The Real
Zeros of a
Polynomial
Function
REMAINDER THEOREM
Let f be a polynomial function. If f (x) is divided
by x – c, then the remainder is f (c).
Let’s look at an example to see how this theorem is useful.
f ( x ) = 2 x − 3x + 2 x − 1
3 2
So the remainder we get in synthetic division is the same
as the answer we’d get if we put -2 in the function.
The root of using synthetic
x + 2 = 0 is
-2 2 -3 2 -1 division let’s
x = -2 -4 14 -32 divide by x + 2
Find f(-2) 2 -7 16 -33 the remainder
f ( − 2 ) = 2( − 2 ) − 3( − 2 ) + 2( − 2 ) − 1 = −33
3 2
FACTOR THEOREM
Let f be a polynomial function. Then x – c is a
factor of f (x) if and only if f (c) = 0
If and only if means this will be true either way:
1. If f(c) = 0, then x - c is a factor of f(x) Try synthetic
2. If x - c is a factor of f(x) then f(c) = 0. division and see
if the remainder
Is x + 3 a factor of − 4 x + 5 x + 8 ? is 0
3 2
Opposite -3 -4 5 0 8
NO it’s not a
sign goes 12 -51 153 factor. In fact,
here
-4 17 -51 161 f(-3) = 161
We could have
computed f(-3) at
first to determine ( ) ( ) ( )
3
f − 3 = −4 − 3 + 5 − 3 + 8 = 161
2
this. Not = 0 so not a factor
Our goal in this section is to learn how we can factor higher
degree polynomials. For example we want to factor:
f ( x ) = x + x − 3x − x + 2
4 3 2
We could randomly try some factors and use synthetic
division and know by the factor theorem that if the
remainder is 0 then we have a factor. We might be trying
things all day and not hit a factor so in this section we’ll
learn some techniques to help us narrow down the things to
try.
The first of these is called
Descartes Rule of Signs named
after a French mathematician that
worked in the 1600’s.
Rene Descartes 1596 - 1650
Descartes’ Rule of Signs
Let f denote a polynomial function written in standard
form.
The number of positive real zeros of f either equals the
number of sign changes of f (x) or else equals that
number less an even integer.
The number of negative real zeros of f either equals the
number of sign changes of f (-x) or else equals that
number less an even integer.
1 2
starts Pos. changes Neg. changes Pos.
f ( x ) = x + x − 3x − x + 2
4 3 2
There are 2 sign changes so this means there could be
2 or 0 positive real zeros to the polynomial.
Descartes’Rule of Signs
Let f denote a polynomial function written in standard
form.
The number of positive real zeros of f either equals the
number of sign changes of f (x) or else equals that
number less an even integer.
The number of negative real zeros of f either equals the
number of sign changes of f (-x) or else equals that
number less an even integer.
f ( xstarts
) = Pos. 31 2
x +changes
4
x −Neg. − x +Pos.
2
3x changes 2
f ( − (x ) = ()− x ) 4+ ( − x3) − 3( −2 x ) − ( − x ) + 2
4 3 2
f − x = x − x −3 x + x + 2
There
simplify
are f(-x)
2 sign changes so this means there could be
2 or 0 negative real zeros to the polynomial.
Use Descartes’ Rule of Signs to determine how many
positive and how many negative real zeros the
polynomial may have.
Counting multiplicities and
1 complex (imaginary) zeros, the total
starts Neg. changes Pos. number of zeros will be the same as
the degree of the polynomial.
f ( x ) = −3 x + 4 x + 2
5 4
There is one sign change so there is one positive real
zero. starts Pos. Never changes
f ( − x ) = −3( − x ) + 4( − x ) + 2 = 3 x + 4 x + 2
5 4 5 4
There are no negative real zeros.
Descartes rule says one positive and no negative real
zeros so there must be 4 complex zeros for a total of 5.
We’ll learn more complex zeros in Section 5.4
Back to our original polynomial we want to factor:
f ( x ) = 1x + x − 3x − x + 2
4 3 2
We’d need to try a lot of positive or negative numbers until we
found one that had 0 remainder. To help we have:
The Rational Zeros Theorem
Let f be a polynomial function of degree 1 or higher of the form
f ( x ) = an x n + an −1 x n −1 + + a1 x + a0 , an ≠ 0, a0 ≠ 0
p
where each coefficient is an integer. If , in lowest terms, is a
q
rational zero of f , then p must be a factor of a0 , and q must be a factor of an .
