Carrier Concentration and Potential EE105 - Spring 2007 Microelectronic Devices and Circuits

Lecture 3 PN Junctions At thermal equilibrium, there are no external bias and we expect both the electron and the hole current densities to be zero:
J n = 0 = qn0 n E0 + qDn dno dx d0 no dx

dno q = n no E0 = dx kT Dn kT dno dn d0 = = Vth 0 n0 q n0

Carrier Concentration and Potential (2)

If we integrate the above equation we have
0 ( x) 0 ( x0 ) = Vth ln
n0 ( x) n0 ( x0 )

Carrier Concentration Versus Potential

The carrier concentration is thus a function of potential

n0 ( x) = ni e0 ( x ) / Vth
If we do a similar calculation for holes, we arrive at a similar equation

We define the potential reference at intrinsic Si:

0 ( x0 ) = 0
n0 ( x0 ) = ni n0 ( x) ni

0 ( x) = Vth ln

p0 ( x) = ni e 0 ( x ) / Vth
Note that the law of mass action is upheld

n0 ( x) p0 ( x) = ni2 e 0 ( x ) / Vth e0 ( x ) / Vth = ni2

3 4

Doping Changes Potential

0 ( x) = Vth ln
n0 ( x) n ( x) n ( x) = 26mV ln 0 26mV ( ln10 ) log 0 10 ni ( x0 ) ni ( x0 ) 10 n ( x) 0 ( x) 60mV log 0 10 10 p ( x) 0 ( x) 60mV log 0 10 10

PN Junction (Diode)

Due to the log nature of the potential, the potential changes linearly for exponential increase in doping: Quick calculation aid:
For a p-type concentration of 1016 cm-3, the potential is -360 mV N-type materials have a positive potential with respect to intrinsic Si

When N-type and P-type dopants are introduced sideby-side in a semiconductor, a PN junction or a diode is formed.
5 6

PN Junction: Overview
Present in most IC structures

Diodes Three Operation Regions

In order to understand the operation of a diode, it is necessary to study its three operation regions: equilibrium, reverse bias, and forward bias.

Current Flow Across Junction: Diffusion

Depletion Region

Because each side of the junction contains an excess of holes or electrons compared to the other side, there exists a large concentration gradient. Therefore, a diffusion current flows across the junction from each side. 9

As free electrons and holes diffuse across the junction, a region of fixed ions is left behind. This region is known as the depletion region.
10

Depletion Approximation
Lets assume that the depletion region is completely free of electrons or holes (only immobile ions exist) Then the charge density is given by
0 ( x)
+ qN d xno < x < 0 qN a 0 < x < x p 0

Depletion Approximation (2)

Since charge density is a constant
E0 ( x) =
x xn 0

0 ( x ') qN d dx ' = ( x + xno ) s s

If we start from the P-side we get the following result

E0 ( xn 0 ) =
xp 0 x

Electric field can be calculated by Gauss Law

dE0 0 ( x) = dx s E0 ( x) =
x xn 0

0 ( x ') qN a dx ' + E0 ( x) = ( x p 0 x) + E0 ( x) s s
E0 ( x) = qN a

There is no field outside depletion region

Field zero outside depletion region

0 ( x ') dx ' + E0 ( xn 0 ) s
11

( x p 0 x)

12

Electric Field Distribution

qN a x po = qN d xno

Direction of Current Components Across Junction

dn dx dp J p = qp p E0 qD p dx J n = qnn E0 + qDn

E0 ( x) =

qN d

( x + xno )

E0 ( x) =

qN a

( x p 0 x)

xno

x po

E-Field is zero outside depletion region The depletion widths on N- and P-side could be asymmetric Higher doping Narrower depletion width Peak E-Field occurs at junction

Electron Drift Current Electron Diffusion Current Hole Drift Current Hole Diffusion Current

13

14

Potential Across Junction

The potential in the N-region is higher than P-region The potential has to smoothly transition form high to low in crossing the junction Physically, the potential difference is due to the charge transfer that occurs due to the concentration gradient We can integrate the field to get the potential:
E ( x) = d ( x ) dx
x

