CH 5

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Microelectronic circuits_5e sedra/smith
Copyright@2005_Organized by Dalton Lin
INTRODUCTION
The basic principle involved is the use of the voltage between two terminals to control the current flowing in the third terminal. In this way, a threeterminal device can be used to realize a controlled source, The invention of the BJT in 1948 at the Bell Telephone Laboratories ushered in the era of solidstate circuits, which led to electronics changing the way we work,
the reliability of BJT circuits under severe environmental conditions makes them the dominant device in automotive electronics, an important and still-growing area. The BJT is still the preferred device in very demanding analog circuit applications, both integrated and discrete. This is especially true in very-high-frequency applications, such as radio frequency (RF) circuits for wireless systems. bipolar transistors can be combined with MOSFETs to create innovative circuits that take advantage of the high-input-impedance and low-power operation of MOSFETs and the very-high-frequency operation and high-current-driving capability of bipolar transistors.
Figure 5.2 A simplified structure of the pnp transistor.
5.1 DEVICE STRUCTURE AND PHYSICAL OPERATION

As shown in Fig. 5.1, the BJT consists of three semiconductor regions: the emitter region (n type), the base region (p type), and the collector region (n type). Such a transistor is called an npn transistor. Another transistor, a dual of the Npn as shown in Fig. 5.2, the terminals labeled Emitter (E), base (B), and collector (C).
The transistor consists of two pn junctions, the emitter base junction (EBJ) and the collector base junction (CBJ). The active mode, which is also called forward active mode, is the one used if the transistor is to operate as an amplifier. Switching applications (e.g., logic circuits) utilize both the Cutoff and the saturation modes. The reverse active (or inverse active) mode has very limited application
Figure 5.3 Current flow in an npn transistor biased to operate in the active mode. (Reverse current components due to drift of thermally generated minority carriers are not shown.)
5.1.2 Operation of the npn Transistor in the Active Mode

Two external voltage sources are used to establish the required bias conditions for active-mode operation. The voltage VBE causes the p-type base to be higher in potential than the n-type emitter, thus forward-biasing the emitter base junction. The collector base voltage VCB causes the n-type collector to be higher in potential than the p-type base, thus reverse-biasing the collector base junction.
Current Flow The forward bias on the emitter base junction will cause current to flow across this junction. Current will consist of two components: electrons injected from the emitter into the base, and holes injected from the base into the emitter. the device is designed to have a high density of electrons in the emitter and a low density of holes in the base.
The direction of iE is out of the emitter lead, which is in the direction of the hole current and opposite to the direction of the electron current, with the emitter current iE being equal to the sum of these two components. the emitter current will be dominated by the electron component. Let us now consider the electrons injected from the emitter into the base. These electrons will be minority carriers in the p -type base region.
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The electron concentration will be highest [denoted by np(0)] at the emitter side and lowest (zero) at the collector side. As in the case of any forward-biased pn junction (Section 3.7.5), the concentration np(0) will be proportional to e vBE / VT
where is the thermal equilibrium value of the minoritycarrier (electron) concentration in the base region, vBE is the forward base emitter bias voltage, and VT is the thermal voltage, which is equal to approximately 25 mV at room temperature
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This electron diffusion current In is directly proportional to the slope of the straight-line concentration profile,
Where AE is the cross-sectional area of the base emitter junction ,q is the magnitude of the electron charge, Dn is the electron diffusivity in the base, and W is the effective width of the base.
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The Collector Current most of the diffusing electrons will reach the boundary of the collector base depletion region. Because the collector is more positive than the base (by vCB volts),
where the saturation current IS is given by
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ni / N A where ni is the intrinsic Substituting n p 0 carrier density and NA is the doping concentration of the base, we can express IS as
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An important observation to make here is that the magnitude of iC is independent of vCB.
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The Base Current The base current iB is composed of two components. The first component iB1 is due to the holes injected from the base region into the emitter region. This current component is proportional to
where Dp is the hole diffusivity in the emitter, Lp is the hole diffusion length in the emitter, and ND is the doping concentration of the emitter.
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The second component of base current, iB2, is due to holes that have to be supplied by the external circuit in order to replace the holes lost from the base through the recombination process. the current iB2 must supply the base with a positive charge equal to Qn every b seconds,
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Comparing Eqs. (5.3) and (5.9), we see that iB can be expressed as a fraction of iC as follows:
the constant is called the common-emitter current gain.
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The Emitter Current
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is a constant (for the particular transistor) that is less than but very close to unity. For instance, if = 100, then 0.99. Small changes in correspond to very large changes in . is called the common-base current gain. because and characterize the operation of the BJT in the forward active mode, they are often denoted F and F
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5.1.3 Structure of Actual Transistors
Figure 5.6 Cross-section of an npn BJT.
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5.1.4 The Ebers-Moll (EM) Model