What this tells us is that we can get a list of the POSSIBLE
rational zeros that might work by taking factors of the constant
divided by factors of the leading coefficient.
Both positives
Factors of the constant ± 1, 2 and negatives
would work for
Factors of the leading coefficient 1 factors
± 1, 2 So a list of possible things to try would be
any number from the top divided by any
1 from the bottom with a + or - on it. In this
case that just leaves us with ± 1 or ± 2
f ( x ) = x + x − 3x − x + 2
4 3 2
Let’s try 1
1 1 1 -3 -1 2 YES! It is a
1 2 -1 -2 zero since the
remainder is 0
1 2 -1 -2 0
( x − 1) ( x 3
+ 2x − x − 2
2
) We found a
positive real zero
Since 1 is a zero, we can write the so Descartes Rule
factor x - 1, and use the quotient to tells us there is
write the polynomial factored. another one
We could try 2, the other positive possible.
± 1, 2 IMPORTANT: Just because 1 worked doesn’t
mean it won’t work again since it could have
1
a multiplicity. Let’s try 1 again,
but we try it on the
3
(
f ( x ) = ( x − 1) x + 2 x − x − 2
2
) factored version
for the remaining
factor (once you have
1 1 2 -1 -2 it partly factored use
that to keep going---
1 3 2 don't start over with
the original).
1 3 2 0
YES! the remainder is 0
x + 3 x + 2 = ( x + 2 )( x + 1)
2
Once you can get it down to 3 numbers here, you can put
the variables back in and factor or use the quadratic
formula, we are done with trial and error.
Let’s take our polynomial then and write all of the
factors we found:
There ended up
f ( x ) = x + x − 3x − x + 2
4 3 2 being two positive
real zeros, 1 and 1
= ( x − 1) ( x + 2 )( x + 1)
2 and two negative
real zeros, -2, and -1.
In this factored form we can find intercepts and left
and right hand behavior and graph the polynomial
Plot intercepts
Left &
right Touches at 1
hand crosses at -1
behavior and -2.
“Rough” graph
Let’s try another one from start to finish using the
theorems and rules to help us.
f ( x ) = 2 x + 13x + 29 x + 27 x + 9
4 3 2
Using the rational zeros
theorem let's find factors ± 1, 3, 9 factors of constant
of the constant over
1, 2 factors of leading
factors of the leading
coefficient
coefficient to know what
numbers to try.
So possible rational zeros are
all possible combinations of
numbers on top with numbers
on bottom:
1 3 9
± 1, ± , ± 3, ± , ± 9, ±
2 2 2
starts Pos. Stays positive
f ( x ) = 2 x + 13x + 29 x + 27 x + 9
4 3 2
Let’s see if Descartes 1 3 9
Rule helps us narrow ±
− 1, ±
− ,±− 3, −
± ,−± 9, −
±
down the choices.
2 2 2
No sign changes in f(x) so no positive real zeros---we just
ruled out half the choices to try so that helps!
1 2 3 4
starts Pos. changes Neg. changes Pos. Changes Neg. Changes Pos.
f ( − x ) = 2 x − 13 x + 29 x − 27 x + 9
4 3 2
4 sign changes so 4 or 2 or 0 negative real zeros.
f ( x ) = 2 x + 13x + 29 x + 27 x + 9
4 3 2
1 3 9
Let’s try -1 − 1, − , − 3, − , − 9, −
2 2 2
-1 2 13 29 27 9 Yes! We found a zero.
-2 -11 -18 -9 Let’s work with
reduced polynomial
2 11 18 9 0 then.
Let’s try -1 again Yes! We found another
-1 2 11 18 9 one. We are done with
-2 -9 -9 trial and error since we
can put variables back in
2 9 9 0 and solve the remaining
2 x + 9 x + 9 = ( 2 x + 3)( x + 3)
2 quadratic equation.
So remaining zeros found by setting these factors = 0
are -3/2 and -3. Notice these were in our list of choices.
f ( x ) = 2 x + 13x + 29 x + 27 x + 9
4 3 2
So our polynomial factored is:
f ( x ) = ( x + 1) ( 2 x + 3)( x + 3)
2