Potential Across Junction

Potential on N-side (parabolic)
n ( x) = n
qN d ( x + xn 0 ) 2 2 s
qN a ( x x p 0 )2 2 s

Do integral on P-side
p ( x) = p +

( x) = ( xno )

qN d

xn 0 2

( x '+ xno )dx '

x

qN x ' qN 2 + x ' xno = n a ( x + xno ) ( x) = n a 2 s s 2 xn 0

Potential must be continuous at interface qN 2 n (0) = n d xn 0 2 s

15

n ( x)

= p +

qN a 2 x p 0 = p (0) 2 s

p ( x)

16

Solve for Depletion Widths

We have two equations and two unknowns. We are finally in a position to solve for the depletion depths
n
qN d 2 qN a 2 xn 0 = p + x p0 2 s 2 s
qN a x po = qN d xno
(1)

Total Depletion Width

Total depletion width
X d 0 = x p 0 + xn 0 =
2 sbi q

1 1 N +N d a

(2)

Due to high electric field, carriers move across region at saturation velocity Typical numbers:

xno =

2 sbi qN d

Na N +N d a

x po =

2 sbi qN a

Nd N +N a d

Xd0 =

2 sbi 1 1 q 1015

E pn

V 1V = 10 4 1 cm

bi n p > 0
17 18

Current Flow Across Junction: Equilibrium

Built-in Potential
The potential difference between the N-side and the Pside: n ( x)
0 ( x) = Vth ln
0

I drift , p = I diff , p I drift ,n = I diff ,n

ni

n = Vth ln

Nd , ni

ni2 Na n p = Vth ln = Vth ln i ni Na Nd Na ni 2

At equilibrium, the drift current flowing in one direction cancels out the diffusion current flowing in the opposite direction, creating a net current of zero. The figure shows the charge profile of the PN junction.
19

V0 = bi = n p = Vth ln

bi = 60mV log10

Nd Na ni 2
20

Have We Invented a Battery?

Can we harness the PN junction and turn it into a battery?
ND NA N N + = Vth ln D 2 A bi n p = Vth ln ln n ni ni i
?

Contact Potential
0 = bi + pm + mn bi = ( pm + mn )

mn

bi

pm

Numerical example:
bi = 26mV ln
ND N A 10151015 = 60 mV log = 600mV ni2 10 20
21

The contact between a PN junction creates a potential difference When a metal-semiconductor junction is formed, a contact potential forms as well If we short a PN junction, the sum of the voltages around the loop must be zero:
22

Diode in Reverse Bias

Reverse-Biased Diodes Application: Voltage-Dependent Capacitor

When the N-type region of a diode is connected to a higher potential than the P-type region, the diode is under reverse bias, which results in wider depletion region and larger built-in electric field across the junction. 23

The PN junction can be viewed as a capacitor. By varying VR, the depletion width changes, changing its capacitance value; therefore, the PN junction is actually a voltage-dependent capacitor.

24

Voltage Dependence of Depletion Width

The expression of depletion width under reverse width is similar to that at thermal equilibrium except we replace the built-in potential with the effective reverse bias:
2 s (bi VD ) N a VD xn (VD ) = = xn 0 1 qN d N N bi + d a 2 s (bi VD ) N d VD x p (VD ) = = xp0 1 qN a N N bi + d a X d (VD ) = x p (VD ) + xn (VD ) = X d (VD ) = X d 0 1 VD 2 s (bi VD ) 1 1 + q Na Nd

Charge Versus Bias

As we increase the reverse bias, the depletion region grows to accommodate more charge
QJ (VD ) = qN a x p (VD ) = qN a x p 0 1 VD

bi

Charge is not a linear function of voltage This is a nonlinear capacitor We can define a small-signal capacitance by breaking up the charge into a DC and an AC terms:
QJ (VD + vD ) = QJ (VD ) + q (vD )
25 26

bi

Derivation of Small Signal Capacitance

QJ (VD + vD ) = QJ (VD ) + C j = C j (VD ) = dQ j dV
V =VD

Physical Interpretation of Depletion Cap

C j0 = q s N a N d 2bi N a + N d

dQD dV =

vD + L
VD

d dV

V qN a x p 0 1 bi V =VR

Notice that the expression on the right-hand-side is just the depletion width in thermal equilibrium
C j0 = s 1 1 + 2 sbi N a N d q
1

Cj =

qN a x p 0 2bi 1 VD

C j0 1 VD

s
X d0

bi

bi

C j0 =

qN a x p 0 2bi

qN a 2 sbi N d q s N a N d = = 2bi qN a N a + N d 2bi N a + N d

27

This looks like a parallel plate capacitor!

