International Migration Law and Policies

IIHL, International Institute of Humanitarian Law
International Migration Law and Policies: Responding to Migration Challenges in Western and Northern Africa Droit et politiques des migrations internationales: Rponses aux dfis de la migration en Afrique de lOuest et du Nord
Round Table/ Table Ronde
8-9 December/dcembre 2009 Dakar
Ministero dellInterno
This publication was made possible through the financial support provided by the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Italian Ministry of Interior. It includes the written contributions as well as unofficial translations from the transcripts of the Round Table which took place in Dakar, Senegal, 8-9 December 2009. The opinions expressed in the report are those of the respective authors only. The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever of any party involved concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries. IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society. As an intergovernmental organization, IOM acts with its partners in the international community to: assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration; advance understanding of migration issues; encourage social and economic development though migration; and uphold the human rights and well-being of migrants. The International Institute of Humanitarian Law is an independent, non-profit humanitarian organization founded in 1970. Its headquarters are situated in Sanremo (Italy). The main purpose of the Institute is to promote international humanitarian law, human rights, refugee law, migration law and related issues.
International Organization for Migration 17 route des Morillons, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland Phone : +41.22.717.91.11 ; Fax : +41.22.798.61.50 E-mail : [email protected] ; Website : http://www.iom.int International Institute of Humanitarian Law Villa Ormond, C.so Cavallotti 113, 18038 Sanremo, Italy Phone: +39.0184.541848; Fax: +39.0184.541600 E-mail: [email protected]; Website : http://www.iihl.org ______________ ISBN - 978-92-9068-578-4 2010, International Organization for Migration (IOM) 2010, International Institute of Humanitarian Law (IIHL) ______________ All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owners.
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International Institute of Humanitarian Law (IIHL) Istituto Internazionale di Diritto Umanitario (IIDU) Institut International de Droit Humanitaire (IIDH)
International Migration Law and Policies: Responding to Migration Challenges in Western and Northern Africa Droit et politiques des migrations internationales: Rponses aux dfis de la migration en Afrique de lOuest et du Nord
Round Table/ Table Ronde
8-9 December/dcembre 2009 Dakar
Ministero dellInterno
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS....................................................................... 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................ 7 INTRODUCTION................................................................................... 9

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION LAW AND POLICIES: RESPONDING TO MIGRATION CHALLENGES IN WESTERN AND NORTHERN AFRICA
THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK......................................... 21 MIGRATION FLOWS: NEW CHALLENGES............................................. 31

GESTION DE LA MIGRATION EN AFRIQUE DE LOUEST : ENJEUX POLITIQUES ET DEFIS OPERATIONNELS .....................................33 MIGRATION IN NORTHERN AFRICA: KEY CHALLENGES............................41 LA MIGRATION ET LE CHANGEMENT CLIMATIQUE ................................47
RESPONDING TO ROOT CAUSES......................................................... 55

MIGRATION CIRCULAIRE ENTRE LES PAYS DORIGINE ET DE DESTINATION......................................................................................57
MIGRANTS IN TRANSIT...................................................................... 63
ROLE DE LA SOCIETE CIVILE DURANT LA PHASE DE TRANSIT..................65 MIGRATION BY SEA AND RESCUE AT SEA. ................................................71
RECEPTION OF MIGRANTS................................................................. 77
MIGRANTS IN DETENTION.......................................................................79 LAMPEDUSA; THE RECEPTION.................................................................83
RETURN............................................................................................. 87
THE EU RETURN DIRECTIVE ...................................................................89 GUIDANCE NOTE ON IOM RETURN POLICY, WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO THE DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL ON COMMON STANDARDS AND PROCEDURES IN MEMBER STATES FOR RETURNING ILLEGALLY STAYING THIRD-COUNTRY NATIONALS...................................95
TRAFFICKING AND SMUGGLING......................................................... 99

HUMAN RIGHTS OF SMUGGLED MIGRANTS .......................................101 TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS - LAW, MISCONCEPTIONS AND FACTS.............................................................................................111 LES DROITS DE LHOMME DES MIGRANTS IRREGULIERS.......................133
REGIONAL COOPERATION................................................................ 143

ECOWAS : CHALLENGES OF FREE MOVEMENT REGIMES......................145 MIGRATION ET DEVELOPPEMENT ........................................................151
ANNEXES......................................................................................... 153
AGENDA.................................................................................................155 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS / LISTE DES PARTICIPANTS.................................161
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Mr. Richard Perruchoud Director of the International Migration Law and Legal Affairs Department, International Organization for Migration, Geneva, Switzerland
Mr. Maurizio Moreno Ambassador, President of the International Institute of Humanitarian Law, San Remo, Italy Mr. Giuseppe Calvetta Ambassador of Italy in Senegal Mr. Demba Kandji Directeur des Affaires Criminelles et des Grces, Ministre de la Justice, Sngal Mr. Abye Makonnen Regional Representative, IOM, Mission with Regional functions, Dakar, Senegal Mr. Peter Schatzer Regional Representative, IOM, Mission with Regional functions, Rome, Italy Mr. Timon van Lidth Regional Research and Policy Officer, IOM Nigeria Mr. Frederico Barroeta Project Coordinator, International Labour Office, Sub-regional Office for the Sahel, Senegal Ms. Cristina de Luca Former Under Secretary of State, Italian Ministry of Social Affairs, Rome, Member of the Institute Ms. Christine Adam Legal Officer, IOM Geneva
Ms. Pia Oberoi, Consultant, International Council on Human Rights Policy Ms. Laura Rizello Field Officer Praesidium, Italian Red Cross Ms. Kristina Touzenis Programme Manager, IOM Rome, Italy Mr. Samba Barry Programme Officer, High Commissioner for Human Rights, West Africa Regional Office Mr. Tony Elumelu Head of Division Free Movement and Migration, ECOWAS Commission, Nigeria Ms. Ndioro Ndiaye Member of the Council of the International Institute of Humanitarian Law and President of Alliance for Migration, Leadership and Development (AMLD)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, General Office for Development Cooperation Italian Ministry of Interior, Department for Civil Liberties and Immigration International Institute of Humanitarian Law (IIHL): Ambassador Maurizio MORENO, President Dr. Stefania BALDINI, Secretary General International Organization for Migration (IOM): Ambassador William Lacy SWING, Director General Mr. Richard PERRUCHOUD, Director, International Migration Law and Legal Affairs Mr. Abye MAKONNEN, Regional Representative, MRF Dakar Mr. Peter SCHATZER, Regional Representative, MRF Rome Ms Jillyanne REDPATH-CROSS, Senior Legal Officer, International Migration Law and Legal Affairs Mr. Babacar NDIONE and Ms. Aminata NIANG, MRF Dakar A special thank you goes to the IOM colleagues involved in the preparation of the publication; Ms. Natalia OLIYNYK, Ms. Naomi ULIEL, Ms. Una McBRIDE WALSH, Ms. Temerza TESFAI, Ms. Christina VASALAKOKKINAKI, Ms. Tracy STEINDEL and Mr. Daniel REDONDO.
INTRODUCTION
Mr. Richard PERRUCHOUD

DROIT ET POLITIQUES DES MIGRATIONS INTERNATIONALES: RPONSES AUX DFIS DE LA MIGRATION EN AFRIQUE DE LOUEST ET DU NORD
Mesdames, Messieurs, Je voudrais tout dabord exprimer le plaisir que jprouve ouvrir cette Table ronde intitule droit et politiques des migrations internationales : rponses aux dfis de la migration en Afrique de lOuest et du Nord , organise par lOIM avec la coopration de lInstitut international de droit humanitaire de San Remo, le soutien du Ministre de lIntrieur et du Ministre des Affaires trangres de lItalie, et lappui des autorits sngalaises. Ce plaisir est dautant plus grand que nous tenons cette Table ronde au Sngal, pays connu pour ses traditions dhospitalit et son attachement lOIM qui ne sest pas dmenti depuis louverture de notre bureau rgional au sicle dernier. En effet, cest le 22 dcembre 1998 que fut sign laccord relatif louverture de notre bureau et, en cette occasion, javais dclar que, historiquement, le Sngal a attir ds le XVe sicle des immigrants portugais, hollandais, anglais et franais, qui avaient sans doute une conception de limmigration particulire et diffrente de celle qui est la ntre aujourdhui. Plus prs de nous, le Sngal est confront toute la gamme des problmes et questions migratoires, quil sagisse de la migration interne, de la migration de transit, de lmigration ou du retour de ses nationaux, de la migration irrgulire, pour ne citer que les domaines principaux. Le Ministre des affaires trangres et des sngalais de lextrieur mavait rpondu en disant ceci : Je voudrais raffirmer lattachement de mon pays la protection et la promotion des droits de lhomme y compris la libert de se dplacer pour survivre ou satisfaire ses besoins vitaux. Notre pays reconnat, dans le mme temps, la ncessit et lurgence dordonner les flux migratoires internationaux de telle manire quils contribuent au dveloppement durable des pays dmigration et dimmigration . Ce sont sans aucun doute des propos qui pourraient tre tenus aujourdhui en ouverture de notre Table ronde. Notre runion sinscrit dans la continuit dune Table ronde qui fut organise lan dernier San Remo et dont les grandes lignes et conclusions
sont connues de certains dentre vous. Une de ces conclusions tait que, quelle que soit la suite donne la Table ronde, un correctif simposait et je cite : une table ronde future devra tre une vritable table ronde, avec peut-tre moins dexperts des exposs plus concis afin dallouer une place plus grande au dialogue entre tous les participants ; sur certains thmes, le dbat dides et lchange dexpriences taient absents. Si nous voulons modestement contribuer ce que la Mditerrane devienne, ou redevienne, un facteur de cohsion et dunion, plutt que de division, nous devons apporter ce correctif nos rencontres, et peut-tre organiser une rencontre sur la rive mridionale de la Mditerrane. Emports par notre lan, nous avons largement dpass la rive mridionale de la Mditerrane pour atterrir, ou amerrir, sur les bords de lAtlantique. Que faut-il attendre de cette Table ronde, au-del du dbat dides toujours enrichissant, sachant que le passage de la parole, du dialogue, la mise en uvre de dclarations dintention constitue souvent une pierre dachoppement et une source de frustrations ? Nous verrons au terme de nos discussions o nous en sommes, mais il est important de ne pas craindre de poser les vraies questions, mme et surtout si elles drangent ; je vous en propose trois, que vous pourrez garder en filigrane ou en arrire-plan au cours de nos dlibrations : Y a-t-il une volont politique de protger les droits des migrants, de tous les migrants, quel que soit leur statut juridique, tant entendu que les migrants ont aussi des devoirs lgard de lEtat dorigine et de lEtat de destination ? et cette volont survit-elle aux difficults conomiques et aux crises financires du moment ? Y a-t-il une volont politique de dialoguer sur une base bilatrale avec les pays dorigine, de transit ou de destination pour examiner toutes les tapes du processus migratoire, le cycle de vie de la migration, afin didentifier les failles dans la gestion humaine et ordonne de la migration et apporter les correctifs ncessaires ? Y a-t-il une volont politique dagir dans le mme sens au sein des processus rgionaux qui, en dpit de leur degr variable de cohsion, demeurent un moyen privilgi pour avancer dans la voie de cette gestion ordonne et humaine de la migration ? Cest sur ces interrogations, et dans lattente de vos rponses, que je vous souhaite de bonnes dlibrations et des rsultats fructueux.
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Ambassadeur Maurizio MORENO
LInstitut international de droit humanitaire de Sanremo est trs heureux davoir pu organiser avec lOrganisation internationale pour les migrations (OIM) cette rencontre, qui a t rendue possible grce au soutien de la Direction Gnrale pour la coopration au dveloppement du Ministre italien des Affaires Etrangres, ainsi quau concours du Ministre italien de lIntrieur. La runion daujourdhui fait suite la table ronde que lOrganisation internationale pour les migrations et lInstitut avaient promu sur le mme sujet Sanremo, en Italie, il y a juste une anne, grce aussi limpulsion de Mme le Ministre Ndioro Ndiaye, alors Directeur gnral adjoint de lOIM, que je me flicite de voir aujourdhui parmi nous en sa qualit de membre du Conseil de direction de notre Institut. La table ronde de Sanremo dont les actes ont t publis avait donn lieu un dbat constructif et profond, avec la participation dexperts hautement qualifis venant de nombreux pays de la Mditerrane et de lAfrique. Lide avait t retenue en cette occasion de poursuivre le dialogue et dorganiser une nouvelle rencontre dans lun des pays dorigine des courants migratoires intressant la Mditerrane. Je suis particulirement heureux que le Sngal ait offert daccueillir cet vnement. Jai eu le privilge dtre Ambassadeur Dakar entre 1988 et 1992. Je reste trs attach ce beau pays o je me plais revenir de temps en temps. Le Sngal pays de dpart et de transit, selon des itinraires souvent alatoires, de flux de migrants vers lEurope est confront des dfis spcifiques que lon ne saurait sous-estimer. Le Gouvernement sngalais sest nanmoins montr, au fils des ans, de plus en plus attentif lexigence du dveloppement dune coopration plus troite lchelon rgional et dun partage effectif des responsabilits en ce qui concerne la gestion dun phnomne qui est devenu une source de proccupation majeure non seulement pour les pays de lUnion Europenne. Les Sngalais sont trs nombreux en Italie. Une petite communaut sngalaise, trs dynamique, est active dans la ville de Sanremo, o lInstitut International de Droit Humanitaire est tabli. Je crois pouvoir dire en cette
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enceinte, que, quils soient en situation rgulire ou non, les Sngalais se font apprcier dans mon pays pour leur talent et leur crativit, pour leurs qualits professionnelles et humaines. LInstitut de Sanremo est une organisation indpendante, but non lucratif, fonde en 1970. Son Conseil de direction est compos par des personnalits de renom provenant de diffrents pays. Notre objectif est de promouvoir la connaissance et le respect du droit international humanitaire, du droit international des rfugis et des migrants, des droits de lhomme. Par son activit et son exprience, lInstitut a su acqurir sur le plan international la renomme dun centre dexcellence dans le domaine de la recherche, de la formation et de lenseignement. Environ 12 000 personnes ont frquent les cours de Sanremo, auxquels participe depuis quelques annes un nombre croissant de fonctionnaires, dexperts et dtudiants provenant de lAfrique. LInstitut travaille en collaboration troite avec les principales Organisations internationales vocation humanitaire (Comit international de la Croix-Rouge- CICR, l`Agence des Nations Unies pour les rfugis- HCR, OIM) ainsi quavec lUnion Europenne (UE), lOrganisation des Nations Unies pour lEducation, la Science et la Culture (UNESCO), le Conseil de lEurope et lOrganisation internationale de la francophonie (OIF). Les cours et les sminaires portant sur les questions de migration et la protection juridique des migrants, ont acquis dans les annes les plus rcentes une importance croissante dans le programme de travail de lInstitut. Selon les statistiques, presque 200 millions de personnes (migrants et rfugis) vivent aujourdhui en dehors de leur pays et sillonnent dun bout lautre notre plante. Environ la moiti de ces personnes sont des femmes. Nous savons tous que de plus en plus des migrants ne quittent pas leur pays la suite dun libre choix, mais pour chapper la violence et la famine, pour se soustraire loppression politique, pour fuir les changements climatiques et les catastrophes naturelles, pour avoir accs une meilleure instruction et des meilleures opportunits demploi. Dans un monde globalis, o les frontires sestompent et les distances gographiques disparaissent, la migration, dans le sens de dpart, devient une stratgie de survie force pour un nombre croissant de personnes qui nhsitent pas courir des risques, emprunter les voies les plus dangereuses, victimes souvent de rseaux criminels pour lesquels la vie humaine na aucune valeur.
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La migration et la mobilit ont toujours exist et lon ne saurait nier les effets positifs de la libre circulation des personnes dans le cadre dun dveloppement quilibr et durable. Une plus efficace protection des migrants reprsente toutefois, dans lagenda international, un impratif juridique et moral auquel tout Etat devrait se conformer. Lenvironnement international a subi, durant les dernires dcennies, des changements profonds. Des pays dmigration traditionnels tels que lItalie sont devenus des pays de destination de vagues massives dimmigrs quil nest pas toujours facile daccueillir dans les conditions voulues. Le phnomne des migrations nest pas prs de connatre un repli. La fivre migratoire continuera probablement crotre dans un prochain avenir, comme consquence de la mondialisation et de la crise laquelle lconomie internationale est confronte. Il est donc essentiel de se pencher sur les aspects complexes et multiples, souvent contradictoires, de ce phnomne, de les affronter dans un contexte de dialogue, dchange dexpriences, de coopration : lobjectif commun devrait tre la mise en uvre des mcanismes visant assurer lensemble des migrants une protection plus efficace, prvenir, liminer, punir les crimes particulirement odieux tels que la traite des tres humains, en particulier des femmes et des enfants. La rencontre daujourdhui nous permettra danalyser ensemble les nouveaux dfis que la communaut internationale est appele relever fin de mieux grer les dplacements de populations dans un monde qui reste profondment ingalitaire, o le droit nest pas toujours suffisant assurer aux migrants la protection voulue. Une coopration accrue entre pays dorigine, pays de transit et pays daccueil est essentielle dans une phase o le dossier de lmigration suscite de plus en plus lattention des institutions internationales et des diffrentes instances nationales. Il ny a pas de recettes simples qui puissent sappliquer partout. Nous nous concentrerons aujourdhui et demain sur les problmes spcifiques de la Mditerrane et de lAfrique du Nord. Nos rflexions porteront sur les causes profondes des migrations et ne sauraient ignorer la problmatique majeure du dveloppement et de la croissance conomique. Le droit de rester, le droit
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de vivre et de concevoir son propre avenir dans le pays dorigine est sans doute un lment essentiel du droit international des migrations, au mme titre que le droit la mobilit ou le droit au retour. Nous allons approfondir le problme du partage de responsabilits notamment dans la protection des migrants en transit et dans lorganisation du rapatriement des personnes qui aprs un sjour ltranger dsirent regagner leur pays dorigine. Nous devrons analyser droits et obligations concernant laccueil et lintgration des migrants et notamment leur accs au travail dans des conditions saines et quitables, dans le plein respect de la dignit humaine et des droits de lhomme. Je suis sr compte tenu du haut niveau et de lexprience des participants cette rencontre que nous aurons des discussions utiles et fructueuses susceptibles de contribuer au dveloppement de la connaissance, de la comprhension et de la collaboration rciproque. Encore un grand merci aux Gouvernement du Sngal et lAmbassadeur dItalie, mon vieil ami Giuseppe Calvetta, qui est aujourdhui parmi nous. Ma gratitude et celle du Secrtaire gnral de lInstitut va tous les hauts fonctionnaires de lOIM sans lesquels cette initiative aurait t impossible. En particulier, Monsieur Perruchoud, Monsieur Makonnen, Monsieur Schatzer et Mme Redpath-Cross, qui ont t les chevilles ouvrires de cet vnement.
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Mr. Giuseppe CALVETTA
Monsieur le Prsident de lInstitut International de Droit Humanitaire de Sanremo, Monsieur le Reprsentant de lOIM, Mesdames et Messieurs, Je nai pas lintention de prsenter la position du Gouvernement italien sur le phnomne complexe des migrations internationales. Je me propose plutt de vous offrir, si jose, quelques pistes de rflexion. Par ailleurs, si un sminaire de haut niveau comme celui-ci se limitait enregistrer les positions de diffrents Etats, aprs les premires interventions des reprsentants des Etats le sminaire serait bel et bien termin. En dautres termes et mon sens, un sminaire de haut niveau tel que le vtre doit surtout se poser des questions et essayer dy rpondre, dans le but de faciliter le cheminement vers une gestion plus efficace du phnomne des migrations internationales et plus respectueuse des droits individuels des migrants. A mon avis, il y a une question fondamentale laquelle il nous faut essayer de rpondre : la gestion du phnomne des migrations internationales rentre-t-elle encore dans lexercice de la souverainet de chaque Etat national classique , qui est, ou plutt tait, compltement libre de rgler de manire autonome et souveraine, sur son territoire, tous les aspects de la vie ? Chaque Etat dispose-t-il des capacits, mme techniques, ncessaires pour rgler et grer ce phnomne ? La Convention internationale sur la protection des droits de tous les travailleurs migrants et des membres de leur famille (CIDTM), adopte par lAssemble gnrale des Nations Unies en 1990 et entre en vigueur en 2003, rpond par la ngative cette question : aucun Etat nest libre de rgler le phnomne des migrations selon sa volont. La raison tant que les migrants possdent des droits individuels irrductibles, devant lesquels la souverainet de lEtat doit sarrter.
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Le problme rside toutefois dans le fait quaucun pays de destination, aucun pays occidental na ratifi cette Convention. La CIDTM na en effet t ratifie que par 42 Etats exclusivement des pays dorigine ou de transit de migration et signe par 31 Etats. Aussi du point de vue du droit international, nous nous trouvons dans une impasse, cest pourquoi il nous faut rechercher dautres solutions afin que les pays dorigine et de destination des migrants puissent se mettre daccord. Peut-tre que la solution cette difficult devrait tre recherche en partant de la constatation que chaque Etat, mme souverain, nest pas capable de rsoudre lui seul les diffrents problmes lis aux migrations internationales, et quil est ncessaire de cooprer avec dautres Etats, dorigine et de transit des migrants. A mon avis et peut tre que ce que je suis en train de dire na rien de nouveau cest la direction suivante quil faudrait prendre : des accords bilatraux entre les diffrents pays concerns, plutt que de rgles internationales impeccables en soi mais abstraites et parfois inapplicables. De plus, ce type daccords bilatraux a bien fonctionn dans les pays o ils ont t signs: par exemple, cest le cas entre lItalie et lAlbanie. En tous les cas, et pour conclure, il y a une chose dont nous pouvons tre sr sans rgles, le phnomne des migrations serait anarchique, porteur de souffrance et de pertes humaines. Do limportance de votre tche qui est de favoriser, grce votre contribution intellectuelle et doctrinaire et au travers de votre exprience, la recherche des solutions politiques et juridiques viables pour les diffrents pays concerns, et en mme temps, dtre capables dviter douleurs et souffrances aux travailleurs migrants. Merci de votre attention et bon travail !
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M. Demba KANDJI
Monsieur le Reprsentant rgional de lOIM au Sngal,

Monsieur le Reprsentant de la dlgation de la Commission europenne, Mesdames et Messieurs, Chers participants, En dsignant le Directeur des affaires Criminelles et des Grces de son dpartement pour prsider la crmonie douverture de la deuxime table ronde sur le droit international de la migration : la rponse aux dfis de lAfrique de lOuest et du Nord , Monsieur le Ministre dEtat, Garde des Sceaux, Ministre de la justice empch, a voulu dire aux organisateurs que la migration est un droit humain qui peut tre source dune activit criminogne hautement redoute par les Etats modernes. Le Sngal, situ suivant le hasard de la gographie proximit de grands centres dintrts du monde, est bien plac pour apprhender ce phnomne de socit et en prvoir les mfaits. Dans ce domaine, la volont politique des pouvoirs publics sngalais a toujours exist. Il faut dabord signaler limpression de documents de voyage numriss aptes rsister aux falsifications et reproductions de toutes sortes, en vue de prvenir leur usage irrgulier. A cela sajoute une formation adquate dispense aux forces de scurit places lintrieur du territoire national comme dans les postes frontaliers. Ces mesures, elles seules, ne suffiraient pas juguler le phnomne sans un cadre lgislatif apte prvenir et rprimer les infractions commises et assurer protection et assistance adquates aux victimes de ces agissements criminels. Le Sngal, Etat partie la Convention de Palerme sur la criminalit transnationale organise et ses protocoles additionnels, se devait ds lors dy adapter sa lgislation interne.
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Au plan sous rgional, notre pays conscient de lampleur du phnomne a galement t lun des principaux initiateurs de la conception et de ladoption, courant anne 2001-2002, par les Etats membres de la Communaut Economique des Etats de lAfrique de lOuest (CEDEAO) du plan de lutte contre la traite des personnes et le trafic de migrants.
Il convient de souligner cet gard que lun des meilleurs moyens dadapter et dharmoniser les lgislations nationales aux normes internationales consiste ratifier et internaliser les Conventions et leurs protocoles additionnels, outre la mise en place de structures destines coordonner la lutte. La mise en uvre de cette politique a t lorigine de la loi n 2005-06 du 10 mai 2005 sur la lutte contre la traite des personnes et les pratiques assimiles. Certaines dispositions de cette loi se sont rvles, du point de vue de leur application et aprs quatre annes de pratique, non conformes aux objectifs de la Convention prcite et ses protocoles. Il en est ainsi des dispositions relatives la protection et lassistance des victimes qui, par une imperfection de la loi, taient poursuivies comme des auteurs. Conscient de la ncessit de radapter cette norme, un projet de loi sur le trafic de migrants et la traite des personnes labor et valid par les experts nationaux et ceux de lOffice des Nations Unies contre la drogue et le crime (ONUDC), a t initi. Mais avec la finalisation imminente du projet de rforme du code pnal et du code de procdure pnale, les autorits ont jug plus opportun de linsrer dans ces instruments en vue dune meilleure exploitation par les praticiens. Avec ces nouvelles dispositions, je nen doute pas, la lgislation sngalaise sera davantage conforme aux instruments internationaux rgissant la matire. Ce dispositif sera un complment et un instrument dexcution du projet sous rgional Migrations en Afrique de lOuest et du Centre, Profils Nationaux pour le Dveloppement de Politiques Stratgiques initi et mis en uvre par lOrganisation internationale pour les migrations (OIM) selon une approche participative, et travers limplication des acteurs en collaboration avec les instances de la CEDEAO.
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Mesdames, Messieurs, Comme vous le savez, les pouvoirs publics sngalais apportent une contribution trs significative la lutte contre la migration irrgulire travers une synergie des secteurs de ladministration impliqus dans la lutte, comme le dpartement de la justice, celui de lintrieur, des affaires trangres ainsi que certaines organisations de la socit civile. La majeure partie des projets de lutte contre le phnomne migratoire des Nations Unies et de la CEDEAO ciblent principalement huit pays de lAfrique de lOuest et du Centre : le Sngal, le Ghana, la Cte dIvoire, la Mauritanie, le Niger, le Nigria, le Mali et la Rpublique Dmocratique du Congo (RDC), mais aussi le Cap Vert et le Cameroun dans une moindre mesure. Ces efforts sont destins renforcer les capacits gouvernementales afin de mieux grer la migration en laborant des profils migratoires utiliss comme des instruments de politique en vue de promouvoir des approches plus compltes et proactives. Ainsi, ces instruments prendront la forme de documents de rfrence de politiques stratgiques et permettront une meilleure gestion des questions migratoires tant lchelle nationale, sous rgionale que transnationale. Le Sngal est conscient de ce que, seule une politique tourne vers la sensibilisation des populations, la formation des acteurs judiciaires engags dans la lutte, double dune coopration internationale peut venir bout de cette criminalit engendre par le phnomne migratoire. Il entend sen donner les moyens quoi quil lui en cote. Il sait dores et dj pouvoir compter sur la qualit de lexpertise de lOIM. Mesdames et Messieurs, Le Sngal, soucieux de respecter ses obligations internationales, a adopt le 20 octobre 2009, loccasion dun conseil interministriel tenu sous la prsidence de Monsieur le Premier Ministre, un plan national daction contre la traite des personnes et pratiques assimiles. Ce plan national, labor sur la base des contributions de tous les services tatiques interpells par la question, passe en revue les priorits court, moyen et long terme des activits et programmes entreprendre durant sa mise en uvre.
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Les impratifs dune bonne coordination de lutte ont amen les pouvoirs publics mettre en place une cellule nationale composition pluridisciplinaire. Il me semble plus quopportun dinviter nouveau les associations et organisations de la socit civile participer activement aux diffrentes activits de la cellule dans laquelle officient majoritairement les institutions tatiques telles que les autorits en charge des intrts des sngalais de lextrieur, la Direction Gnrale de la Police Nationale (DGPN), le haut Commandement de la Gendarmerie Nationale, le Haut Commissariat aux Droits de lHomme et la Promotion de la Paix, les Organisations Internationales et de la Socit Civile. Les ateliers de formation tenus lEcole Nationale de Police sur les lments essentiels de gestion des migrations, raliss par lOIM, ainsi que les nombreuses sessions de formation organises par lONUDC, visent renforcer les capacits des institutions nationales impliques dans la prise en charge de ce phnomne. De telles initiatives pour la gestion des questions migratoires comme celle qui nous runit aujourdhui doivent tre multiplies car elles peuvent faciliter la mise en uvre dactions efficaces. Mesdames, Messieurs, Je ne saurais terminer mon allocution sans remercier, au nom du Sngal, lOIM davoir choisi sa capitale pour y tenir cette table ronde destine rflchir sur le phnomne migratoire en Afrique de lOuest et du Nord. Notre pays qui attend beaucoup de vos travaux ne manquera de sapproprier les conclusions et recommandations pertinentes qui en seront issues pour une meilleure adaptation et harmonisation des instruments juridiques lchelle rgionale et internationale. Au nom du Ministre dEtat, Garde des Sceaux, Ministre de la Justice, je dclare ouverte la deuxime table ronde sur le droit international de la migration : rponses aux dfis de lAfrique de lOuest et du Nord. Je vous remercie de votre attention.
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THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK
LE CADRE JURIDIQUE INTERNATIONAL DE LA MIGRATION

