,some kind of heuristic(thumb rule) may
be thought of applying .So we need some intelligent methods which can make use of problem knowledge and improves search time.
Informed/Heuristic Search Strategies
Heuristic Search Strategies

Heuristic technique is a criterion for determining
which among several alternatives will be the most effective to achieve some goal.
This technique improves the efficiency of search
process . It no longer guarantees to find the best solution but almost always finds a very good solution.
Heuristic Search Strategies

Branch and Bound(Uniform cost search) Hill climbing Beam search Greedy best-first A* IDA*
Basic Search Algorithms Uninformed Search

BRANCH AND BOUND/UNIFORM COST SEARCH (UCS)
Branch and Bound(Uniform cost search)

In Branch and bound search method ,cost function
g(X) is designed that assigns expense to the path from start node to the current node X by applying sequence of operators.
While generating a search space ,least cost path
obtained so far is expanded at each iteration till we reach to goal state.
Uniform Cost Search (UCS)

5 [5] 2 [2]
147
1
[6]
Goal state
4
[9] [3] 4 [7]
7
[9] 5 [8]
[x] = g(n) path cost of node n

5 [5] 2 [2]
148

5 [5] 2 [2]
149
1
[3]
7
[9]

5 [5] 2 [2]
150
1
[3] 4 [7] 5
7
[9]
[8]

5 [5] 2 [2]
151
1
[6] [9]
4
[3] 4 [7]
7
[9] 5 [8]
Uniform Cost 152 Search (UCS)
2 [2]
Goal state 1 path cost g(n)=[6]
[5]
4
[9] [3] 4 [7]
7
[9] 5 [8]

5 [5] 2 [2]
153
1
[6] [9]
4
[3] 4 [7]
7
[9] 5 [8]
Uniform Cost Search (UCS) 154
Since the shortest path is always choosen for extension,the path first reaching the goal is certain to be optimal but not guaranteed to find the solution quickly. In branch and bound method ,If g(X)=1 for all operators. Then it degenerates to simple breadth first search.
Hill Climbing
156
Hill climbing search algorithm (also known as greedy local search) uses a loop that continually moves in the direction of increasing/decreasing values (that is uphill/downhill).
It teminates when it reaches a peak where no neighbor has a higher/lower value.
Hill Climbing
157
evaluation
states
Hill Climbing in Action

158
Cost
States
Hill Climbing
159
Current Solution
Hill Climbing
Current Solution
160
Hill Climbing
Current Solution
161
Hill Climbing
Current Solution
162
Hill Climbing
Best
163
Local Minimum
Global Minimum
Problems with Hill climbing

The search process may reach to a position that is
not a solution but from where no move improves a solution. This will happen if we have reached :
local maximum
a) Local maximum b) Plateau c) Ridge
plateau
ridge

A) Local maximum: It is a state that is better than
all the neighbors but not better than some other states which are far away.

B) Plateau: It is a flat area of the search space where all the neighbors state has the same value .Its not possible to determine best direction.

B) Ridge: A
ridge is a long thin region of high land with low land on either side. When looking in one of the four direction finding the right direction might be very tricky as one can fall in either direction.
Beam search
NARROWING THE WIDTH OF THE BREADTH-FIRST SEARCH
BEAM SEARCH
In beam search is a heuristic search algorithm that
explores a graph by expanding the most promising node in a limited set. tree. At each level of the tree, it generates all successors of the states at the current level, sorting them in increasing order of heuristic cost. The greater the beam width, the fewer states are pruned. With an infinite beam width, no states are pruned and beam search is identical to breadth-first search.
Beam search uses breadth-first search to build its search
Beam search (1):

Depth 1)
10.4
S
8.9
Assume a pre-fixed WIDTH
(example : 2 )
Perform breadth-first, BUT: Only keep the WIDTH best
new nodes
depending on heuristic
at each new level.
Depth 2)
A
6.7
S S
D D A
10.4
8.9
6.9
X ignore
X ignore
Beam search (2):

Depth 3)
A
4.0
S D
X
OptimiB
B
C _ E
6.9
6.7
end
X ignore
3.0
Depth 4)
A B
X
S D D A
X 10.4
zation: ignore leafs that are not goal nodes (see C)
C _
B
A C _
F
G
0.0
Local Beam Search

Cost
172
States
Local Beam Search
173
Local Beam Search
174
Local Beam Search
175
Local Beam Search
176
Local Beam Search
177
Local Beam Search
178
Local Beam Search
179
Local Beam Search
180
Local Beam Search
181
Local Beam Search
182
Local Beam Search
183
Local Beam Search
184
Local Beam Search
185
Local Beam Search
186
Local Beam Search
187
Best First search/Greedy search

Best first search is based on expanding the best
partial path from current node to the goal node .