C j (VD ) =

X d (VD )
28

A Variable Capacitor (Varactor)

Cj = C j0 V 1+ R V0

Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

C j0 =

si q N A N D 1
2 N A + N D V0

f res =

1 2

1 LC

The equations that describe the voltage-dependent capacitance are shown above.

A very important application of a reverse-biased PN junction is VCO, in which an LC tank is used in an oscillator. By changing VR, we can change C, which also changes the oscillation frequency.
29 30

Forward-Biased Diode

Minority Carrier Profile in Forward Bias

pn ,e =

When the N-type region of a diode is at a lower potential than the P-type region, the diode is in forward bias. The depletion width is reduced and the built-in electric field decreased.
31

p p ,e NA = V V exp 0 exp 0 VT VT

pn, f =

F p p, f NA = = pn,e e VT V V V V exp 0 F exp 0 F VT VT

Under forward bias, minority carriers in each region increase due to the lowering of built-in field/potential. Therefore, diffusion currents increase to supply these minority carriers.
32

Diffusion Current in Forward Bias

n p ND V NA V (exp F 1) pn (exp F 1) V V VT VT exp 0 exp 0 VT VT NA V ND V I tot (exp F 1) + (exp F 1) V0 V VT VT exp exp 0 VT VT Dp D 2 V ) I s = Aqni ( n + I tot = I s (exp F 1) N A Ln N D Lp VT

Minority Charge Gradient

Diffusion current will increase in order to supply the increase in minority carriers. The mathematics are shown above.
33

Minority charge profile should not be constant along the x-axis; otherwise, there is no concentration gradient and no diffusion current. Recombination of the minority carriers with the majority carriers accounts for the dropping of minority carriers as they go deep into the P or N region.

34

Forward Bias Condition: Summary

IV Characteristic of PN Junction

I D = I S (exp

VD 1) VT

In forward bias, there are large diffusion currents of minority carriers through the junction. However, as we go deep into the P and N regions, recombination currents from the majority carriers dominate. These two currents add up to a constant value.

The current and voltage relationship of a PN junction is exponential in forward bias region, and relatively constant in reverse bias region.
35 36

Diode Small-Signal Model

The I-V relation of a diode can be linearized
qVd qvd q (Vd + vd ) I D + iD = I S e kT 1 I S e kT e kT 2 x x3 ex = 1 + x + + + L 2! 3! q (Vd + vd ) + L I D + iD I D 1 + kT qv iD I D d kT

Parallel PN Junctions

Small-Signal Resistance (or Dynamic Resistance)

rd =

vd kT 1 VT = = iD q ID ID

Since junction currents are proportional to the junctions cross-section area. Two PN junctions put in parallel are effectively one PN junction with twice the cross-section area, and hence twice the current.
37 38

Constant-Voltage Diode Model

Example: Diode Calculations

VX = I X R1 + VD = I X R1 + VT ln I X = 2.2mA I X = 0.2mA for VX = 3V for VX = 1V IX IS

Diode operates as an open circuit if VD< VD,on and a constant voltage source of VD,on if VD tends to exceed VD,on.
39

This example shows the simplicity provided by a constant-voltage model over an exponential model. For an exponential model, iterative method is needed to solve for current, whereas constant-voltage model requires only linear equations.
40

Reverse Breakdown

Zener vs. Avalanche Breakdown

When a large reverse bias voltage is applied, breakdown occurs and an enormous current flows through the diode.
41

Zener breakdown is a result of the large electric field inside the depletion region that breaks electrons or holes off their covalent bonds. Avalanche breakdown is a result of electrons or holes colliding with the fixed ions inside the depletion region.

42