(M. Richard PERRUCHOUD)
Le cadre juridique international relatif aux migrations est un sujet apparemment simple prsenter, mais ce nest quune illusion. Il est vrai que, en lan 10 000 avant notre re lorsque la population mondiale tait denviron 6 millions dhabitants -chiffre non vrifi personnellement mais il faut parfois faire confiance aux scientifiques-, le cadre juridique international en tait ses premiers balbutiements et la migration sans frontires en constituait sans doute le signe distinctif. Aujourdhui, nous vivons dans une socit plus complexe, sophistique et rglemente. Lexistence dune communaut internationale compose dEtats, indpendants mais inter-dpendants, a rendu la relation entre droit international et migration bien plus fascinante et, parfois, droutante. Lexamen du cadre juridique international en matire de migration invite quelques rflexions sur les rapports entre droit international et migration. Tout dabord, rappelons que le droit international est constitu par lensemble des normes destines rgir la socit internationale compose principalement des Etats et, en second lieu, des organisations internationales et parfois des individus. Laffaire se corse trs vite cependant lors de lanalyse des traits caractristiques de cette socit internationale : cest une socit interdpendante, incitant les Etats cooprer dans des domaines de plus en plus nombreux, mais cest encore et toujours une socit dcentralise, domine par le principe de souverainet nationale : chaque Etat est rfractaire toute contrainte extrieure et est farouchement, viscralement, attach sa souverainet. Cette socit est galement paradoxale un autre titre : les conflits, les tensions, ne diminuent pas mais, dans le mme temps, la concertation internationale sur des thmes varis se poursuit et renforce la coopration. Rappelons galement que le droit international est un ordre juridique, cest--dire un ensemble coordonn de normes dotes de force obligatoire et dont la mconnaissance entrane en principe de srieuses consquences ; cependant, en droit international, les sanctions sont alatoires et la dtermination de la lgalit des comportements est souvent abandonne leurs propres auteurs.
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Si nous nous penchons sur le concept de migration, premire vue la situation est plus limpide, ou moins obscure. La migration est gnralement dfinie comme le mouvement de personnes travers une frontire internationale ou lintrieur dun pays, quelle que soit la cause du mouvement, sa composition et sa dure. Au plan international, on tend se limiter la migration internationale, tout en prcisant que la migration interne ne peut tre ignore, tant donn les rpercussions internationales quelle peut avoir. Si la migration en tant que processus ou phnomne est donc aise dfinir, le tableau se complique lorsque lon examine les groupes de personnes impliques dans la migration, que celle-ci soit volontaire, force ou un mlange des deux : ces groupes se composent de personnes aussi diverses que les travailleurs migrants, les membres de leurs familles, des travailleurs indpendants, des rfugis, des demandeurs dasile, des personnes en dtresse qui fuient une catastrophe naturelle ou un conflit, des tudiants, des nationaux qui retournent chez eux, bref une mosaque trs diverse dindividus qui, chacun dans son pays de dpart, possde un statut qui lui est propre, statut qui sera modifi le plus souvent dans le pays de destination. Si le droit devra tenir compte de cette diversit de personnes impliques dans la migration, il devrait aussi dans une socit internationale idalement organise rglementer la faon dont ces mouvements se dveloppent et la responsabilit des Etats dans la gestion des flux. Aprs cette brve prsentation des acteurs, examinons la place du droit international en matire de migration. On a longtemps estim que cette place tait rduite la portion congrue, voire quelle tait quasiment inexistante, vu que la gestion de la migration relve du noyau dur de la souverainet nationale. Nest-ce pas en effet la dtermination des conditions de lacquisition de la nationalit qui dtermine un des lments constitutifs de lEtat, la population ? Nest-il pas admis dans tous les traits de droit international et proclam par tous les hommes politiques que lEtat possde le pouvoir discrtionnaire de dcider des conditions dadmission des trangers, de la dure de leur sjour et des conditions demploi, et de lexpulsion ventuelle des migrants nayant plus le droit de sjourner dans le pays ? Les rfrences doctrinales ou jurisprudentielles lappui de cette Weltanschaung ne manquent pas. Relevons notamment ce jugement de la Cour suprme des Etats-Unis qui, en 1892, dans laffaire Nishimura Ekiu v US a dclar que it is an accepted maxim of international law, that every sovereign nation has the power, as inherent in sovereignty, and essential to self-preservation, to forbid the entrance of foreigners within its dominions, or to admit them only in such cases and upon such conditions as it may see fit to prescribe. Une autre citation classique est celle de 1906, manant du Canada, selon laquelle by the law of nations the supreme power in every State has the right to make laws for the exclusion of aliens.
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La ralit est plus nuance et complexe; les affirmations valables la fin du XIXe ou au dbut du XXe sicle doivent tre revues la lumire des dveloppements de la socit internationale, de lvolution du droit et des changements profonds intervenus dans le domaine de la migration, notamment sa visibilit, son importance politique, les interdpendances cres entre socits de dpart, de transit et daccueil.
Le droit international joue un double rle dans le domaine de la migration : la dfinition et la protection des droits des personnes impliques dans la migration dune part, les droits et obligations des Etats dans leurs relations rciproques dautre part ; lensemble constitue le droit international de la migration. La protection des droits des personnes impliques dans la migration a connu un dveloppement considrable au cours des dernires cinquante annes : tout dabord, mentionnons le dveloppement du corpus des droits de lhomme, qui a clips le droit des trangers, droit dorigine essentiellement coutumire ; ensuite, le droit des rfugis, le droit des travailleurs migrants, certains lments du droit international humanitaire, les conventions particulires relatives aux droits des enfants, la non discrimination, linterdiction de la torture, la lutte contre la traite et, bien videmment, la convention de 1990 des Nations Unies sur la protection des droits de tous les travailleurs migrants et des membres de leur famille. Nous retrouvons la mme profusion et diversit de conventions au niveau rgional, en Europe, aux Amriques et en Afrique. Une analyse de tous ces instruments ne simpose pas en cet endroit ; nous aurons loccasion dexaminer ultrieurement certains dentre eux, notamment ceux ayant un lien direct avec la problmatique de la migration irrgulire. Trois remarques mritent cependant dtre faites : Tout dabord, le foisonnement et la multiplicit des instruments ne doivent pas masquer le nombre restreint de ratifications de certains de ces textes et, surtout, le criant dficit de leur mise en uvre. Ensuite, la prolifration dexperts et spcialistes aboutit parfois des aberrations ou distorsions inquitantes : on met en exergue ce qui divise, ce qui est propre chaque branche du droit, sans vouloir reconnatre les similitudes, ce qui est commun toutes les personnes impliques dans la migration. Il est sans doute ncessaire de rappeler ici luniversalit des droits de lhomme applicables toutes les personnes impliques dans la migration, personnes qui, en fonction de leur statut particulier, bnficient dune
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protection supplmentaire en tant que travailleur migrant, rfugi, civil victime dun conflit arm, etc. Enfin, cette diversit et ce foisonnement des instruments permettent difficilement un observateur, mme attentif, de sy retrouver. Combien dEtats ont ratifi chacun de ces instruments, avec ou sans rserves ? Quels sont les objectifs et la porte de chacun de ces textes, leurs interactions et, parfois, contradictions ? Lautre volet du droit international de la migration est celui de la responsabilit des Etats dans la gestion de la migration. Quatre domaines particuliers et un domaine plus gnral o le droit international limite la marge dapprciation des Etats mritent une mention particulire : La nationalit : certaines rgles imposent aux Etats dviter lapatridie ; en outre, le droit international fixe des conditions pour que la nationalit soit effective en droit international, soit opposable dautres Etats. Ladmission : le pouvoir discrtionnaire de lEtat dadmettre ou non des trangers est limit par certaines rgles coutumires, la plus connue tant celle relative ladmission des rfugis. La scurit de lEtat : si tout Etat est autoris prendre les mesures ncessaires sa scurit, encore faut-il quil respecte la souverainet dautres Etats, quil ne porte pas atteinte aux droits des individus et quil se conforme au principe de proportionnalit entre les mesures adoptes et le but poursuivi. Lexpulsion : si lEtat a le droit dexpulser des migrants, ce droit est limit par le droit international ; les expulsions massives ou collectives sont interdites ; les expulsions individuelles doivent tre motives et ne peuvent tre mises en uvre quen respectant la dignit de la personne. Quant au domaine plus gnral, il sagit de lobligation de coopration impose aux Etats dans des aspects spcifiques ; citons par exemple les Protocoles de Palerme qui imposent une obligation stricte de coopration pour lutter contre le flau de la traite des migrants, ainsi que la Convention de 1990 prcite qui fait obligation aux Etats de cooprer en vue dadopter des mesures relatives la bonne organisation du retour des travailleurs migrants et des membres de leur famille dans leur Etat dorigine ; cette obligation concerne le retour de tous les travailleurs migrants, quils soient en situation irrgulire ou non. Ces obligations de consultation et de coopration ont
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une porte gnrale, ainsi quen tmoignent les nombreux processus rgionaux rcemment mis en place afin de trouver des solutions pragmatiques et consensuelles aux problmes poss par la migration. Ce tableau, dress grands traits, pourrait suffire alimenter notre rflexion. On ne peut cependant parler de rapports entre droit international et migration sans ajouter au moins deux lments. Le premier concerne lexistence dune multitude de prceptes, principes, standards, dclarations, meilleures pratiques, qui, tout en nayant pas force contraignante, nen constituent pas moins des guides trs utiles qui orientent le comportement des Etats dans leur gestion de la migration. Ce droit mou, vert, quelle que soit son appellation, sest surtout dvelopp au sein des processus consultatifs rgionaux en matire de migration. Ces processus rgionaux constituent le second lment ajouter au tableau : cest laspect institutionnel de la gestion internationale de la migration, gestion embryonnaire et difficile, mais prometteuse. Les principaux processus rgionaux sont les suivants : les consultations intergouvernementales sur les politiques en matire de droit dasile, de rfugis et de migrations en Europe, en Amrique du nord et en Australie (IGC) ; le Groupe de Budapest ; le processus de Sderkping ; la Confrence de Genve de 1996 sur les problmes de rfugis, de personnes dplaces, de migration et dasile ainsi que son suivi ; le Processus de Puebla ; la confrence sud-amricaine sur les migrations ; le Dialogue 5+5 sur la migration en Mditerrane occidentale ; le Dialogue sur la migration pour lAfrique australe (MIDSA) ; le Processus de Manille ; les Consultations intergouvernementales Asie-Pacifique sur les rfugis, les personnes dplaces et les migrants (APC) ; le Processus de Bali ; le Processus de Colombo. Ces initiatives rgionales sont une manifestation de la volont de la communaut internationale de procder un examen intgral de la migration sous ses aspects politiques, conomiques, juridiques ou normatifs ; elles ne sont pas proprement parler des initiatives qui sinscrivent dans le plan du droit international stricto sensu, mais elle visent assurer une gestion internationale coordonne et plus efficace de la migration, ainsi quune identification plus prcise des normes internationales en vigueur. Ce tour dhorizon, trs schmatique et forcment rducteur, ne saurait sachever sans quelques observations sur les mcanismes protecteurs. Nous avons voqu le faible taux de ratification des instruments internationaux, ainsi que le dficit de mise en uvre de ces instruments. Malgr cela, il est ncessaire de rappeler que des mcanismes protecteurs existent, tant au niveau national quinternational. Ce sont videmment les mcanismes
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internationaux qui attirent le plus lattention, des titres divers. Ces mcanismes ne concernent que des catgories particulires de personnes, par exemple les rfugis et les travailleurs migrants ; un nombre lev de personnes chappe tout mcanisme protecteur international : personnes dplaces lextrieur ou lintrieur des frontires, personnes fuyant des catastrophes naturelles ou en raison de circonstances non assimilables la perscution. Ces mcanismes ont en outre la particularit de soccuper de la protection juridique, alors que parfois une autre forme de protection ou dassistance serait requise. Enfin, ces mcanismes sont lis au mandat et aux comptences dorganisations bien dfinies, avec la consquence que chaque discussion sur un besoin ventuel de protection ou dassistance entrane frquemment un dbat paralysant sur le caractre adquat ou non du mandat des organisations concernes. Ces digressions sur les mcanismes internationaux de protection ont parfois un effet inattendu, et ngatif, savoir le dfaut dattention prt lexistence des mcanismes nationaux de protection. En effet, il faut ce stade rappeler que les Etats ont la responsabilit de protger les personnes qui se trouvent sur leur territoire, quil sagisse de leurs nationaux ou de migrants ; en cas de non respect de leurs droits, les migrants peuvent et doivent saisir les instances judiciaires du pays daccueil, charge pour ces dernires dassurer le respect du droit. De mme, lEtat dont le migrant possde la nationalit a le droit et lobligation de protger ses nationaux ltranger ; la Convention de Vienne de 1963 sur les relations consulaires, en son article 5, inscrit au nombre des fonctions consulaires celle de prter secours et assistance aux ressortissants ltranger et de protger leurs intrts ; linstitution de la protection et de lassistance consulaire, dont les contours ont t codifis en 1963, est un outil prcieux dont disposent les Etats et les migrants pour faire valoir leurs droits. Outre la protection et lassistance consulaire, les migrants peuvent solliciter la protection diplomatique de leur Etat ; cette dernire est un droit de lEtat et non de lindividu que lEtat peut exercer de manire discrtionnaire. Le rle dun protecteur international des migrants devrait par consquent tre secondaire, ou moins visible que dans le cas des rfugis qui ne bnficient plus du lien de confiance tabli par la nationalit, vu la perscution dont ils font lobjet : le protecteur tant dfaillant ou stant mu en perscuteur, il est logique quune protection internationale se substitue trs tt la protection nationale qui demeure la rgle. Le recours aux tribunaux nationaux et le mcanisme de la protection consulaire npuisent cependant pas la question : dans des systmes rgionaux, une cour rgionale des droits de lhomme constitue une garantie
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utile et ncessaire pour pallier les lacunes des instances nationales : cette approche rgionale est sans doute un meilleur gage de succs que lapproche universelle qui verrait linstauration dun protecteur international. Il nen demeure pas moins que tant la prvention que la rpression des violations des droits des migrants demeurent des obligations nationales auxquelles les Etats ne peuvent se soustraire.
En guise de conclusion, quelques observations parses pour promouvoir et stimuler un dbat qui ne manquera pas dtre constructif et enrichissant : Tout dabord, le droit international de la migration est complexe, diffus, relativement nouveau. Plus que la relative nouveaut, cest peut-tre lampleur du champ couvert par ce droit, ses emprunts divers autres domaines, et labsence dune structure rigide enserrant ce droit dans un carcan bien dfini qui posent problme ; cest le lieu de rappeler que le droit international de la migration est peut-tre celui qui ressemble le plus au droit international public gnral, un droit imparfait, volutif, mais ncessaire pour mieux apprhender et grer un des problmes les plus aigus de notre poque. Ensuite, rappelons que la protection des droits des migrants relve de la responsabilit principale des Etats. Chaque Etat a le droit et le devoir de protger toutes les personnes se trouvant sur son territoire, quil sagisse de ses nationaux ou dtrangers. Chaque Etat a galement le droit et le devoir de protger ses nationaux ltranger, et dautoriser dautres Etats protger leurs nationaux se trouvant sur son territoire. Les moyens de protger les droits de lhomme des migrants existent non seulement au niveau national mais aussi au niveau international. La protection des migrants en droit international sest dveloppe dans divers rgimes conventionnels, en plus du systme des droits de lhomme, couvrant les droits de groupes spcifiques de personnes impliques dans la migration. Quelle que soit la diversit des mcanismes mis en place, il faut garder lesprit le fait que les Etats conservent la responsabilit de se conformer leurs engagements internationaux. On peut enfin sinterroger sil nest pas utopique de vouloir grer les migrations internationales. Lutopie relle ou prsume ninterdit pas la recherche dun consensus visant une meilleure gestion des migrations ; au demeurant, les utopies daujourdhui sont souvent les ralits de demain. Dans lintervalle, si un seul point mrite dtre retenu, cest
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celui de la ncessit pour les Etats dintgrer la dimension respect des droits des migrants dans leurs politiques nationales de gestion des migrations et de trouver un vritable quilibre entre ce respect et les impratifs lgitimes de maintien de la scurit nationale : cest un dfi auquel sont constamment confronts les Etats et que nous devons prendre en considration dans nos dlibrations.
MIGRATION FLOWS: NEW CHALLENGES
GESTION DE LA MIGRATION EN AFRIQUE DE LOUEST : ENJEUX POLITIQUES ET DEFIS OPERATIONNELS (M. Abye MAKONNEN)
Introduction
Linstabilit politique, la faiblesse des performances conomiques et la dgradation des conditions de vie des populations comptent parmi les causes les plus importantes des dynamiques migratoires en Afrique de lOuest. Ces mouvements circulatoires sont fortement ancrs lintrieur de la rgion, et traduisent une situation de mobilit intra-rgionale la fois ancienne et relativement dense. Selon les estimations issues des recensements de population, lAfrique de lOuest abriterait aujourdhui environ 7,5 millions de migrants internationaux originaires des pays de la sous-rgion, soit prs de 3 % de la population rgionale. Ces dynamiques migratoires intra-rgionales sarticulent avec dautres systmes migratoires orients notamment vers les pays de lAfrique du Nord, vers les autres rgions du continent, mais aussi et surtout vers les pays de lEurope, et de plus en plus vers lAmrique et lAsie. En comparaison, le nombre dmigrs ouest-africains en Europe est de lordre de 770 000 et denviron 390 000 en Amrique du Nord. Cest dire la forte tendance la mobilit des populations ouest-africaines, mme si les communauts migres se trouvent rgulirement confrontes de nombreuses difficults dans la plupart des pays daccueil. En effet, ces mouvements migratoires sinscrivent dans un contexte international en pleine mutation, caractris par une combinaison de forces contradictoires : forte pression lmigration et rduction des opportunits de migrer. Ce nouveau paradigme conduit des changements notables dans lorigine gographique et la nature des flux, avec notamment une diversification des zones de dpart, des profils migratoires et des catgories de migrants, ainsi que lapparition de nouvelles modalits de circulation et la restructuration des espaces migratoires rgionaux. Srigeant en stratgie de contournement des politiques migratoires souvent restrictives, les rseaux migratoires favorisent la migration irrgulire et le trafic dtres humains, qui posent le problme du respect des droits des
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migrants, de leur dignit humaine et de leur bien-tre dans les pays daccueil, de transit et de dpart. Limportance, la diversit et la complexit des courants migratoires illustrent les enjeux auxquels les gouvernements des pays de lAfrique de lOuest et les institutions rgionales (Communaut conomique des Etats de lAfrique de lOuest - CEDEAO, lUnion conomique et montaire ouestafricaine - UEMOA) sont confronts en matire de gestion de la migration.
Enjeux et dfis oprationnels en matire de migrations

En Afrique de lOuest, les mouvements migratoires sont rgis dabord au niveau national mais aussi aux niveaux bilatral et sous-rgional : le phnomne de la migration nen demeure pas moins complexe et difficile grer. Il constitue un enjeu majeur et pose de rels dfis aux gouvernements et aux institutions sous-rgionales. Lun des dfis relever est celui des sources statistiques permettant dapprcier les mutations dans un systme migratoire international en perptuelle volution. Les tendances actuelles de la migration internationale font effectivement ressortir linformation comme un outil essentiel de gestion des migrations, en ce sens quune bonne comprhension des questions thoriques et pratiques souleves par les mouvements migratoires aiderait la prise de dcision. Cependant, compte tenu de linsuffisance et de la fiabilit des sources statistiques existantes, il est difficile dobserver lvolution du phnomne migratoire dans le temps et dans lespace. Les donnes disponibles sont parcellaires et noffrent pas de possibilits danalyse la fois complte, fine et dtaille. Par ailleurs, si les mouvements de main-duvre qualifie et non qualifie dans labsolu constituent une perte non ngligeable de forces vives pour les pays de dpart, elles conduisent en mme temps des flux de transfert financiers, matriels et de savoir-faire, ainsi qu la constitution de diasporas dont les atouts peuvent aider les pays dorigine en vue de leur dveloppement socio-conomique. En revanche, les mouvements de trafic et de traite des migrants constituent un sujet proccupant. Les routes du trafic se multiplient et se ramifient pour constituer des itinraires de plus en plus complexes, et la participation de rseaux criminels organiss sur les plans transnational et local, en violation flagrante des normes nationales et internationales, est dsormais rpandue. Les victimes sont exposes toutes les formes dexploitation aussi bien en Afrique quen dehors du continent. Cette
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situation requiert plus dengagement des Etats et des institutions rgionales pour lutter plus efficacement contre ce flau. La rgion dAfrique occidentale est aussi une zone de tensions politiques internes. Les crises politiques dbouchent souvent sur des situations de conflits qui engendrent dimportants mouvements migratoires y compris de rfugis et de personnes dplaces. Les consquences de telles crises sur la vie des populations ncessitent, en plus des mesures durgence lies aux dplacements forcs, de mettre en uvre des programmes spcifiques dassistance, daide au retour et de rinsertion des migrants, notamment en situation de post-conflit. En outre, la question de la sant, en lien la migration, prend de plus en plus dimportance. Les proccupations de sant publique ainsi que les problmes de sant y affrents, induits par des causes naturelles ou provoqus par lhomme, influent directement sur la sant des migrants et des communauts de rsidence ou de transit. Les principaux facteurs contribuant la propagation des pathologies parmi les migrants et les populations mobiles demeurent la pauvret, lanalphabtisme, la faiblesse de loffre de service de prvention et de prise en charge mdicale. Les relations entre migration et environnement sont aussi de plus en plus perues comme une interface importante tudier, comprendre et intgrer dans les objectifs stratgiques de dveloppement. Or, le phnomne migratoire peut tre un facteur non ngligeable de transformation des milieux naturels et humains. Dans cette perspective, la mobilit (interne ou internationale) est au centre de la problmatique ainsi que le questionnement sur les concepts de migrant cologique ou environnemental, de rfugi climatique ou environnemental. Ce lien migration-environnement suscite la rflexion sur les consquences en matire de droit foncier, de protection, de scurit, de sant, de moyens dexistence ou encore de scurit alimentaire. La rgion ouest-africaine reste une zone trs vulnrable et demeure expose un degr critique aux changements environnementaux nfastes : baisse de la pluviomtrie, perte de productivit agricole et menaces sur les zones ctires sont parmi les consquences, que le Groupe intergouvernemental dexperts sur lvolution du climat (GIEC) annonce dans ses prvisions sur les effets des changements climatiques. Par ailleurs, la mondialisation des flux migratoires et lacclration de la circulation des personnes montrent combien les systmes migratoires se sont complexifis. Une gestion mthodique et concerte des flux migratoires est juge profitable aux pays dorigine, de transit et daccueil. Or, au Nord comme
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au Sud et notamment en Afrique de lOuest, des divergences en matire de politique migratoire persistent. A cet gard, le souci de rapprochement des besoins en termes de politique adopter ncessite une harmonisation intrargionale et la mise en place dun cadre cohrent dchange aux niveaux interrgional et intercontinental.
Ces diffrents enjeux et dfis oprationnels soulvent en filigrane les problmes fondamentaux auxquels font face les migrants et autres groupes vulnrables dans la rgion, du point de vue des droits de lhomme, ainsi que de la coopration entre les pays dorigine, de transit et de destination et les autres parties prenantes. Pour revenir sur le niveau sous-rgional, la CEDEAO sest dote de plusieurs instruments juridiques en matire de migration la tte desquels le Protocole du 29 mai 1979 sur la libre circulation des personnes, le droit de rsidence et dtablissement. Ces textes ont lavantage juridique de rpondre au dfi de la libre circulation des personnes en Afrique de lOuest et celui, plus global, dune gestion quilibre des flux migratoires dans la sous-rgion. Malgr ces efforts, les difficults doprationalisation restent nombreuses et dimportantes amliorations sont encore ncessaires pour rendre ces diffrents textes juridiques plus effectifs. La CEDEAO et les Etats membres en sont conscients et la volont dintervenir davantage sur les questions que posent les migrations aux niveaux national et rgional est perceptible au regard de la stratgie dveloppe dans lApproche commune de la CEDEAO sur la migration, adopte Ouagadougou en janvier 2008.
Problmatique des droits des migrants en Afrique de lOuest

Les questions lies la migration et aux droits de lhomme des migrants sont complexes et sensibles. Aujourdhui, la migration internationale nest plus seulement perue comme une force positive, un facteur de dveloppement conomique et social : par ricochet, surtout en situation irrgulire, les migrants servent de bouc missaire et sont souvent accabls de tous les maux. On assiste une rsurgence de la xnophobie et une multiplication des abus et de lexploitation des migrants. Ces problmes se posent avec acuit, notamment en Afrique de lOuest et dans la plupart des pays daccueil des populations migrantes ouest-africaines, o les violations des droits lis au statut dtranger sont nombreuses : exploitation sexuelle ou dans le travail, dtention abusive, problme daccs la justice, atteinte au droit dasile, etc.
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A cet gard, les instruments juridiques de protection des droits de lhomme ont de nombreux points de convergence mme si trs peu concernent de manire spcifique les migrants. Il est ncessaire de rappeler que lexercice mme de la souverainet tatique doit permettre de protger les droits des migrants. Les gouvernements et les institutions rgionales ont la responsabilit de sassurer que tout migrant puisse jouir comme toute personne des droits garantis et protgs par les droits de lHomme, et en premier lieu de lapplication du principe de non discrimination, garantis dans la Dclaration universelle des droits de lhomme de 1948, les deux Pactes internationaux de 19661 et dans la plupart des Constitutions nationales. De nombreux migrants apparaissent trs vulnrables au regard des rudes preuves quils endurent. Le trafic dtres humains sur lequel on peut sappesantir titre dexemple, est condamn par de nombreuses organisations et par de nombreux Etats qui estiment quil est ncessaire de le combattre car il constitue : une violation des droits de lhomme, due la coercition, la violence et aux abus sexuels exercs sur les victimes ; une menace pour lordre public et la scurit des hommes notamment cause du dveloppement de la criminalit organise ; un problme troitement li au march du travail, d la demande et lutilisation de la main-duvre clandestine. Pour lutter efficacement contre le traite dtres humains, il faut entre autres concentrer les efforts de plaidoyer et de sensibilisation sur le renforcement des mcanismes de rgulation sociale au sein des communauts et des institutions. Nous relverons aussi la question des travailleurs migrants, la plupart travaillant dans le secteur informel. La Convention internationale sur la protection des droits de tous les travailleurs migrants et des membres de leur famille de 1990 a t ratifie par plusieurs pays dAfrique de lOuest comme le Sngal, le Ghana, la Guine, le Niger, le Cap-Vert, le Burkina Faso et le Nigeria. Si le contenu de cette convention offre un cadre juridique trs protecteur aux travailleurs migrants, son effectivit reste trs lacunaire. De plus, de nombreux Etats nont pas encore ratifi cette convention, en particulier les pays de destination dits du Nord.
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Pacte international relatif aux droits civils et politiques et Pacte international relatif aux droits conomiques, sociaux et culturels, Rsolution 2200 A (XXI) du 16 dcembre 1966.
De manire gnrale, la question de lapplication effective des instruments de droits de lhomme se pose : trop dabus contre les migrants ne donnent pas lieu des poursuites et une protection relle des migrants dans leur quotidien.
Conclusion
En Afrique de lOuest, lOrganisation internationale pour les migrations (OIM) est de plus en plus appele agir en tant quintermdiaire efficace entre les Etats pour garantir un processus ordonn, digne et humain. Le bureau rgional sefforce dassurer le lien effectif entre le droit et le fait, dtre un agent qui permet de transcrire dans les faits le respect des droits qui figurent dans les textes internationaux et qui parfois risquent de rester lettre morte. Ce rle est dautant plus important que la migration internationale est un processus complexe qui met en jeu, de manire directe ou indirecte, une diversit dacteurs, suivant une pluralit de logiques, souvent contradictoires : Le migrant (ou le candidat lmigration) dont la dcision de partir peut tre strictement individuelle, mais peut aussi tre le rsultat dune stratgie familiale ou collective, qui sappuie sur un rseau de solidarit des membres de la communaut de rfrence (gographique, ethnique, religieux, etc.). Le rseau migratoire met en jeu un systme dacteurs sociaux. Ce systme est dfini par un ensemble de liens dentraide qui relient les migrants et les non-migrants et qui favorisent la migration, grce aux diffrentes formes dappui quil apporte au candidat la migration. Les rseaux de passeurs et de trafiquants dtres humains qui organisent le voyage et le franchissement des frontires des pays daccueil. Ils jouent un rle important dans lamplification de la migration irrgulire dans les pays de la sous-rgion. Ces rseaux sont difficiles dmanteler en raison de la diversit de leur composition. Les routes du trafic se multiplient et se ramifient pour constituer des itinraires de plus en plus complexes, et la participation de rseaux criminels organiss sur les plans transnational et local, en violation flagrante des normes nationales et internationales, est dsormais rpandue. LEtat dont la responsabilit fondamentale est dassurer la gestion des stocks et des flux dmigration et dimmigration, de concevoir des politiques migratoires appropries,
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dapporter des solutions consensuelles et pratiques sur tous les problmes de migrations. La communaut internationale dont le rle est la fois daccompagner les Etats et les institutions rgionales dans leurs efforts en matire de gestion des migrations, et de dvelopper des activits spcifiques qui ciblent les migrants et leur communaut dorigine. Dans les principes comme dans les moyens, il y a lieu de convenir sur un ensemble de rgles qui permettent de rendre le systme plus transparent et adapt au contexte actuel des migrations internationales, selon les vux des uns et les proccupations des autres. La dfinition et le partage des responsabilits dans les politiques migratoires doivent faire lobjet dune attention particulire de la part des diffrents gouvernements concerns et des institutions rgionales. Mais, quelles que soient les options de politique choisies, la promotion et le respect des droits des migrants doivent toujours occuper une place centrale.
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MIGRATION IN NORTHERN AFRICA: KEY CHALLENGES
(Mr. Peter SCHATZER) (written down by IOM from the speech presented by Mr. Peter Schatzer)
Commencing his presentation, Peter Schatzer employs the use of a picture of an island that in recent years has become the symbol for international migration management, which is geographically, and tectonically Africa but politically Italy, that is, the island of Lampedusa. Highlighting the diverse nature and mixed flows of different types of migrants, Mr. Schatzer explains that, for example, in one boat landing in Sicily, it is not unusual to have economic migrants, environmental migrants, asylum seekers, victims of trafficking, unaccompanied minors and other vulnerable groups mixed together. None of these distinctions will be the only one for a single person, many migrants will have 2 to 3 intersecting ones, which is a reason why it is complicated for governments and international organisations to work on durable solutions for them. The challenges the governments face is the management of such flows in a humane manner, how to observe human rights standards but at same time prevent unauthorised economic migration, and ensure security concerns are addressed. Furnishing detailed graphs of African presence in Europe, (please see below) Mr. Schatzer illustrates the migrant stocks in the European Union (EU) in 2000 and observes that there are three countries that have the largest stocks: Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. Libyan and other African countries migrants are rather few.
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Stock of migrants by origin country in main destination areas in 2000
Source: Docquier & Marfouk.
Destinations beyond Europe include substantial migration to the Arab Gulf region particularly from Egypt, and also from Sudan and some from Morocco. There is also considerable migration to Australia, US and Canada. From first hand knowledge and experience, Mr. Schatzer asserts that most reasons for migration are economically founded. In an effort to explain this economic basis, Mr. Schatzer cites statistics (please see below) from the World Development Indicators database of the World Bank 2009, and highlights that the per capita income in 2008 of Libya (USD 11,590) was almost as much as that of Malta (USD 16,680) which explains why there are fewer Libyans emigrating. Whereas in Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia, the per capita income is less than one tenth of what the average income is north of the Mediterranean.
Per capita income 2008 (USD)
Algeria Egypt Libya Morocco Tunisia (2006) France Italy Malta Spain Turkey 4,260 1,800 11,590 2,580 2,970 42,250 35,240 16,680 31,960 9,340
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Source: World Development Indicators database, World Bank, 7 October 2009.
Focusing on the five Maghreb countries his office deals with, Mr. Schatzer details the statistics and issues, country by country: Algeria is already a destination country with 230,000 migrants in the country. Like other countries in the area, Algeria is forced to deal with issues such as expulsions. According to statistics, they have expelled approximately 30,000 migrants, mostly from Africa but also Asia. Algeria has approximately 230,000 migrants, which accounts for 0.7 per cent of the population. However, according to Algerian Press, quoting sources of the Gendarmerie, between 2006 and 2009, approximately 30,000 irregular migrants were expelled. Most of these migrants were from some 48 African countries, and in recent years there were also Asians including Afghans, Pakistani, Indians and Chinese. Conversely, there are approximately six million Algerian nationals abroad, including 400,000 highly qualified, established in key positions. The main destination countries include France, Belgium, Spain, Canada, United States and Arab countries. This influx of irregular migrants, mainly from sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, was mostly transit migration but with stricter controls across the Mediterranean many of these migrants are staying and creating additional challenges for the government. Algeria is also trying to make good use of the remittances they received, namely the 2.5 million USD in 2006, and is also concerned with not only immigration issues but protecting the rights and maintaining the links to their own diaspora. This is a pattern that can be seen throughout most of Northern Africa. Mauritania has approximately 200,000 migrants, mostly from Africa but increasingly from Asia. It has approximately 250,000 migrants abroad, the main destination countries being Spain and Morocco. Some of the key issues concerning the Mauritanian government include transit migration, where irregular migrants attempt to transit through Mauritanian territory on route to the Canary Islands but who are not always successful. With increasing cooperation between France, Spain, Mauritania and Senegal, these migrants get stuck, require assistance and need to be returned. Migration management is also an issue at hand, specifically the reinforcement of border control systems. Mr. Schatzer refers to the computer system IOM has developed, which is in operation at the airport at the border
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in Mauritania, as an example of such indispensible systems required for management. The inception of additional measures to fight irregular migration such as information campaigns and the provision of alternatives to irregular migration is also aspired to.
Experiencing between 10,000 and 20,000 irregular migrants from Senegal, Nigeria, Mali, Cameroun, Congo, DRC, and Cte dIvoire, Morocco also has 3.3 million migrants living abroad, mostly in Europe. Similarly, the issues for Morocco include irregular migration and the readmission agreement with the EU. This agreement is still under negotiation and has been for many years. The return of irregular migrants from Morocco is also a big challenge for many countries. It is very costly and does not only require funding but also cooperation with the countries of origin. It is argued that it is not only less expensive but also more humane to try to convince migrants to choose assisted voluntary return rather than forced return. Furthermore, the setting up of bilateral agreements is also crucial. When there are opportunities for jobs and migrants willing to take these jobs, Mr. Schatzer ascertains that it makes more sense to leave the matching to official channels than to smugglers. Linked to this is the issue of migration and development where the focus is on how to use the capacity of migrants abroad in order to help their countries of origin develop. Tunisia still has a rather limited number of migrants and Mr. Schatzer attributes this in part to the low per capita income. Those migrants it does attract are foreign African students, mainly from francophone countries. Tunisia also has over 1 million nationals abroad, mainly in France, Italy and Germany. Chief amongst its concerns is labour migration and how to get Tunisians to work legally in Europe. France has recently signed a major agreement with the Tunisian government. Based on this, important cooperation is imminent. Italy is still in the process of discussing a similar agreement. Development concerning the role and support of the Tunisian Diaspora abroad for both second and third generations also features amongst concerns. The last country case example was that of Libya. Libya is not an emigration country but a destination country and accommodates between 750,000 and 2.5 million irregular migrants. The biggest caseloads come from neighbouring countries. There are no official figures on Libyan diaspora but estimates are between 5,000 and 10,000 persons. There are usually highly qualified and the main destinations include the US and UK, for whom the government has recently set up a Secretariat of Migration and Expatriates,
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thus demonstrating the interest by the administration in capturing figures and features of their nationals. Special factors: Thus, in summary the Mediterranean situation involves a mix of regional and extra-regional migrants and migration in and out of Africa. The ECOWAS Protocol facilitates the movement but makes it more difficult at the same time to control it.
There is growing international cooperation but when matters becomes really tough, national approaches often prevail. Other special factors peculiar to this regions is its proximity to Europe, the very dangerous, uncontrolled desert borders and border areas and the fact that this gives rise to opportunities for profit and criminal activities. There is a large potential for corruption of underpaid police officers and border guards and thus routes change quite often as the smugglers react to the measures taken by the border control authorities. The recent financial crisis has not led to major numbers of returnees yet but has undoubtedly led to a decrease in the number of people trying to reach Europe. Again, this illustrates the economic driving force behind migration. Mr. Schatzer explains that there have been some positive developments of cooperation between the African Union and the EU, the Rabat process, the 5+5, and that the focus is increasingly on the individuals and their backgrounds, not only their rights. He notes that the majority are young, able bodied men and most of whom are not victims of trafficking. The numbers of women are small yet growing but there is a strong suspicion of trafficking. The movement of these migrants both solo and organised and the potential to suffer violence is quite high. There are three groups, including the subSaharan migrants, the extra-regional migrants (mostly Asian but soon also from Latin America) and the North African migrants. Closing his presentation, Mr. Schatzer produces slides of international migration routes, available on the courtesy of the Turkish border police. Although it is a low tech approach, it shows various routes for smuggling and trafficking. Furnishing a slide of a more high tech approach, developed by the International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD) in Vienna under the imap, Mr. Schatzer explains that it is regularly updated with intelligence from police sources and again it shows the routes being used in order to reach northern Africa and parts of Europe. Many of the involved governments and border police use this information to contemplate measures to halt this irregular migration.
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In conclusion, Mr. Schatzer reasons that the positive termination of irregular migration necessitates the insistence of more measures to cooperate on filling those positions that are available through regular migration and the cooperation of all the agencies and forces to act thereon.
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LA MIGRATION ET LE CHANGEMENT CLIMATIQUE

