PH 103, Fall 2008

Fifth Week (6-10 October 2008)

Figures in these notes have been scanned from Fundamental of Physics, 8 th Extended Edition by J. Walker

Force and Motion-Newtons Laws

During the previous weeks we discussed velocity, or the rate of change of displacement, and acceleration, or the rate of change of velocity, and the corresponding equations of motion. We then explored the implications of these equations for motion in constant acceleration as well uniform circular motion, or circular motion with constant speed and constant magnitude of acceleration. The former led to the study projectile motion and the later to geostationary satellites and artificial gravity. This week we shall study the sources of acceleration, or a quantitative definition of force as reflected in Newtons Laws of Motion beyond the simple push and pull we discussed. First Law: It is common everyday experience that bodies at rest remain at rest unless they are pushed or pulled. Those in motion, however, eventually come to rest unless something keeps pushing or pulling them. In the later case the faster they move and the soother the surface on which they move the larger the distance they would cover before coming to rest. On an ideal smooth surface a body in motion will continue to move in straight line. Newtons First Law of Motion is a qualitative statement of this common every day experience under the ideal conditions mentioned above. One of its versions is; If no net force acts on a body the velocity of the body cannot change, that is the body cannot accelerate. Usually a number of forces acting on a body may balance or cancel each other resulting in zero net force. A more formal statement of the First Law, which is some times also know as the Law of Inertia, is, In the absence of a net force acting on it a body remains in its state of rest or that of uniform motion . Thus Newtons first law treats uniform motion and rest on the same footing. If a moving object slows down then some net force must be acting on it. Such considerations lead us to the existence of friction and grad forces. There are certain situations where Newtons First Law doesnt seem to hold. For example a ball on the floor or hanging from the ceiling of a vehicle will tend to move backwards or forward when the vehicle accelerates or it comes to a sudden stop. Similar an object on the floor of a merry-go-round will tend to move towards its periphery during its motion. In all these cases the object is an accelerated rather than an Inertial Frame of Reference. Due to its inertia the object continues its state of uniform motion or that of uniform motion, in case the vehicle was initially at rest, while the vehicle accelerates of de-accelerate. For this reason Newtons First law hold only in Inertial Frame of Reference, or non-

accelerating frames. We may also define an Inertial Frame as that frame in which Newtons laws hold. This raises a question. Is this lecture hall, or for that matter in place on earth, an inertial frame of reference in view of the acceleration due to gravity and the centripetal acceleration due to its rotation around its axis, etc? The answer is yes. For objects on earth the force of gravity on them, their weight, is neutralized by the normal reaction of the earth and those in free fall have zero weight. The magnitude of the earths centripetal acceleration is given by,
2 1 2 6 8 2 a = R E E = 6.37 10 6 6 10 10 = 0.03ms 2 24 3600
2

That is much less than 9.8 ms 2 , the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity and we can ignore it for all practical purposes. The centripetal acceleration due to the revolution of the earth around the sun is much smaller than this. Second Law: Newtons Second Law is a qualitative statement of his First Law in that it gives an exact prescription for the change in velocity, or the acceleration.

F = m a , or
a= F m
(5.2)

(5.1)

In other words, the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass. A more general statement of Newtons Law is; The rate of change of linear momentum of a body gives the net force acting on it. Equation (5.1) also defines weight as the magnitude of the force of gravity acting on a body, or weight = mg .

dt Where,

(5.3)

p = mv

(5.4)

For constant m the Eq. (5.4 reduces to Eq. (5.1), d

dt

p = m dv = m d r = m a
2

(5.5)

dt

dt 2

This is one of the most basic equations of physics. Knowing the force acting on a body, its initial velocity and position, or the initial conditions, we can find its velocity and position at later times. We already did such calculations for uniform acceleration or constant force in the case of motion under constant gravity and acceleration or force of constant magnitude in the case of uniform circular

motion. Before considering some simple situations for varying force* lets look into the concept of weight.
*So far we discussed only push and pull as agents of change of uniform motion. These are basically contact forces. Friction, drag and elastic forces are also examples of contact forces, while gravitation and electromagnetic forces are example of forces at a distance.

