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TERM-PAPER Metrology And Measurements

TOPICAngular Measurement Construction and use of instruments for angular measurements.

Submitted To Submitted By Section

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Mr. Gagandeep Singh Bajwa Iqbal Singh Parmar M-3001

Roll No. Registration No.

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A-07 11002255

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to present my votes of thanks to all those guidepost who really acted as lightening pillars to enlighten our way throughout this project that has led to successful and satisfactory completion of this study. We are really grateful to our HOD for providing us with an opportunity to undertake this term paper in this university and providing me with all the facilities. We are highly thankful to Mr Gagandeep Singh Bajwa for his active support, valuable time and advice, whole-hearted guidance, sincere cooperation and pains-taking involvement during the study and in completing the term paper for preparing the said project within the time stipulated. Lastly, We are thankful to all those, particularly the various friends , who have been instrumental in creating proper, healthy and conductive environment and including new and fresh innovative ideas for us during the project, their help, it would have been extremely difficult for us to prepare the term paper in a time bound framework.

Iqbal Singh Parmar 11002255

CONTENTS Serial No
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

Topic
Introduction Terms used in angle measurement Line standard angular measurement Face standard angular measurement Measurement of inclines Angle Comparators Summary References

Page No
4 5 6 8 10 12

Diagram Content
Fig 1 Fig 2 Fig 3 Fig 4 Fig 5 Protactor Universal Bevel Protactor Sine Bar Use of Sine Bar Spirit Level 6 7 9 9 11

Fig 6 Fig 7 Fig 8 Fig 9

Clinometer Autocollimator at 90o Autocollimator not at right angle Optical system of an collimator

12 13 14 15

INTRODUCTION
Basically, an angle is defined as the figure formed by two lines or planes that intersect one another. Such lines or planes may be real, such as the edges and surfaces of a object, or they may be defined, such as lines from an observer to two distant stars. The units of measurement of angle are degrees () and radians (rad). One radian is equal to 57.29578, and small angles may be expressed in the unit of milli radians (1 103 rad). A degree of angle is further divided into 60(minutes), and 1 of angle is divided into 60 (seconds). One second of angle, being 1/1,296,000 of a circle, is a very small unit of measurement when related to manufacture parts. There are a wide variety of geometric features that are measured in angular units. These varieties include angular separation of bounding planes, angular spacing conditions related to circle, digression from a basic direction etc. Because of these diverse geometrical forms, different types of methods and equipment are available to measure angles in common angular units of degree, minute and second. Several factors come into picture in selection of suitable angular measuring instruments. These factors may be the size and general

shape of the part, the location and angular accessibilities of the feature to be measured, expected range of angle variations, the required sensitivity and accuracy of measurement etc. Because of the different systems and techniques in angular measuring instruments, it is difficult to categorize them completely. As in linear measurement, they can be categorized in two groups. Line Standard Instruments Face Standard Instruments Now well discuss one by one both type of standards.

TERMS USED IN ANGLE MEASUREMENTS

1) Angle: - A figure formed by two lines or planes that intersect one another. 2) Acute angle: - An angle less than 90. 3) Azimuth: - The horizontal angle measured along the Earths horizon, between a fixed reference (usually due south) and an object. 4) Bank: - A lateral inclination. 5) Circle: - A closed plane curve where all of its points are the same distance from its center point. 6) Declination/declivity: - A negative slope. 7) Degree: - Equal to 1/360 of a circle. 8) Goniometer: - An instrument for measuring angles (from the Greek word gonio). 9) Incline / Slope / Bias / Slant / Gradient / Grade: - The deviation, plus or minus, from horizontal as defined by gravity. 10) Milliradian: - An angle equal to 1/1000 rad. 11) Minute: - An angle equal to 1/60. 12) Oblique angle: - An obtuse or acute angle.