(M.Timon van LIDTH)
1. Elments introductifs sur les liens entre migration et changement climatique

Les liens entre lenvironnement, le climat et la mobilit humaine font face un caractre amplifi des dsordres cologiques et de la vulnrabilit de populations entires. Il sagit ici de donner des lments sur le contexte et de dfinir les personnes concernes par la migration environnementale.
1.1 Contexte
Sans revenir ici sur les raisons du changement climatique, il convient toutefois de rappeler que les causes des dplacements de population pour raisons environnementales (inondation, dsertification, scheresse, pollutions) y sont de plus en plus lies. Le changement climatique prend des dimensions qui influent dj sur la vie de nombreuses personnes et communauts travers le monde. Il y aura sans conteste des consquences importantes sur la mobilit des populations dans les dcennies venir. Toutefois lactualit, notamment avec le Sommet sur le Climat de Copenhague, ne doit pas laisser penser que la question est rcente. Dj en 1990, le Panel intergouvernemental sur le changement climatique, groupe prparatif du Sommet de Rio de 1992, dclarait que la migration humaine compterait parmi les effets les plus graves du changement climatique. Il existe ainsi des liens troits entre changements climatiques et environnementaux, scurit humaine et migrations. Les chiffres actuels et les prvisions manquent de fiabilit. Selon Myers, il existait dj en 1995 entre 20 et 25 millions de migrants environnementaux dans le monde.2 En Afrique il y aurait eu, au cours des deux dernires dcennies, 10 millions de migrants ou dplacs internes ayant quitt leur localit dorigine pour des raisons climatiques. Les prvisions se situent sur
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Myers, N., Environmental refugees: a growing phenomenon of the 21st century, Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society, Vol. 357, p. 609-613, 2001.
une chelle trs large : selon diverses estimations, il y aura entre 20 millions et 1 milliard de migrants environnementaux dici 2050.3 LAfrique de lOuest est une des rgions du monde les plus vulnrables face aux changements climatiques, en particulier le long de la bande sahlienne. Cette dgradation du climat dans la sous-rgion a de graves consquences telles que la perte de terres cultivables et habitables, laugmentation des conflits lis au foncier et aux ressources en eau (aux niveaux interne et transfrontalier) ainsi que laugmentation et la complexification des mouvements de population avec notamment, une pression migratoire intense vers les villes. Par exemple, des inondations touchent rgulirement le nord comme le sud du Nigeria ainsi que dautres pays ouest africains: en 2007, environ 5 700 personnes furent dplaces faisant plusieurs dizaines de morts. Les inondations avaient contamin des sources deau non protges, touch gravement les rcoltes, dcal la saison de plantation des semences, des milliers denfants ne pouvaient plus aller lcole et laccs aux centres de sant et sociaux tait difficile. Moins de dix ans auparavant, en 1999 et 2000, plus de 200 000 personnes furent dplaces dans lEtat du Niger cause de graves inondations.4 Environ un million de personnes vivant dans les basses plaines le long du fleuve Niger sont toujours considres comme population risque du fait des inondations survenant rgulirement dans ces zones. Les catastrophes cologiques ont des consquences dautant plus graves lorsquelles surviennent dans des contextes dinstabilit politique interne, de problmes de gouvernance, de violations rptes des droits de lhomme, de questionnements identitaires sensibles, de prcarit conomique et sociale dailleurs de plus en plus marque - et durbanisation rapide et peu contrle. De plus, llment environnemental comme motif de migration est souvent combin dautres motifs de migration comme la recherche demplois et de meilleures conditions de vie.
Lapproche de lOIM fonde sur la scurit humaine

Afin de faire face aux multiples dfis que soulvent le lien entre migration et environnement, lOrganisation internationale pour les migrations (OIM) a
Voir notamment les prvisions du Panel intergouvernemental sur le changement climatique dans : Parry M.L., Canziani O.F., Palutikof J.P., van der Linden P.J. and Hanson C.E., Eds. Cambridge University Press, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge, UK , p. 7-22. 4 Refugee Studies Centre, Forced Migration Review: Climate change and displacement, n31, October 2008, p. 37.
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adopt une approche fonde sur la scurit humaine qui inclut notamment les lments suivants : dveloppement durable, assistance humanitaire et prvention des risques en cas de catastrophes. La scurit humaine est ici entendue comme un concept large englobant la scurit environnementale, conomique, alimentaire, sanitaire, juridique, politique, communautaire et personnelle.
LOIM fonde son approche sur une gestion humaine de la migration, selon lide que les migrations continueront exister, que les tre humains ont des stratgies dadaptation et de dveloppement, mais que les migrations comportent des risques tout comme des avantages qui doivent tre rguls. Il sagit aussi de reconnatre les liens et la ncessaire combinaison des politiques de scurit humaine, environnementales et migratoires ainsi que limportance de la coopration locale et internationale. LOIM fait des efforts de recherche afin de mieux comprendre et connatre le lien entre migration et changement climatique,5 dapporter des rponses oprationnelles et dassister les populations lors de catastrophes naturelles. Dans le cadre de lorganisation de laide humanitaire des Nations Unies, lOIM est responsable de la gestion et de la coordination des camps en cas de catastrophe naturelle. Enfin, elle soutient les processus de dveloppement de politiques (orientations, expertise, dialogue, etc.).
1.2 Dfinitions
Pour caractriser les phnomnes auxquels nous assistons, il est primordial de trouver des dfinitions prcises et acceptes par les acteurs concerns, et en premier lieu les Etats. Pour qualifier les personnes migrantes, il existe une multiplicit de termes : rfugis ou dplacs environnementaux, rfugis cologiques ou climatiques, migrants environnementaux, corfugis, etc. Les mdias utilisent de manire accrue lexpression de rfugis climatiques . La premire dfinition a t labore par le Programme des Nations Unies pour lenvironnement (PNUE) en 1985, qui dfinit les rfugis environnementaux comme ceux qui sont forcs de quitter leur lieu de vie temporairement ou de faon permanente cause dune rupture environnementale (dorigine naturelle ou humaine) qui a mis en pril leur existence ou srieusement affect leurs conditions de vie .6
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Un exemple de projet actuellement mis en uvre par lOIM est le projet damlioration et de valorisation des services des cosystmes forestiers au Sngal (PASEF) qui comprend des activits de recherche. 6 Traduit de langlais ; El-Hinnawi E., Environmental refugees, PNUE, 1985, p. 41.
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La dfinition de lOIM retient la notion de migrants environnementaux qui sont: des personnes ou groupes de personnes qui, pour des raisons imprieuses lies un changement environnemental soudain ou progressif influant ngativement sur leur vie ou leurs conditions de vie, sont contraintes de quitter leur foyer habituel ou le quittent de leur propre initiative, temporairement ou dfinitivement, et qui, de ce fait, se dplacent lintrieur de leur pays ou en sortent .7 Cette dfinition est plus prcise et semble plus complte dans la mesure o tout en nonant llment de temporalit (dplacement temporaire ou dfinitif), elle prend en compte de manire explicite le caractre individuel ou collectif du dplacement, le franchissement ou non dune frontire internationale et surtout retient le caractre forc ou volontaire de la migration. Il nexiste ce jour aucun consensus international sur telle ou telle dfinition. Un tel consensus sur une dfinition claire et unanimement reconnue est crucial en vue de llaboration et de ladoption de textes officiels et dinstruments juridiques en la matire, reconnus par les Etats et lensemble des acteurs concerns.
2. Dfis lis au lien entre migration et changement climatique

Le lien entre migration et changement climatique pose une srie de questions et de dfis complexes et transversaux. Des lments dordre cologique, conomique, social, politique et juridique sentremlent. La question de la protection juridique des migrants environnementaux est particulirement dlicate comme nous le verrons. Dautres dfis seront aussi brivement prsents.
2.1 Quelle protection pour les migrants environnementaux ?

Afin de traiter et protger les migrants environnementaux qui seront toujours plus nombreux dans les dcennies venir, il est urgent de qualifier juridiquement cette catgorie de migrants. Cela prsente des difficults de taille, notamment parce que les faits gnrateurs des dplacements sont complexes et varis (faisceau dlments) et que les dplacements en raison de catastrophe cologique prennent des formes varies. Le cadre juridique actuel est trs lacunaire et les paradigmes et concepts susceptibles dtre utiliss sont trop troits pour assurer une protection juridique effective.
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OIM, Sminaire dexperts sur la migration et lenvironnement, 2008, p. 26.
Le droit existant ne prsente que de faibles potentialits ; Droit des rfugis: nnonce pas de motif environnemental pour lobtention du statut, les dplacs internes en sont exclus et le cadre juridique est inadapt aux migrations collectives ; Droit des personnes dplaces internes : ne prend pas en compte les migrants internationaux, est fond sur les Principes des Nations Unies en vigueur, aussi en tant que telle na pas de valeur contraignante ; Droit international des Droits de lHomme : na ni dinstrument ni de dispositions spcifiques ; Protection des victimes de catastrophes naturelles ; Conventions sur lapatridie8 (1954 et 1961): champ dapplication trop limit puisque traitant seulement des apatrides ; Droit de lenvironnement et notamment la Convention cadre sur les changements climatiques de 1992.9 La question se pose alors de modifier le droit existant en revenant sur le contenu des branches du droit nonces ci-dessus. En vue dune protection des migrants environnementaux, certains soutiennent quun protocole pourrait tre annex la Convention-cadre des Nations Unies sur les changements climatiques de 1992.10 La troisime possibilit serait de crer une nouvelle protection internationale. Des accords rgionaux et bilatraux pourraient complter le dispositif. Le projet de protection le plus abouti est la Convention relative au statut international des dplacs environnementaux.11 Ce texte intgre les dplacements temporaires et dfinitifs, avec des volets de protection, dassistance, ainsi que le principe des responsabilits communes mais diffrencies des Etats. Ce projet prvoit en outre une agence mondiale pour les dplacs environnementaux, des commissions nationales dattribution du statut et un fond mondial pour laide et lassistance aux victimes. Il est nanmoins vident quau-del de ces difficults dordre juridique, la ncessit dune protection la hauteur des enjeux ne peut tre remise
Convention relative au statut des apatrides, Rsolution 256 A (XVII), 28 septembre1954 et la Convention sur la rduction des cas dapatridie, Rsolution 896 (IX), 30 aot 1961. 9 La seule rfrence explicite entre migrations et environnement se trouve dans la Convention internationale de lutte contre la dsertification de 1994. 10 Proposition du Global Governance Project, un groupe de chercheurs reli plusieurs universits europennes. 11 Travaux dun groupe duniversitaires juristes en France, dans le cadre des activits du Centre de recherches interdisciplinaires en droit de lenvironnement, de lamnagement et de lurbanisme (CRIDEAU), 2009.
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en cause. Lide dun droit dasile environnemental fait son chemin malgr certaines rticences. Quelle que soit loption choisie, il sagira sans doute, comme le soutient Christel Cournil, Matre de Confrences lUniversit Paris 13, de se doter dune dmarche holistique faisant converger les branches juridiques mentionnes plus haut, de dvelopper des concepts juridiques innovants et de rduire les carences actuelles du droit international.
2.2 Divers dfis : entre recherche, volont politique et gouvernance mondiale

En plus du dfi juridique de qualifier et dtablir les contours de la protection des migrants environnementaux, les dfis poss par le lien entre migration et changement climatique sont varis. Il nest pas question ici dtre exhaustif mais de prsenter quelques dfis importants. Il est utile de rappeler que danalyser la migration en lien aux conditions dgrades de lenvironnement est pertinent dans de nombreux cas. Toutefois, la notion dadaptation est aussi prcieuse pour comprendre les phnomnes migratoires. Les tres humains sadaptent leur environnement et peuvent tre amens se dplacer en qute de meilleures conditions de vie. La recherche doit veiller prendre en considration la multiplicit des contextes et des motifs conduisant aux migrations. De plus, pour avoir une analyse plus complte du lien entre migration et environnement, il est utile de porter notre attention sur dautres champs dtude que celui des consquences des changements climatiques sur la mobilit humaine : il peut tre judicieux dtudier les effets de la migration sur lenvironnement.12 De manire gnrale, il est ncessaire de dvelopper les enqutes de terrain et de collecter des donnes fiables. Une difficult pour la recherche, et qui se pose aussi pour la qualification des migrants, est de dterminer dans quelles mesures ces derniers peuvent tre considrs comme environnementaux , les motifs de la migration tant souvent multiples et imbriqus. Au niveau politique, un dfi est de renforcer les convergences entre les agendas du dveloppement, de la migration et de la lutte contre le changement climatique. Ces problmatiques sont de plus en plus troitement lies. En outre, une volont politique plus forte de la part des gouvernements est ncessaire: il sera primordial de dterminer quelles sont les priorits et sur quels fondements (manque de donnes, problmes de prvision, droit, financements) dvelopper des stratgies et actions pertinentes.
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Cest par exemple la dmarche de Ram Christophe Sawadogo, Professeur lUniversit de Ouagadougou, dans son tude mise en ligne sur le site www.droit-migrations-ao.org et intitule Migration et dgradation environnementale, entre prsupposs et donnes empiriques: problmatiques revisites , 2007.
Pour le moment, laccent est davantage mis sur les rponses apportes en cas de catastrophe soudaine que sur la dgradation environnementale moyen et long terme. Une attention particulire doit dsormais tre porte cette dimension et ses liens avec la mobilit humaine. Plus gnralement, la mobilisation - sincre ou non - de nombreux acteurs gouvernementaux et non gouvernementaux sur le changement climatique pose la question de savoir dans quelle mesure nous nous orientons vers une gouvernance environnementale mondiale. Il semble que nous en soyons encore loin. Le Sommet de Copenhague sur le climat (du 7 au 18 dcembre 2009) fournira sans aucun doute des lments de rponse. Comme le soutient Christel Cournil, il semble que seule une dmarche vritablement innovante et cratrice permettra la communaut internationale de trouver des solutions efficaces aux crises globales qui menacent notre plante .13
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13
Les rfugis cologiques : Quelle(s) protection(s), quel(s) statut(s) ? , Revue du Droit public, n4-2006, pp. 1035-1066.
RESPONDING TO ROOT CAUSES
MIGRATION CIRCULAIRE ENTRE LES PAYS DORIGINE ET DE DESTINATION

(M. Federico BARROETA) (retranscrit par lOIM partir du discours donn par M. Barroeta)
Le but de cette prsentation est dessayer de mieux comprendre quelles sont les caractristiques de la migration circulaire et comment identifier les diffrentes tapes clefs dans un processus de gestion de la migration circulaire. La prsentation va tre dtaille mais il est important de bien comprendre les lments que lon doit prendre en compte quand on parle de la migration circulaire. Dans la premire partie, je vais prsenter le cadre normatif et institutionnel et les dfis lis lmigration: les caractristiques de la migration temporaire, lhistorique, les causes et les diffrences avec la migration de longue dure. Dans la deuxime partie, je vais expliquer chaque tape du processus de gestion de la migration circulaire : prslection et slection des candidats durant la phase de pr-dpart (recrutement, information, formation), le suivi des travailleurs migrants, loptimisation des capacits acquises, la rintgration et le rle des agences de dveloppement local dans la gestion et laccompagnement durant toutes les phases. Tout dabord, il faut remarquer quil ny a pas une seule dfinition de la migration circulaire mais plusieurs. Il sagit dun phnomne impliquant la migration temporaire de personnes qui quittent leur pays dorigine, en gnral pour exercer une activit conomique dans un autre pays et revenir ensuite dans leur pays dorigine aprs une priode de courte dure (la dfinition tient compte de la temporalit de la migration). Elle doit tre perue comme le mouvement fluide, continu et long terme de personnes entre deux pays, y compris les mouvements temporaires et ceux plus permanents. Lorsquelle se produit de manire planifie et volontaire, en relation avec les besoins en main-duvre des pays de destination, la migration circulaire peut tre bnfique pour toutes les parties concernes. Une manire planifie doit inclure certainement des accords entre les pays concerns, mais aussi limplication des diffrents acteurs dans ce processus.
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De plus, il faut dire que la migration circulaire et temporaire existe depuis trs longtemps. Dans les annes 1960, il y avait dj en France et en Allemagne des programmes de migration temporaire avec les pays de lAfrique du Nord. Et mme historiquement, les migrants ont toujours et de manire spontane fait des allers-retours entre leur pays dorigine et daccueil (par exemple les migrants sngalais en Europe) et cela depuis des gnrations. Mais dans le pass les programmes de migration temporaire taient plus frquents et considraient le retour des migrants dans leur pays dorigine comme la fin du cycle migratoire. Cest ce qui diffrencie les programmes des annes 1960 de ceux de nos jours : maintenant le cycle migratoire ne sarrte pas. Les migrants reviennent dans leur pays dorigine, mais aprs quelque temps, ils peuvent repartir dans le pays daccueil. Cela constitue la valeur ajoute de cette nouvelle vision de la migration circulaire. Ce concept a t repris par lUnion Europenne qui encourage les partenariats pour la mobilit et lorganisation de la migration circulaire afin de faciliter la circulation entre les ressortissants de pays tiers et des pays de lUnion Europenne. Des annes 1970 aujourdhui, lUnion Europenne a formul une lgislation dans ce sens ainsi que des recommandations. Gnralement, on associe la migration circulaire lagriculture parce que cest dans ce domaine que la plupart des dplacements ont t organiss. Dans le cadre des accords entre le Maroc et lEspagne par exemple, cela a concern prs de vingt-mille migrants par an dans le domaine de lagriculture. Mais la migration circulaire existe aussi dans dautres secteurs qui ont des pics de demande de main-duvre, comme la construction, lhtellerie, la restauration et mme dautres secteurs hautement qualifis. On peut remarquer deux types de migration circulaire : celui qui vise des travailleurs hautement qualifis (par exemple le cas de demande de personnel de lAllemagne dans les annes 90), des diplms et des tudiants dans un cycle migratoire de longue dure ; celui qui cible la main-duvre moins qualifie comme les ouvriers agricoles, ou semi-qualifie comme les agents du secteur touristique dont les cycles sont plus courts et plus rcurrents. En outre, la migration circulaire est lie au march de lemploi. On remarque lexistence dun surplus de demande de main-duvre constante (surtout en Europe et aux Etats-Unis) que les entreprises ont du mal absorber sur le march intrieur. Evidemment, il y a eu comme solution des processus de dlocalisation, cest--dire de changement des lieux des
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activits, mais cela nest pas toujours facile faire. Par exemple, les usines de voitures, dordinateurs, peuvent tre dlocalises mais pas la construction, le tourisme ou lagriculture qui doivent rester prs des consommateurs. En Europe il y a de plus en plus une reconnaissance (malgr la crise conomique) quon a besoin de travailleurs low skilled qui nont pas de niveau de qualification lev et quon ne peut pas trouver au niveau local. Le problme est que ces migrants ne peuvent gnralement entrer que de manire irrgulire, mme si il existe une forte demande de main-duvre sur le march du travail. Il est trs important de prendre cela en compte parce que cela prouve que les travailleurs migrants ne sont pas toujours en comptition avec les travailleurs nationaux dans le pays de destination. La migration circulaire constitue un concept de triple gagnant . Tout dabord pour les pays dorigine qui bnficient des transferts de fonds et des connaissances rapportes par les migrants. Ces transferts de savoir-faire ne concernent pas seulement des connaissances techniques mais aussi des faons de travailler diffremment, des changements par rapport la culture du travail, des nouvelles ides et initiatives. De lautre ct, les pays de destination ont besoin de main-duvre dans certains secteurs et la migration circulaire peut satisfaire ce besoin. La situation est surtout bnfique pour les migrants, qui peuvent travailler en situation lgale, et qui reoivent des salaires. Avec cette pargne, ils peuvent amliorer significativement leur niveau de vie dans le pays dorigine. Quand on parle de la migration circulaire il y a certains aspects importants quil faut prendre en compte : Le temps des sjours : plus le temps est long, plus de gens ont envie de retourner. On a analys cependant des cas particuliers dans lagriculture o le temps de travail dans le pays de destination tait court et on a vu clairement la possibilit des migrants davoir, en deux ou trois mois, une capacit dpargne suffisante pouvant favoriser lincitation au retour et linscription dans une dynamique ou une logique de circularit. La flexibilit du systme : il faut sassurer que le cycle migratoire soit continu. Les possibles changements dans les politiques migratoires : On voit par exemple des pays en Europe qui taient dans le pass plutt favorables lide de la migration circulaire mais qui ne le sont plus prsent.
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Une ide considrer est le rapport entre migration irrgulire et migration circulaire lgale. La migration circulaire ne peut tre conue comme la rponse la migration irrgulire. Elle rpond une problmatique diffrente, propre au monde de lemploi. Il est important de signaler ceci car dans certaines dfinitions, on exprime un lien direct. Etablir ce lien direct cre une certaine confusion en mettant laccent sur les rapatriements.
En somme, le plus important est davoir des programmes de migration circulaire bien organiss afin den retirer tous les bnfices. Dailleurs, le principe de la circularit est clair : il y a le recrutement dans le pays dorigine, suivi du travail, et puis du retour. Mais la diffrence avec les programmes de migration mis en place dans le pass est ici la dure du cycle migratoire. Il doit y avoir une certaine permanence, avec des cycles de dparts et de retours systmatiques. Cela permet davoir plus de flexibilit et de profit de ce systme. De plus, il faut prendre en compte le rle des Services Publics pour lEmploi (SPE) et le volet international. Les SPE permettent davoir des programmes de migration circulaire continus dans la dure. Sinon on risque davoir des problmes dans chaque partie du cycle migratoire qui pourront mettre en pril le futur des programmes. On vite davoir une gestion spare du march national et international. Pour les SPE, il y a tout dabord la phase de recrutement (faire une prslection et slection finale). Pour cela il est important de suivre un code thique afin dviter la traite et les problmes qui peuvent survenir quand les migrants arrivent dans le pays de destination. Il faut aussi prendre en compte le profilage et ladaptation aux demandes. Autrement dit, il faut donner de limportance au profil du migrant et sa capacit de faire le travail demand, et en plus la logistique ncessaire pour rpondre aux demandes et aux volumes assez importants. Il est prfrable de travailler en petit nombre et de crer un systme capable de fonctionner et de sadapter dans le futur, plutt que dessayer de se lancer dans des expriences dont on ne dispose pas la capacit de rponse adquate. Il faut galement contrler les instruments de validation des contrats, assurer un suivi des changes entre les employeurs et les candidats par les autorits des pays dorigine, mais aussi respecter la dure minimale qui couvre le cot de la migration. Ensuite, on a la partie de prparation et suivi pour la protection des travailleurs migrants. Il est important de systmatiser un briefing de prdpart et dassurer une comprhension des conditions de travail (logements, salaires, impts) pour les personnes slectionnes. Cela parat vident, mais
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il faut que les travailleurs soient prcisment informs avant leur dpart de ce quoi ils vont tre confronts. De plus, il faut mettre en place des services dorientation et dassistance spcialiss car le processus de migration temporaire contient plus de risques ( cause de sa courte dure, de la capacit limite des migrants sintgrer dans le pays de destination et des risques dexploitation des travailleurs).
On continue avec laccompagnement des migrants lors du sjour dans le pays de destination en mettant en place des dispositifs de suivi qui assurent la protection des travailleurs migrants. Il est ncessaire davoir un systme de vrification des conditions de travail et du respect des droits en ayant des sources dinformation fiables et permanentes (en lien avec les syndicats des pays de destination et la socit civile). Il faut aussi assurer avec les autorits des pays de destination le respect de la convention de partenariat dans lintrt des deux parties. Une fois que le nombre de demandes satisfaire est atteint et que la capacit financire existe, il faut penser ouvrir des bureaux pour centraliser les informations pour les migrants (par exemple dans les annes 60 et 70, le Mexique a dvelopp en collaboration avec lEspagne et le Portugal un rseau de bureaux et dattachs sociaux qui tait lcoute des migrants). Il faut aussi garantir le droit la sant des migrants et essayer de former les migrants pendant leur sjour. La valeur ajoute de leur passage nest pas juste le travail. Ils peuvent aussi recevoir une formation qui va leur permettre dtre plus utiles quand ils vont revenir dans leurs communauts dorigine. En ce qui concerne laccompagnement des migrants lors du retour, il faut dire que le lien entre migration et dveloppement nest pas systmatique sans un appui. Les migrants saisonniers ont la capacit et le potentiel de changer leurs communauts dorigine mais ils doivent aussi avoir un accompagnement dans leurs initiatives. Un problme qui apparat est la pression familiale que les migrants reoivent de rester au pays de destination pour travailler plus. Cest pourquoi il faut prendre en compte le fait que la dcision du retour et laccompagnement doivent se faire en impliquant la personne elle-mme ainsi que sa famille. On observe aussi que les dcisions cls appartiennent aux employeurs des pays daccueil, et leurs prfrences peuvent sopposer aux intrts des pays dorigine. Il faut alors une comprhension du ct des employeurs, qui font partie dun systme form dun partenariat. De plus, les dures des saisons doivent tre suffisamment longues pour permettre le retour et un profit suffisant pour les migrants. LEspagne est le premier pays mettre en place des programmes de migration circulaire avec des pays de lAfrique subsaharienne dune faon systmatique et organise. Il y a eu des accords (pas formaliss mais plutt
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des ententes) entre pays pour quenviron 900 travailleurs, essentiellement du Sngal, mais aussi de la Mauritanie et du Mali, partent en Espagne entre 2006 et 2007. Evidemment il y a maintenant beaucoup plus de difficults poursuivre cet lan cause de la crise conomique. Il y a quand mme encore quelques groupes qui continuent faire leur dpart (par exemple 3me dpart pour les personnes qui sont partis en 2006). Alors on peut avoir des informations intressantes pour connatre limpact de ce groupe sur le march du travail et comment on peut mettre en place des institutions et de nouveaux processus bien clairs. Dans certains cas, quand les programmes taient organiss la hte sans une capacit logistique approprie, il y avait de faibles taux de retour. Mais il y a plus de succs et de retours dans les groupes plus rduits qui partent pour des priodes plus longues. Il est toujours important de tirer des leons par rapport aux rsultats pour les besoins de formalisation de nouveaux processus. Par exemple, au Maroc, il y a eu une formalisation des processus et une mise en place des institutions capables de grer le dfi des programmes de migration circulaire. Finalement, on peut mentionner une bonne pratique trs intressante du syndicat paysan espagnol Unio de Pagesos (avec un appui de lOIM) qui a dmontr que la migration circulaire organise peut avoir une valeur ajoute pour le pays de destination et pour la communaut dorigine. Ce travail a t possible grce aux passerelles entre les communauts des deux pays. Il faut prendre en compte ce genre dexpriences pour que, dans le futur, leur intgration puisse permettre la systmatisation de processus. Dans ce cas, il sagit de faire la promotion des organisations paysannes et la coopration entre les communauts rurales afin daccrotre la solidarit entre les agriculteurs. LUnion de Pagesos est un syndicat paysan Catalan qui a reu et soutenu les migrants de Colombie travaillant dans les communauts. De mme, il a promu la participation active des femmes dans les projets sociaux, culturels et conomiques dans les zones rurales. Il sagit dune notion plus large lie au dveloppement local et lorganisation du travail en Espagne. Les travailleurs taient prpars avant de partir dans leur pays dorigine et ils ont reu une formation pendant leur sjour de travail en Espagne. Durant les premires annes, ils ont eu des cours dintroduction au co-dveloppement et des cours de mise en uvre de projets. Aprs, ils ont eu des cours plus concrets sur les tudes de march et finalement, pour leur dveloppement personnel, ils ont eu des cours plus spcifiques, des visites aux coopratives, une approche plus sensibilise au genre, une formation financire qui est essentielle pour une meilleure gestion des fonds et des transferts. Ce sont des cas comme celui-ci quil faut prendre en compte pour essayer daller vers ce modle, et non vers un modle o les personnes partent pour trois mois et reviennent sans changements et sans profit pour les communauts dorigine.
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MIGRANTS IN TRANSIT
ROLE DE LA SOCIETE CIVILE DURANT LA PHASE DE TRANSIT