Weight: When we are standing or sitting on a chair our weight mg , or the force of gravity acting on us, is cancelled by the normal reaction R of the floor or chair on us. Similarly while we are hanging from a bar the tension T in our arms makes us acutely conscious of the force of gravity. This normal reaction given by the bath room scale, when we stand on it, or the tension in our arms, which can be measured by a spring balance or tension meter, is a measure of our weight. If we were standing on a bath room scale in an elevator with an upward acceleration a then the net upward force acting on us is R mg = ma , or R = m( g + a) (5.6) Similarly if we are hanging from a bar in an elevator with an upward acceleration a then T mg = ma , or T = m( g + a) (5.7) In either case we will feel more force, or weigh more, in an elevator accelerating upwards. By simply reversing the sign of a in Eqs (5.6) and (5.7), or using reasoning leading to these equations we come to the conclusion that we will feel less weight in an elevator accelerating downwards; R = m( g a) (5.8) T = m( g a) (5.9)

Q 5.1: Calculate the values of R or T and hence the weight of a person of mass 70 kg in an elevator moving a) upward, b) downward with an acceleration of 5.0 ms 2 . In particular if the cable of the elevator breaks it will go into free fall with a = g , and we will feel weightlessness. As we discussed earlier, free fall motion as seen from an observer moving relative to it appears as a projectile motion. Hence projectile motion and the motion of satellites round the earth are examples of free fall motions. Astronauts are trained in planes flying parabolic trajectories. For this purpose the engine of a plane are shut off at high altitudes when it is flying at 450 to the horizon. During its parabolic flight the astronauts carry out various tasks under weightless conditions. The engines are restarted at the end of its parabolic trajectory to make it ready for another cycle of free flight. For more details see MIT Physics 301 Lecture 7 and visit the following link

[PDF] Parabolic Flights If you fly an aeroplane at an n angle of 45 ... Q5.2: Consider the situation when the horizontal and vertical initial velocity of the plane as it goes into its parabolic trajectory at an angle of 450 to the horizon are each 300 km/hr. Calculate a) the duration b) range and c) maximum height of its trajectory. Another interesting situation is to study the motion of two masses m1 and m 2 tied to a mass less inflexible string that passes over a light frictionless pulley or a frictionless peg. The two masses balance T each other when they are equal, otherwise the lighter of the two masses will move upward and the heavier one will move downward. Let m 2 m1 , T1 and T2 be the tensions in the two parts of the string respectively ties to m1 and m 2 as shown in Fig. (5.1). If T1 and T2 are not equal then a small portion of the string will experience a force of T2 T1 . Since the string has negligible mass this net force acting on it would give it infinitely large acceleration, which is not observed. m1g Therefore, T1 = T2 = T . Since it is a one dimensional motion in the vertical direction, considering the motion of the two masses under the net force acting on them we have, for m1 , which will move downwards with an acceleration a, m2 g T = m2 a , Similarly for m 2 , which will move upwards with the same acceleration a , we have,
T m1 g = m1 a

m2g

Adding these equations cancels out T giving, ( m2 m1 ) g = ( m1 + m2 ) a , or m m1 a= 2 g (5.10) m1 + m2 Substituting this value of a in one of the above equations we get, m 2 m1 2m1 m 2 T = m2 ( g a ) = m2 (5.11) 1 m + m g = m + m g 1 2 1 2

For, m1 = m2 , Eqs (5.10) and (5.11) we get the expected result; a = 0 , and T = m1 g = m2 g Since T is also a measure of the weights of two masses, the weight of the smaller mass increases by the amount m1 a and that of the larger mass decreases by the amount ma , giving m1 g T m2 g . Also m1 = 0 gives a = g and T = 0 , the free fall condition. Q5.3: Calculate the values of a and T when m1 = 1kg and m2 = 2kg . Q5.4: a) Derive equations similar to Eqs. (5.10) and (5.11) for the situation when the heavier mass is lying on a frictionless inclined plane making an angle with the horizontal axis.