It should be noted that in hill climbing ,sorting is
done on the successors nodes, whereas in best first search ,sorting is done on the entire list.
It is not guaranteed to find an optimal solution, but
generally it finds some solution faster than solution obtained from any other method.
Greedy Search/Best first search

189
A
C E D G
Start B
State A
Heuristic: h(n) 366
B
C D E F
374
329 244 253 178
G
H I H I Goal
193
98 0
f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance heuristic
Greedy Search/Best first search

190
A
C E D G
Start B
State A
Heuristic: h(n) 366
B
C D E F
374
329 244 253 178
G
H I H I Goal
193
98 0
Greedy Search
191
A
C E D G
Start B
State A
Heuristic: h(n) 366
B
C D E F
374
329 244 253 178
G
H I H I Goal
193
98 0
Greedy Search
192
A
C E D G
Start B
State A
Heuristic: h(n) 366
B
C D E F
374
329 244 253 178
G
H I H I Goal
193
98 0
Greedy Search
193
A
C E D G
Start B
State A
Heuristic: h(n) 366
B
C D E F
374
329 244 253 178
G
H I H I Goal
193
98 0
Greedy Search
194
A
C E D G
Start B
State A
Heuristic: h(n) 366
B
C D E F
374
329 244 253 178
G
H I H I Goal
193
98 0
Greedy Search
195
A
C E D G
Start B
State A
Heuristic: h(n) 366
B
C D E F
374
329 244 253 178
G
H I H I Goal
193
98 0
Greedy Search
196
A
C E D G
Start B
State A
Heuristic: h(n) 366
B
C D E F
374
329 244 253 178
G
H I H I Goal
193
98 0
Greedy Search
197
A
C E D G
Start B
State A
Heuristic: h(n) 366
B
C D E F
374
329 244 253 178
G
H I H I Goal
193
98 0
Greedy Search
198
A
C E D G
Start B
State A
Heuristic: h(n) 366
B
C D E F
374
329 244 253 178
G
H I H I Goal
193
98 0
Greedy Search: Tree Search

199
A
[329] C [253] E
Start [374] B

200
A
[329] C [253] E
Start [374] B
[193]
[178]

201
A
[329] C
Start [374] B
140 [253] E
[193]
[178]
I
Goal
[0]

202
118
[329] C 80
Start A 75 140 [253] E [374] B 99 F [178] 211
[193]
I
Path cost(A-E-F-I) = 253 + 178 + 0 = 431 dist(A-E-F-I) = 140 + 99 + 211 = 450 Goal
[0]
Greedy Search: Optimal ?

203
118
C 111 D 80 G 97 H 101 I
Start A 75 140 E 99 F B
State A
Heuristic: h(n) 366
B
C D E F
374
329 244 253 178
G
211 H I Goal
193
98 0
f(n) = h (n) = straight-line distance heuristic dist(A-E-G-H-I) =140+80+97+101=418
Greedy Search: Complete ?

204
118
C 111 D 80 G 97 H 101 I
Start A 75 140 E 99 F B
State A
Heuristic: h(n) 366
B
** C D E F
374
250 244 253 178
G
211 H I Goal
193
98 0

205
118
[250] C
Start A 75 140 [253] E [374] B

206
118
[250] 111 [244] D C
Start A 75 140 [253] E [374] B

207
118
[250] 111 [244] D Infinite Branch ! [250] C C
Start A 75 140 [253] E [374] B

208
118
Start A 75 140 [253] E [374] B
[244] D

209
118
Start A 75 140 [253] E [374] B
[244] D
Greedy Search: Time and Space Complexity ?