(Mme Cristina de LUCA)
Mesdames, Messieurs, Merci de me donner lopportunit de rflchir avec vous sur un thme li un des plus grands dfis de ce sicle : celui de grer le phnomne de la migration travers des solutions partages entre les pays dorigine, de transit et daccueil. Le thme de ce sminaire est dune actualit brlante. La migration, en effet, est un phnomne qui devient de plus en plus complexe et pour lequel il faut des outils prcis permettant de trouver des solutions politiques durables. Il faut malheureusement reconnatre que jusqu prsent lEurope, et je parle en tant quItalienne, a gr ce problme en considrant limmigration comme une urgence continuelle. Je pense que nous devons sortir de la logique durgence et travailler en considrant limmigration comme un phnomne structurel. De plus, il est ncessaire, partir dune meilleure connaissance de ce problme, de rechercher avec force des solutions partages entre les diffrents pays. Dans lexpos qui suivra, je chercherai explorer les pistes dintervention de la socit civile et surtout, rpondre la question de savoir si lengagement de la socit civile peut aider construire des nouvelles politiques dintgration. Ces dernires annes nous avons connu beaucoup de transformations dans les flux migratoires, ceci pour plusieurs raisons. Tout dabord, les raisons pour lesquelles un nombre toujours plus important de personnes quittent leur pays la recherche dune vie meilleure se sont dtriores (manque de scurit sur lavenir, plus de pauvret et plus des guerres). Ensuite, contrairement au pass o limmigr quittait son pays pour se rendre directement dans un autre pays afin dy trouver un travail, aujourdhui un nombre toujours croissant de personnes passent, pour arriver dans un pays de destination, travers plusieurs territoires. Ces passages qui ne sont pas rapides engendrent toute une srie de problmes lis la situation dans les
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pays de transit. En mme temps, ils accroissent la complexit du phnomne en favorisant les rseaux illgaux et en mettant les migrants en leur contact direct. En particulier, les flux migratoires dans le bassin Mditerranen en direction de lEurope sont devenus de plus en plus importants (International Centre for Migration Policy Development a estim que chaque jour prs de 830 000 migrants partent du continent africain), offrant aux rseaux criminels la possibilit dacqurir un pouvoir important dans la gestion de ces flux. La prsence des immigrs en transit soulve des questions qui, au-del de celles lies la rgularit ou lirrgularit de leur prsence, sont lies une srie de problmatiques au sein mme des pays. Il faut toutefois souligner que les pays daccueil ne font plus de diffrence entre les migrants rguliers et irrguliers ou encore, entre les immigrs et les demandeurs dasile. En fait, une fois que les immigrs sont arrivs dans le pays de destination, ils sont gnralement tous considrs comme des irrguliers et en tant que tels, ne sont soutenus ni par les gouvernements ni par les populations. La condition de migrant en transit est une condition complexe. Il nexiste pas une catgorie de migrants en transit. En effet, les situations de dpart et la typologie des migrants (rfugis, migrants rguliers, migrants de retour, etc.) sont trs variables. Toutefois, ils partagent tous une caractristique commune : lextrme vulnrabilit dans laquelle ils se trouvent et, pour la majorit, lassujettissement aux rseaux criminels. Ces rseaux matrisent parfaitement le terrain et font de limmigration clandestine une activit lucrative dont les retombes humanitaires et scuritaires causent dnormes difficults aux pouvoirs publics. Les rseaux sont en effet dots de moyens puissants. Limmigration de transit saccompagne souvent dautres formes de grande criminalit telles que la contrebande, le trafic de stupfiants et darmes, la contrefaon et la prostitution. Enfin, il est ncessaire de comprendre comment les pays dits de passage, serrs entre ltau dune pression migratoire croissante et une politique de plus en plus restrictive impose par lUnion Europenne, sefforcent dlaborer des solutions rpondant aux exigences de contrle et sret, de sauvegarde du territoire, en particulier du tissu socio-conomique, et grent toutes les formes de criminalit transnationale. Au regard de la situation dcrite ci-dessus, la socit civile, tant celle des pays de dpart et de transit que celle de lEurope, peut jouer un rle trs important. Quand je parle de socit civile je pense lensemble des ONG, associations de volontariat, associations dglise, missionnaires et
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syndicats qui travaillent soutenir concrtement les migrants et laborer des solutions politiques concrtes. Cest sans aucun doute un grand dfi, toutefois je suis convaincue que cest avec le travail de la socit civile que nous pourrons rsoudre une partie considrable des problmes lis limmigration et surtout, contribuer construire des politiques prenant rellement en considration la situation des immigrs.
La socit civile, surtout dans les pays daccueil, a ces dernires annes acquis une comptence forte et importante sur les problmatiques lies la migration. Quand je pense mon pays, je peux dire sans crainte dtre contredite que cest la socit civile qui a cherch, travers des projets et en coopration avec des institutions ou administrations locales, donner des rponses et favoriser le parcours dintgration des migrants. Cest notamment la socit civile qui a jou un rle important de pression sur les politiques afin que ces derniers prennent en charge ces problmes. Ce nest pas le moment de faire les louanges de la socit civile mais plutt de comprendre et daccepter, surtout de la part des gouvernements, que ces ralits diffrentes tant du point de vue des modalits dintervention que du point de vue de lengagement sont un point de rfrence pour mieux comprendre cette situation. Grce son travail quotidien bti sur le terrain, la socit civile contribue activement la gestion et la recherche de solutions concrtes. Souvent les organisations de la socit civile ont au fil du temps construit de fortes relations avec les organisations dautres pays. Tout cela a t et continuera dtre une aide remarquable pour lamlioration de la coopration entre les pays intresss par les problmes lis au phnomne migratoire. Enfin, notons que la question des pays en transit nest pas une chose temporaire mais au contraire quelque chose qui caractrisera de plus en plus limmigration. Aussi, si nous ne mettons pas en uvre des politiques daide et de coopration avec ces pays, le problme risque de perdurer. En particulier, je pense quil faut avoir comme point de rfrence des lignes directives gnrales dans le cadre desquelles doit sinscrire laction de la socit civile. En voici quelque unes ci-dessous : aider au dveloppement des pays dorigine et de transit ; rglementer les flux travers des accords entre les pays dorigine, de transit et de destination des migrants ; grer de manire intgre et synergique les frontires ; combattre les organisations criminelles de trafic et dexploitation des migrants ;
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tablir une coopration relle entre lAfrique et lEurope, cette dernire devant prendre en charge la question du dveloppement, tant donn que limmigration est troitement lie la pauvret et aux conditions de vie extrmement pnibles dune partie de pays de lAfrique.
Dans ces lignes directrices gnrales je vois des pistes de travail concrtes. Si nous cherchions formuler une dfinition du rle de la socit civile, nous pourrions dire que sa tche est de favoriser le dpassement dune politique centre sur les aspects rpressifs et scuritaires pour atteindre une politique centre sur la coopration et sur la concertation. Certes, la socit civile possde un rle subsidiaire mais ce rle est tout aussi important que celui des Etats et de la politique. Nous pouvons souligner le fait que laction de la socit civile est toujours caractrise par le respect des droits de lhomme, de la dignit humaine et par un engagement trs fort face aux problmes dexploitation des migrants. Cela ne signifie pas, et je tiens le souligner, quil faille renoncer aux mesures de contrle mais il faudrait en parallle acheminer, dans les pays de passage, des initiatives qui permettent une gestion conjointe du problme. Cest donc dans ce domaine que la socit civile peut jouer un rle important en mettant en place une coopration troite entre les ralits europennes et les ralits africaines. Cependant, tout cela suppose de la part des administrations locales une reconnaissance du potentiel qui existe au sein de la socit qui se compose souvent dun mlange entre connaissances et comptences acquises dune part, et dautre part, dune grande capacit de solidarit et dattention humaine. En outre, le problme des migrants de passage nest pas un problme qui concerne un seul pays, il concerne lensemble du systme. Aussi, toutes les actions doivent tre entreprises dans une logique nationale, transnationale et transcontinentale. Voici ci-dessous, ce qui me semble tre les principaux domaines dans lesquels la contribution et laction des associations civiles, syndicales et des ONGs peuvent tre importantes : Contribuer la diffusion des informations sur la migration et surtout sur les dimensions de flux, car linformation nest encore que partielle. Il est ncessaire de mieux connatre le phnomne et ses consquences dans les pays dorigine et de transit. Ce manque dinformations pourrait tre combl travers des activits de recherche, en collectant des informations quantitatives et qualitatives. A savoir, un produit qui soit le rsultat dune coopration entre les
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institutions et la socit civile, une collaboration troite avec ceux qui travaillent directement avec les migrants et connaissent leurs dolances et leurs problmes. Nous avons besoin de connatre et de faire connatre la migration relle et toutes les bonnes pratiques (au niveau de lassistance, de la recherche du travail, de la formation) mises en uvre dans les pays de transit. Augmenter et amliorer les relations et le partenariat entre les diffrents acteurs de la socit civile europenne et celles des pays de transit. Il est ncessaire, mme ce niveau, dtablir les relations les plus troites possibles pour tablir une coopration qui aurait comme double objectif de travailler concrtement sur le problme et daccrotre les comptences. Travailler sur les ingalits, en particulier celles rencontres par les mineurs et les femmes qui reprsentent la frange la plus fragile de la population et qui ncessitent une protection accrue face aux risques dexploitation et aux rseaux criminels. Investir dans des projets daccompagnement et de formation pour les migrants en transit. Nous savons que le transit est souvent synonyme de trs longues priodes et que lattente dans ces pays risque doccasionner, sil ny a pas dautre solution, une marginalisation. Offrir une formation professionnelle qui permette de se prparer pour le futur ainsi que des solutions alternatives peuvent aider amliorer leur situation. Ce ne sont que des suggestions. Nanmoins je suis profondment convaincue quun problme aussi complexe et difficile que la migration ncessite aujourdhui de partir dune connaissance de la ralit et dune volont politique de travailler avec tous les acteurs. Les donnes disponibles nous font comprendre que la migration de transit nest pas une modalit mais une phase du processus migratoire. Seule une coopration troite entre les deux rivages de la Mditerrane, un dveloppement de collaboration entre les administrations locales et la socit civile, un investissement rel sur lapport de ceux qui travaillent au ct des immigrs jour aprs jour nous aideront trouver des solutions dans lesquelles les droits de lhomme ne sont plus considrs en second lieu, savoir aprs avoir dfinit les politiques scuritaires des pays.
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MIGRATION BY SEA AND RESCUE AT SEA

(Ms. Christine ADAM)
My presentation is about migration by sea, focusing on rescue at sea. I will introduce the main instruments and speak about rescue at sea under international law. Finally, I will conclude with a number of observations regarding the protection of persons rescued at sea.
Migration by Sea
The world oceans cover 70 per cent of the globe. Hence, migrants often find themselves travelling by sea. It is an issue in several regions of this world, such as the Mediterranean Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Often, the migration by sea ends in a human tragedy: many people risk their lives traveling by sea in unseaworthy and overcrowded boats. And many people do indeed lose their lives at sea. The natural danger of the oceans coupled with the undertaking of unscrupulous networks of smugglers and traffickers make migration by sea one of the most dangerous ways of irregular migration. Besides the human aspects, there are also legal and political aspects to migration by sea: migration by sea is often related to irregular migration. It takes place in mixed migration flows that can be described as complex population movements, including refugees, asylum seekers, economic migrants and other migrants (IOM, Glossary on Migration, 2004 Those flows include many different categories of people on the move, inter alia, unaccompanied minors, victims of trafficking as well as refugees and asylum seekers. The treatment and protection of refugees and vulnerable groups is crucial. Migration by sea is a politically very sensitive issue, particularly for destination countries. It has been for some years now one of the most urgent issues on the agenda of the European Union and has been included in the external policies of the EU. EU Member States at the southern border complain about the over- proportional burden of arrivals of migrants at their shores who are trying to reach Europe. Those countries call for burden sharing among all EU Member States. It is noteworthy that, as a first initiative in this regard, during this year, a pilot project has been undertaken whereby France accepted to take in approximately 100 recognized refugees from Malta.
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Main International Instruments on Law of the Sea

The field of international law that deals specifically with the sea and hence contains norms relevant to migration by sea is the law of the sea, also called international maritime law. The most relevant laws, in the body of international maritime law, with respect to rescue at sea are:
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982 (UNCLOS) International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS) International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue, 1979 (SAR) However, there are also other international instruments that while not primarily targeting rescue at sea are nevertheless relevant in the context, such as: Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 2000 International Maritime Organization Interim Measures for Combating Unsafe Practices Associated with Trafficking or Transport of Migrants by Sea Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, 2000
Rescue at Sea under International Law

UNCLOS gives expression to the general tradition and practice of all seafarers and of all maritime law regarding the rendering of assistance to persons or ships in distress at sea. It reflects the humanitarian imperative to prevent loss of life at sea. It is important to note that this obligation applies in all areas of the sea and oceans, that is, in the high seas, the territorial sea, the exclusive economic zone and all other zones. The duty to render assistance is laid down in Article 98 of UNCLOS. Every State shall require the master of a ship flying its flag, in so far as he can do so without serious danger to the ship, the crew or the passengers: to render assistance to any person found at sea in danger of being lost;
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to proceed with all possible speed to the rescue of persons in distress, if informed of their need of assistance, in so far as such action may reasonably be expected of him; after a collision, to render assistance to the other ship, its crew and its passengers and, where possible, to inform the other ship of the name of his own ship, its port of registry and the nearest port at which it will call. (Article 98 paragraph 1 UNCLOS).
Moreover, Article 98 paragraph 2 UNCLOS states: Every coastal State shall promote the establishment, operation and maintenance of an adequate and effective search and rescue service regarding safety on and over the sea and, where circumstances so require, by way of mutual regional arrangements cooperate with neighbouring States for this purpose. Hence, under international law, there is a clear obligation to conduct rescue at sea for persons in distress. However, the actual challenges often start after the rescue and include questions, such as: What country should accept the persons rescued at sea? How long can persons rescued at sea stay on board of a ship which rescued them? How to make sure that they are provided with food, water, get the necessary health care, etc? Who has to cover the costs associated with rescue of irregular migrants? How to ensure non-refoulement? Those are challenges that might eventually lead to reluctance in providing the assistance to persons in distress at sea. The Tampa affair illustrates those challenges well: in 2001, the Norwegian ship Tampa rescued over 400 people from a boat which was found sinking in international waters, between Indonesia and Christmas Island. The boat had left from Indonesia. Those onboard, originating mainly from Afghanistan and Iraq, claimed to be refugees/asylum seekers. The captain first headed toward Indonesia as he was in the Indonesian search and rescue zone and the Indonesian port of Merak had been offered for disembarkation from the government. Those rescued apparently did not want to go to Indonesia and demanded aggressively that the captain change course and go to Christmas Island. The incident was politically very charged in Australia. Eventually the captain of the ship Tampa entered territorial waters without the permission of Australian authorities and the Australian military boarded the ship. New Zealand and Nauru eventually agreed to allow the rescued persons to be taken to their countries from where many of them were resettled.
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The case illustrates that the disembarkation is crucial for persons rescued as well as for ship masters. Note, however, that nowhere in the legal framework described above there is any provision setting out where or when persons rescued should be disembarked from the ship. For the shipmaster this is a critical issue. A rescue may involve a diversion from the ships intended route and this has cost implications. Also, the presence of rescued persons on board a ship can create challenges in terms of the safety of the ship, meeting any medical needs and also feeding those persons. As there is a clear humanitarian need to disembark rescued persons, why did the legal framework not address the issue of where to disembark? One suggestion is that it was not addressed because it was obvious that the next port of call was the place for persons rescued to be disembarked. It was seen as simple for the State where survivors disembarked to return them to their country of origin. But the next port of call is not defined in international law. It is in the ship masters discretion and according to the particularities of the case (e.g. refugees are not to be disembarked in the country they fled from) the next port of call is not necessarily the nearest or most convenient port nor the port of the flag state. In addition, there are practical challenges with respect to the next port of call. During the refugee crisis in the 1970s and 1980s people from Indochina fled by boat through the South China Sea. These refugees could not be returned to their country of origin and hence, States became reluctant to agree to disembark those rescued refugees. International cooperation was needed to respond to the crisis and to resettle the refugees across the world. Thanks to these resettlement programmes, those States which received persons rescued at sea and processed asylum claims knew that they would not have to shoulder the entire burden. Given the uncertainties, in an attempt to complete and clarify the obligation to rescue at sea, the following instruments were created: 2004 amendments to SOLAS and SAR Conventions and the IMO Guidelines on the Treatment of Persons Rescued at Sea, 2004. In particular, the 2004 amendments to the SOLAS and SAR Convention are important. The amendments were adopted in May 2004 and entered into force in July 2006. It is noteworthy, that the obligations under the amendments only bind those States which have accepted the amendments and not all parties to the SOLAS and SAR Convention did so. SOLAS amendment 2004 The SOLAS amendment 2004 includes the following amendments: In chapter V (Safety of Navigation) a definition of search and rescue services was added. Namely, search and rescue is performance of distress monitoring,
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communication, coordination and search and rescue functions, including provision of medical advice, initial medical assistance, or medical evacuation, through use of public, private resources, including cooperating aircraft, ships, vessels and other crafts and installations (chapter V, regulation 2, paragraph 5). The amendment clarifies that there is an obligation to provide assistance, regardless of nationality or status of persons in distress or the circumstances in which they were found (chapter V, regulation 33). Moreover, the amendment mandates coordination and cooperation between States to assist the ships master in delivering persons rescued at sea to a place of safety. It is especially important that for the first time the primary responsibility for coordination and cooperation is allocated to the contracting government responsible for the search and rescue zone. Cooperation and coordination is mandated firstly, to release the Master from its obligations with minimum deviation and secondly, to disembark survivors and deliver them to a place of safety (chapter V, regulation 33, paragraph 1-1). A new regulation on masters discretion is added: the owner, the charterer, the company operating the ship, or any other person shall not prevent or restrict the master of the ship from taking or executing any decision which, in the masters professional judgement, is necessary for safety of life at sea and protection of the marine environment (chapter V, regulation 34-1). SAR amendment 2004 The SAR amendment 2004 is along the same lines as the SOLAS amendment. A new paragraph is added in chapter 2 (Organization and coordination) relating to definition of persons in distress: Parties shall ensure that assistance be provided to any person in distress at sea (2.1.10). New paragraphs are inserted in chapter 3 (Cooperation between States) relating to assistance to the master in delivering persons rescued at sea to a place of safety. Finally, there is a new paragraph in chapter 4 (Operating procedures) relating to rescue coordination centres initiating the process of identifying the most appropriate places for disembarking persons found in distress at sea. IMO guidelines: place of safety The notion of place of safety is not defined in the amendments to SOLAS and SAR. IMO guidelines eventually define it as location where rescue operations are considered to terminate (paragraph 6.12). Moreover, the IMO Guidelines clarify that the place of safety is a place where life is no longer threatened and basic human needs are met (food, shelter, medical). It is a place from which transportation to the next or final destination can be made. The Guidelines state that disembarkation in territories where the lives
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and freedoms of refugees and asylum-seekers would be threatened, need to be avoided. The latter relates indeed to one of the main challenges in rescue at sea, that is, treatment of refugees and how and when to screen persons rescued at sea for possible refugee status.
Protection of Rights of Persons Rescued at Sea

States have policy concerns with respect to rescue at sea. However, the protection considerations under international law have to be applied. Human rights of all beneficiaries of rescue at sea operations, regardless of legal status, have to be respected. Discrimination on the grounds of sex, race, ethnic or social origin, religion or nationality is prohibited. The special needs of vulnerable groups, such as unaccompanied minors, women, victims of trafficking, and persons in need of medical care must be considered in all response activities, that is, during rescue operations, on board, at disembarkation and thereafter. Principles of international refugee protection, most importantly the principle of non-refoulement, must always be respected. Comprehensive reception assistance should be made available to all beneficiaries, including, medical care, legal counselling, and referral to competent authorities. Given that migration takes place across epidemiological boundaries with minimal or no access to health services, and taking into account the changing patterns of diseases and the existence of re-emerging diseases, the public health consequences of such population movements should be considered in the framework of reception assistance provided to migrants. Comprehensive and viable long-term solutions must be found for those rescued at sea, having regard for individual situations, including voluntary return assistance. Those involved in responding to rescue at sea situations and assisting the rescued should be trained in relevant provisions of international law. The effective protection of those rescued at sea calls for a coordinated response involving all concerned stakeholders, including intergovernmental organizations. Rescue at sea situations in the context of migration are often related to irregular migration by sea. Hence, a comprehensive approach should aim to address irregular migration and its root causes. I would like to conclude my presentation in summarizing that while there are gaps in the legal framework regarding disembarkation and place of safety, there is a clear obligation to rescue persons in distress at sea and to protect their human rights at all stages of the rescue as well as upon reception and arrival to a safe place.
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RECEPTION OF MIGRANTS
MIGRANTS IN DETENTION
(Ms. Pia OBEROI)
A wide range of human rights mechanisms, including the human rights treaty bodies, the Special Procedures and the Universal Periodic Review, have underscored with increasing urgency concerns about human rights violations relating to the detention of migrants and of asylum seekers. These mechanisms have drawn attention to the overall context which facilitates such violations, including the disturbing trend to criminalize irregular migration. Today, around the world, the migrant is seen as a dangerous, alien presence in society. He or she is in the target of hate speech, harassment and violence and is blamed for societal problems, including crime and economic difficulties. Persistent anti-migrant sentiments, often bolstered by official pronouncements, create a public atmosphere that is hostile to the presence of migrants. Such sentiments are reinforced by legislation, regulations and policies which criminalize and exclude. Immigration detention policies exemplify this. Migrants are often the only people in a country who can be detained without having committed a recognizably criminal offence and without judicial oversight and review. Often this detention can be for lengthy periods of time, and, in some cases, it is prolonged or even indefinite. It is important to stress that, because of the drastic impact of detention on the individual human being, the deprivation of liberty should in all cases be a measure of last resort and the result of an individual determination under international human rights law. Article 9(1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) provides that everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest or detention. No one shall be deprived of his [or her] liberty except on such grounds and in accordance with such procedure as are established by law. This is affirmed in Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and in Article 16(1) of the International Convention for the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (ICRMW). The Human Rights Committee (HRC) has noted that the notion of arbitrariness must not be equated with against the law but be interpreted
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more broadly to include such elements as inappropriateness and injustice. Furthermore, remand in custody could be considered arbitrary if it is not necessary in all circumstances of the case.14 Thus, administrative detention must in all cases have a legal basis and legitimate purpose, and it must be necessary, proportional, reasonable and non-discriminatory. In addition, the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention (WGAD) has recommended that a maximum period of detention should be set by law and that custody may in no case be unlimited or of excessive length.15 Under international law there is a strong presumption against immigration detention. The impulse to use detention as a punitive sanction on migrants for having entered or stayed on a territory in an irregular manner should be carefully examined. Immigration detention can be justified in only a few limited circumstances, such as to prevent absconding, to verify identity or to ensure compliance with a removal order. In general, international normative standards do not sanction the use of administrative detention as a means to punish irregular entry or stay, or as a deterrent to future movements of migrants. Safeguards against the widespread use of immigration detention are particularly important in the case of vulnerable groups of non-citizens, such as children. The issue of migrant children in detention is one of particular concern. Childrens health, educational and emotional needs are rarely met in detention; lengthy detention, in particular, can be severely detrimental to the well-being of children. Thus it is only in very exceptional circumstances that immigration detention can be said to be in the best interests of the child, which should be the overriding principle governing the treatment of all children. States are enjoined to look with some urgency into the issue of alternatives to detention for children, particularly unaccompanied children but also children who move with their families. It has been established as a general principle that unaccompanied children and child asylum seekers should not be detained. In all cases, it is important to remember that immigration control should not be put before the rights of the child. When migrants are detained there are a number of due process safeguards that international law establishes to protect them against arbitrary
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Human Rights Committee Communication: A. v. Australia, Communication No 560/1993, UN Doc CCPR/ C/59/D/560/1993, 30 April 1997. 15 Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, Deliberation Number 5: Situation regarding immigrants and asylum seekers, E/CN.4/2000/4.
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or abusive treatment. These include the right to be informed of reasons for their detention, the right to challenge the lawfulness of detention before a judicial body, the right of access to counsel, the right to legal assistance and interpretation, and the right to compensation for unlawful detention. Of particular importance in this context is the provision of separate facilities for detention, an issue highlighted by the WGAD. The WGAD has stated that custody must be effected in a public establishment specifically intended for this purpose; when, for practical reasons, this is not the case, the asylumseeker or immigrant must be placed in premises separate from those for persons imprisoned under criminal law (WGAD, 2000). Before resorting to administrative detention, however, States have legal obligations to develop alternatives to immigration detention where some form of control is deemed necessary. States are enjoined, therefore, in each individual case to consider and use less restrictive alternatives to detention, only resorting to detention if it is established that no alternative will be effective in achieving the legitimate objective. There are a number of different alternatives to immigration detention that can and have been applied by States to migrants and asylum seekers on their territories. These can range from non-custodial community-based and casework-oriented models to more restrictive options such as electronic tagging and directed residence in semi-open centres. It is important to note that in some situations, alternatives can themselves be excessively intrusive, including restrictive approaches such as high bails and bonds, onerous and invasive reporting requirements and electronic bracelets and tagging. For example, there are reports that electronic bracelets can exacerbate the stigmatization of migrants and have a severely negative impact on mental health. Very high bonds or reporting requirements that are expensive and require migrants to travel large distances could be out of the reach of many migrants and could also interfere with their right to work. Some models of alternatives could severely curtail the access of migrants to fundamental economic, social and cultural rights such as adequate housing, healthcare and education. Destitution cannot be seen as an alternative to detention. In designing alternatives to detention programmes, States are urged to examine the individual circumstances and to look closely at the effect of the measures being applied on the rights and dignity of the individual. It is important, therefore, to investigate the conditions of alternatives to detention themselves. There is a marked difference in this context between alternatives to detention and alternative forms of detention.
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States should ensure that the safeguards surrounding alternatives to detention should be as rigorous as those applied to situations of detention, including ensuring that the alternative measure is established in law, is nondiscriminatory in purpose and effect, and is subject to judicial review, and that the migrant has access to legal counsel. States should always use the least restrictive means necessary as alternatives to detention.
In addition, it is important that States try as far as possible to ensure that alternatives to detention are developed in a systematic and participatory manner, including through the participation of non-governmental organizations and migrant communities.
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LAMPEDUSA;THE RECEPTION
(Ms. Laura RIZZELLO) (written down by IOM from the speech presented by Ms. Laura Rizzello)
Lampedusa is an island in the south of Italy, which is an entrance to Europe for migrants coming from Africa. International organizations and NGOs (Italian Red Cross, International Organization for Migration (IOM), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Save the Children, and others) have been working together with the Ministry of Interior and the Italian police in an effort to monitor the reception of the arriving migrants. The exchange of information between all the actors is of great importance. The Italian Red Cross in particular is involved in the supervision of the psychophysical health of the migrants in the reception centre who wait to be transferred to other centres, to be repatriated or to be returned to the country from which they departed. It provides all kinds of information to migrants about sanitation, the reception centre and other issues that are essential to them. The Red Cross in collaboration with IOM and UNHCR identifies vulnerable individuals and submits the relevant information to the Italian authorities. The identification of minor migrants is vital. In order to determine the age of the migrant, a hand radiograph is taken. However, this age assessment method has flaws and is not 100 per cent accurate. Therefore, there have been minors who were assessed as adults and consequently lost the protection provided to minors. It is crucial that the scientific community persists on its studies on age assessment in order to secure more precise age tests. It is useful to describe the whole process of migration from Africa to Europe via Lampedusa. First of all, consider that the migrants journey before arriving to the island is rough, long and under difficult conditions. If we compare Africa, Italy and Lampedusa we can have a clearer image of the situation: Africa is a big continent of approximately 30 million square kilometres and 807 million people. Italy is a country of approximately 300,000 square kilometres and 60
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million people, of whom 3.9 million are immigrants (of whom data estimates 650,000 are irregular immigrants). Lampedusa is a small island of 21 square kilometres and 6,000 inhabitants. However, Lampedusa has an important position: it is actually located closer to Africa than Italy. The actual process begins with the sighting of the boats with the migrants and their rescue. There are several ways in which the boat people are found and then rescued: helicopters search missions, local fishermen and satellite telephones. Whenever requested, the Italian Red Cross is present in rescues or participates in searches for the missing. Psychological assistance is needed and provided not only to the migrants in the boats but also to the Italian officers who are facing this hard situation. In some unfortunate cases, even though a boat is located, it never arrives in Lampedusa as it sinks due to bad weather conditions. In other cases, the boat might arrive but some migrants may already be dead. So, there are four possible ways migrants arrive on the island: in their own boat, in a coast guards boat, in fishermens boats or by swimming directly to the beach. Upon arrival at the pier, health problems that are usually evident include hypothermia, dehydration (which can also lead to death), hunger and even miscarriages. It should be noted that childbirths can also occur during the migrants journey where hygiene conditions are generally poor. After arrival, migrants are transferred to the reception centre by coach. Before they may enter in the centre and even before police control and the identification procedures, a medical check up is mandatory. As in every Red Cross operation, dialogue is prioritized; communicating with the migrants and listening to their experiences and fears is crucial. Migrants often faced traumatic incidents in their home country or during their journey and, in many cases, spent time in prison or have been tortured. Furthermore, special attention is given to female migrants. Eight out of ten have been victims of violence, not only once but sometimes during their whole journey. Often children are born after sexual violence. On the other hand, violence can also occur against little boys, who can be traumatized for life. In the reception centre, dissemination of information to all migrants is essential. For this purpose brochures have been developed covering a variety of issues, such as violence, sanitation, legal assistance, minors, women and others.
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After a certain time, migrants are transferred to other reception centres. Vulnerable migrants, especially minors, are particularly protected by the Italian Constitution. According to Article 10, the foreigner who is prevented in his own country from the effective pursuit of freedom guaranteed by the Italian Constitution has the right to Asylum in the territory of the Republic, in accordance with the arrangements set out by law. The extradition of said foreigners for political crimes is not permitted.
There are different challenges in the application of the International conventions protecting the rights of minors. Every work of the Red Cross is always based on the seven fundamental principles: humanity, impartiality, neutrality, independence, voluntary service, unity and universality. It is important to keep in mind that remaining impartial and maintaining neutrality is particularly difficult but very, very important.
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RETURN
THE EU RETURN DIRECTIVE