13) Obtuse angle: - An angle greater than 90. 14) Quadrant: - One quarter of a circle (90). 15) Radian: - The angle subtended by an arc of a circle equal to the radius of that circle. One radian is equal to 57.29578. 16) Rake: - Equals the deviation in degrees from being perpendicular (90) to a line or a plane. 17) Right angle: - An angle of 90. 18) Rise: - A positive incline. 19) Second: - An angle equal to 1/60 (1/3600). 20) Straight: - An angle equal to 180. 21) Taper: - The change in diameter or thickness per unit length of axis. 22) Twist: - The angle of turn per unit length of axis, as in a gun barrel or a screw thread.

LINE DEVICES

STANDARD

ANGULAR

MEASURING

Line standard gives direct angular measurement from the engraved scales in the instruments. They are not very precise. Hence they are not used when high precision is required. However, they can be used in initial estimation of the angles in measurement. 1) Protractors: -It is the simplest instrument for measuring angles between two faces. It consists of two arms and an engraved circular scale. The two arms can be set along the faces between which the angle is to be

measured. The body of the instrument is extended to form one of the arms, and this is known as the stock. It is the fixed part of the protractor and should be perfectly straight. The other arm is in the form of a blade that rotates in a turret mounted on the body. One of the bodies of the turret carries the divided scale and the other member carries a vernier or index. The ordinary protractor measures angles only in degrees and used for non-precision works. By using angular vernier scale along with it, precision up to 5 o can be achieved. Figure 1 shows the diagram of a protractor.

Fig 1:Protactor

2) Universal Bevel Protractors : - It is an angular measuring instrument capable of measuring angles to within 5 min. The name universal refers to the capacity of the instrument to be adaptable to a great variety of work configurations and angular interrelations. It consists of a base to which a vernier scale is attached. A protractor dial is mounted on the circular section of the base. The protractor dial is graduated in degrees with every tenth degree numbered. The sliding blade is fitted into this dial; it may be extended to either direction and set at any angle to the base. The blade and the dial are rotated as a unit. Fine adjustment are obtained with a small knurled headed pinion

that, when turned, engages with a gear attached to the blade mount. The protractor dial may be locked in any position by means of the dial clamp nut. Measurement in a universal bevel protractor is made either by embracing the two bounding elements of the angle or by extraneous referencing, for example, the part and the instrument resting on a surface plate. Fig 2 : Universal Bevel Protactor The vernier protractor is used to measure an obtuse angle, or an angle greater than 90O but less than 180O. An acute angle attachment is fastened to the vernier protractor to measure angles of less than 90 O. The main scale is divided into two arcs of 180O. Each arc is divided into two quadrants of 90 O and has graduation from 0O to 90O to the left and right of the zero line, with every tenth degree numbered. The vernier scale is divided into 12 spaces on each side of its zero (total 24). The spacing in the vernier scale is made in such a way that least count of it corresponds to 1/12th of a degree, which is equal to 5O. If the zero on the vernier scale coincides with a line on the main scale, the number of vernier graduations beyond the zero should be multiplied by 5 and added to the number of full degrees indicated on the protractor dial. Figure 2 shows a diagram of a bevel protractor.

FACE DEVICES

STANDARD

ANGULAR

MEASURING

Face standard angular measuring devices include angle gauges and sine bars. The measurements are done with respect to two faces of the measuring instruments. Precision obtained in such instruments is more than the precision obtained in line standard angular measuring devices. Some commonly used

face standard angular measuring devices are discussed in the following subsections. 1) Sine Bar: - A sine bar is made up of a hardened steel beam having a flat upper surface. The bar is mounted on two cylindrical rollers. These rollers are located in cylindrical grooves specially provided for the purpose. The axes of the two rollers are parallel to each other. They are also parallel to the upper flat surface at an equal distance from it. Unlike bevel protractors sine bars make indirect measurements. The operation of a sine bar is based on known trigonometric relationship between the sides and the angle of a right angle triangle. Here, dimension of two sides determine the size of the third side and of the two acute angles. The accuracy attainable with this instrument is quite high and the errors in angular measurement are less than 2 seconds for angle up to 45 o. Generally, right-angled triangle is obtained by using a horizontal and precise flat plate on which gage blocks are stacked in the direction normal to the plane of the plate. Sine block itself is not a measuring instrument. It acts as an important link in the angle measuring process. The actual measurement consists in comparing the plane of the parts top element to the plane of supporting surface plate. Mechanical or electronic height gauges are essentially used in the process.