210
118
C 111 D 80 G 97 H 101 I
Start A 75 140 E 99 F B
Greedy search is not optimal.

Greedy search is incomplete without systematic checking of repeated states. In the worst case, the Time and Space Complexity of Greedy Search are both O(bm)
Where b is the branching factor and m the maximum path length
211
Goal
Informed Search Strategies
A* SEARCH
E VA L - F N : F ( N ) = G ( N ) + H ( N )
A* (A Star)
212
Greedy Search minimizes a heuristic h(n) which is an
estimated cost from a node n to the goal state. However, although greedy search can considerably cut the search time (efficient), it is neither optimal nor complete.
Uniform Cost Search minimizes the cost g(n) from the
initial state to n. UCS is optimal and complete but not efficient.

New Strategy: Combine Greedy Search and UCS to get an
efficient algorithm which is complete and optimal.
A* (A Star)
213
A* uses a heuristic function which combines g(n)
and h(n): f(n) = g(n) + h(n)

g(n) is the exact cost of node to node . h(n) is an estimation of the remaining cost to reach
the goal.
A* Search
214
118
C 111 D 80 G 97 H 101 I
Start A 75 140 E 99 F B
State A
Heuristic: h(n) 366
B
C D E F
374
329 244 253 178
G
211 H I Goal
193
98 0
f(n) = g(n) + h (n)
g(n): is the exact cost to reach node n from the initial state.
A* Search: Tree Search

215
Start

216
Start
118
[118+329=447] C
140
E
75
B [75+374=449]
[140+253=393]

217
Start
118
[447] C
140
E 80 [393] 99
75
B [449]
[140+80+193=413]
[140+99+178=417]

218
Start
118
[447] C
140
E 80 [393] 99
75
B [449]
[413]
G
97
[417]
[140+80+97+98=415]

219
Start
118
[447] C
140
E 80 [393] 99
75
B [449]
[413]
G
97
[417]
[415]
101
Goal I [140+80+97+101+0=418]

220
Start
118
[447] C
140
E 80 [393] 99
75
B [449]
[413]
G
97
[417]
[415]
[450]
101
Goal I [418]

221
Start
118
[447] C
140
E 80 [393] 99
75
B [449]
[413]
G
97
[417]
[415]
[450]
101
Goal I [418]

222
Start
118
[447] C
140
E 80 [393] 99
75
B [449]
[413]
G
97
[417]
[415]
[450]
101
Goal I [418]
A* Search
Let us consider an example of eight puzzle and solve by A* algo: The function f(x) =h(x)+g(x),where
h(x)=the number of tiles not in the goal position in given state.

g(x)=depth of node X in the search tree.
3 5 4 7 1 6 2 2 8 5 7 4 1 3 6 2 8
Initial state
Goal state
7 1
6 2 8
f=(0+4)
5 4
u
3 7 6
2 1 8
l
3 5 7 1 4
(1+5)
6 2 8
r
3 5 4 7 1 8 6 2
(1+3) (2+3)
3 5 4 7 1
5 4
(1+5)
u
6 2 8
(2+3)
3 7 5 4 1
l
6 2 8 3 5 4
r
7 2 1
(2+4)
6
l (3+2)
3 5 4 7 1 6 2 8
r
3 5 4
(3+4)
6 7 1 5 7 4 1 2 8 3 6 2 8
d
5 3 7 4 1
(4+1)
6 2 8
Goal state
224
Informed Search Strategies

ITERATIVE DEEPENING A*
Iterative Deepening A*:IDA*

226
IDA* is a combination of DFID+A* algorithm Each iteration is depth-first with cutoff on the value
of f of expanded nodes

Iterative deepening A* or IDA* is similar to iterative-
deepening depth-first, but with the following modifications:

The depth bound modified to be an f-limit
1. Start with limit = h(start)