b) Calculate the values of a and T when m1 = m 2 = m for = 0 and = 90 0 . c) Also calculate the values of a and T when m1 = 2kg , m2 = 3kg and = 30 0 . Friction and Motion on a Rough Inclined Plane : As mentioned earlier in connection with Newtons First Law, the force of friction usually opposes the motion of an object on a surface. It is present only when a net force moves or tends to move an object in contact with a surface and its direction is opposite to that of net applied force. Its maximum magnitude, just before the object begins to move, is proportional to the normal reaction R of the surface on the object. F = s R (5.12) The coefficient of static friction s depends on the nature of the two surfaces in contact. It is denoted k , the coefficient of dynamic friction, when the object is moving on the surface. It is an experimental fact that s f k . . One can experimentally measure s by placing the object on the surface and gradually raising it till the object just begins to slide down. The tangent of angle of the inclination s of the surface with the horizon gives the value of s . The components of the weight mg along and perpendicular to the plane are mg sin () and mg cos() . Since there is nor motion in the vertical direction the normal reaction R of the surface on the object is given by, R = mg cos() (5.13) From the above equation is clear that normal reaction of a plane surface on an object depend on its angle of inclination. Its value is mg for = o and zero for = 90 o . Also if = s just before the object begin to slide the force of friction given Eq (5.12) is just balanced by mg sin (s ) : F = s R = s mg cos(s ) = mg sin (s ) , giving, s = tan (s ) (5.14) We can similarly measure the value k by reducing the angle of inclination of the surface till the object stops sliding. The tangent of angle of the inclination k of the surface when the object just stops sliding down gives the value of k : k = tan ( k ) (5.15) From Eqs (5.13) and (5.14) it is clear that the coefficient of friction is independent of the mass of the object and its area of contact with the surface. Students ought to verify this experimentally. The values of s and k can also be measured by considering the motion of an object of mass M = m1 on a rough horizontal plane tied to another object of mass m = m2 , which is hanging by an Ff inflexible light string that passes over a mass less frictionless pulley. Measurement of s : The forces acting on m 2 are its weight m 2 g acting vertically downwards and the tension in the string T acting vertically upwards. For m 2 at rest we may write,

T m2 g = 0 , or T = m2 g

(5.16)

Similarly the forces acting on m1 are its weight m1 g perpendicular to the plane, the normal reaction R of the plan on the object, the tensions T of the string and the force of static friction F = s R (5.17) That opposes the tension acting along the plane. Since there is no motion either along or normal to the plane we have, R = m1 g , and T = F , or from Eqs (5.16) and (5.17)
m 2 g = s m1 g

If ml is the limiting value of m 2 beyond which the object will begin to move, then, m s = 1 (5.18) ml Q5.5: a) For m1 = 1kg and s = 0.2 calculate the value of ml from Eq (5.18). b) For m 2 = m1 = 1kg and s = 0.2 calculate the value of the acceleration a of the two masses m1 and m 2 , with m1 lying on a horizontal table and m 2 , tied to it by an inflexible light string passing over a frictionless puller, hanging from the table. Drag Forces and Terminal Speed: An object moving in a fluid (anything that flows) experience two types of drag forces. Drag force depends on the velocity and size of the object and the density and viscosity of the fluid in which it is moving. Most of us have experienced such a drag force while walking in water or in wind and especially in a windstorm with an open umbrella. For a slow moving object in viscous liquids, such as oil, this drag force is primarily due to viscosity and it is proportional to the magnitude of its velocity. Fd v , or Fd = cv (5.19) Here the constant c depends on the velocity of the fluid. For fast moving objects in air or gases the drags force it proportional to the square of its velocity. Fd v 2 , or Fd = Cv 2 (5.20) Here the constant C depends on the density of the fluid and the effective area of cross section A of the object: C A . An object of mass m released from rest in a fluid will have an initial acceleration g . As its velocity increases the drag force of the fluid on it increases gradually reducing its acceleration from g to zero after which its falls with constant speed. This constant speed is known as the terminal speed and is denoted by vt . Since the gravitational force mg on the body is balanced by the drag force Fd of the fluid on it as it reaches its terminal speed, we have
mg = Fd

From Eq (5.19) we get,

mg = cvt , or mg vt = c

(5.21) And from Eq (5.20) we have, mg = Cvt2 , or

vt = mg C

(5.22)

Drag force is a nuisance for engineers designing ships and airplanes but a blessing for sky divers and Para gliders and even for a cat falling from a tall building. A falling cat, scared by the initial high acceleration, tucks in its body, decreasing its cross sectional area and increasing its terminal speed. It relaxes once it reaches its terminal speed as it no longer experiences any acceleration. This in turn increases its cross sectional area helping it to reach a new, much lower terminal speed and saving it from crashing into the earth. See Sample Problem 6-4 and also watch MIT OCW Mechanics lecture 12 for more detailed information and interesting demonstrations. Oscillations and Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM): The projection of a body on x-axis, which undergoes uniform circular motion with angular velocity , as discussed earlier in this course, is given by x ( t ) = R cos ( ) = R cos ( t ) (5.23) Here R is the radius of the circle and is the angle that the position vector of the body makes with the x-axis at any time t , taking t = 0 when the body passes positive x-axis. Similar considerations motion of the projection on the y-axis as, y ( t ) = R sin ( t ) = R cos t (5.24) 2 Since sin and cos differ by a phase angle . In general we may write, 2 x ( t ) = x0 cos ( t + ) (5.25) The maximum displacement x0 is known as the amplitude of the oscillations, the angular velocity is also known as its angular frequency and its phase angle. Such sinusoidal oscillatory or to- and fro- motion is called Simple Harmonic Motion, or SHM. Spring Oscillations: A spring resists change in its length when stretched or compressed and tends to return to its original length*. The magnitude of the force F needed to stretch or compress its length by x units is given by, F = Kx (5.26)
* If the spring is stretched beyond its elastic limit then it doesnt return to its original length.