(Ms. Christine ADAM)
The Directive 2008/115/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on common standards and procedures in Member States for returning illegally staying third-country nationals (the Return Directive) was adopted on 16 December 2008. EU Member States shall transpose this Directive into national legislation by 24 December 2010. By way of opting-out, the United Kingdom and Ireland did not take part in the adoption of this Directive. The scope of its application is third-country nationals staying illegally in the territory of a Member State. The Directive does not apply to persons that enjoy the EC free movement rights. Member States may decide to exclude the following groups from the application of the Directive: third-country nationals who are apprehended or intercepted in connection with an irregular crossing of the external border of a Member State and not later allowed to stay in that Member State (border cases); third-country nationals who are being removed for criminal law reasons. Very importantly, the Directive states that it has to be applied in accordance with fundamental rights as general principles of Community law as well as international law, including refugee protection and human rights obligations (Article 1). Moreover, Article 5 outlines some basic principles that need to be taken into account when implementing the Directive, such as the best interests of the child, family life, state of health of the third-country national and the principle of non-refoulement. Article 10 of the Directive deals explicitly with the return and removal of unaccompanied minors and sets out specific conditions and safeguards.
Return Decision
The Directive lays out the principle that Member States should issue a return decision to every third-country national staying illegally on their territory. Exceptions are, however, made for the illegally staying third-country
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national, whereby no return decision shall or may (depending on the case) be issued, if they fulfil the following conditions: valid residence permit or entitlement to lawful residence in another Member State; in case the illegally staying third-country national is taken back by another Member State under bilateral agreements or arrangements existing prior to the date of entry into force of the Directive; right to stay for compassionate, humanitarian or other reasons; pending application for renewal of a permit to stay. According to Article 11, a return decision shall be accompanied by an entry ban, if no period for voluntary return has been granted, for example, if the person poses a risk to public policy, public security or national security, or, if the obligation to return has not been complied with. In all other cases, Member States may decide to impose an entry ban together with the return decision. Exceptions are made for victims of trafficking, for humanitarian reasons and other individual cases or certain categories of cases for other reasons. The entry ban shall, in principle, not exceed five years. Moreover, Member States are requested to consider withdrawal or suspension of the entry ban if the third-country national can demonstrate that he/she has left the territory in compliance with the return decision.
Voluntary Departure
The underlying idea of the Directive is that voluntary return is preferable over forced return. This is expressed in the preamble: where there are no reasons to believe that this would undermine the purpose of a return procedure, voluntary return should be preferred over forced return. The Return Directive defines voluntary departure as departure in compliance with the return decision, Article 3. There is an obligation for Member States to provide for an appropriate period of voluntary return, between seven and thirty days. The Return Directive opens the possibility to extend this period but also not to grant a voluntary departure period at all. The latter can be applied in cases where there is a risk of absconding, if an application for legal stay is manifestly unfounded or fraudulent, or if the person concerned poses a risk for public security, public order or national security.
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Removal
Article 8 of the Directive regulates removals. The return decision may be enforced only after the voluntary departure period has expired. Member States may adopt a separate administrative or judicial decision or act ordering the removal. Coercive measures can only be used as a last resort and if proportional and not exceeding reasonable force. Moreover, those measures must be implemented as provided for in national legislation, in accordance with fundamental rights with due respect for the dignity and physical integrity of the concerned third-country national. The removal must be postponed if it would violate the non-refoulement principle and for as long as a suspensory effect is granted for the review of a return decision. Member States may postpone the removal taking into account specific circumstances, such as the physical or mental state of the third-county national, technical reasons or the lack of identification.
Unaccompanied Minors
Specific conditions for the return and removal of unaccompanied minors are laid down in Article 10. Article 10 sets out an obligation to grant assistance of appropriate bodies other than the authorities enforcing return with due consideration being given to the best interests of the child when issuing a return decision. A further condition for removal of unaccompanied minors is that removing authorities must be satisfied that the minor will be returned to a member of his or her family, a nominated guardian or adequate reception facilities in the State of return.
Procedural Safeguards on Return

The Directive lists a number of safeguards in its Chapter III. The return, removal and entry ban decisions must be in writing, reasoned in fact and in law and contain information on remedies. Upon request by the thirdcountry national, Member States are obliged to provide a translation of the main elements of the decision. The third-country national must be granted the right to appeal return, removal and entry ban decisions. The competent judicial or administrative authority can grant suspending effect to the appeal. Article 13 of the Directive also foresees the granting of free legal assistance for third-country nationals in accordance with relevant national rules on legal aid. For its additional financial burden to Member States, this provision was much disputed during the negotiations on the Directive. As a result, the transposition period for Article 13 (4) was extended until 24 December 2011. Article 14 sets out some basic safeguards that need to be respected pending return, that is, during the voluntary departure period. These
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safeguards concern the principle of family unity, emergency health care and essential treatment of illness, access to basic education for minors and consideration for the special needs of vulnerable people.
Detention
Chapter IV of the Directive is dedicated to detention for the purpose of removal. Detention can be used only if there are no other equally sufficient but less coercive measures. Detention might be used in particular, if there is a risk of absconding or the third-country national avoids or hampers the return preparations. Detention has to be ordered by administrative or judicial authorities in writing and must be reasoned in fact and law. Detention is limited to 6 months but might be under certain circumstances extended for another 12 months. Article 16 details the conditions of detention: Detention must take place in specialised detention facilities or, in any case, separated from ordinary prisoners. Third-country nationals must be given the right to contact lawyers, family members and consular authorities, emergency health care and essential treatment of illness must be provided for. Visits by independent bodies are to be allowed but may be subject to authorisation and relevant information must be provided to the detainee. Specific conditions, increasing the threshold for the detention of minors and families, are laid out in Article 17.
Conclusion
The Return Directive is an important element in the EU policy for common standards in the fight against irregular migration. It is to be noted positively that the Directive reaffirms the respect for fundamental rights as general principles of Community law as well as international law, including refugee protection and human rights obligations. Moreover, the Directive explicitly spells out the need for a two-step procedure that ensures priority is given to enabling the irregular migrant to opt for voluntary return. However, the Directive is also criticized for a number of aspects. With regard to the scope set out in Article 2, there is discretion for States to apply the Directive or not to border cases . That might lead to situations where crucial safeguards and the right to an effective remedy are not guaranteed. There is an obligation to issue a return decision but no obligation to grant legal status if return is not feasible, for example, for technical reasons. The voluntary departure period (7 to 30 days) is short and, hence, might not be sufficient to prepare a sustainable return. Return and removal of unaccompanied children is allowed not only to family members in the home
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country but also to adequate reception facilities in the state of return . This might raise questions as regards the respect for the best interests of the child. Member States are obliged to include an entry ban of up to 5 years in return decisions for certain cases and they are free to include the re-entry ban in every other return decision. There is no obligation to withdraw the re-entry ban, even if third-country nationals left in full compliance with the return decision. Legal remedies can be of non-suspensive character which might put at risk human rights for persons being returned. The Directive provides the possibility to detain third-country nationals, including families, unaccompanied minors as well as other vulnerable persons for up to 18 months. Alternatives to detention are not considered in the Directive.
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GUIDANCE NOTE ON IOM RETURN POLICY, WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO THE DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL ON COMMON STANDARDS AND PROCEDURES IN MEMBER STATES FOR RETURNING ILLEGALLY STAYING THIRD-COUNTRY NATIONALS (Mr. Richard PERRUCHOUD)
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The primary goal of IOM is to facilitate the orderly and humane management of international migration. Building on its expertise and experience, and respecting the mandates of and cooperating with other international organizations, IOM addresses the migratory phenomenon from an integral and holistic perspective, including links to development, in order to maximise its benefits and minimise its negative effects. IOM strives to enhance the humane and orderly management of migration and the effective respect for the human rights of migrants in accordance with international law. IOM supports States, migrants and communities in addressing the challenges of irregular migration. This includes undertaking programmes which facilitate the voluntary return and reintegration of refugees, displaced persons, migrants and other individuals in need of migration services as well as programmes in support of establishing more channels for regular migration. IOM believes that returns need to be addressed as part of overall migration and asylum management. It advocates for the establishment of a cooperative approach, engaging countries of origin, transit and destination in promoting an effective migration management. A cooperative approach should also encompass other entities such as NGOs. This cooperation provides a platform to share experiences, and builds upon best practices of return and reintegration measures, thus enhancing the positive value of a coordinated migration management which benefits all. A comprehensive approach from initial outreach to tailored assistance to facilitate reintegration is a most effective way in supporting and facilitating the choice that returnees may have, thus an integral part of Assisted Voluntary Return programmes (AVR): IOM experience shows that the earlier the provision of information and counselling is given, the better voluntary return assistance can be, providing potential
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returnees with the opportunity of making informed decisions on return and identifying viable reintegration options. IOM strongly believes that reintegration assistance, as an integral part of AVR, plays a key role in facilitating sustainable returns for all. By addressing the needs and concerns of those returning, not only does reintegration assistance help address the factors that compel the individuals to emigrate in the first place, but it also takes into account the needs of the communities in countries of origin. Such a cooperative approach between countries of destination and countries of origin should be an essential component of any return programme. IOM acknowledges the migration management challenges facing all States, and will continue to facilitate and support regional and global dialogues on migration so as to advance the understanding of the opportunities and challenges it presents, as well as to identify and develop effective policies for addressing those challenges. IOM maintains that international cooperation carried out in a spirit of true partnership and taking a comprehensive approach is the surest way to ensure that both societies and migrants benefit from migration. IOMs comments on the EU Return Directive derive from its extensive experience of almost 30 years implementing Assisted Voluntary Return programmes in Europe and throughout much of the world. At present, IOM runs over 20 AVR programmes with EU Member States and others in cooperation with a network of governmental and non governmental partners in both destination and origin countries. IOMs AVR programmes facilitate the return of stranded migrants, unsuccessful asylum seekers, or destitute, especially vulnerable or other migrants in a humane and dignified manner, in full respect of their human rights. IOM therefore acknowledges both the preference given in the Directive to voluntary returns over forced returns, as well as the continuing efforts by the Member States to implement the principle of voluntary returns as priority (following the earlier Communication on Returns), and highlights the importance of promotion of AVR options through enhanced return counselling and assistance. IOM takes note of the continuing efforts by the EU institutions and Member States in addressing returns as part of overall migration management. At the same time, it emphasises
the importance of EU institutions and Member States maintaining a continuous dialogue with countries of origin as equal partners to ensure their concerns are taken into account as part of a comprehensive migration management approach. It also supports the Directive on the importance of cooperation with countries of origin and ongoing efforts by Member States in addressing return and relevant migration matters through partnerships. Such partnerships should take into account the context and concerns of the countries of transit and origin. 10. The current national legislative frameworks and practices vary in the EU as regards minimum standards of treatment for irregular migrants in the context of returns. As such, IOM takes note of the Directives explicit spelling out of the need for a two step procedure that ensures priority is given to enabling the irregular migrant to opt for voluntary return. As for the procedure that allows EU Member States to determine a period of between 7 and 30 days for the migrant to opt for voluntary return, while this presents an improvement in those EU Member States that currently have no such provision, IOM cautions that the success of an individual voluntary return rests in large part on having the time to be well-prepared, and needs to take into account the specific circumstances of individuals, including those of vulnerable migrants as well as family members. IOM therefore encourages EU Member States to follow the Directives recommendations to extend this period. 11. The Directive further spells out explicitly a maximum period of detention for irregular migrants. IOM is of the view that there exist a number of alternatives to detention that can satisfy State objectives while ensuring the rights and well-being of all migrants including those in irregular situations. While acknowledging that the Directives adoption of a maximum period is a step in the direction of improving the situation of irregular migrants in a number of EU Member States, IOM affirms that detention should only occur as a very last resort. The Directive insists that detention should be used only if other less coercive measures cannot be applied effectively, and IOM calls upon States to resort to detention only by way of exception. (Note: IOM is not involved in removal of detained migrants as the Constitution prohibits the Organization from engaging in or facilitating forced returns.)
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12. IOM finally notes with satisfaction the reaffirmation, in Article 1 of the Directive, of the respect for fundamental rights as general principles of Community law as well as international law, including refugee protection and human rights obligations.
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TRAFFICKING AND SMUGGLING
HUMAN RIGHTS OF SMUGGLED MIGRANTS

(Ms. Pia OBEROI)
The issue of human smuggling is inextricably linked with the issue of irregular or illegal migration, the movement of people who enter or reside in other countries without having received legal authorization from the host state to do so. Irregular migration is a sensitive, political and policy issue in all countries, and irregular migrants are frequently perceived as a threat both by governments who are reluctant to create legal channels for their entry and also by the general public who perceives that their presence contributes to insecurity, unemployment or social disorder. This brief article will trace the history of the concept of human smuggling and the conceptual parameters within which smuggling is regulated today. However, it is important to place these issues within the broader confines of migration policy making. In a global context where global migration patterns, including irregular migration, respond to the demands of local and national economies and societies, resort to merely punitive law-enforcement policies to control and contain migration will be inadequate and ineffective. Furthermore, they can often have a severely negative impact on the human rights of smuggled migrants.
Brief history of the legal architecture

In 1993, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution calling for international co-operation to address the problem of human smuggling.16 It acknowledged the relevance of human rights, but its emphasis was on criminal justice. In 1997, Austria proposed a draft convention that established human smuggling as a transnational crime.17 In 1998, the UN Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice submitted a report to the General Assembly outlining a preliminary strategy for a new instrument, within the framework of transnational organised crime.
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UNGA Res. 48/102 of 20 December 1993. The draft was submitted at the UN General Assemblys 52nd Session (UN doc. A/52/357, 17 September 1997). The United States had presented and withdrawn a similar proposal a year earlier (ECOSOC Press Release, SOC/CP/192, 5 June 1996), 5th Session of Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, Vienna 21-31 May 1996.
After several drafts, the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTCOC) was adopted and opened for signature on 12 December 2000 at a high-level conference of States in Palermo, Sicily. The UNTCOC included two protocols: the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (Trafficking Protocol) and the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air (Smuggling Protocol). The Trafficking Protocol came into force on 23 December 2003, and the Smuggling Protocol entered into force on 28 January 2004. These are generally referred to as the Palermo Protocols. A third protocol, on the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, was finalized three months later. The UNCTOC was designed to promote international action across a spectrum of cross-border criminal activities, including money-laundering, corruption, and illicit trafficking in cultural treasures and endangered flora and fauna, as well as connections between these ordinary forms of transnational crime and cross-border terrorist activity. Its purpose was to effectively interdict transnational organized crime, not least by forging and strengthening cross-border links between States.18 The Convention therefore focuses on offences that make organised criminal activities profitable. The Protocols supplement this objective by targeting certain types of organised criminal activity, including the smuggling of migrants.19
Protection and the Smuggling Protocol

According to Article 3(a) of the Smuggling Protocol, a smuggled person is someone who is the object of procurement, in order to obtain a financial or material benefit, to enable that person to gain illegal entry into a state of which that person is not a national nor permanent resident. Under the UNCTOC, an organized criminal group is defined as a structured group of three or more personsestablished to obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit. Two points are worth noting. The first is that at least three people need to be involved; thus, a lone boatman ferrying migrants across a waterway or two smugglers guiding people through the desert across a land border would not fall within the scope of the convention, so long as no other clear and organised connections along the smuggling chain exist. The second is that benefit from trafficking or smuggling need not be strictly monetary; other forms of remuneration
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United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Article 1. Article 37 of the Convention and article 1 of the Protocols together establish the basic relationship between the Convention and its Protocols. The Convention contains many provisions on mutual assistance and other forms of international cooperation.
qualify, such as labour, sex, or services in kind, some of which may amount to exploitation. Taking account of the object and purpose of its parent convention, the UNTCOC, the Smuggling Protocol aims first and foremost to combat transnational20 organized crime21 through national efforts and international cooperation. At the same time, it touches on larger contextual issues, including human rights. The very first paragraph of the Preamble to the Smuggling Protocol emphasizes that a comprehensive international approach is needed to combat and prevent the smuggling of migrants, which approach should include socio economic measures, at the national, regional and international levels. Paragraph 2 of the Preamble recalls GA Resolution 54/212 of 22 December 1999, which urged States and the UN to strengthen international cooperation in order to address the root causes of migration, especially those related to poverty, and to maximize the benefits of international migration to those concerned. The Preamble further states the need to provide migrants with humane treatment and full protection of their rights and says that the stated purposes of the Smuggling Protocol must be achieved while protecting the rights of smuggled migrants.22 Protection is thus a basic purpose that should always be considered beside the Smuggling Protocols two other basic purposes: prevention of smuggling of migrants and promotion of inter-State cooperation.23 Moreover, the provision defining the Smuggling Protocols scope of application (Art. 4) is broader than the comparable article (Art. 3) in the parent UNCTOC. In affirming that protection of the rights of persons who have been the object [of smuggling] is a State obligation, Article 4 of the Protocol extends its scope beyond the prevention, investigation and prosecution of migrant smuggling offences. During drafting, partly to distinguish their situation from that of victims of trafficking, it was considered inappropriate to retain use of the term victim
United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Article 3, para.2. United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Article 2(a). 22 Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Article 2. 23 Legislative guides for the Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto, Part Three: Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, para.17, United Nations, New York, 2004.
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to describe smuggled migrants. At the same time, the Smuggling Protocol does not consider a smuggled migrant to be a perpetrator, an accomplice or a conspirator in the act of smuggling, and it reiterates that States are obliged to protect the smuggled migrants rights. In addition, the interpretive guide to the Smuggling Protocol makes clear (as does the equivalent guide to the Trafficking Protocol) that, since the goods being smuggled are people, human smuggling rais[es] human rights and other issues not associated with other commodities such as weapons or narcotic substances, on which the UNCTOC also focuses.24 The States obligation to protect smuggled migrants is further strengthened by the Smuggling Protocols affirmation that migrants are not criminally liable.25 It targets the criminal act of smuggling of migrants, not the illegal entry or illegal residence of the migrant. It is not designed to criminalize illegal migration and takes a neutral position on whether those who migrate illegally should be considered to have committed a domestic offence.26 As a result, the Smuggling Protocol cannot be interpreted to require criminalization of irregular migration: it targets members of criminal groups that smuggle migrants and those linked to them.27 In addition to being an organized crime that is transnational, the criminal act of migrant smuggling includes two intentions on the part of the smugglers involved: a primary intention to procure illegal entry or illegal
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Legislative guides for the Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto, Part Three: Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, para.55, United Nations, New York, 2004. 25 Article 5 of the Smuggling Protocol, on the Criminal liability of migrants, states: Migrants shall not become liable to criminal prosecution under this Protocol for the fact of having been the object of the conduct set forth in article 6 of this Protocol. 26 The Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the Smuggling Protocol (para.28) makes clear that the drafters intention was to apply the sanctions of the Protocol to the smuggling of migrants by organised criminal groups and not to mere migration or migrants, even in cases where it involves entry or residence that is illegal under the laws of the State concerned. 27 During drafting of the Protocol, the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights submitted an informal note which emphasised that the Protocol must commit itself to preserving and protecting the fundamental rights of all persons, including smuggled migrants, even though respect for basic rights does not prejudice or restrict the right of States to decide who should or should not enter their territories. The group of Latin American and Caribbean States shared this view and pointed out that the Protocol could not be used to criminalise migration. While the Protocol offers a legal framework for dealing with human smuggling and exempts migrants from criminal liability if they are smuggled, States are not prohibited from taking measures against a person whose conduct constitutes an offence under its domestic law (Article 6 paragraph 4). Measures may include both criminal and administrative sanctions. See Travaux Prparatoires of the negotiations for the elaboration of the United Nations Convention against Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto, Article 6c., Interpretative notes for the official records (travaux prparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols para.4. However, such measures based on domestic legislation should respect the human rights of all migrants and must therefore respect the rule of law (Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the Smuggling Protocol, para.56).
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residence28 of the migrant, and a secondary intention to obtain financial or other material benefit from the transaction.29 Persons who procure their own illegal entry or illegal residence are not subject to criminal prosecution under the Smuggling Protocol. The same principle applies to so-called document offences (i.e. the procurement, provision or possession of fraudulent travel or identity documents),30 including for the purpose of enabling illegal residence as opposed to procuring illegal entry.31 This is meant to protect migrants who acquire false documents in order to remain in a country without regular status.32 Nor are persons or institutions subject to criminal prosecution if they procure the illegal entry or permit the illegal residence of a migrant in a receiving State for reasons that do not involve financial or material gain.33 This would apply, for example, to individuals who smuggle family members or to charitable organizations that assist in the movement of asylum-seekers.34 In its saving clause, the Smuggling Protocol reasserts the rights that individuals have under international humanitarian and human rights law.35 It notably affirms the fundamental principle of non-discrimination;36 and makes specific reference to the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol. In this context, asylum seekers who are smuggled through or into a destination state are protected by the principle of non-refoulement from return to a situation where they would face torture or other serious human
In this context, the Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the Smuggling Protocol (paras.34 and 36) notes that The drafters intended that cases in which valid documents were used improperly and the entry was technically legal would be dealt with by the offence of enabling illegal residence. In other words, the offence of enabling illegal residence would cover a range of acts: enabling migrants to remain for reasons other than those declared at entry; or after expiry of their permit or authorization to enter, etc. 29 Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Article 6 read in conjunction with Article 3 (a). 30 Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Article 6, para.1(b)(ii). 31 Interpretative notes for the official records (travaux prparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols, A/55/383/Add.1, para.93; also cited in Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the Smuggling Protocol, para.41. 32 See also Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the Smuggling Protocol, para.54. 33 Travaux Prparatoires of the negotiations for the elaboration of the United Nations Convention against Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto, Article 6 C. Interpretative notes for the official records (travaux prparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols, para.1(b). See also Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the Smuggling Protocol, paras.54 and 55. 34 Interpretative notes for the official records (travaux prparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols, A/55/383/Add.1, para.92; also cited in the Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the Smuggling Protocol, para.32. 35 Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Article 19, para.1. A Saving Clause ensures that the provisions of a treaty are applied in a manner which is most favourable to the human rights of the individual. 36 Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Article 19, para.2.
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rights violations.37 The Smuggling Protocol thus recognises that refugees and asylum seekers may legitimately be smuggled into a State in search of international protection. A provision recognizing the special needs of women and children is also included in the framework of protection and assistance to smuggled migrants.38 It is therefore clear that, while minimal and mostly optional, the Smuggling Protocol includes some provisions that protect the rights of smuggled migrants, and it affirms that international humanitarian and human rights law and international refugee law apply to smuggled migrants. For instance, States are required to implement their absolute obligations under international law to protect the right to life and the right not to be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment (Art. 16, para. 1). States that ratify the UNCTOC and its Protocols are required to take prevention and protection measures that will prevent and suppress migrant smuggling while promoting human rights. States also have human rights obligations in relation to smuggled migrants that derive from provisions in other human rights treaties that they have ratified. It is a matter of regret that the Smuggling Protocol does not comprehensively articulate and protect the human rights of smuggled migrants, including their economic, social and cultural rights, and falls short of the standards set by international human rights norms.39 Nevertheless, the references it makes to international human rights law provide a basic floor of protection for smuggled migrants who, in common with trafficked persons and other irregular migrants, enjoy the protection of international human rights law by virtue of their common humanity. Though States have so far paid less attention to the human rights provisions in the Smuggling Protocol than to those in the Trafficking Protocol, the Conference of States Parties to the UNCTOC has started recently to examine the provision of protection and assistance measures in the treatment of smuggled migrants, even if, at national levels, the focus of states remains overwhelmingly on border control and law enforcement.40
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Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Article 19, para.1. Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Article 16, para.4. 39 A. Gallagher, Trafficking, Smuggling and Human Rights Tricks and Treaties, Forced Migration Review 12, February 2002. 40 Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Decision 3/3, Implementation of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, and the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, paras. k and l.
37 38
Conceptual ambiguity
There are a number of troubling conceptual issues embedded within the two Protocols themselves, which can have important human rights consequences for individual migrants. In addition, as a leading anti-trafficking NGO has observed; more efforts are being put into intercepting people who may be in the process of being trafficked (but may just be ordinary migrants), than into stamping out the various forms of exploitation listed in the UN Trafficking Protocol.41
The definitions of trafficked and smuggled are not exclusive or conceptually comparable
The Protocols fail to distinguish sufficiently between trafficked and smuggled persons. The key tests of smuggling are illegal border crossing (and enabling irregular residence) and payment, but trafficking also breaches migration law and many trafficked persons make payments when they cross borders. Trafficking tests focus on violations of rights, but rights are often violated in the course of smuggling. Exploitation, a key element in trafficking, can be present during a smuggling process. The definitions are therefore not exclusive. Second, smuggling is considered an event occurring at borders and trafficking an ongoing relational process that violates rights. Because the premises of the definitions draw on different legal principles, they are not comparable. In these circumstances, allocating individuals to one or the other category in a hard and fast manner is certain to create inconsistencies and injustice. Vulnerability does not end at the border. For officials, smuggled migrants become merely irregular once they have crossed the border, even though many remain at risk because they have continued obligations to those who smuggled them.
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Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women, Collateral Damage: The Impact of Anti-Trafficking Measures on Human Rights Around the World, GAATW, Bangkok, 2007, p. 12. In the context of anti-trafficking measures in Africa, Chapkis has observed that eliminating any distinction between intentional (if exploitative) migration for work and forced enslavement of millions of Africanscreates a moral imperative to stop the flow of undocumented workers regardless of their desire to immigrate. Attempts to restrict immigration can then be packaged as anti-slavery measures; would be migrants are would be victims whose safety and well-being are ostensibly served by more rigorous policing of the borders. W. Chapkis, Trafficking, migration and the law: protecting innocents, punishing immigrants, Gender and Society Vol. 17, No. 6, 2003, pp. 926-7.
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The distinction between consent and coercion is problematic

The Protocols distinguish deserving victims who are trafficked from complicit migrants who allow themselves to be smuggled. This distinction depends on a flawed conception of human agency and presupposes that migrants motivational states are fixed as well as measurable. The available evidence suggests that most transported irregular migrants consent in some way to an initial proposition to travel.42 En route, however, or on arrival in the destination country, their circumstances frequently change. Some children are clearly kidnapped; some migrant workers are defrauded from the outset; and some women are taken across frontiers by force. At the other end of the spectrum, completely transparent cross-border transportation agreements also occur in which a fee is mutually agreed and the relationship between smuggler and the migrant ends at the border. In between, any number of less identifiable transactions and relationships may occur.43 Because migration strategies and circumstances are so varied, it becomes difficult to say how a determination of category should be made or by whom.
Migrants motives and circumstances are unstable

Migrants circumstances are fluid during their journey and after arrival. A person who is consensually transported at one time may subsequently be coercively trafficked; consent granted in one context may be withdrawn in another. The definitions thus take no account of the fact that the position in which migrants find themselves may change, sometimes radically, in the course of their journey. At any given point it may be unclear whether a person is trafficked or smuggled; at some times he or she may look smuggled while at others he or she may look trafficked.
Flawed conception of agency