this composite model can be used to predict the operation of the BJT in all of its possible modes.
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Figure 5.9 The iC vCB characteristic of an npn transistor fed with a constant emitter current IE. The transistor enters the saturation mode of operation for vCB 0.4 V, and the collector current diminishes.
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5.1.5 Operation in the Saturation Mode

Figure 5.9 indicates that as vCB is lowered below approximately 0.4 V, the BJT enters the saturation mode of operation. Increasing vCB in the negative directionthat is, increasing the forward-bias voltage of the CBJ reduces iC
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5.1.6 The pnp Transistor

The pnp transistor operates in a manner similar to that of the npn device described above. Figure 5.11 shows a pnp transistor biased to operate in the active mode. Here the voltage VEB causes the p-type emitter to be higher in potential than the n-type base, thus forwardbiasing the base emitter junction. The collector base junction is reverse-biased by the voltage VBC, which keeps the p-type collector lower in potential than the ntype base. current in the pnp device is mainly conducted by holes injected from the emitter into the base as a result of the forward-bias voltage VEB.
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Figure 5.11 Current flow in a pnp transistor biased to operate in the active mode.
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5.2 CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS 5.2.1 Circuit Symbols and Conventions

Figure 5.13(a) shows the symbol for the npn transistor; the pnp symbol is given in Fig. 5.13(b). This arrowhead points in the direction of normal current flow in the emitter, which is also the forward direction of the base emitter junction. Figure 5.14 shows npn and pnp transistors biased to operate in the active mode.
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Figure 5.14 Voltage polarities and current flow in transistors biased in the active mode.
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an npn transistor whose EBJ is forward biased will operate in the active mode as long as the collector voltage does not fall below that of the base by more than approximately 0.4 V. Otherwise, the transistor leaves the active mode and enters the saturation region of operation. In a parallel manner, the pnp transistor will operate in the active mode if the EBJ is forward biased and the collector voltage is not allowed to rise above that of the base by more than 0.4 V or so. Otherwise, the CBJ becomes forward biased, and the pnp transistor enters the saturation region of operation.
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5.2.2 Graphical Representation of Transistor Characteristics

Figure 5.16 shows the iC vBE characteristic, which is the exponential relationship
which is identical (except for the value of constant n) to the diode i v relationship. The iE vBE and iB vBE characteristics are also exponential but with different scale currents: for iE, and for iB.
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For vBE smaller than about 0.5 V, the current is negligibly small. over most of the normal current range vBE lies in the range of 0.6 V to 0.8 V. we normally will assume that VBE 0.7 V, As in silicon diodes, the voltage across the emitter base junction decreases by about 2 mV for each rise of 1C in temperature,
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Figure 5.16 The iC vBE characteristic for an npn transistor.
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The Common-Base Characteristics In the active region of operation, obtained vcb0.4V for or so, the iC vCB curves deviate from our expectations in two ways. First, the curves are not horizontal straight lines but show a small positive slope, indicating that iC depends slightly on vCB in the active mode. We shall discuss this phenomenon shortly. Second, at relatively large values of vCB, the collector current shows a rapid increase, which is a breakdown phenomenon we will consider at a later stage.
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Figure 5.18 The iC vCB characteristics of an npn transistor.
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5.2.3 Dependence of iC on the Collector VoltageThe Early Effect

