Question 3 Different types of offshore operations, structures and construction vessels require different types of anchorage systems to maintain

station. Some of the anchorage systems used are Drag Embedment Anchors, Suction Anchors, Piled Anchors, Clump Anchors and Dynamic Positioning. Using the following examples of offshore plant - Semisubmersibles, TLPs, Steel Jackets, Drill ships and Standby Vessels demonstrate how each of these anchorage system works, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses. Drag Embedded Anchors Drag anchors have been utilised in the past by ships and are now being used in the anchorage of offshore plant including the mooring of semisubmersibles, single point moorings and installation vessels. The drag anchor works by embedding itself into the sea floor when pulled horizontally along the sea floor, whereby the seafloor acting on the anchor resists the pull of the vessel. The holding capacity of the anchor depends on the soil condition and anchor design, if both these factors allow then the anchor can hold several times its weight. Types of drag embedded anchors: Bruce anchor (embeds in seafloor irrespective of orientation) Delta (requires to arrive on seabed at correct orientation in order to embed)
Danforth Stevin

The above type of anchors holding is rated as a multiple of their own weight, which can range
from 4 to 17 tons.

Delta

Bruce

Suction Anchors Suction anchors are used for many applications including being used to anchor floating exploration and production platforms predominantly in soft cohesive seabed soils. The use of suction anchors to anchor floating and fixed structures have to an increasing extent been done with suction anchors as they are far quicker to install, cost effective and have reliable design procedures.

The above figure indicates the workings of an embedded suction anchor, as can be seen the suction piles are made of an open bottomed cylinder with a hole somewhere near the top through which water is pumped out to suck the pile into the seabed. The use of suction technology is becoming increasingly popular in the offshore industry as the exploration and development of oil fields reach water depths of 1,000 to 3,000 m, the Surface production systems that are used in these water depths include Tension Leg Platforms (TLP), spar platforms, and laterally moored ship-shaped and semi-submersible vessels. Possible anchor systems for TLP and spar platforms include the traditional driven piles, drag anchors and suction anchors. Suction anchors become better alternatives to driven piles in deepwater because of the technical challenges and costs associated with the installation equipment. In addition, suction anchors also provide a greater resistance to lateral loads than driven piles because of the larger diameters typically used. Strengths Holds in all directions of force. Holds on all types of surfaces. Holding power much greater than that of other anchors the same size. Weaknesses Needs additional installation hardware such as pumps and under water involvement to setup/remove.

Clump Anchors The clump anchor has a holding force that is determined from their air weight and a friction factor. They are usually large open concrete boxes that can be seated in dug out trenches and back filled in. They can then resist loads applied from any direction. Clump Advantages Effective on soil types where drag anchors would be ineffective i.e. loose or weak sands. Cost effective. Clump Disadvantages Large, awkward and cumbersome anchors as opposed to drag. Installation issues sub surface whereby hole needs to be created then backfilled to be effective. Piled Anchors There are two main sorts of piled anchors Driven piles and Drilled and Grouted piles. Driven Piles Driven offshore piles are steel tubular members which consist of: Driving head. Main body of the pile. Driving shoe. The pile length, diameter and the wall thickness depend on the soil characteristics and the magnitude of design loads. An example of how driven piles can be installed and used in terms of a steel jacket is outlined below: Piles are transported on cargo barges to the offshore location. Piles are then transferred onto the deck of the installation vessel. Piles are lifted and upended using two crane blocks or a single block with an internal lifting tool (ILT). Once in the vertical position, piles can be driven through the jacket legs or through the pile sleeves connected to the jacket legs at its base (The jacket leg and the pile sleeve both act as a guide for the positioning and the directionality of the pile). Steam driven hammers can then be used when driving the piles through jacket legs to desired depth in the soil. The driven piles then act as a suitable anchorage system in order for the steel jacket to maintain station. Strengths Well known and identified installation process. Proven success. Cost effective. Weaknesses Dependent on condition of soils i.e. struggle to penetrate hard dense soils, no friction capacity in calcareous soils.

Inadequate solution for very deep waters where underwater hammers can be expensive and cumbersome.

Drilled and Grouted Piles The drilled and grouted steel pile concept has been used successfully in offshore applications. The procedure for installing drilled and grouted piles typically follows this process; A hole is drilled to a given depth into the sea floor through the leg of a jacket structure. A pile is then fed through the jacket leg and lowered into the drilled hole. Cement is then pumped down from the top through and around the pile to fill the gap. between the pile and the sides of the hole in the seabed. Pumping is continued until the annulus between the jacket leg and the pile is filled with grout cement. In this way, structural stability and load transfer is achieved from the jacket to the pile through the grout annulus between the pile and the inside wall of the jacket leg. The strengths and weaknesses of the drilled and grouted piles are indicated below. Strengths Have strength in calcareous soils where driven piles have no friction capacity. Can be used in hard or dense soils where it may not be possible to drive piles. Good in very deep waters where underwater hammers can be either very expensive or awkward. Weaknesses More complex to setup as opposed to driven piles. Cost effectiveness in waters where driven piles can be used. Dynamic Positioning Dynamic positioning is a computer controlled system used to automatically maintain a vessel's position and direction by using its own propellers and thrusters. Examples of vessel types that can use DP include: ships and semi-submersible, Mobile Offshore Drilling Units (MODU) and Oceanographic Research Vessels. In the case of a semisubmersible the dynamic positioning uses thrusters on each corner, usually a total of four or eight, which are controlled by a computer that matches the movement caused by differing sea states and weather conditions to keep the structure stable in the desired position. Strengths No anchor handling tugs are required. Maneuverability. Not dependent on water depth. Quick set-up. Not limited by obstructed seabed.

Weaknesses Complex systems with thrusters, extra generators and controllers. High initial costs of installation. High fuel costs. Chance of running off position by system failures or blackouts. Underwater hazards from thrusters for divers and ROVs. Higher maintenance of the mechanical systems.

Semisubmersibles A semisubmersible is a self-propelled barge that is mounted on partially submerged legs supported by underwater pontoons, rides at anchor, and can serve as a work base and living quarters in deep offshore drilling operations. These rigs are predominately moored either by drag anchors to the seabed or by dynamic positioning. TLPs Tension leg platforms are a floating production unit anchored to the seabed by stiff vertical cables, which considerably restrict its heave motion. Conventional drag anchors are ineffective at anchoring a TLP as they would just pull out due to the TLPs design, though a modified vertical drag anchor would hold the load. Pile anchors, clump, suction anchors would all effectively hold the load required to keep a TLP at station. Standby Vessels Standby vessels support platforms at sea and can be held in station by any number of anchors including: drag, clump and dynamic positioning. Steel Jackets Steel jackets are large underwater structures that are secured to the sea bed by sinking their legs into the ground. This enables them to have a strong platform for the drilling and production of oil fields. Due to the rigidity of this structure it provides an extremely stable platform in rough seas. When water depths begin to exceed 500m steel jackets become uneconomical as the materials and time invested to construct such a structure is immense. The jacket is secured in place by the driven pile method its the legs. Drill ships A drillship is a vessel that has been fitted with drilling apparatus and tools. They are predominately used for exploratory offshore drilling of new oil or gas wells in deep water or for scientific drilling. They need to be stable so as not to damage the drill string. Dynamic positioning and drag anchors are best suited for this need, as they only operate short term so as a result dont need permanent fixtures like pile or clump anchors.