The definitions consider irregular migrants, even smuggled ones, to have incomplete or no control over decisions. Yet many are true agents who
"In the first stage [of irregular migration], potential migrants generally consent to emigrate. Coercion is rarely used prior to departure from the country of origin" (G.Yun, Chinese Migrants and Forced Labour in Europe, ILO, Geneva, July 2004). 43 Skeldon describes a continuum of facilitation from completely transparent, fully invoiced and accountable recruitment on the one hand, through to the movement of people through networks entirely controlled by criminal gangs on the other. He notes that this continuum is often rooted in opaque and confusing bureaucratic procedures, which compel migrants to seek out the services of intermediaries and facilitators. R. Skeldon, Trafficking: A perspective from Asia, International Migration Special Issue, No.1, 2000, p. 9.
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determine their own lives and are the opposite of passive. The decision of women to migrate, in particular, can represent an explicit attempt to escape oppressive situations. The same logic applies to employment decisions. Migrants will accept work that is dangerous, badly paid, insecure, and lacks social protection. It is plainly simplistic to evaluate such contracts only in terms of the smuggling standard (consent) or the trafficking standard (exploitation).
Conclusion
The artificial dichotomy between the deserving trafficked victim and undeserving smuggled migrant is mirrored in the too-neat distinction between forced and voluntary migrants. Regular migrants are seen as good, those in irregular status as bad. There are also widely held preconceptions that smuggled criminals are men, while trafficked victims are women. Human rights advocates argue that it would be sensible instead to assess the situation of such migrants on a continuum by the extent of coercion and exploitation to which they are subject or in terms of decisions to travel that are more or less voluntary; and accordingly in terms of specific forms of protection. Aronowitz describes the continuum of victimization along which migrants fall as they use, or are forced to use, irregular migration channels.44 A neat binary distinction between criminals and victims is difficult to make and hazardous, particularly in protection terms, to apply. In order to protect and promote the human rights of all migrants implicated in the process of smuggling, governments could take the following steps: ensure attention to their human rights obligations when framing counter-smuggling laws. Government responses to smuggling should avoid automatic detention and deportation; recognize that aggressive law enforcement might drive smuggling industries underground, leading to the further abuse of migrants; open sufficient legal channels for migrant entry, including through dialogue with private business and employers; ensure policy integration amongst various ministries tasked to deal with the various aspects of migration control, including labour, interior and foreign ministries;
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A. Aronowitz, Smuggling and trafficking in human beings: The phenomenon, the markets that drive it and the organizations that promote it, European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research Vol. 9, No. 2, 2001, p. 164.
be mindful of the public language used to describe migrants, asylum seekers and other non-citizens, and ensure that hate speech and xenophobic rhetoric is never used by public authorities and is effectively sanctioned where it does occur. When the public language makes no distinctions between criminals and migrants and demonizes human movement, it encourages xenophobia and an inappropriate focus on security; train relevant officials, including private actors subcontracted to provide border control functions, in a targeted and effective manner on human rights issues, in addition to proper screening and identification of trafficked and smuggled persons. This article is based on a forthcoming report of the International Council on Human Rights Policy entitled Irregular Migration, Human Smuggling and Human Rights: Towards Coherence (2010). For more information, please visit www.ichrp.org.
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TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS LAW, MISCONCEPTIONS AND FACTS45

(Ms. Kristina TOUZENIS)
The Definition:
A major but relatively unappreciated problem with devising an appropriate legal response to trafficking is that there is arguably a major conceptual misunderstanding about what, legally, happens when it takes place. The United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (the Protocol) has been criticized for its focus on trafficking as a transnational crime while saying very little about the victims. This misses a very important point: trafficking involves many areas of law, including criminal, human rights, immigration, labour, antivice and even tort/delict.46 But it is fundamentally a criminal act, albeit with a human rights dimension, as will be examined below. The definition developed and agreed to in 2000, is found in Article 3 of the Protocol: Trafficking in persons shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power, or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs. The elements present in the definition indicate that trafficking includes a number of actors, each of whom may play a role in the process of trafficking, from the acquaintance in the victims village who knows someone who can organize a job or a visa, to the individual who facilitates illegal crossing of the border, to the person who supplies rooms to accommodate victims in transit and to the employer who at the end buys the victim. Trafficking does not require that just one person carries out all the activities from recruitment to exploitation.
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This presentation and text relies heavily and is based on a more ample analysis by the author published under the title Trafficking in Human Beings Developments in law and practice. UNESCO Migration Studies Series No 3. May 2010. 46 Both Civil Law concepts.
45
The State is not usually involved in these acts, although it may be through the activity of corrupt law enforcement and border officials who facilitate or ignore the work of traffickers. This may occur in origin, transit and destination country. The primary threat to victims, however, is clearly one of the criminal acts at the hands of private persons, and such acts are not necessarily human rights violations on the part of a State (Piotrowicz 2007, 278).
The definition refers to three distinct elements:

ACT (what is done) Recruitment Transport Transfer Harbouring Receipt MEANS (how it is done) Threat or use of force Coercion Abduction Deception Fraud Abuse of power or vulnerability Giving payments or benefits PURPOSE (why it is done) Exploitation, including: Prostitution of others Sexual exploitation Forced labour Slavery/similar practices Removal of organs
While it is true that the definition may be complex, it should not be presented to people in the field as inoperative. The three elements must be met for a case to constitute trafficking. The trafficking definition further follows classical criminal law in giving intent (to exploit) a central role. This is not necessarily easy to prove but, on the other hand, does not differ terribly from other definitions or understandings of when crimes can be prosecuted.
The Means:
There is always a point in the trafficking chain at which people are subjected to force or coercion: when they are recruited, during transportation, upon entry or during work. Both overt and subtle forms of coercion are used, such as the confiscation of papers, non-payment of wages, induced indebtedness or threats to denounce irregular migrant workers to authorities if they refuse to accept the working conditions. In many trafficking cases, there is initial consent or cooperation between victims and traffickers followed later by coercive, abusive or exploitive circumstances. Any initial consent is effectively nullified by initial deception, later coercion, or an abuse of authority at some point in the process in accordance with article 3, subparagraph (b) of the Trafficking in Persons Protocol. This raises practical problems in cases where accused traffickers raise evidence of victim consent as a criminal defence. Subparagraph (b) of the definition clarifies that consent becomes irrelevant whenever any of the means of trafficking has been used.
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The degree of victimization and exploitation of trafficking victims may vary, but fundamentally they are all victimized and exploited or there would be no case or talk of trafficking. This reality coexists with the fact that trafficking victims have an agency. The idea that a person may be responsible for some of the decisions that resulted in their finally being trafficked may seem unattractive to some involved agents. The preferred simplistic view is that the victim must be blameless in all regards. Trafficking victims who have displayed some agency at a certain point (i.e. most) are most often treated as co-conspirators. This distinction is unproductive since it denies the multiplicity of factors that facilitate the operations of trafficking networks worldwide. Notions that an individual must be entirely blameless to be considered a victim of trafficking may arise in part as a result of confusion between agency and choice (Cameron 2008, 86). Many people who are trafficked are actively seeking a migration route, but they do not choose to be exploited. What means have been used to persuade an individual to accept work in another country is important to ascertain the extent of coercion and that there is a possible trafficking agent involved in the first instance. On the other hand, where the prospective migrant worker did not need convincing or cajoling prior to departure but human rights or criminal violations are present on arrival in the receiving country, there may be doubts as to whether the person is trafficked or not; here consent is an important factor (Jureidini, 2010). The Trafficking in Persons Protocol adds to coercion, fraud and deception, the abuse of power as a means of trafficking. Importantly, the Palermo Protocol connects the issue of coercion to that of consent. In other words, it is absolutely irrelevant whether the victim apparently voluntarily entered or stayed in a situation or conditions of labour exploitation if they were put in that situation through the use of threats, force, coercion, abduction, deception, or fraud or by an abuse of power or an abuse of their own position of vulnerability. Most of these concepts will already be clear in national law; however, coercion and abuse of power/vulnerability are unlikely to be (OSCE, 2006). It therefore is important that these concepts are explained so that law enforcers can appropriately identify cases of trafficking and use adequate investigation techniques and protection measures to enable potential victims to give a full account of their situation and to properly identify cases of trafficking. This is particularly important in cases of labour exploitation where cases cover a wide range of situations, including those of regular economic migrants whose vulnerable position as foreigners, including those with limited language skills and knowledge of their rights, are exploited by traffickers for forced labour (OSCE, 2006; Skrivankova, 2006).
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The Exploitation:
The Protocol makes reference to some specific forms of exploitation; however, the list is not exhaustive, and it may include other forms as well. The choice made was to extend as much as possible the definition of trafficking in persons to include any possible known or still-unknown form of exploitation. Consequently the Protocol is well-equipped to fight against new forms of exploitation that might constitute the necessary elements of the offence (UNODC, 2004, para. 35). All the forms of exploitation mentioned in the Protocol are left undefined, but most of them, including forced labour, slavery, practices similar to slavery and servitude, have been defined elsewhere in other international treaties. The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969 prescribes that a treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in conformity with the ordinary meaning given to its terms in their context and in the light of the treatys object and purpose. Any subsequent agreement between the parties or practices in the application of the treaty, establishing the agreement of the parties regarding its interpretation, shall also be taken into consideration. Supplementary means of interpretation, including the preparatory works, the circumstances at its conclusion (Art.31.1) are also used when interpreting the meaning of a Treaty.47 Article 2, paragraph 1 of the International Labour Organization (ILO) Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29) defines forced labour as all work or service which is exacted from any person under the menace of any penalty and for which the said person has not offered himself voluntarily. State Parties ratifying this Convention are also committed to ensuring that the illegal exaction of forced labour is a punishable penal offence under national legislation. The concept of forced labour as defined by ILO Convention 2948 comprises of three basic elements: the activity exacted must be in the form of work or service;49 the threat of a penalty used to exact the work or service can take different forms, including the loss of rights and privileges. The ILO identified a number of practices that constitute
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Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties Art. 31.1. Supplemented by the ILO Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105), which does not change the concept of forced labour provided by Convention 29. ILO Convention 182, 1999, seeks to secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour, including trafficking of children. 49 ILO Convention 29 excludes from its sphere of application a number of activities, including work exacted in virtue of compulsory military service, and any work or service exacted as a result of a conviction in a court of law, provided it is supervised by a public authority.
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such penalties and might be indicators of forced labour situations. These include physical or sexual violence against the worker, his/her family or close associates, restriction of the workers movement, debt bondage or bonded labour, withholding wages, non-payment of wages or illegal wage deductions, retention of identity documents, and the threat of denunciation to the authorities and of deportation. Most of these practices are, in themselves, crimes provided for under national law. However, the imposition of forced labour, which can include one or more of the above practices, is of a different order, with a scope of application that is not exactly the same; it is undertaken involuntarily by the victim. This aspect includes situations in which there was initial willingness on the part of the victim, but where external constraints and coercion come into play at a later stage and the victim is no longer free to withdraw his/her consent (Pereira and Vasconcelos, 2008, p. 10). According to the ILO Guidelines on Human Trafficking and Forced Labour Exploitation, legislatures and law enforcement have to take into account that the seemingly voluntary offer of a worker/victim may have been manipulated or was not based on an informed decision. The ILO notes that a forced labour situation is determined according to the nature of the relationship between a person and an employer and not by the type of activity performed. The legality or illegality of the activity under national law is irrelevant to its determination as forced labour. It has been argued that trafficking is fundamentally a labour market problem (Plant, 2004).50 This is most certainly a big part of the problem, and underestimating the positive effect it could have on the fight against trafficking in persons to focus on labour market regulations and respect for labour rights is very grave. But it is obviously only part of the problem and the solution. Respecting labour rights is an often overlooked, or at least diminished, part of fighting trafficking. But it is a highly important tool, and labour rights, and a promotion of solidarity through unions including non-nationals, regular or not, will help promote better working conditions for all, and less exploitation, thus fewer trafficking cases too. What must be emphasized is that nobody in the work force gains from having a certain group left outside the protection of labour laws, since it will only create unhealthy competition and lower wages for nationals in regular employment.
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For a good analysis see Plant, R.: The Labour Dimension of Human Trafficking. Alliance against trafficking in persons, Vienna, ILO, 2004.
The 1957 Supplementary Convention on the Elimination of Slavery, Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practice Similar to Slavery defines slavery as the status or condition of a person over whom any or all of the powers attaching to the rights of ownership are exercised, repeating the definition of Art. 1.1 of the Anti-slavery Convention of 1926. It should be emphasized that slavery, according to this definition, can occur regardless of whether the victim receives remuneration. This is particularly relevant when traffickers try to avoid prosecution paying their victims in an effort to render the offence less evident. In Prosecutor v. Kunarac,51 the ICTY elaborated on the meaning of slavery and enslavement, noting that a mere ability, among others, to buy, sell or trade people, although an important factor to be taken into consideration, is in itself insufficient in determining whether or not slavery has occurred.52 Trafficking may then be treated as slavery simultaneously, mainly when people are exploited afterwards by the traffickers themselves, or the same organisation, as this ensures the continuous exercise of the right of ownership (Obokata, 2006, 20). The duration of the suspected exercise of powers attaching to the right of ownership is another factor that may be considered when determining whether someone was enslaved.53 It is important to keep in mind that the absence of slavery does not create an absence of trafficking, since exploitation may well take place outside slavery-like situations. It may seem evident, but too often the mistake is made that exploitation below the threshold of slavery excludes that the crime of trafficking has been taking place or effectively equalling trafficking with slavery which is extremely incorrect and would exclude many cases which actually are clear trafficking cases. Neither exploitation of the prostitution of others nor other forms of sexual exploitation is defined in the Palermo Protocol, partly due to the discussion taking place regarding prostitution and the possibility of prostitution not always amounting to exploitation mentioned elsewhere in this paper. The Travaux Prparatoires mentions that the Protocol addresses the exploitation of prostitution and other forms of sexual exploitation only in the context of trafficking in persons. The terms exploitation of prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation are not defined in the Protocol. The Protocol is therefore without prejudice to how State Parties address
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Prosecutor v. Kunarac, IT-96-23, Trial Judgment, 22 Feb. 2001. Kunarac, para. 543. 53 Kunarac, para. 542.
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prostitution in their respective domestic law.54 This leaves State Parties free to decide how to deal with the phenomenon in their national systems and allows the anti-trafficking discussion to transcend the general debate about the rights and wrongs of prostitution to a significant extent.55 Compared to other industries, the sex industry has attracted a lot of attention from both traffickers and researchers. The sex industry is frequently illegal or only partially decriminalised which makes it a perfect locus operandi for organised criminal groups and further more, the demand in this sector is enormous and there is a strong requirement for cheaper services (Cameron, 2007, 31).
The Purpose:
The Protocol gives, for the first time, a detailed and comprehensive definition of trafficking. The Protocol applies to all people, but particularly women and children, since Member States have recognized their specific vulnerability. It offers tools in order to empower law enforcement and strengthen border control. The Protocol integrates this by also strengthening the response of the judiciary. The main goal is to catch and prosecute the trafficker, yet at the same time protect the victim. Assistance to victims is crucial to law enforcement, since he/she can provide for the evidence necessary to successfully prosecute the trafficker.
The (mis)concept(ions):
Trafficking is not a human rights crime; it is fundamentally a criminal act, albeit with a human rights dimension. This notion is for some, challenging; how can such egregious offences not amount to a human rights violation? The answer is that in the absence of state involvement, deliberate neglect or complicity, trafficking is simply one other criminal activity such as murder, theft or rape. The most effective use of international and regional law will be in addressing the crime correctly (Piotrowicz, 2008). This does not mean ignoring the human rights dimension but addressing the problem within the correct framework which enhances understanding and also helps clarify the human rights dimension.
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UN DOC A/55/383/add.1 para. 64. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights aspects of the victims of trafficking in persons, especially women and children, UN DOC E/CN.4/2006/62/Add.2 para. 33.
Trafficking and smuggling are criminal justice issues. They affect territorial integrity because they involve the facilitation of crossing of borders and remaining in a State in violation of national criminal and immigration laws. Trafficking and smuggling also undermine the rule of law and political foundation of States, because traffickers and smugglers such as organised criminal groups resort to violence and corruption as means to advance their business.56 The usual response at the national level has been crime and immigration control in order to prosecute and punish traffickers/smugglers and reduce the flow of trafficked/smuggled people. Within the international legal system, trafficking and smuggling of human beings have been dealt with by what is known as transnational criminal law. Unlike international criminal law, which gives rise to direct control of crimes by international tribunals, transnational criminal law promotes the indirect suppression by international law, through domestic penal law, of criminal activities that have actual or potential trans-boundary effects.(Obokata, 2006b, 2). As a general observation, whether or not a specific case is to be considered as a case of trafficking in persons in the sense of the Protocol depends on the nature of the criminal act committed. At a minimum, this involves the combination of the three constituent elements of the definition in the Protocol. It is clear from this definition that by far not all cases of, for example, slave labour or sexual exploitation are human trafficking cases. Thus, in legal proceedings, as well as in the production and compilation of data, a choice must be made whether or not to classify an identified case of exploitation as human trafficking or not. A priori classifications will have to be revised in the course of investigations and proceedings. A particularity of human trafficking may be that it is often the victims who are accused and arrested for various offences (irregular residence, illegal work, procurement) rather than the human traffickers and that much investigative effort has to be spent to uncover the exploitative links between trafficker and victim (UNGIFT, 2008b, 12).
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Various issues and approaches to trafficking also have implications for the rule of law. Trafficking in human beings is a multinational criminal problem of ever-growing proportions, increasingly perpetrated by organized and sophisticated criminal enterprises. These criminal activities and the official corruption linked to trafficking undermine democratic institutions and challenge the principle of the rule of law. Weak institutions and inadequate legislation limit the capacity of governments to suppress criminal activity and to prosecute offenders. Efforts to prosecute trafficking raise numerous legal issues relating to both legislation and law enforcement. Prohibition of trafficking and smuggling of human beings through criminal law is one obligation imposed upon States under international human rights law. In relation to trafficking, some of the existing human rights instruments explicitly require States to prohibit the act. They include the Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others 1949 (1949 Convention), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women 1979 (CEDAW), the Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 (CRC), and its Optional Protocol on Sales of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography 2000. Regionally, the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union 2000, Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings 2005, the American Convention on Human Rights 1969 (ACHR), and the Inter-American Convention on International Traffic in Minors 1994 are also pertinent.
The lack of specific legislation against trafficking in persons is arguably the most serious obstacle in countering the crime. In the absence of legislation, it is very difficult to punish human trafficking and bring the traffickers to justice. However, even where provisions against trafficking in persons exist under national law, these often cover only parts of the crime in trafficking in persons as defined in the UN Protocol. For example, legislation may still be based on previous conceptions (e.g. the 1949 Convention mentioned elsewhere) of trafficking in women and children and may hence be limited to equating human trafficking with exploitation in the sex industry while ignoring exploitation in the labour market. Where this is the case, the focus of antihuman trafficking activities is then on women forced into prostitution, while trafficking of men (e.g. for exploitation on the labour market) may be dealt with under existing labour laws. The understanding of human trafficking depends, first and foremost, on the underlying legal instruments that define and criminalize the crime as well as on the focus of law enforcement efforts dedicated to giving effect to these laws (UNGIFT, 2008b, 12).
The Human Rights Dimension:

When responding to human trafficking within the criminal justice system, it is important to have the best interests of the trafficked victim at the forefront of all activities.57 A victim-centred criminal justice response to trafficking is most effective in terms of achieving a successful prosecution of the traffickers and protecting and supporting the human rights of the trafficked victim. Prioritising the well-being of the trafficked victim and their recovery from a trafficking ordeal is compatible with achieving the desired results in a criminal prosecution. This already testifies to how the criminal law
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The European Council Framework Decision of March 15, 2001 on the Standing of Victims in Criminal Proceedings defines a victim as: A natural person who has suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering or economic loss, directly caused by acts or omissions that are in violation of the criminal law of a Member State. The European Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, May 16, 2005, CETS No. 197, provides that: Victim shall mean any natural person who is subject to trafficking in human beings. Following on from this reasoning, one possible definition of a victim of trafficking in persons is a person who has suffered physical, mental or economic harm from the crime of trafficking in persons, as defined by Article 3 of the Trafficking Protocol. This should be so irrespective of whether or not there is a strong suspicion against an alleged trafficker or, an official recognition of victim status; so as not to deny victims from receiving the full range of rights of assistance and protection available to them as victims. Where victim assistance and support measures to be withheld pending the verification of the perpetrator as a trafficker or the victim as an officially recognized victim, further harm could result to them amounting to secondary victiminization and ultimately leave them vulnerable again to being re-trafficked. Therefore, specifically on the basis of the definition of trafficking in persons provided by Article 3 of the Protocol, a victim is anyone who is subjected to a combination of elements: acts, means and purpose established by Article 3(a) of the Protocol. However, where the person who has suffered harm is a child, they are to be considered as victims regardless of whether means have been established. However, where a definition of a victim of trafficking is linked to the offence, questions are raised as to the level of proof needed to ascertain that an offence has indeed been committed. See The Vienna Forum to fight Human Trafficking 13-15 February 2008, Austria Center Vienna Background Paper 023 Workshop: The Effectiveness of Legal Frameworks and Anti-Trafficking Legislation.
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and human rights protection is closely linked. Furthermore, the identification of a trafficked victim is vital to ensure that they may be granted access to protection and support services. If a trafficked victim is not identified as such, he/she may be treated as an irregular immigrant if they are in the country irregularly, or he/she may be left without resources, protection or appropriate support in order to recover from the trafficking ordeal. This is to the detriment of the trafficked victim and to the trafficking investigation. Without access to protection and support services, trafficked victims may not recover to gain the sufficient confidence and security to cooperate with law enforcement officials in their criminal investigations. Without evidence and testimony from trafficked victims, it is often difficult to prosecute the traffickers with full effect (UNGIFT 2008, 3). The strong link between prosecution respect for the rule of the law and human rights protection the criminal law and human rights law aspects may reinforce each other, but already the rather simple statement that it is detriment not only to the trafficked person but also to the investigation and prosecution if the rights of a trafficked person is not one of the priorities, shows how the two branches of law are dependent one upon the other to obtain effective implementation. Human rights issues are not only a concern upon arrival of the trafficked person but also during the transportation. Instances of torture, inhuman and degrading treatment are common during the process and many traffickers as well as smugglers and in some cases border officials may use physical or sexual violence as a means to demand payment for their services (Obokata, 2006, 125). Upon arrival, restriction of movement, work conditions, consequences of racism and law enforcement practices such as detention centres, repatriation and rights linked to legal processes are some of the issues with a human rights aspect in the trafficking context (Obokata, 2006, 127-27). From the human rights perspective, it would perhaps have been preferable if an international instrument on trafficking had been created within a human rights body rather than in a law enforcement body. However, the impetus for developing a new international instrument arose out of the desire of governments to create a tool to combat the enormous growth of transnational organized crime. Therefore, the drafters created a strong law enforcement tool with comparatively weak language on human rights protections and victim assistance (Jordan, 2002, 2-3). Does this necessarily mean that the Protocol is irrelevant for human rights protections? Not at all and even within the Protocol the reference to the wider international legal framework is found Art.14 of the Protocol makes the obvious evident the Protocol does not exist in a vacuum: it compliments and is complimented
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by other instruments including the major human rights conventions and it cannot be seen isolated from these. Trafficking in human beings is widely regarded as constituting a most serious breach of the human rights of victims. Victims are exploited for their labour and through the conditions of work and living they are forced to endure. Their hours of work are generally imposed on them. Their freedom of movement is restricted. Frequently their passport or identity documents will have been confiscated. They are often subjected to sexual, physical and/ or psychological abuse, all of which may be employed as a means to establish and maintain control over them (Piotrowicz, 2007, 275). All of these crimes will be criminal offences under national law and must be punished. If the State does not legislate against abuse and exploitation and works to prevent violations on the part of individuals then the State will be in breach of its obligations. Adopting a lens exclusively of organised crime, which is legally correct when considering what trafficking is, and often practically necessary in order to deal with the problem in any effective and reasonable way at all, simply because adopting any other lens when deciding upon whether a case is a trafficking case or not, only leads to confusion. However, it often translates into policies that do not uphold the best interests of the individual and it ignores the human rights aspect of the Protocol and the human rights dimension of the crime. Although trafficked persons are recognised by law as victims, survivors of human trafficking are often only assisted by authorities if they co-operate with law enforcement officials and agree to testify, otherwise, they are often treated as irregular immigrants in need of deportation. The UN Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power defines Victims of Crime as: Persons who, individually or collectively, have suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that are in violation of criminal laws operative within Member States. Under this Declaration, the person is to be considered a victim regardless of whether the perpetrator is identified, apprehended, prosecuted or convicted.58 This means that conditioning the protection of a victim of trafficking upon the criminal case against the trafficker goes against basic UN principles of Justice.
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58
UN GA Res 49/34, Annex (29 Nov. 1985) UN DOC A/RES/40/34, para. 1.
The Obligation to Protect:

States are the bearers of obligations under international law, they are the laws subjects and accordingly take on direct responsibilities and rights. But the concept of international legal personality, and the acknowledgement by the International Court of Justice that the subjects of law in any legal system are not necessarily identical in their nature or in the extent of their rights, and their nature depends upon the needs of the community,59 holds open the possibilities that the categories might be meaningfully reconsidered in time (Alston, 2005, 19). And it has increasingly been maintained that the recent developments which have favoured the growth of powers on the part of non-state actors and the consequent limits imposed on the powers of states requires a re-examination of the obligations of non-state actors (Obokata, 2006, 128). It has been argued that non-state actors have obligations because they are also holders of duties to promote and protect human rights.60 Some rights in existing human rights instruments explicitly provide that individuals have duties towards other individuals as well as rights such as ICCPR preambles and ECHR Art.17 (on abuse of rights). Some human rights mechanisms such as the ECOSOC have stated that international financial institutions should pay greater attention to the protection of the rights to health in their lending policies, credit agreements and structural adjustment programmes and that all members of society including the private business sector have responsibilities in the realisation of the right to food.61 The UNHCHR has stressed responsibilities of non-state actors in relation to poverty,62 and the Special Rapporteur on Sales of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography has stated that international human rights law imposes direct obligations on the private sector.63 Such views must be treated with caution though since international human rights law is not directly enforceable against non-state actors. They cannot be held directly accountable (Obokata, 2006, 130). What is true is that there is an increased tendency to hold especially multinational enterprises measurable against a human rights law and that e.g. codes of conduct tend to take into
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Reparations for Injuries Case, 1949 ICJ Rep 178. Human Rights Principles and Responsibilities for Transnational Corporations and Other Business enterprise, E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/WG.2/WP.1, Report of the Sessional Working Group on the Working Methods and Activities of Transnational Corporations in its Fourth Session, E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/13, Report of the Special Rapporteur on Human Rights and Human Responsibilities, E/CN.4/2002/107 and E/CN.4/2003/105. 61 ECOSOC General Comment 14 and 12. 62 HR/GVA/POVERTY/SEM/2001/4. 63 Report of the Special Rapporteur on Sales of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, E/ CN.4/2001/78, para. 52.
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consideration the international human rights standards, even if this does not necessarily mean compliance with the latter. 64 Those who have been required to perform forced labour, detained against their will and subject to various kinds of abuse are clearly victims of crime. However, those crimes are generally committed not by the state but by private individuals, acting either alone or in organised criminal groups. So the question comes: do traffickers owe human rights obligations towards their victims, or are such obligations owed only by states (Piotrowicz, 2007, 276)? Further the question arises if States can be held accountable for lack of protection and if there arises an obligation on States to protect against other individuals acting privately. Traditionally it is been argued that only states can violate human rights, that is, individuals acting on behalf of the State. States have an obligation to protect horizontally by having adequate laws, processes, punishments for the crime of trafficking (as for other crimes that affect the human rights of individuals). A failure in the context of trafficking by the State to protect and to impose that trafficking cannot flourish unchecked may be considered a failure to fulfil the obligation to protect against human rights abuse. The human rights norms and principles may be applied through national courts and tribunals and the horizontal application is possible at this level.65 The benefit of horizontal application is that it empowers victims by providing them with means to hold individual perpetrators accountable. This can be achieved in two ways, either by bringing criminal proceedings against perpetrators or by having the possibility of initiating civil actions against them (Obokata, 2006, 132). This leads again to the conclusion that States must have effective prosecution mechanisms in order not to violate human rights obligations. It is extremely important to underline that having a human rights approach to the victims does not exclude a criminal law application to the cases of trafficking. It is much as with other State obligations to protect individuals from third persons who may interfere with their human rights. The State will fulfil such an obligation if it puts in place adequate national laws which live up to international standards. It is noteworthy that States
See, Reinish, A.: The Changing International Legal Framework for Dealings with Non-State Actors, in Alston P.: Non-State Actors and Human Rights, pp. 38-53. 65 See Klein, D.F.: A theory for the Application of Customary International Law of Human Rights by Domestic Courts, in Yale Journal of International Law 332 (1998); Cooper, J.: Horizontality: The Application of Human Rights Standards in Private Disputes, in English and Haves: An Introduction to Human Rights and Common Law (2000).
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have four levels of obligations regarding human rights implementation: the obligation to respect, to protect, to facilitate and to fulfil (Symonides, 2000, 127-29). In terms of international law, the obligation to respect requires States to refrain from any actions which would violate any of the rights of the child under the Convention (Alston, 1991, 5). The obligation to protect and ensure goes well beyond to respect, since it implies an affirmative State obligation to do what is necessary to enable individuals to enjoy and exercise the relevant rights, including protection from third parties (Symonides, 12729; Alston 1991, 5). The right to liberty, the right to dignity and security of person, the right not to be held in slavery or involuntary servitude, the right to be free from cruel and inhumane treatment, various economic and social rights, and specific rights of the child are among the human rights affected by the practice of trafficking. As governments are responsible for ensuring human rights on their territories, they have an obligation to protect individuals from such practices, prosecute violations, and provide effective remedies for victims. It is clear also here that criminal law and human rights protection are closely linked protection cannot be effective if there is no effective law enforcement and effective prosecution of acts criminalised according to national laws. A clear example is that the protection of Life in Art 6 of the ICCPR is not only a vertical protection (from the State) but also horizontal. It is the right not to be arbitrarily killed by a state agent, (the duty on the State to respect) or by starvation, epidemics, poverty etc, (the duty of the State to ensure) or by ordinary crime (the duty of the State to protect) which is done by enacting the relevant penal codes). Direct horizontal protection includes protection against slave-trade, propaganda for war or racial or religious hatred (Art.20 ICCPR). At a regional level ECHR prohibits slavery and forced and compulsory labour in Art. 4 they are absolute, outside any derogation, but compulsory labour is subject to the exemptions in the art.: detention, military service, emergency or calamity, normal civic obligation. According to the ILO, forced and compulsory labour must be performed involuntarily, the requirement to do the work must be unjust or oppressive or the work itself involves unavoidable hardship. This is aimed at protecting the individual against the State, but the obligation to protect will oblige the State also to protect against third parties. Horizontal application does not necessarily mean that the state is in breach of its human rights obligations just because a person has been trafficked. There must also be some failure on the part of the State to secure the rights and freedoms guaranteed. This might include exposure of the victim to inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment by traffickers, where the State lacks legislation capable of addressing that threat, or where even having such legislation in place, it is not in fact effectively implemented.
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The Human Rights Committee makes it clear that it sees the matter in terms of the obligations of states to take appropriate measures or to exercise due diligence to prevent, punish, investigate or redress the harm caused by such acts by private persons or entities.66 Thus states must for example take positive measures to ensure that private persons or entities do not inflict torture or cruel or inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment on others within their powers.67 It is thus the failure of the State, not the criminal act of the trafficker, that brings about the breach of the victims human rights (Piotrowicz, 281). The same may be the case if a state does not offer sufficient protection and assistance e.g. in accordance with international standard of process to a victim/witness through rehabilitation and reintegration.
The Victims:
When estimating the hidden number of trafficking crimes, keeping in mind that the majority of known trafficking victims are women, it might be informative to look at the reporting practices of women in general and their relationship with affluence. When reporting practices of women are compared with the human development indicators, it can be noted that women from less developed countries tend to report less in general than women who live in more affluent countries. In addition, trafficking victims are often even more reluctant than other victims to report crimes because of fear of retaliation by traffickers or deportation by authorities (Kangaspunta, 2007, 30). On the other hand the visibility bias is the idea that trafficking for forced prostitution is more likely to be detected than trafficking for forced labour. Prostitution (whether forced or voluntary) involves the general public because it must be visible taking place in streets, bars or public spaces in urban areas to attract potential clients. Conversely, most of the victims of forced labour often work in hidden locations, such as agricultural fields in rural areas, mining camps and garment factories or within the closed environment of a house in the case of domestic servitude. As a consequence, the detection of victims of trafficking for forced labour is less probable than the identification of victims of trafficking for forced prostitution (UNODC, 2008, 52). Admittedly, looking at the numbers reported, trafficking in women and children is a big problem, but the prominent focus on the trafficking of women over men arguably has links to assumptions about gender and, in particular, a generalized notion of female vulnerability. That is, many female migrants are conceptualized as trafficked while male migrants are seen more
ICCPR Human Rights Committee: General Comment 31, The Nature of the General Legal Obligations Imposed on State Parties to the Covenant, UN DOC CCPR/C/21/rev.1/Add.13 (26 May 2004) and Velsquez Rodrgues case at the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Judgement of 29 July 1988. 67 General Comment 31, para. 8.
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commonly as irregular migrants.68 This notion may to some extent at least also influence statistics. And yet there are significant signals in many countries and regions that male migrants are also severely exploited and violated in ways that constitute human trafficking. For several years, trafficking for sexual exploitation has dominated discussions concerning the purpose of human trafficking. Trafficking in persons for forced labour has not been viewed as a significant issue in many countries. Most identified human trafficking victims have been women and children who seem to be particularly vulnerable to sexual exploitation and the identification of male victims who might be expected to be trafficked for forced labour purposes has not been successful in many countries (Kangaspunta, 2). Far fewer sources have identified either male victims or victims who have been subjected to forced labour, when the popular perception, at least, is that it is men especially who might be expected to be trafficked for forced labour purposes (UNODC, 2006, 33). A serious problem connected to the lack of focus on trafficking for labour exploitation is that debates tend to focus on prostitution rather than on the process of trafficking (Obokata 2006, 28). Human trafficking for sexual exploitation is reported more frequently than trafficking for forced labour at the global level. Reporting varies per (sub-) region, with sexual exploitation reported by many sources in relation to Central and South Eastern Europe and by relatively fewer to Africa. Where sources expressly report exploitation of boys, this tends to be in the labour market, while sexual exploitation is reported more frequently among female children (UNODC 2006, 33). It should be remembered that the Protocols definition is gender-neutral and that the title only says especially women and children. During the draft process, states expressed the view that the Protocol should address all persons.69 The gender-neutrality is also reflected in the content of types of exploitation in the definition (Obokata 2006, 29). Nevertheless, for several years, human trafficking for sexual exploitation has dominated discussions concerning the purpose of trafficking in persons. Trafficking in persons for forced labour, has not been viewed as a major problem in many countries, and the identification of trafficking victims who are exploited through forced labour has been even less successful than in the case of sexual exploitation. In many countries, human trafficking for forced labour has only been included in legislation in recent years in order to comply with the definition of the Trafficking Protocol (UNODC 2006, 65). One reason for the low numbers of reported cases involving forced labour and male victims is connected to trafficking legislation which, in
Trafficking of men a Trend less Considered. In A Global Eye on Trafficking, Issue 1, IOM, December 2007. 69 UN DOC A/AC.254/5/Add.3/Rev2.
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many countries, is restricted only to sexual exploitation. In 2008, most of the countries considered by the UNODC Global report had a trafficking in persons offence in place, that included the criminalization of trafficking for forced labour, but this is a recent development. For instance, about 10 European countries expanded their definition of trafficking to include forced labour during the years 2005-2008. For many years, a large number of East Asian countries only considered trafficking for sexual exploitation, which remains the case in many countries in the region. A similar situation exists in Latin America (UNODC 2008, 51). In this case, forced labour cases are not classified as human trafficking crimes and, as a result, they are not included in statistics or reports. In addition, many victim support organisations provide services only for women and child victims. In countries where trafficking legislation also covers labour exploitation and services not restricted to women and children, several male victims have entered the victim protection programme (Kangaspunta, 2). Apart from the evident fact that men can be trafficked as well, the historical linkage of women and children has proven problematic in many ways. Often this linkage entails the treatment of women as if they were children and denies women the rights attached to adulthood, such as the right to have control over ones own body and life. When laws target typically female occupations, they tend to be overly protective and prevent women from making the same type of decisions that adult men are able to make. This is reflected in the position that prostitution is forced by definition, which effectively places women on the same level as children and denies them the agency to make their own decision to engage in sex work among the options available to them. Examples of corresponding strategies are antitrafficking measures which aim to prohibit or prevent women from migrating for (sex) work and the type of prevention campaigns which predominantly aim to scare women from going abroad by warning them about the dangers of being trafficked, up to the use of (semi-pornographic) illustrations of women. Moreover, the linkage of women with children emphasises a single role for women as caretakers of children and obscures womens increasing role as the sole supporter of dependent family members and, consequently, as economic migrants in search of work (Ditmorw and Wijers, 2003). The focus on women and children obviously is funded in three main factors: that these two groups are considered more vulnerable in general; that statistics underpin the need for this focus; that trafficking is often linked to sexual exploitation even if trafficking is actually also for other forms of exploitation. Whereas there is a concrete and urgent need to protect these two groups of victims, it is important not to create an invisible group of
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trafficked persons both in reality and in research. It is necessary to have a gender equality based approach to the problem; first because it is true that because of discriminatory attitudes towards women and girls, these are more vulnerable, also because we need to recognise that maltreating women often leads to maltreatment of children. Secondly, a gender sensitive approach is needed because sometimes it is assumed that boys cannot fall victim to trafficking and exploitation this makes them double victims because they are further marginalised and hide their suffering perhaps even more than girls do.70
The conclusions:
Human rights and international criminal law are inter-linked.71 Trafficking in human beings falls in under different branches of international law simultaneously. The existence of overlapping between international human rights law, international criminal law and transnational criminal law does not mean that these branches are in conflict with one another, instead they are mutually reinforcing (Obokata, 2006, 166). The main purpose of human rights law is protection of the basic rights of the individual human being, therefore obligations are imposed by the international legal system not in relation to other states but towards all individuals within a states jurisdiction. This means that international human rights law is not necessarily suited to promote international cooperation and mutual assistance since these are examples of obligations towards other states, not individuals. This can be compensated by transnational and international criminal law. On the other hand transnational criminal law has difficulties in obtaining harmonisation of definitions and is not well equipped to deal with defendants rights, these weaknesses may be compensated by international human rights law (Obokata, 2006, 169). Focusing on the dimension of human trafficking is also important to understand and measure for which purpose trafficking happens, i.e. in which specific market trafficked people are exploited. This will allow designing more focused and effective interventions. This means the implementation of policies oriented in detecting and deterring demands for prostitution, drugs, work, and organs, and in bringing these black markets to a legal dimension. It is necessary to understand that not all forms of exploitation are the same and to assess demands and supply in the different markets by
ECPAT newsletter 42/2003 Rethinking the trafficking paradigm. Ibid. p 133. See Cassese, A.: International Criminal Law (OUP, 2003), Merton, T.: Human Rights and Humanitarian Norms as Customary International Law (Clarendon, 1989), Sunga, L.S.: Individual Responsibility in International law for Serious Human Rights Violations (Martin Nijhoff, 1992), Ratner, S.R. and Abrams, J.A.: Accountability for Human Rights Atrocities in International Law: Beyond the Nuremberg Legacy (OUP, 2001).
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separating the legal ones from the illegal ones, to develop criminal sanctions and regulatory disincentives in the labour market. Many of these are already in place in several national legislations but they are lacking implementation (Kangaspunta, 127). The Protocol is not perfect but the fact that trafficking happens and that victims do not receive sufficient protection is not only because of flaws in the Protocol, but due to many and varied problems related to implementation. It may be opportune to recall that having a perfect law which criminalises murder or theft does not automatically mean that murder or theft will not occur. The Protocol does give several possibilities to prosecute and prevent abuse and exploitation in countries of destination.72 Implementation is much more than prosecution and has to be multifaceted. Prevention, including respect for social economic rights, are important parts of an effective fight against traffickers and protection of victims aspects which are included in the Protocol, but not always easy to implement, also due to a certain cost. It is also true that the concept of trafficking does not exist in all legal systems and in some cases cannot even be properly translated linguistically. It is however hard to totally discharge the value of the Protocol on this basis. Exploitation is very hard both to eradicate and to justify. This means that justifying exploitation by saying that it is not a crime in national law, that it is part of traditional practices, for example, is not credible the victim of exploitation is, if given the possibility, rarely going to opt for staying in an exploitive situation for more than strictly necessary. It also means and this must be underlined that eradicating exploitation is as hard as eradicating poverty. But countries in which trafficking have not existed as a concept are also asking for help to adapt their national legislation and implement national action plans.73 Knowing that the Protocol is a criminal law tool, addressing a crime with a human rights component, knowing that prosecution depends on the criminal law aspect and notion such as intent, and that the Protocol operates within a broader framework of international instruments, including human rights instruments and labour law instruments, and that a State has an obligation to protect against violence and prosecute perpetrators all help in the fight against abuse, exploitation and trafficking.
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Rossi, E.: Intervention in the Conference: ten years after the institution of the ad hoc inter-governmental committee for the elaboration of the Palermo Protocol, Palermo: 21-22 May 2009. 73 See e.g. the work done by IDLO in Senegal: Analyse et Plan National dAction de lutte contre la traite des personnes, en particulier des femmes et des enfants. June 2008.
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Selected Literature
Alston, P. (ed.) 2005 Non-State Actors and Human Rights, New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Alston, P. 1991 The Legal Framework of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, 91/2 Bulletin of Human Rights, UN, Geneva, 1991 ISSN: 0251-7019.
Cameron, S. and E. Newman (Eds.) 2008 Trafficking in Human Social, Cultural and Political Dimensions, Tokyo; New York: United Nations University Press, 2008. Ditmore, M. and M. Wijers 2009 The Negotiations on the UN Protocol on Trafficking in Persons. Nemesis 2003 nr 4. at www.nswp.org/pdf/NEMESIS.PDF (visited June 2009). International Organization for Migration (IOM) 2007 Trafficking of Men a Trend less Considered, in A Global Eye on Trafficking, Issue 1, December 2007, IOM, Geneva, 2007. Jureidini, R. 2010 Trafficking and Contract Migrant Workers in the Middle East, in International Migration - Human Trafficking: New Directions for Research IOM, 2010. Jordan, A.D. 2002 The Annotated Guide to the Complete UN Trafficking Protocol, International Human Rights Law Group, Washington, 2002. Kangaspunta, K. 2007 Collecting Data on Human Trafficking: Availability, Reliability and Comparability of Trafficking Data in Savona, E.U., Springer, 2007. Stefanizzi, S. 2007 Measuring Human Trafficking, Complexities and Pitfalls, Springer, 2007.
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Obokata, T. 2006a Trafficking of Human Beings from a Human Rights Perspective Towards a Holistic Approach, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, the Hague, 2006. 2006b Trafficking and Smuggling of Refugees from a Human Rights Perspective, Paper presented to the International Conference on Refugees and International Law: The Challenge of Protection (Conference presentation 15-16 December 2006, Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford). Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) 2006 Human Trafficking for Labour Exploitation/Forced and Bonded Labour: Prosecution of Offenders, Justice for Victims. Report of the 5th Alliance against Trafficking in Persons Conferences on Human Trafficking for Labour Exploitation/Forced and Bonded Labour Vienna, 16 and 17 November 2006. Pereira, S. and J. Vasconcelos 2008 Human Trafficking and Forced Labour - Case Studies and Responses from Portugal, ILO, Geneva, 2008. Plant, R. 2004 The Labour Dimension of Human Trafficking. Alliance against Trafficking in Persons, ILO; Vienna, 2004.
Piotrowicz, R. 2007 Trafficking of Human Beings and their Human Rights in the Migration Context, in Cholewinski, R.; Perruchoud, R. and MacDonald, E.: International Migration Law Developing Paradigms and Key Challenges, Asser Press, the Hague, 2007. 2008 Trafficking in Human Beings Developments in Protection: is there a Traffic Jam? Presentation delivered at the Round Table on International Migration Law and Migration Policies in the Mediterranean Context. The International Institute of Humanitarian Law. San Remo, Italy 16th Dec. 2008.
Skrivankova, K. 2006 Trafficking for Forced Labour UK Country Report, London, Anti Slavery International, 2006.
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Symonides, J. (ed.) 2000 Human Rights: Concepts and Standards, UNESCO, Asghate, Paris, 2000. United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking (UNGIFT) 2008a The Vienna Forum to fight Human Trafficking 13-15 February 2008, Austria Center Vienna Background Paper. 006 Workshop: Criminal Justice Responses to Human Trafficking. 2008b The Vienna Forum to fight Human Trafficking 13-15 February 2008, Austria Center Vienna Background Paper 023 Workshop: The Effectiveness of Legal Frameworks and Anti-Trafficking Legislation. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2004 Legislative Guide for the Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime and the Protocols thereto, United Nations, 2004. 2006 2008 Toolkit to Combat Trafficking in Persons, United Nations, 2006. Toolkit to Combat Trafficking in Persons, United Nations, 2008.
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LES DROITS DE LHOMME DES MIGRANTS IRREGULIERS

(M. Samba BARRY)
Introduction
La migration est un phnomne vieux comme le monde. Les hommes ont de tout temps migr pour des raisons diverses. De nos jours, ce phnomne connat une ampleur mondiale avec des proportions et une nature juges la fois inquitantes et dmesures. Il faut dire que si la migration internationale suscite tant de proccupations cest parce quelle se droule ou se manifeste souvent en dehors des rgles ou normes tablies par les Etats ou les institutions internationales. Cette forme de migration dite irrgulire, illgale ou clandestine est le lit de toutes les maltraitances et de tous les abus. Les migrants irrguliers, groupes vulnrables par excellence, durant leur mouvement ou leur errance et pendant leur installation dans un pays donn, sont la plupart du temps exposs la traite, au trafic, lexploitation et au dni de leurs droits de lhomme les plus lmentaires. Cet tat de fait a pouss la communaut internationale adopter ou intgrer des normes dans des conventions (nous y reviendrons), en renforcement de celles dj existantes et crer des mcanismes de suivi pour assurer une meilleure protection des droits de lhomme des migrants en gnral, et des migrants irrguliers en particulier. Malgr ces efforts consentis au niveau international, leffectivit de la mise en uvre ou de lapplication de ces conventions et autres accords internationaux nest pas sans rsistance ou rticence notamment de la part des pays de destination qui se sentent menacs dans leur stabilit et leur cohsion sociale. On oppose la porte du droit international des droits de lhomme des limites lies la souverainet et au pouvoir rgalien quont les Etats de rglementer lentre et le sjour des trangers dans leur territoire. Le dbat juridique ainsi pos rend compte de la difficile conciliation entre les principes universels des droits de lhomme et les intrts parfois gostes des Etats. Les instruments juridiques internationaux et les mcanismes de suivi existants sont encore l pour rappeler aux Etats leurs obligations par rapport aux valeurs universellement partages et aux engagements souscrits.
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La prsente tude est articule autour de quatre points: Gnralits sur la migration irrgulire. Cadre juridique et droits de lhomme des migrants irrguliers. Les dfis de la mise en uvre des droits de lhomme des migrants irrguliers. Les mcanismes et organes de suivi internationaux.
1. Gnralits sur la migration irrgulire

Le phnomne migratoire met en cause des millions de personnes et affecte un grand nombre dEtats, quils soient de dpart, de transit ou de destination. Dans les cas de migrations irrgulires, les migrants sont plus vulnrables et sexposent ainsi des abus. Leur cas mrite une attention toute particulire. Pour faciliter les dveloppements qui suivent, il convient de bien circonscrire la terminologie de la migration ou des migrants irrguliers. En soi, den connatre les tendances et les facteurs de vulnrabilits.
1.1 La terminologie
Dfinir la migration irrgulire cest dabord comprendre ce quest la migration et dans quels cas lui coller le qualificatif irrgulire. Plusieurs dfinitions sont proposes. A quelques nuances prs elles captent toutes le phnomne dans sa globalit. La migration dsigne le fait pour une personne de quitter son territoire dorigine pour se rendre sur un autre qui lui est tranger. Le passage dune frontire internationale ntant pas une condition ncessaire.74 Au sens de lOrganisation des Nations Unies pour lducation, la science et la culture (UNESCO) migrant peut tre compris comme toute personne qui vit de faon temporaire ou permanente dans un pays dans lequel il nest pas n et qui a acquis dimportants liens sociaux avec ce pays. La situation irrgulire est assimilable au constat dune irrgularit qui peut tre le non remplissage des conditions dtablissement dans un pays tranger. Les migrants irrguliers peuvent donc tre assimils aux sans papiers. Ainsi, quand ils ne sont pas autoriss entrer, sjourner et exercer une activit rmunre conformment la lgislation dun Etat donn, les
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Tapia S, Les nouvelles configurations de la migration irrgulire en Europe, Conseil de lEurope, 2003.
migrants sont considrs comme dpourvus de documents ou en situation irrgulire. Le qualificatif irrgulier est prfr illgal ou mme clandestin qui peuvent sous-entendre que le migrant est en situation de faute ou est auteur dun acte illgal et par consquent, passible dune sanction pnale. Le traiter en migrant irrgulier est plus conforme sa situation. Il se trouve plus dans une posture de victime ayant besoin de protection et dassistance compte tenu de tous les facteurs ayant dtermin sa situation. Nous nous conformerons cette dfinition qui colle le mieux la perspective de notre tude et la ralit de la situation des sans papiers. Le terme migrant irrgulier dans le cadre des mouvements migratoires dits mixtes ou flux composites englobe plusieurs catgories notamment: les rfugis, les demandeurs dasile, les migrants conomiques, les victimes de traite ou de trafic, il peut galement concerner les tudiants, les touristes ou les travailleurs dj tablis et dont les visas sont expirs. Il faut noter que notre tude ne fait pas ici rfrence aux rfugis, ni aux demandeurs dasile qui bnficient dune attention importante en raison des principes juridiques internationaux tablis de non-refoulement et de protection des rfugis. Nous nous focalisons surtout sur des personnes qui auraient dlibrment quitt leur pays dorigine la recherche de fortune. Celles-ci doivent remplir un certain nombre de conditions pour sjourner librement dans un pays tranger. Cest cette carence qui justifie le caractre irrgulier de leur dplacement ou de leur sjour. Elles sexposent ainsi toutes sortes dexploitations matrialises par la traite ou le trafic. Ces deux notions proches sont dfinies dans les Protocoles de Palerme.75 La traite des tres humains signifie le recrutement, le transport, le transfert, lhbergement ou laccueil de personnes en utilisant la menace, le recours la force ou toutes formes de contraintes [] aux fins dexploitations.76 Larticle 3 du Protocole additionnel la convention contre la criminalit transnationale organise contre le trafic illicite des migrants par terre, air
Protocole additionnel la convention contre la criminalit transnationale visant prvenir, rprimer et punir la traite des personnes en particulier des femmes et des enfants, Doc. A/RES/55/25, Annexe II, 8 janvier 2001. (Ci-aprs, Protocole additionnel contre la traite). Protocole additionnel la convention contre la criminalit transnationale organise contre le trafic illicite des migrants par terre, air et mer, Doc A/RES/55/25, Annexe III, 8 janvier 2001. (Ci-aprs, Protocole additionnel contre le trafic illicite). 76 Art. 3 du Protocole additionnel contre la traite.
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et mer parle de [] procurer les moyens en vue dobtenir, directement ou indirectement un bnfice financier ou matriel, pour lentre illgale dune personne dans un Etat partie dont elle nest pas ressortissant ou rsident permanent . Ces formes dabus affectent souvent les travailleurs migrants et leurs familles.
Aux termes de larticle 2 de la Convention internationale sur la protection des droits de tous les travailleurs migrants et des membres de leur famille,77 ceux-ci renvoient aux personnes qui vont exercer, exercent ou ont exerc une activit rmunre dans un Etat dont elles ne sont pas ressortissantes.
1.2 Tendances migratoires

Il y a trs peu dvaluation ou de statistiques fiables sur les migrants irrguliers internationaux. Il est cependant constant, de par les donnes disponibles et lampleur du phnomne rapporte par les mdias, que les tendances soient rgulirement la hausse. Les flux migratoires sont en expansion : le nombre de migrants a doubl en 25 ans, et va de toute vidence continuer se dvelopper en raison des disparits en matire de dveloppement, de dmographie et de dmocratie. Approximativement 200 millions de migrants internationaux78 sont recenss dans le monde; soit 3 % de la population mondiale (une personne sur 35). Parmi ceux-ci, 30 40 millions sont dnombrs comme vivant en situation irrgulire, dont 10 11 millions vivent aux USA et 7 8 millions dans lUnion Europenne.79 Les forces dimpulsion et dattraction qui poussent les personnes migrer et immigrer posent des problmes aux Etats et les mettent dans des situations embarrassantes entranant des mesures double sens : rgularisation et refoulement.80 Selon lorganisation Fortress Europe , pour le seul mois daot 2007, 243 rfugis et immigrants sont morts ou ont disparu en Mditerrane ou dans locan Atlantique oriental, parmi lesquels 161 pour le seul canal de
Convention internationale sur la protection des droits de tous les travailleurs migrants et des membres de leur famille, Doc.A/RES/45/158, 18 dcembre 1990. (Ci-aprs, CIDTM). 78 Division de la population des Nations Unies 2006. 79 Organisation internationale pour les migrations 2003. 80 Le Ministre franais de l'Immigration, Eric Besson a annonc sur Europe 1 que 29,000 trangers en situation irrgulire avaient t expulss du territoire en 2009 alors que 175,000 ont bnfici dun titre de sjour.
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Sicile entre lle et la Tunisie. Depuis le dbut de cette anne, 959 personnes sont dcdes lors de tentatives pour rejoindre les ctes europennes.81 En 2006, lONG AGORA qui rapporte les rsultats de cette enqute, rappelle que 30 000 migrants irrguliers ont t recenss aux les Canaries o prs de 6 000 candidats limmigration clandestine ont pri ou disparu des ctes africaines.82 Selon lOrganisation internationale pour les migrations (OIM), la migration irrgulire des hommes de la Corne de lAfrique et de lAfrique de lEst en direction de lAfrique du Sud connat une augmentation, en particulier des Ethiopiens et des Somaliens rgulirement dups, maltraits, exploits et stigmatiss par divers groupes ds lors quils quittent leur pays et jusqu ce quils atteignent lAfrique du Sud. Ils choisissent ensuite de sy installer ou de continuer leur priple plus loin vers lEurope, les Etats-Unis ou lAustralie.83 Tout au long du cycle migratoire, les problmes humains induits par la migration sont encore plus importants dans le cas de la migration irrgulire. Le statut de clandestin rend les migrants irrguliers plus vulnrables encore. Ayant quitt leur pays pour diverses raisons (pauvret, misre, dictature, amlioration des conditions de vie, etc.), ils sexposent aux atteintes aux droits de lhomme sans pour autant tre en mesure de se dfendre ou de dnoncer les auteurs de ces actes. La prcarit de leur statut juridique et la crainte dtre expulss ou dtenus en font les victimes expiatoires dexploitation sexuelle, de commerce dorganes humains, de travaux forcs, desclavage. La protection de leurs droits humains les plus lmentaires devient alors un impratif international. Plusieurs instruments juridiques internationaux ont t adopts pour prvenir ou rprimer de telles pratiques contre une catgorie de personnes si vulnrable.
2. Cadre juridique et droits de lhomme des migrants irrguliers

Outre la Charte internationale des droits de lhomme, constitue par la Dclaration universelle des droits de lhomme (DUDH 1948), le Pacte international relatif aux droits civils et politiques (1966), le Protocole facultatif qui lui est annex et le Pacte relatif aux droits conomiques, sociaux et culturels (1966), dautres conventions et protocoles relatifs la protection des migrants ont t adopts.
Communiqu du Conseil italien pour les Rfugis publi le 04 septembre 2007, extrait le 07 janvier 2010. 82 Sidy A., Sngal:Migrations des mineurs, ces chiffres qui inquitent, Walf Fadjri, 7 Aot 2009. 83 In Pursuit of the Southern Dream: Victims of Necessity Assessment of the irregular movement of men from East Africa and the Horn to South Africa, IOM, April 2009.
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Il sagit entre autres de la Convention internationale pour la protection des droits des tous les travailleurs migrants et des membres de leur famille (CIDTM) et les deux Protocoles de Palerme cits plus haut.
2.1 Droits de lhomme de tous les migrants y compris les irrguliers

Ces instruments juridiques internationaux relatifs aux migrants ont quasiment repris ce qui est communment appel le noyau dur des droits de lhomme auquel aucun Etat ne saurai droger en aucune circonstance. Il sagit de droits dits non drogeables. Ces textes, tout comme les composantes de la Charte internationale des droits de lhomme, consacrent: le droit la vie (article 9 CIDTM) la prohibition de la torture et du traitement inhumain, cruel et dgradant (article 10 CIDTM) prohibition de lesclavage (article 11 CIDTM) libert de pense, de conscience et de religion (article 12 CIDTM) libert dopinion et dexpression (article 13 CIDTM) droit la vie prive (article 14 CIDTM) droit la libert et la scurit de la personne (article 16 CIDTM) droit une justice quitable (article 18 CIDTM) Tous ces droits et liberts sont reconnus aux migrants quelle que soit leur situation ou leurs conditions, en dautres termes quils soient rguliers ou clandestins. Aucun Etat ne peut faire fi de telles obligations de respect des droits et liberts fondamentaux de lhomme. Dans la pratique cependant, face aux consquences du phnomne de la migration clandestine, certains Etats notamment occidentaux adoptent une politique de rpression en dphasage avec le respect de leurs obligations au regard des dispositions pertinentes des instruments juridiques internationaux sur la migration. Madame le Haut Commissaire des Nations Unies aux Droits de lHomme, lors de la douzime session du Conseil des Droits de lHomme a hauss le ton pour rappeler lordre les Etats Europens qui menacent de sanction les navires commerciaux venant en aide aux immigrs clandestins.84
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Affaire des sept pcheurs tunisiens arrts Lampedusa pour avoir secouru des immigrants sur une embarcation en train de couler en 2007 et accuss dassistance.
Ce type de politique est lorigine de lindiffrence de ces navires devant lappel laide des occupants des embarcations de fortune. Elle rappelle pour cela que Les Etats ont lobligation de respecter les droit humains fondamentaux de tous les individus qui sont sous leur juridiction, y compris les migrants, quel que soit leur statut. Les pratiques qui consistent systmatiquement mettre en dtention des migrants irrguliers, les criminaliser et les maltraiter lors des contrles aux frontires, doivent cesser .85
2.2. Droits de lhomme spcifiques aux migrants irrguliers

Compte tenu de leur statut prcaire et de leur situation de vulnrabilit, les migrants irrguliers font parfois lobjet de traitement spcifique dans les textes internationaux pour viter quils ne fassent lobjet de discriminations particulires. Leur situation est prise en compte durant tout le processus migratoire. Cest ainsi que les migrants irrguliers en tant que potentielles victimes de traite ou de trafic bnficientdu:droit la protection contre toutes formes dexploitations (sexuelles, travail ou services forcs, lesclavage ou pratiques similaires, servitude ou prlvement dorganes (articles 3 et 5 du Protocole additionnel contre la traite); droit la protection contre le trafic illicite ou la contrebande (article 6 du Protocole additionnel contre le trafic illicite); droit la protection de leur identit notamment pendant les procs au travers de procdures judiciaires non publiques; droit aux informations sur les procdures judiciaires et administratives applicables; droit une assistance mdicale, psychologique et matrielle. La liste ne sarrte pas l. Il convient aussi de relever les principes de lgalit de traitement et de non discrimination applicables aux travailleurs migrants irrguliers. En son article 25, la CIDTM dispose que les Etats parties adoptent toutes les mesures appropries afin de faire en sorte que les travailleurs migrants ne soient pas privs des droits qui drivent de ce principe en raison de lirrgularit de leur situation en matire de sjour ou demploi. Une telle irrgularit ne doit pas avoir pour effet de dispenser lemployeur de ses obligations lgales ou contractuelles ou de restreindre dune manire quelconque la porte de ses obligations. Cette disposition traite de lgalit de traitement entre travailleurs nationaux et trangers.
Rekacewicz P., Migrations, sauvetage en mer et droits humains , le Monde Diplomatique, 27 septembre 2009, tir le 7 janvier 2010.
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85
Mais elle vise surtout viter une discrimination entre les migrants rguliers et irrguliers. Tout Etat partie devra veiller ce quun employeur ne puisse invoquer la situation dirrgularit dun employ tranger pour se soustraire ses obligations ou engagements contractuels vis--vis de celui-ci. Cette disposition est importante parce que les travailleurs dpourvus de documents ou en situation irrgulire sont la plupart du temps employs dans des conditions moins favorables que les autres travailleurs. De mme, laccs lducation ou aux tablissements prscolaires ou scolaires publics pour tout enfant ne doit pas tre refus ou limit en raison de la situation irrgulire, quant au sjour et lemploi, de lun ou lautre de ses parents ou quant lirrgularit du sjour de lenfant dans lEtat demploi.
3. Les dfis de la mise en uvre des droits de lhomme des migrants irrguliers
Leffectivit de la mise en uvre des droits de lhomme des migrants irrguliers souffre de beaucoup de rticences ou limites imposes par certains Etats. La migration clandestine est un sujet trs sensible. Cette question est au cur des tensions et des tiraillements politiques dans les Etats de destination. Elle pose des problmes identitaires, de cadre de vie, de mauvaise perception du rle et de la place des migrants dans le dveloppement national, du partage des ressources nationales avec des trangers voleurs demploi , du sentiment denvahissement ; autant de points qui font redouter aux Etats de transit ou de destination prendre des mesures positives en faveur des trangers en situation irrgulire. Certains Etats font limpasse sur des mesures de protection des droits de lhomme des migrants irrguliers au profit de mesures restrictives ou protectionnistes pour se donner bonne conscience vis--vis de lopinion publique interne ou pour viter leffet dattraction que de telles mesures pourraient crer. Les arguments utiliss pour restreindre la protection des droits de lhomme des migrants font rfrence au droit souverain de chaque Etat de contrler lentre et le sjour sur son territoire. Pour les tenants de cette thse lmigration seule est reconnue comme un droit fondamental (article 13 alina 2 de la DUDH) tandis que limmigration est considre comme une question de souverainetnationale . Cette thse est battue en brche par plusieurs auteurs. Pour ces derniers, la souverainet de lEtat ne saurait tre synonyme de pouvoir absolu de lEtat. Le champ dapplication des droits de lhomme est large et ne saurait souffrir de la distinction selon la nationalit ou le statut administratif de la personne protge. Cette thse a t consacre juridiquement dans
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la CIDTM. Elle vient avec force dmontrer que la migration irrgulire doit tre traite dans le cadre des droits de lhomme et dans une perspective de rduction de la misre humaine. Par ailleurs, la migration mme irrgulire na pas que des effets ngatifs sur les pays de destination.86
Les politiques ou lois restrictives qui durcissent les conditions dentre ou de sjour ne font quaugmenter la clandestinit. Lautre dfi est celui de la ratification de la Convention pour la protection des travailleurs migrants et des membres de leur famille. Depuis son avnement, elle na pas t ratifie par les Etats Europens ou mme certains Etats maghrbins dits de transit. En dehors de lAmrique latine et de pays africains, rares sont ceux qui en sont parties. De plus en plus, une approche de coopration bilatrale entre Etats est privilgie. De toute vidence, il faut garder lesprit que de tels accords doivent avoir comme points de repre les principes universellement admis de respect et de protection des droits de lhomme fondamentaux.
4. Mcanismes et organes de suivi