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Fig 3 Sine bar Figure 3 shows the schematic diagram of a sine bar. It is specified by the distance between the two centres of two rollers. The high degree of accuracy and precision available for length measurement in the form of slip and block gauges may be utilized for measurement of angle using the relationship as shown in Figure 4, where we have,

Fig 4 : Use of Sine Bar Apparently, the accuracy of angle measurement depends upon the accuracy with which length L, of the sine bar and height h under the roller is known. Since the gage blocks incorporate a very high degree of accuracy, the reliability

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of angle measurement by means of sine bar depends essentially on the accuracy of the sine bar itself. Now, differentiating h with respect to , we have Cos = (1/L) X (dh/d) = (d/dh) = (1/L cos ) = (sec /L) Therefore, the error in angle measurement d , due to an error, dh in height h is proportional to sec . Now sec increases very rapidly for angle greater than 45o. Therefore, sine bars should not be used for measurement of angles greater than 45o and if at all they have to be used, sine bars should measure the complement of the angle rather than the angle itself.

MEASUREMENT OF INCLINES
Inclination of a surface generally represents its deviation from the horizontal or vertical planes. Gravitational principle can be used in construction of measurements of such inclinations. Spirit levels and clinometer are the instruments of this category. We will discuss these instruments in brief in the following sub-sections. 1) Spirit Level :- Spirit level is one of the most commonly used instruments for inspecting the horizontal position of surfaces and for evaluating the direction and magnitude of minor deviation from that nominal condition. It essentially consists of a close glass tube of accurate form. It is called as the vial. It is filled almost entirely with a liquid, leaving a small space for the formation of an air or gas bubble. Generally, low viscosity fluids, such as ether, alcohol or benzol, are preferred for filling the vial. The liquid due to its greater specific weight tends to fill the lower portion of the closed space. Upper side of the vial is graduated in linear units. Inclination of a surface can be known from the deviation of the bubble from its position when the spirit level is kept in a horizontal plane. Temperature variations in the ambient condition cause both

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liquid and vial to expand or contract. Therefore, selection of proper liquid and material for the spirit level is very important for accurate result. To reduce the effect of heat transfer in handling spirit levels are made of a relatively stable casting and are equipped with thermally insulated handles. Figure 5 shows a schematic diagram of a spirit level.

Fig 5 : Spirit Level Sensitivity of the vial used in spirit level is commonly expressed in the following two ways. Each graduation line representing a specific slope is defined by a tangent relationship, e.g. 0.01 cm per meter. An angular value is assigned to the vial length covered by the distance of two adjacent graduation lines, i.e. the distance moved by the bubble from the zero will correspond the angle directly. 2) Clinometer :A clinometer is a special case of application of spirit

level for measuring, in the vertical plane, the incline of a surface in relation to the basic horizontal plane, over an extended range. The main functional element of a clinometer is the sensitive vial mounted on a rotatable disc, which carries a graduated ring with its horizontal axis supported in the housing of the instrument. The bubble of the vial is in its centre position, when the clinometer is placed on a horizontal surface and the scale of the rotatable disc is at zero

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position. If the clinometer is placed on an incline surface, the bubble deviates from the centre. It can be brought to the centre by rotating the disc. The rotation of the disc can be read on the scale. It represents the deviation of the surface over which the clinometer is placed from the horizontal plane. Figure 6 shows a diagram of a clinometer. A number of commercially available clinometers with various designs are available. They differ in their sensitivity and measuring accuracy. Sensitivity and measuring accuracy of modern clinometers can be compared with any other high precision measuring instruments. For shop uses, clinometers with 10 graduations are available.