Fig. 5.19(a). The transistor is connected in the common-emitter configuration The result is the family of iC vCE characteristic curves shown in Fig. 5.19(b) and known as common-emitter characteristics. when extrapolated, the characteristic lines meet at a point on the negative vCE axis, at vCE = VA. The voltage VA, a positive number, is a parameter for the particular BJT, with typical values in the range of 50 V to 100 V. It is called the Early voltage,
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Figure 5.19 (a) Conceptual circuit for measuring the iC vCE characteristics of the BJT. (b) The iC vCE characteristics of a practical BJT.
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At a given value of vBE, increasing vCE increases the reverse-bias voltage on the collector base junction and thus increases the width of the depletion region of this junction (refer to Fig. 5.3). This in turn results in a decrease in the effective base width W. Recalling that IS is inversely proportional to W (Eq. 5.4), we see that IS will increase and that iC increases proportionally. This is the Early effect.
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Alternatively, we can write
where I cis the value of the collector current with the Early effect neglected
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Figure 5.20 Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of an npn BJT operating in the active mode in the common-emitter configuration.
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5.3 THE BJT AS AN AMPLIFIER AND AS A SWITCH
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5.3.1 Large-Signal Operation The Transfer Characteristic

Figure 5.26(a) shows the basic structure (skeleton) of the most commonly used BJT amplifier, the grounded-emitter or common-emitter (CE) circuit. Resistor RC has vBE=vI, vO=vCE,two functions: to establish a desired dc bias voltage at the collector, and to convert the collector signal current ic to an output voltage, vce or vo. Figure 5.26(b) shows the voltage transfer characteristic of the CE circuit of Fig. 5.26(a).
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since vBE = vI, the transistor will be effectively cutoff for vI < 0.5 V or so. Thus, for the range 0 < vI < 0.5 V, iC will be negligibly small, and vO will be equal to the supply voltage VCC
In the saturation region, vCE = VCEsat,
When saturated, transistor can be thought of as a closed switch.On the other hand, when the BJT is cutoff, thus acts as an open switch
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Figure 5.26 (a) Basic common-emitter amplifier circuit. (b) Transfer characteristic of the circuit in (a). The amplifier is biased at a point Q, and a small voltage signal vi is superimposed on the dc bias voltage VBE. The resulting output signal vo appears superimposed on the dc collector voltage VCE. The amplitude of vo is larger than that of vi by the voltage gain Av.
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5.3.2 Amplifier Gain

If the collector current at this value of VBE is denoted IC, that is
An expression for the small-signal gain Av can be found by differentiating the expression in Eq. (5.51) and evaluating the derivative at point Q; that is, for vI = VBE,
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Now, using Eq. (5.53) we can express Av in compact form:
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5.3.4 Operation as a Switch

To operate the BJT as a switch, we utilize the cutoff and the saturation modes of operation. For vI less than about 0.5 V, the transistor will be cutoff; thus iB = 0,iC = 0, and vC = VCC To turn the transistor on, we have to increase vI above 0.5 V. In fact, for appreciable currents to flow, vBE should be about 0.7 V and vI should be higher.
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which applies only when the device is in the active mode. This will be the case as long as the CBJ is not forward biased, that is, as long as vC > vB 0.4 V, Eventually, vC will become lower than vB by 0.4 V, at which point the transistor leaves the active region and enters the saturation region. This edge-of-saturation (EOS) point is defined by
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we shall usually assume that for a saturated transistor, VCEsat 0.2 V.
Figure 5.32 A simple circuit used to illustrate the different modes of operation of the BJT.
Copyright@2005_Organized by Dalton Lin 52
5.4 BJT CIRCUITS AT DC