The quantity K is the spring constant. It is measured in N/m. The larger the value of K the stiffer is the spring. The negative sign in the above equation indicates that F is a restoring force. It brings the spring to its original length. Eq (5.26) is a

quantitative statement of Hooks Law or an elastic force and is another example of a varying force. Unlike the force of friction or the gravitational force in the vicinity of the earth, whose magnitudes are constant, the magnitude drag forces depend on the velocity of the object moving in a fluid and that of the elastic force depends on the elongation or compression of the spring. We may note that at large distances the magnitude of the force of gravity varies inversely as the square of the distance. If a mass m is attached to one end of the spring and it is released after stretching or compressing the spring by length x 0 it will oscillate to and fro. Combining Eqs (5.5) and (5.26) and noting that F act only along the axis of the spring, which we denote by x-axis, we get the following equation describing these oscillations,
d 2x = Kx (5.27) dt 2 Eq (5.27) is a simple second order differential equation that you will learn to solve in a later mathematics course. By solving Eq (5.27) we find that x(t ) given by Eq (5.25) satisfies this equation provided we have, m

(5.28) In order to verify this we find the 2nd derivative of x (t ) given by Eq (5.25), x (t ) = x0 cos( wt + ) , (5.29)

w=

K m

Here x 0 is the maximum displacement of mass m or the amplitude of its oscillations. Eq (5.27), therefore, describes simple harmonic motion and you it comes in many different guises as you see later in this and some other courses.
dx = wx 0 sin ( wt + ) dt

d 2x = w 2 x 0 cos( wt + ) = w 2 x( t ) 2 dt Substituting x (t ) and its 2nd derivative in Eq (5.27) we get

mw 2 x(t ) = Kx (t ) , giving K K w= w2 = m , given by Eq(5.28) m , or,

Q 5.6: Consider a mass of m = 0.1 kg attached to a spring constant of K = 0.4 N/m. The mass is displaced by 5 cm and is released at t = 0.0 s. a) What is the amplitude, angular frequency, period and phase of its oscillations? b) Write an expression for its displacement x(t ) at any time t .

m hanging to a light inflexible string of length l , when 0 , also oscillates to and fro. From displaced from its mean position by an angle
Simple Pendulum: A mass dimensional analysis (see Q 5.7) we find that the time period T of this system,

known as simple pendulum, is proportional to . Here we find an expression for T using 2nd law of Newton. For any angular displacement of m from mean position the forces acting on it are its weight mg vertically downward and the tension acting upward along the string. The components of the weight along and perpendicular to the string are mg cos() and mg sin () respectively. Since there is no motion along the string and mg cos() balance each other and mg sin () gives an acceleration a to mass m toward its mean position; = mg cos() , d 2 (l ) d 2 ma = m = ml = mg sin ( ) dt 2 dt 2 , or since for small , sin ( ) , d 2 g = 2 l dt (5.30) The above equation is identical to Eq (5.27) except for some different notation. Its solution is, therefore, similar to that given by Eq (5.29): ( t ) = 0 cos( wt + ) (5.31)
0 is the displacement of the pendulum, its phase angle and w its Here angular frequency, which is given by

l g

(5.32) Unlike the angular frequency of the oscillating spring that of simple pendulum is 2 T = w , we get, independent of mass. Since, (5.33) Thus the longer the length of the string, or the smaller the value of g the large is the time period. On the moon, where the value of g is one-sixth that on the earth, pendulum of the same length will have larger period. Q5.6: Using dimensional analysis show that T
l g T = 2 l g

w=

g l

Q 5.8: Calculate the value of T for a pendulum with l = 1m on a) Earth, and b) on the moon. Home Work: Chapter 5 of HRW: Solved Example 5.6, Q 7, P 1, 5, 7, 19, 25, 29, 37, 49, 53, 57, 61, 63, 67 Chapter 6 of HRW: Solved examples 6.3 and 6.4, Q 5, P 3, 7, 13, 17, 19, 25, 29, 33, 35, 37, 41, 51, 59