2. Prune any node if f(node) > f-limit 3. Next f-limit=minimum cost of any node pruned

228
First iteration (Threshold=5)
1+5=6 X
1+7=8
XX
1+3=4
1+8=9 XX

229
4 XX
XX
XX

230
8 XX
4 8 XX
GOAL
XX
Optimal solution by A*
UNDERESTIMATION OVERESTIMATION ADMISSIBILITY MONOTONIC FUNCTION
UNDERESTIMATION/OVERESTIMATION
If we can guarantee that h never overestimates actual
value from current to goal ,then A* algorithm ensures to find an optimal path to a goal, if one exist.
We find worse solution by overestimating and it
doesnt guarantee the shortest path
A* algorithm
When h(n) = actual cost to goal Only nodes in the correct path are expanded Optimal solution is found When h(n) < actual cost to goal Additional nodes are expanded Optimal solution is found When h(n) > actual cost to goal Optimal solution can be overlooked
ADMISSIBILITY
A search algorithm is admissible ,if for any grah ,it
always terminates in an optimal path from start state to goal state We have seen earlier that if heuristic function h underestimates the actual value from the current state to goal state ,then it bounds to give an optimal solution . So,we can say that A* always terminates with the optimal path in case h is an admissible heuristic function.
Monotonic function
A heuristic function h is monotone if
1.For all states Xi and Xj such that Xj is successor of Xi h(Xi)-h(Xj)=<cost(Xi,Xj) i.e. actual cost of going from Xi to Xj. 2. h(Goal)=0
Conclusions
236
Frustration with uninformed search led to the idea of
using domain specific knowledge in a search so that one can intelligently explore only the relevant part of the search space that has a good chance of containing the goal state. These new techniques are called informed (heuristic) search strategies.
Even though heuristics improve the performance of
informed search algorithms, they are still time consuming especially for large size instances.
Constraint Satisfaction Problems (CSPs)

Constraint
satisfaction problems (CSPs) are mathematical problems defined as a set of objects whose state must satisfy a number of constraints or limitations. CSPs often exhibit high complexity, requiring a combination of heuristics and combinatorial search methods to be solved in a reasonable time.
Examples of simple problems that can be modelled as a constraint
satisfaction problem

Eight queens puzzle Map colouring problem Sudoku, Futoshiki, Kakuro (Cross Sums), Numbrix, Hidato and many other logic puzzles
Varieties of constraints
Unary constraints involve a single variable, e.g., SA green Binary constraints involve pairs of variables, e.g., SA WA Higher-order constraints involve 3 or more
variables,
e.g., cryptarithmetic column constraints
Example: Map-Coloring
Variables WA, NT, Q, NSW, V, SA, T Domains Di = {red, green, blue}
Constraints: adjacent regions must have different colors e.g., WA NT
Example: Map-Coloring
Solutions are complete and consistent assignments, e.g.,

WA = red, NT = green, Q = red, NSW = green, V = red, SA = blue, T = green
A state may be incomplete e.g., just WA=red
Constraint satisfaction problem

A CSP is defined by a set of variables a domain of possible values for each variable a set of constraints between variables
Example: Cryptarithmetic
242
Variables: F T U W
R O X 1 X2 X3 Domains: {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} Constraints: Alldiff (F,T,U,W,R,O)
O + O = R + 10 X1 X1 + W + W = U + 10 X2 X2 + T + T = O + 10 X3 X3 = F, T 0, F 0
Real-world CSPs
243
Assignment problems e.g., who teaches what class
Timetabling problems e.g., which class is offered when and where?

Transportation scheduling Factory scheduling Notice that many real-world problems involve real-valued
variables

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Problem solving: State space search and control strategies

General purpose method Special purpose method

General problem solving

conveniently in state space problems.

Production rules for water jug problem.

State space search

A Problem Space consists of

A description of the actions we can take to

A solution consists of the goal state, or a path

Missionaries and cannibals problem

cannibals are on the left bank of a river.

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Missionaries and Cannibals

Problem Formulation of 8 puzzle problem

Partial search tree for Eight puzzle problem

Problem Formulation 8-Puzzle Problem

Characteristics of the problem

Role of knowledge(Rules , facts)

Basic search algorithms

Informed (Heuristic) search: search is guided

Breadth first search

Breadth First Search

Breadth First Search

Breadth First Search

Breadth First Search

Breadth First Search

Breadth First Search

Breadth First Search

Breadth First Search

Breadth First Search

Breadth First Search

Breadth First Search

Breadth First Search

Breadth First Search

A, B,C,D,E, F,G,H,I,J, K,L

Breadth First Search