Fig 6 : Clinometer

ANGLE COMPARATORS
Angle comparators are the metrological instruments used for finding the difference between two nearly equal angles. The principle used in angle comparators is same as that of linear comparators. In practice, they are frequently used in calculating the difference between the angle of working standard gauges or instruments. It is also used in measuring angle of a number

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of angle gauges wrung together, or the angle between two faces of a standard polygon. The most widely used angle comparators are Autocollimators. They are designed to measure small angles by comparison. They are quite accurate and can read up to 0.1 seconds, and may be used for distance up to 30 meters. We will discuss the principle and the working of an autocollimator in the following section. 1) Autocollimators :-

Principle
The two main principles used in an autocollimator are (a) the projection and the refraction of a parallel beam of light by a lens, and (b) the change in direction of a reflected angle on a plane reflecting surface with change in angle of incidence. To understand this, let us imagine a converging lens with a point source of light O at its principle focus, as shown in Figure 7. When a beam of light strikes a flat reflecting surface, a part of the beam is absorbed and the other part is reflected back. If the angle of incidence is zero, i.e. incident rays fall perpendicular to the reflecting surface, the reflected rays retrace original path. When the reflecting plane is tilted at certain angle, the total angle through which the light is deflected is twice the angle through which the mirror is tilted. Thus, alternately, if the incident rays are not at right angle to the reflecting surface Fig 7 : Reflector is at 90o

they can be

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brought to the focal plane of the light sources by tilting the reflecting plane at an angle half the angle of reflection as shown in Figure 8.

Fig 8 : Reflector is not at 90o Now, from the diagram, OO` = 2 f = x, where f is the focal length of the lens. Thus, by measuring the linear distance x, the inclination of the reflecting surface can be determined. The position of the final image does not depend upon the distance of the reflector from the lens. If, however, the reflector is moved too long, the reflected ray will then completely miss the lens and no image will be formed. Working :- In actual practice, the work surface whose inclination is to be obtained forms the reflecting surface and the displacement x is measured by a precision microscope which is calibrated directly to the values of inclination . The optical system of an autocollimator is shown in Figure 8. The target wires are illuminated by the electric bulb and act as a source of light since it is not convenient to visualize the reflected image of a point and then to measure the displacement x precisely. The image of the illuminated wire after being reflected from the surface being measured is formed in the same plane as the wire itself. The eyepiece system containing the micrometer microscope mechanism has a pair of setting lines which may be used to measure the

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displacement of the image by setting to the original cross lines and then moving over to those of the image. Generally, a calibration is supplied with the instrument. Thus, the angle of inclination of the reflecting surface per division of the micrometer scale can be directly read. Autocollimators are quite accurate and can read up to 0.1 seconds, and may be used for distance up to 30 meters.

Fig 9 : Optical System of an Collimator

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SUMMARY
In this unit, principles and techniques of angular measuring devices have been discussed. The unit begins with description of line standard angular measuring devices like protractor and bevel protractor. Next, face standards angular measuring devices, viz. slip gauges and sine bars are discussed. Instruments used for measurement of inclinations, viz. spirit level inclinometers are discussed in the next section. The unit finishes with the discussion of the principle and working of angle comparator, viz. autocollimators.

REFERENCES
N. H. Egan and G. R.Holzhausen, Evaluating structures using tilt (rotation) measurements, Sensors Expo West Proc., 1991. Dunnicliff, April 2013. Bewoor, AK (2012). Meteorology & Measurment. Los Angles: Tata McGraw Hill. 76-133. J. (1998). Measuring Instruments. Available:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measuring_instrument. Last accessed 3rd