In the following examples we will use the simple model in which, |VBE|of a conducting transistor is 0.7 V and |VCE| of a saturated transistor is 0.2 V, and we will neglect the Early effect. procedure: Assume that the transistor is operating in the active mode, and proceed to determine the various voltages and currents. Then check for consistency of the results with the assumption of active-mode operation; that is, is vCB of an npn transistor greater than 0.4 V (or vCB of a pnp transistor lower than 0.4 V)?
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If the answer is yes, then our task is complete. If the answer is no, assume saturation-mode operation, and proceed to determine currents and voltages and to check for consistency of the results with the assumption of saturation-mode operation. Here the test is usually to compute the ratio and to verify that it is lower than the transistor ; i.e., forced <
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5.5 BIASING IN BJT AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS

The biasing problem is that of establishing a constant dc current in the collector of the BJT. This current has to be calculable, predictable, and insensitive to variations in temperature and to the large variations in the value of encountered among transistors of the same type.
5.5.1 Classical Discrete-Circuit Bias Arrangement

Figure 5.44(a) shows the arrangement most commonly used for biasing a discrete-circuit transistor amplifier if only a single power supply is available.
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Figure 5.43 Two obvious schemes for biasing the BJT: (a) by fixing VBE; (b) by fixing IB. Both result in wide variations in IC and hence in VCE and therefore are considered to be bad. Neither scheme is recommended.
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Figure 5.44 Classical biasing for BJTs using a single power supply: (a) circuit; (b) circuit with the voltage divider supplying the base replaced with its Thvenin equivalent.
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To make IE insensitive to temperature and variation, we design the circuit to satisfy the following two constraints:
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As a rule of thumb, one designs for
Typically one selects R1 and R2 such that their current is in the range of IE to 0.1IE.
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5.5.2 A Two Power-Supply Version of the Classical Bias Arrangement
This equation is identical to Eq. (5.70) except for VEE replacing VBB. Thus the two constraints of Eqs. (5.71) and (5.72) apply here as well.
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Figure 5.45 Biasing the BJT using two power supplies. Resistor RB is needed only if the signal is to be capacitively coupled to the base. Otherwise, the base can be connected directly to ground, or to a grounded signal source, resulting in almost total -independence of the bias current.
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5.5.3 Biasing Using a Collector-toBase Feedback Resistor
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Figure 5.46 (a) A common-emitter transistor amplifier biased by a feedback resistor RB. (b) Analysis of the circuit in (a).
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5.6 SMALL-SIGNAL OPERATION AND MODELS

We consider first the dc bias conditions by setting the signal vbe to zero. The circuit reduces to that in Fig. 5.48(b), and we can write the following relationships for the dc currents and voltages:
Obviously, for active-mode operation, VC should be greater than (VB 0.4)

Microelectronic circuits_5e sedra/smith Copyright@2005_Organized by Dalton Lin 76
5.6.1 The Collector Current and the Transconductance

the total instantaneous base emitter voltage vBE becomes
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This approximation, which is valid only for vbe less than approximately 10 mV, is referred to as the small-signal approximation.
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The small-signal approximation implies keeping the signal amplitude sufficiently small so that operation is restricted to an almost-linear segment of the iC vBE exponential curve. The analysis above suggests that for small signals (vbe << VT), the transistor behaves as a voltage-controlled current source.
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Figure 5.49 Linear operation of the transistor under the small-signal condition: A small signal vbe with a triangular waveform is superimposed on the dc voltage VBE. It gives rise to a collector signal current ic, also of triangular waveform, superimposed on the dc current IC. Here, ic = gmvbe, where gm is the slope of the iC vBE curve at the bias point Q.
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5.6.2 The Base Current and the Input Resistance at the Base
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5.6.3 The Emitter Current and the Input Resistance at the Emitter
If we denote the small-signal resistance between base and emitter, looking into the emitter,by re, it can be defined as
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The relationship between r and re can be found by combining their respective definitions in Eqs. (5.92) and (5.97) as
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5.6.4 Voltage Gain
5.6.6 The Hybrid- Model