Depuis la Dclaration universelle des droits de lhomme de 1948, plusieurs instruments juridiques internationaux ont t adopts pour rpondre aux besoins spcifiques de protection et de promotion des droits de lhomme. Pour garantir leffectivit du respect et de lapplication de ces textes par les Etats, des mcanismes de suivi et des organes conventionnels ont t mis en place par les Nations Unies. Certains mcanismes et procdures sont institus par le Conseil des Droits de lHomme (CDH, qui a remplac la Commission des droits de lhomme depuis 2006) pour enquter sur des situations nationales particulires ou des questions thmatiques relatives aux droits de lhomme. Il sagit des procdures spciales conduites par des titulaires de mandat qui peuvent tre soit des individus, soit des groupes de travail. Concernant les droits de lhomme des migrants, il existe un rapporteur spcial sur les droits de lhomme des migrants et un rapporteur spcial sur la traite des tres humains, en particulier les enfants et les femmes. Ils sont nomms s-qualit sans salaire, ni compensation financire, et dsigns pour faire des missions de suivi sur le terrain. Chaque mission est sanctionne par un rapport contenant un certain
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Voir, le Rapport mondial sur le dveloppement humain 2009 : Lever les barrires : Mobilit et dveloppement humains, p.93.
nombre de recommandations, destin au CDH et lEtat concern. Cette dmarche permet aux Etats de corriger ou damliorer ltat de la protection et de la promotion des droits des migrants. Les organes conventionnels ou organes de trait sont galement conus comme des instruments internationaux ayant pour objet de faire respecter les droits de lhomme. Ces organes sont institus pour assurer le suivi de la mise en uvre des conventions internationales signes par les Etats. Ils reoivent en principe des rapports de mise en uvre, les tudient et mettent des recommandations en veillant ce quelles soient suivies par les Etats.87 En ce qui nous concerne, il existe le Comit pour les travailleurs migrants institu dans le cadre du suivi de la mise en application de la Convention pour la protection des droits des travailleurs migrants et des membres de leur famille. Il tait compos de dix experts indpendants avant janvier 2010. En principe ce nombre devrait tre augment jusqu 14 partir de ce mois. Ses membres sont lus par les Etats parties. Depuis le dbut de ses travaux, le comit a examin le rapport de 12 Etats, nombre peu lev si lon considre le nombre dEtats parties (42). Cela est certainement d la complexit du phnomne, aux enjeux politiques et de dveloppement qui sont au centre de la problmatique de la migration. Le traitement de ce problme ne manquera pas, coup sr, de provoquer ou dentretenir des rticences et des tiraillements de la part des acteurs politiques internationaux. Toutefois, face un monde qui se globalise et au caractre unanimement admis de luniversalit et de lobjectivit des droits de lhomme, il ne sera pas toujours possible de se rfugier derrire des barrires politiques et juridiques pour ne pas sinscrire dans une dynamique globale, sous lauspice de normes et mcanismes internationaux, afin dassurer une gestion efficiente et quitable dun phnomne difficile arrter.
87
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De plus, dans le cadre de cinq conventions onusiennes [le Pacte international relatif aux droits civils et politiques (PIDCP) du 16 dcembre 1966, la Convention contre la torture et autres peines ou traitements cruels, inhumains ou dgradants (CCT)10 dcembre 1984, la Convention internationale sur llimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (CIEDR) du 7 mars 1966, la Convention contre la discrimination lgards de femme (CDEF) 18 dcembre 1979, la Convention relative aux droits des personnes handicapes (CDPH) du 13 dcembre 2006], il existe sous certaines conditions la possibilit pour des individus dintroduire des rclamations. Voir en particulier, le Protocole optionnel au PIDCP, le Protocole optionnel la CDEF, larticle 22 de la CCT, larticle 14 de la CIEDR, le Protocole optionnel la CDPH.
REGIONAL COOPERATION
ECOWAS : CHALLENGES OF FREE MOVEMENT REGIMES

(Mr.Tony ELUMELU)
The management of the free movement regime in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) has been recognized as pivotal to regional integration and to the attainment of a borderless community of people. It is appropriate therefore to seek the constructive engagement of the identified stakeholders in the development of a sustainable action plan for the implementation of the provisions of the Protocol on Free Movement of Persons, the Right of Residence and Establishment of 1979 and related additional Protocols that will assure our continuity as a vibrant regional economy. However, before this can be achieved, it is important to identify and address the challenges to free movement within the region. The ECOWAS free movement regime exists within the realm of international mobility and migration and therefore straddles the line between law and policy, as do many other topics relating to transnational activity. As a result, a major challenge is the execution of laws adopted at the international level and the domestication and implementation of the provisions of such laws and other relevant policies. Since ECOWAS operates mainly within the international sphere, we seek to encourage Member States to execute and enforce the laws and policies which they ratify and adopt and also to educate Community citizens on the provisions of such laws and policies. The challenges which will be identified in this paper therefore lie within the inability of Member States to execute and implement the provisions of ECOWAS Protocol on Free Movement and the ignorance of Community citizens on the provisions of the Protocol. ECOWAS Protocol A/P.1/5/79 (the Protocol) seeks, among other objectives of the Community, to establish and encourage the promotion of free and unfettered movement of Community citizens within the ECOWAS zone, considering this to be one of the fundamental priorities that will drive the regional integration processes and to be a mechanism that is a pivotal strategy for the regional economic transformation and integration of our region.
145
Three phases were planned by the ECOWAS Secretariat to achieve the free movement, the rights to residence and establishment and they were marked by three different Protocols (1979, 1985, 1990): Phase I - Right of Entry and Abolition of Visa (1979); Phase II - Right of Residence (1985); Phase III - Right of Establishment (1990).
The transition time frame as stipulated is 5 years for the observance and implementation of each of the phases, commencing in 1979 and culminating in 1990 with the enforcement of the Right of Establishment of Community citizens in Member States. I will not go into details here, however on Phase I, and more precisely the freedom of movement: a Community citizen visiting any Member State for a period not exceeding 90 days shall enter the territory of that Member State through an official entry route free of visa requirements. However, such citizens shall be required to obtain permission for an extension of stay beyond the 90 days as a visitor from the appropriate authority (article 3 of the 1979 Protocol). This step-by-step approach was decided in order to give gradually enough time to the Member States to ensure that they implement the Protocols at the national level. But some countries still have not adopted the 1985 and 1990 Protocols. These legal instruments are considered by ECOWAS as a primary economic development tool in West Africa.
1. Accelerating regional economic integration and development

Free movement of persons in the sub-region is the fulcrum on which the developmental thrust in the sub-region rests. The Protocol promotes the gains of migration as a development vehicle in the sub-region. By opening up the frontiers of the sub-region to competitive industrial activities, it is an instrument that facilitates the process of building strong domestic economies through the participation of Community citizens in the capital and industrial evolution process in the sub-region. The Protocol, which is an addendum to the ECOWAS Treaty, is an international law document binding on Member States that have ratified it. However, the execution of international law still lies within the realm of
146
states, which must incorporate the obligations into their domestic laws and provide adequate sanctions and other mechanisms for their implementation. The Protocol is no different. Although the ECOWAS Commission works with Member States to ensure the implementation of the Protocol, the immigration laws of Member States must also be reviewed together with the Protocols, as domestic immigration laws can derail implementation of the Protocol where their provisions are inconsistent with those of the Protocol. For example, Article 4 of the Protocol provides that Member States reserve the right to refuse admission into their territory any Community citizen who comes within the category of inadmissible immigrant under its laws. The need to harmonize domestic laws with the provisions of the Protocol constitutes a very important first step towards the facilitation of the free movement regime within the region. The legal framework on free movement is enforced by the ECOWAS Court of Justice, which entertains cases from Community citizens whose rights have been breached under the Protocol. However, access to justice is slow, and, as noted above, Community citizens are often unaware of their rights and of the avenues available for them to seek redress. Although the legal framework exists to be enforced and executed for the protection of the free movement regime within the region, policies are usually adopted to be implemented for the facilitation of the provisions of the legal framework. In 2008, the ECOWAS Common Approach on Migration was adopted and has as one of its goals the implementation of the Protocol on Free Movement through sensitization campaigns within Member States and other activities. Execution and implementation remain major concerns in the facilitation of a free movement regime within West Africa, as do challenges posed by the ignorance of Community citizens. Below, a list of challenges facing the observance of a well-functioning free movement regime within ECOWAS is provided, and recommendations in the ECOWAS action plans for tackling these challenges are also listed.
2. Challenges to free movement

Challenges confronting successful implementation of the Protocol include the following: lack of political will by Member States to enforce the provisions of the Protocol; corruption and illegal extortion of Community citizens; community citizens ignorance and lack of knowledge in the administration of the provisions of the Protocol;
147
lack of sound education in security operatives, especially in identifying grey areas of the Protocol; collection of non-trade tariffs by security operatives manning common frontiers; damaging of highways and proliferation of road blocks on our highways, which militate against free movement of people and goods; incessant harassment, molestation, sexual abuse and intimidation by operatives of Community citizens transiting the borders; and lack of adequate infrastructure that could halt unauthorized movement of non-Community citizens through porous borders.
3. Recommended action points

To facilitate the implementation of strategic initiatives for the Protocol on Free Movement of Persons as a constructive vehicle for regional economic development the following action points are recommended: Incorporate the Free Movement Protocol into domestic legislation through Member States legislative processes, and assign punitive measures for their infringement or non-compliance by designated operatives. To achieve this, parliamentarians might present to their parliament for enactment lists of the protocols to which their heads of State have already assented. Member States should strengthen the capacity of teams monitoring free movement of persons. Strengthen the capacities of the regional media, civil society and NGOs to combat harassment at borders and along international routes. Build and maintain strong road infrastructures. Member States must ensure the adoption of the Convention on Cross-Border Cooperation. Incorporate the Protocol of free movement of persons in the curriculum of various institutions of training in operatives manning our common frontiers to ensure proper implementation. Educate Community citizens on the provisions of the Protocol, its benefits and their obligations towards the successful implementation of the Protocol.
148
Through these steps, the free movement of persons, goods, services and capital will continue to play a strategic and dominant role in our quest for the rapid and accelerated economic growth of our sub-regional national economies. However, in spite of these challenges, ECOWAS has made significant progress in enhancing the free movement of persons, goods and services in the continent. The Region has among its achievements the abolition of visa requirements for Community citizens as a condition for entry into Member States. It has also made remarkable progress in the protection of the rights of Community citizens and implemented the harmonized ECOWAS e-Passport, which meets the International Civil Aviation Organization for international travels. Another important landmark is the adoption of the ECOVISA which will have similar passage rights to the EU Schengen Visa, which is expected to rejuvenate tourism and promote the foreign exchange earning capacity of Member States.
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MIGRATION ET DEVELOPPEMENT88
(Mme Ndioro NDIAYE)
Je suis heureuse que la proposition faite il y a un an San Remo, de dcentraliser nos tables rondes pour que le maximum de personnes puissent y participer dans les pays qui ont le plus besoin dtre en contact avec les thoriciens du droit international savoir les pays africains ait vu le jour ici au Sngal. En effet, une plus grande proximit entre lInstitut et les acteurs du droit humanitaire est de nature favoriser une meilleure comprhension du rle pdagogique quil joue et du travail que produisent tous les ans les membres de cette noble Institution. Les tables rondes de lInstitut sont, en effet, connues et apprcies tout travers lEurope et couvrent des thmes varis et actuels du droit humanitaire tels que pratiqus par le CICR, le HCR, lOIM et bien dautres partenaires. Des oprations de maintien de la paix aux droit des rfugis et des demandeurs dasile et aux droits humains des migrants, les thmes des tables rondes de lInstitut se veulent une contribution significative aux dbats et problmes actuels qui secouent le monde. Aujourdhui, cest lOIM notre principal partenaire. Je la salue travers ses reprsentants ici ; ils ont t mes collgues dun moment, je continuerai cooprer avec eux dans ce domaine qui est maintenant au centre de nos proccupations dans le monde en dveloppement: la migration et le dveloppement. Notre table ronde, aujourdhui, a le mrite davoir pos certains dfis dune bonne gestion de la migration en Afrique de lOuest. La migration est inluctable. Il est de notre intrt tous den faire un lment essentiel et fondamental pour le bnfice de chacun, aussi bien pour le migrant et sa socit dorigine que pour le pays qui laccueille. Les pays prsents auraient pu ou d nous donner leurs propres visions des dfis et questions quils rencontrent au quotidien dans la gestion de ce phnomne des temps modernes : Quels sont les cueils une harmonisation des jurisprudences internes dans les pays de la sous-rgion par rapport aux standards internationaux?
88
151
Cette conclusion est incluse dans les rflexions finales de la Table Ronde.
Quelles rponses les pays de la CEDEAO et de lAfrique Centrale et du Nord, individuellement ou collectivement, esquissent-ils vis--vis des risques de violation ou des violations effectives des droits des demandeurs dasile? Des migrants irrguliers? Des migrants tout court? Est-ce que le droit positif dans ces pays respecte le fond et la forme des textes internationaux qui rgissent la migration internationale? Que dire du non dveloppement de lAfrique engendr par un cercle vicieux : pauvret - non emploi - exode des cerveaux - manque dexpertise bas niveau ou absence de production ? La prsence des femmes et des enfants a-t-elle une influence dans la manire dont le droit international est appliqu dans ces rgions ? Comment mieux mettre en uvre les lois, traits et conventions internationales pour que les citoyens, abuss par ce phnomne quest la traite, continuent de croire en la justice ? Pourquoi les pays dvelopps demeurent-ils sourds une ratification de la Convention de 1990 sur la protection des droits de tous les travailleurs migrants et des membres de leurs familles ? Que dire de la mise en uvre de lAccord de Cotonou qui favorise la coopration entre pays dorigine, de transit et de destination pour une meilleure gestion des flux migratoires ? Cette liste est loin dtre exhaustive. Elle signifie tout simplement que nous sommes loin du but, mme si des progrs certains ont t faits par certains pays participant cette table ronde. Cest pour cela que lInstitut entend organiser de plus en plus de runions de proximit dans les pays o lapplication du droit international humanitaire pose encore plus de problmes quailleurs pour aider davantage sa comprhension et son respect.
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ANNEXES
AGENDA (English)
8 DECEMBER 2009 Introductory Remarks and Welcome Mr. Richard Perruchoud, Director of the International Migration Law and Legal Affairs Department, International Organization for Migration, Geneva, Switzerland Ambassador Maurizio Moreno, President of the International Institute of Humanitarian Law, San Remo, Italy Ambassador Giuseppe Calvetta, Ambassador of Italy in Senegal Mr. Demba Kandji, Director of Criminal Affairs and Grace, Ministry of Justice, Senegal The International Legal Framework Mr. Richard Perruchoud, IOM Geneva SESSION I: Migration Flows; New Challenges Migration in West Africa: Key challenges Mr. Abye Makonnen, Regional Representative, MRF Dakar Migration in Northern Africa: Key challenges Mr. Peter Schatzer, Regional Representative, MRF Rome Migration and Climate Change Mr. Timon van Lidth, Regional Research and Policy Officer, IOM Nigeria SESSION II: Responding to Root Causes Labour mobility programmes / circular migration Mr. Frederico Barroeta, Project Coordinator, International Labour Office, Sub-Regional Office for the Sahel, Senegal
155
SESSION III: Migrants in Transit Role of civil society during transit Ms. Cristina de Luca, former Under Secretary of State, Italian Ministry of Social Affairs, Rome, Member of the Institute Migration by Sea and Rescue at Sea Ms. Christine Adam, Legal Officer, IOM, Geneva
SESSION IV: Reception of Migrants Migrants in Detention Ms. Pia Oberoi, Consultant, International Council on Human Rights Policy Lampedusa; the Reception Ms. Laura Rizello, Field Officer Praesidium, Italian Red Cross 9 DECEMBER 2009 SESSION V: Return (Open discussion) Moderator: Mr. Richard Perruchoud, IOM, Geneva Ms. Christine Adam, IOM, Geneva SESSION VI: Trafficking and Smuggling Human Rights of Smuggled Migrants Ms. Pia Oberoi, Consultant, International Council on Human Rights Policy Trafficking in Human Beings - Law, Misconceptions and Facts Dr. Kristina Touzenis, Programme Manager, IOM, Rome Human Rights of Irregular Migrants Mr. Samba Barry, Programme Officer, High Commissioner for Human Rights, West Africa Regional Office SESSION VII: Regional Cooperation ECOWAS: Challenges of Free Movement Regimes Mr. Tony Elumelu - Head of Division Free Movement and Migration ECOWAS Commission, Nigeria
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Regional Integration and Migration Policy in West Africa: Challenges and Perspectives Mr. Badara Ndiaye, Diaspora, Human Rights, Development and Migration Coordinator - ENDA DIAPODE International Cooperation in Migration Mr. Peter Schatzer, Regional Representative, MRF, Rome CLOSING CEREMONY
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PROGRAMME (Franais)
8 DECEMBRE 2009 Dclarations prliminaires et allocutions de bienvenue
M. Richard Perruchoud, Directeur du Dpartement du Droit international de la migration et des Affaires juridiques, Organisation internationale pour les migrations, Genve, Suisse Ambassadeur Maurizio Moreno, Prsident de lInstitut international de Droit humanitaire, Sanremo, Italie Ambassadeur Giuseppe Calvetta, Ambassadeur dItalie au Sngal M. Demba Kandji, Directeur des Affaires Criminelles et des Grces, Ministre de la Justice, Sngal Cadre juridique international M. Richard Perruchoud, OIM, Genve SESSION I : Flux migratoires - nouveaux dfis Migration en Afrique de lOuest : principaux dfis M. Abye Makonnen, Reprsentant Rgional MFR, Dakar Migration en Afrique du Nord: principaux dfis Mr. Peter Schatzer, Reprsentant Rgional MFR, Rome Migration et changements climatiques M. Timon van Lidth, Charg rgional de Recherche et Politiques, OIM, Nigria SESSION II : Rponses aux causes profondes Programmes de mobilit de main-doeuvre/ migration circulaire M. Frederico Barroeta, coordonnateur de projet, BIT, Bureau sous-rgional pour le Sahel, Sngal SESSION III : Migrants en transit Rle de la socit civile durant la phase de transit Mme Cristina de Luca, ancienne sous-secrtaire dEtat, Ministre des Affaires sociales de lItalie, Rome, Membre de lInstitut
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Migration par voie maritime et Secours en mer Mme Christine Adam, OIM, Genve SESSION IV : Accueil des migrants Migrants en dtention Mme Pia Oberoi, Conseillre, Conseil international sur la Politique des Droits de lHomme Lampedusa ; laccueil Mme Laura Rizello, Field Officier Praesidium, Croix-Rouge italienne 9 DECEMBRE 2009 SESSION V : Migration de retour (dbats libres) Animateur : M. Richard Perruchoud, OIM, Genve Mme Christine Adam, OIM, Genve SESSION VI : Traite des personnes et trafic illicite de migrants Droits humains des migrants ayant eu recours un passeur Mme Pia Oberoi, Conseillre, Conseil international sur la Politique Traite des tres humains - loi, ides fausses et ralit Dr. Kristina Touzenis, Charge de Programme, OIM, Rome Droits de lHomme et migrants irrguliers M. Samba Barry, Charg de Programme, Haut Commissariat pour les Droits de lHomme, Bureau rgional pour lAfrique de lOuest SESSION VII : Coopration rgionale CEDEAO : Dfis des rgimes de libre circulation M. Tony Elumelu - Directeur du Dpartement de la libre circulation et de la migration Commission de la CEDEAO, Nigria Intgration rgionale et politiques migratoires en Afrique de lOuest : enjeux, dfis et perspectives M. Badara Ndiaye, Coordonnateur du programme Diaspora, droits humains, dveloppement et migration ENDA DIAPODE
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Coopration internationale et migration M. Peter Schatzer, Reprsentant Rgional, MFR, Rome EVALUATION CEREMONIE DE CLOTURE
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LIST OF PARTICIPANTS / LISTE DES PARTICIPANTS
Benin/Bnin M. Clauvis O. OGOUBIYI Chef Service des Traits, Ministre des Affaires trangres Burkina Faso M. Oumarou MAIGA Conseiller des Affaires Etrangres, Ministre des Affaires et de la Coopration Rgionale Cape Verde M. Augusto TEIXEIRA Chef Division Frontires Ghana Ms. Grace MBROKOH-EWOAL Senior State Attorney, Ministry of Justice and Attorney General Department Guinea/Guine M. Mamadou Alpha BARRY Gendarme, Chef Immi/Emigration, Ministre de la Dfense, Aroport de Conakry, Guine Italy/Italie Ms. Costanza FLORIMONTE Italian General Confederation of Labour (CGIL) Imperia Ms. Radhia KHALFALLAH Teacher, Casa Africa Ms. Marina GORI Lawyer, International Institute of Humanitarian Law
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Libya/Libye Mr. Ramadan AL QADDAFI Expert in Human Research and Migration Studies, Open University, Tripoli Mali
M. Oumar BA Charg de Dossiers, Ministre des Maliens de lExtrieur Morocco/Maroc M. Younes DIRHOUSSI Chef de Service, Direction des Affaires Consulaires et Sociales, Ministre des Affaires trangres et de la Coopration Niger M. Maino SABO Responsable de lImmigration, Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire Nigeria/Nigria Ms. Sweet Adesuwa OKUNDAYE Principal State Counsel, Federal Ministry of Justice, Abuja Senegal/Sngal M. Papa Bidyade NIANG Chef de Division, Ministre des Sngalais de lExtrieur M. Djibril BA Directeur Adjoint des Affaires civiles et du Sceau, Ministre de la Justice M. Ibrahima CISSE Conseiller des Affaires Etrangres, Ministre des Affaires Etrangres M. Babacar THIAM Conseiller, Ministre de la Fonction Publique, du Travail et des Organisations Professionnelles M. Abdoulaye SECK Conseiller Technique, Ministre de la Jeunesse, des Sports et des Loisirs
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Professeur Amsatou SOW SIDIBE Directrice de lInstitut des Droits de lHomme et de la Paix, Facult des Sciences Juridiques et Politiques, Universit Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar M. Thodore SAMBOU Organisation Nationale des Droits de lHomme (ONDH)
M. Sadikh NIASS Coordonnateur, Rencontre Africaine des Droits de lHomme (RADHO) Mme Florianne CHARRIERE Etudiante, Ambassade de Suisse Mme Ramona PEDRETTI Stagiaire Sierra Leone Mr. Mohamed KOEDOYOMA Head of Immigration, Lungi International Airport, Immigration Department, Freetown Togo M. Afo Ousmane SALIFOU Chef de la Division des Affaires Juridiques au Ministre des Affaires Etrangres et de lIntgration Rgionale Tunisia/Tunisie Mr. Hassen Hachem HANI Charg de Mission, Ministry of Social Affairs, Solidarity and Tunisian Abroad EXPERTS Ms. Pia OBEROI Consultant, International Council on Human Rights Policy, London M. Badara NDIAYE Coordonnateur du Programme Diaspora, Droits Humains, Dveloppement et Migration, ENDA DIAPODE
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Mr. Tony ELUMELU Head of Division Free Movement and Migration, ECOWAS Commission, Nigeria Mr. Frederico BARROETA Project Coordinator, International Labour Office, Sub-Regional Office for the Sahel, Senegal Ms. Cristina DE LUCA Former under Secretary of State, Italian Ministry of Social Affairs, Rome, Member of the IIHL, Italy Ms. Laura RIZZELLO Field Officer Praesidium, Italian Red Cross Mr. Samba BARRY Programme Officer, High Commissioner for Human Rights, West Africa Regional Office, Senegal INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR MIGRATION/ ORGANISATION INTERNATIONALE POUR LES MIGRATIONS Mr. Richard PERRUCHOUD Director, International Migration Law and Legal Affairs Department, IOM Geneva Mr. Abye MAKONNEN Regional Representative, Mission with Regional Functions in Dakar Mr. Peter SCHATZER Regional Representative, Mission with Regional Functions in Rome Ms. Kristina TOUZENIS Programme Officer, IOM, Rome Ms. Christine ADAM Legal Officer, International Migration Law and Legal Affairs Department, IOM, Geneva Mr. Timon VAN LIDTH Regional Research and Policy Officer, IOM, Nigeria
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Mr. Daniel REDONDO Training/Project Officer, International Migration Law and Legal Affairs Department, IOM, Geneva INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF HUMANITARIAN LAW/ INSTITUT INTERNATIONAL DE DROIT HUMANITAIRE Ambassador Maurizio MORENO President, International Institute of Humanitarian Law Ms. Ndioro NDIAYE President of Alliance for Migration, Leadership and Development (AMLD), Member of the Council of the International Institute of Humanitarian Law Ms. Stefania BALDINI Secretary-General, International Institute of Humanitarian Law
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International Organization for Migration 17 route des Morillons 1211 Geneva 19, Switzerland Tel: +41.22.717 91 11; Fax: +41.22.798 61 50 E-mail: [email protected]; Website: http://www.iom.int International Institute of Humanitarian Law Villa Ormond, C.so Cavallotti 113, 18038 Sanremo, Italy Tel: +39.0814.541848; Fax: +39.0184.541600 E-mail: [email protected]; Website : http://www.iihl.org

International Migration Law and Policies

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS....................................................................... 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................ 7 INTRODUCTION................................................................................... 9

THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK......................................... 21 MIGRATION FLOWS: NEW CHALLENGES............................................. 31

RESPONDING TO ROOT CAUSES......................................................... 55

TRAFFICKING AND SMUGGLING......................................................... 99

REGIONAL COOPERATION................................................................ 143

Mr. Richard PERRUCHOUD

Ambassadeur Maurizio MORENO

Mr. Giuseppe CALVETTA

Monsieur le Reprsentant rgional de lOIM au Sngal,

THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK

LE CADRE JURIDIQUE INTERNATIONAL DE LA MIGRATION

MIGRATION FLOWS: NEW CHALLENGES

Enjeux et dfis oprationnels en matire de migrations

Problmatique des droits des migrants en Afrique de lOuest

MIGRATION IN NORTHERN AFRICA: KEY CHALLENGES

Stock of migrants by origin country in main destination areas in 2000

Source: Docquier & Marfouk.

Source: World Development Indicators database, World Bank, 7 October 2009.

LA MIGRATION ET LE CHANGEMENT CLIMATIQUE

1. Elments introductifs sur les liens entre migration et changement climatique

Lapproche de lOIM fonde sur la scurit humaine

2. Dfis lis au lien entre migration et changement climatique

2.1 Quelle protection pour les migrants environnementaux ?

OIM, Sminaire dexperts sur la migration et lenvironnement, 2008, p. 26.

2.2 Divers dfis : entre recherche, volont politique et gouvernance mondiale

RESPONDING TO ROOT CAUSES

MIGRATION CIRCULAIRE ENTRE LES PAYS DORIGINE ET DE DESTINATION

ROLE DE LA SOCIETE CIVILE DURANT LA PHASE DE TRANSIT

MIGRATION BY SEA AND RESCUE AT SEA

Main International Instruments on Law of the Sea

Rescue at Sea under International Law

Protection of Rights of Persons Rescued at Sea

THE EU RETURN DIRECTIVE

Procedural Safeguards on Return

TRAFFICKING AND SMUGGLING

HUMAN RIGHTS OF SMUGGLED MIGRANTS

Brief history of the legal architecture

Protection and the Smuggling Protocol

The distinction between consent and coercion is problematic

Migrants motives and circumstances are unstable

Flawed conception of agency

TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS LAW, MISCONCEPTIONS AND FACTS45

The definition refers to three distinct elements:

The Human Rights Dimension:

UN GA Res 49/34, Annex (29 Nov. 1985) UN DOC A/RES/40/34, para. 1.

The Obligation to Protect:

LES DROITS DE LHOMME DES MIGRANTS IRREGULIERS

1. Gnralits sur la migration irrgulire

1.2 Tendances migratoires

2. Cadre juridique et droits de lhomme des migrants irrguliers

2.1 Droits de lhomme de tous les migrants y compris les irrguliers

2.2. Droits de lhomme spcifiques aux migrants irrguliers

4. Mcanismes et organes de suivi

ECOWAS : CHALLENGES OF FREE MOVEMENT REGIMES

1. Accelerating regional economic integration and development

2. Challenges to free movement

3. Recommended action points

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS / LISTE DES PARTICIPANTS

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