An equivalent circuit model for the BJT is shown in Fig. 5.51(a).
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Figure 5.52 Two slightly different versions of what is known as the T model of the BJT. The circuit in (a) is a voltage-controlled current source representation and that in (b) is a currentcontrolled current source representation. These models explicitly show the emitter resistance re rather than the base resistance rfeatured in the hybrid- model.
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The model obviously yields ic = gmvbe and ib = vbe r.
The two models of Fig. 5.51 are simplified versions of what is known as the hybrid- model. This is the most widely used model for the BJT.
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5.6.7 The T Model
Figure 5.52 Two slightly different versions of what is known as the T model of the BJT. The circuit in (a) is a voltage-controlled current source representation and that in (b) is a currentcontrolled current source representation. These models explicitly show the emitter resistance re rather than the base resistance rfeatured in the hybrid- model.
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5.6.8 Application of the Small-Signal Equivalent Circuits

The process consists of the following steps: 1. Determine the dc operating point of the BJT and in particular the dc collector current IC. 2. Calculate the values of the small-signal model parameters: 3. Eliminate the dc sources by replacing each dc voltage source with a short circuit and each dc current source with an open circuit. 4. Replace the BJT with one of its small-signal equivalent circuit models. 5. Analyze the resulting circuit to determine the required quantities (e.g., voltage gain, input resistance). The process will be illustrated by the following examples.
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5.6.10 Augmenting the SmallSignal Models to Accountfor the Early Effect

The Early effect, discussed in Section 5.2, causes the collector current to depend not only on vBE but also on vCE. The dependence on vCE can be modeled by assigning a finite output resistance to the controlled current-source in the hybrid- model, as shown in Fig. 5.58. The output resistance ro was defined in Eq. (5.37); its value is given by
ro (VA VCE ) / I C I C
the output voltage vo becomes
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Figure 5.58 The hybrid- small-signal model, in its two versions, with the resistance ro included.
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5.7 SINGLE-STAGE BJT AMPLIFIERS

There are basically three configurations for implementing single-stage BJT amplifiers: the common-emitter, the common-base, and the common-collector configurations.
5.7.1 The Basic Structure

Figure 5.59 shows the basic circuit
5.7.2 Characterizing BJT Amplifiers

Table 5.5
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Figure 5.59 Basic structure of the circuit used to realize single-stage, discrete-circuit BJT amplifier configurations.
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5.7.3 The Common-Emitter Amplifier

The CE configuration is the most widely used of all BJT amplifier circuits. Figure 5.60(a) shows a CE amplifier implemented using the circuit of Fig. 5.59. A large capacitor CE, usually in the F or tens of F range, is connected between emitter and ground. This capacitor is required to provide a very low impedance to ground.
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In this way, the emitter signal current passes through CE to ground and thus bypasses the output resistance of the current source I CE is called a bypass capacitor. Here we shall assume that CE is acting as a perfect short circuit and thus is establishing a zero signal voltage at the emitter. Capacitor CC1, known as a coupling capacitor, is required to act as a perfect short circuit at all signal frequencies of interest while blocking dc.
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Figure 5.60 (a) A common-emitter amplifier using the structure of Fig. 5.59. (b) Equivalent circuit obtained by replacing the transistor with its hybrid- model.
The voltage signal resulting at the collector, vc, is coupled to the load resistance RL via another coupling capacitor CC2. We shall assume that CC2 also acts a perfect short circuit at all signal frequencies of interest; thus the output voltage vo = vc. To determine the terminal characteristics of the CE amplifier, that is, its input resistance, voltage gain, and output resistance, we replace the BJT with its hybrid small-signal model. Thus Rin = Ri and Rout = Ro
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which is the gain Av; in other words, when Rs is small, the overall voltage gain is almost equal to the gain of the CE circuit proper, which is independent of .
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It follows that the CE amplifier is used to realize the bulk of the voltage gain required in a unusual amplifier design we wish to evaluate its short-circuit current gain, Ais. This can be easily done by referring to the amplifier equivalent circuit in Fig. 5.60(b). When RL is short circuited, the current through it will be equal to gmv,
In conclusion, the common-emitter configuration can provide large voltage and current gains, but Rin is relatively low and Rout is relatively high.
5.7.4 The Common-Emitter Amplifier with an Emitter Resistance
the input resistance looking into the base is (+1) times the total resistance in the emitter. Multiplication by the factor (+1) is known as the resistancereflection rule.
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Thus the circuit designer can use the value of Re to control the value of Rib and hence Rin. To determine the voltage gain Av, Substituting for ie from Eq. (5.126) gives
The voltage gain from base to collector is equal to the ratio of the total resistance in the collector to the total resistance in the emitter.
Copyright@2005_Organized by Dalton Lin 104
The open-circuit voltage gain Avo can be found by setting RL = in Eq. (5.129),
The short-circuit current gain Ais can be found from the circuit in Fig. 5.61(b) as follows:
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The overall voltage gain from source to load can be obtained by multiplying Av by ( vi vsig )
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Another important consequence of including the resistance Re in the emitter is that it enables the amplifier to handle larger input signals without incurring nonlinear distortion. Finally, we note that the negative feedback action of Re gives it the name emitter degeneration resistance.
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Figure 5.61 (a) A common-emitter amplifier with an emitter resistance Re. (b) Equivalent circuit obtained by replacing the transistor with its T model.
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5.7.5 The Common-Base Amplifier

By establishing a signal ground on the base terminal of the BJT, a circuit configuration aptly named common-base or grounded-base amplifier is obtained. Rin = re (5.137)
thus the CB amplifier has a low input resistance. To determine the voltage gain,
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The open-circuit voltage gain Avo can be found from Eq. (5.138) by setting RL = :
The short-circuit current gain Ais is given by
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In summary, the CB amplifier exhibits a very low input resistance (re) a short-circuit current gain that is nearly unity (), an open-circuit voltage gain that is positive and equal in magnitude to that of the CE amplifier (gmRC), and like the CE amplifier, a relatively high output resistance (RC). Finally, a very significant application of the CB circuit is as a unity-gain current amplifier or current buffer: It accepts an input signal current at a low input resistance and delivers a nearly equal current at very high output resistance at the collector
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5.7.6 The Common-Collector (CC) Amplifier or Emitter Follower
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Figure 5.63 (a) An emitter-follower circuit based on the structure of Fig. 5.59. (b) Small-signal equivalent circuit of the emitter follower with the transistor replaced by its T model augmented with ro. (c) The circuit in (b) redrawn to emphasize that ro is in parallel with RL. This simplifies the analysis considerably.
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Figure 5.64 (a) An equivalent circuit of the emitter follower obtained from the circuit in Fig. 5.63(c) by reflecting all resistances in the emitter to the base side. (b) The circuit in (a) after application of Thvenin theorem to the input circuit composed of vsig, Rsig, and RB.
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5.10 THE BASIC BJT DIGITAL LOGIC INVERTER

If the input voltage vI is high, at a value close to the power-supply voltage VCC, representing a logic 1 in a positive-logic system, the transistor will be conducting and, with appropriate choice of values for RB and RC, saturated. Thus the output voltage will be VCEsat 0.2 V, representing a lowor logic 0. Conversely, if the input voltage is low,at a value close to ground (e.g., VCEsat ), then the transistor will be cut off, iC will be zero, and vO = VCC, which is high or logic 1.
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Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Microelectronic circuits_5e sedra/smith

Copyright@2005_Organized by Dalton Lin

Microelectronic circuits_5e sedra/smith

Copyright@2005_Organized by Dalton Lin

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Copyright@2005_Organized by Dalton Lin

Figure 5.2 A simplified structure of the pnp transistor.

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5.1 DEVICE STRUCTURE AND PHYSICAL OPERATION

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5.1.2 Operation of the npn Transistor in the Active Mode

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where the saturation current IS is given by

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An important observation to make here is that the magnitude of iC is independent of vCB.

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the constant is called the common-emitter current gain.

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The Emitter Current

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5.1.3 Structure of Actual Transistors

Figure 5.6 Cross-section of an npn BJT.

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5.1.4 The Ebers-Moll (EM) Model

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5.1.5 Operation in the Saturation Mode

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