Chapter 12: Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation

Yoav Peles
Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Nuclear Engineering Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

Objectives
Classify electromagnetic radiation, and identify thermal radiation, Understand the idealized blackbody, and calculate the total and spectral blackbody emissive power, Calculate the fraction of radiation emitted in a specified wavelength band using the blackbody radiation functions, Understand the concept of radiation intensity, Develop a clear understanding of the properties emissivity, absorptivity, relflectivity, and transmissivity on spectral, directional, and total basis, Apply Kirchhoffs law to determine the absorptivity of a surface when its emissivity is known, Model the atmospheric radiation by the use of an effective sky temperature, and appreciate the importance of greenhouse effect.

 Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not require the presence of a material medium to take place. Electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation represent the energy emitted by matter as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.

Introduction

Electromagnetic waves are characterized by their frequency or wavelength

c the speed of propagation of a wave in that medium.
c = c0/n ; c0 (vacuum) = 3 x 108 (m/s) n =

(12-1)

Thermal Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation covers a wide range of wavelengths. Of particular interest in the study of heat transfer is the thermal radiation. Temperature is a measure of the strength of these activities at the microscopic level. Thermal radiation is defined as the spectrum that extends from about 0.1 to 100 m. Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon. However, frequently it is more convenient to treat it as a surface phenomenon.

Blackbody Radiation
A body at a thermodynamic (or absolute) temperature above zero emits radiation in all directions over a wide range of wavelengths. The amount of radiation energy emitted from a surface at a given wavelength depends on:
the material of the body and the condition of its surface, the surface temperature.

A blackbody the maximum amount of radiation that can be emitted by a surface at a given temperature. At a specified temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than a blackbody.

 A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction. A blackbody emits radiation energy uniformly in all directions per unit area normal to direction of emission.

Radiation Intensity I(,T)

 The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit time and per unit surface area (StefanBoltzmann law)
Eb (T ) = T 4

W/m 2

(12-3)

= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4.

Examples of approximate blackbody:

snow, white paint,

(); blackbody!

 a large cavity with a small opening.

( (diffuse) radiative properties blackbody ())

---- blackbody



( - - )

- - -

 The spectral blackbody emissive power (Planck 1901)

C1 Eb ( ,T ) = 5 exp 1 C T ( ) 2
2 C1 = 2 hc0 = 3.74177 108

W/m 2 m

) )
(12-4)

( W m

m2

C2 = hc0 / k = 1.43878 104

4 E d T = b, 0

( m K )
(W/m 2 )

Eb (T ) =

The variation of the spectral blackbody emissive power with wavelength is plotted in Fig. 129.

 at any specified temperature a maximum exists, at any wavelength, the amount of emitted radiation increases with increasing temperature, as temperature increases, the curves shift to the shorter wavelength, the radiation emitted by the sun (5780 K) is in the visible spectrum. Wiens displacement law :

( T )max power = 2897.8 ( m K )

(12-5)

 The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit area over a wavelength band from =0 to = 1 is determined from

Eb ,01 (T ) = Eb ( , T )d
0

W/m 2

(12-7) A dimensionless quantity f called the blackbody radiation function is defined:

f n

(T ) =

0 0

Eb ( , T )d Eb ( , T )d

Eb ( , T )d

; n = 1 or 2 (12-8)

The values of f are listed in Table 122.

Table 12-2 Blackbody Radiation Functions f

f 1

(T ) =

Eb ( , T )d

T 4

(12-8)

f 1 2 (T ) = f 2 (T ) f 1 (T )

(12-9)

Radiation Intensity
The direction of radiation passing through a point is best described in spherical coordinates in terms of the zenith angle and the azimuth angle .
dAn

Radiation intensity is used to describe how the emitted radiation varies with the zenith and azimuth angles (). A differentially small surface in space dAn, through which this radiation passes, subtends a solid angle d when viewed from a point on dA.

 The differential solid angle d subtended by a differential area dS on a sphere of radius r can be expressed as
dS d 2 = sin d d r

(sr : steradian) (12-11)

 dQ e

dS d 2 = sin d d r

Note: d r !

Radiation Intensity ()
the rate at which radiation energy is emitted in the (, ) direction per unit area normal to this direction and per unit solid angle about this direction.
  dQ dQ e e I e ( , ) = dA cos d dA cos sin d d W 2 m sr

(12-13)

The radiation flux is the emissive power E:

 dQ e I e ( , ) cos (d ) dE = dA = I e ( , ) cos sin d d

(12-14)

 The emissive power from the surface into the hemisphere surrounding it can be determined by
E= =

hemisphere 2

dE

=0 =0

/2

I e ( , ) cos sin d d

W m2

(12-15)

For a diffusely emitting surface, the intensity of the emitted radiation is independent of direction and thus Ie = constant:

E=

hemisphere 2

dE
/2

= I e = 0 = 0 cos sin d d = I e   

(12-16)

 For a blackbody, which is a diffuse emitter, Eq. 12 16 can be expressed as

Eb = I b
(12-17)

where Eb = T4 is the blackbody emissive power. Therefore, the intensity of the radiation emitted by a blackbody at absolute temperature T is
Not a function of and

T 4 = I b (T ) =
Eb

W m 2 - sr

(12-18)

 Intensity of incident radiation

Ii(,) the rate at which radiation energy dG is incident from the (,) direction per unit area of the receiving surface normal to this direction and per unit solid angle about this direction.

 The radiation flux incident on a surface from all directions is called irradiation G
G=

hemisphere

dG =

=0 =0

/2

I i ( , ) cos sin d d

(12-19)

Units:

W m2

When the incident radiation is diffuse (Ii = constant):

G = Ii

(12-20)

 Radiosity (J ) the rate at which radiation energy leaves a unit area of a surface in all directions:
J =
2

=0 =0

/2

I e + r ( , ) cos sin d d

W m2

(12-21)

For a surface that is both a diffuse emitter and a diffuse reflector, Ie+r f (,) = , Ie+r :
J =
2

=0 =0
2

/2

I e + r ( , ) cos sin d d
/2
=0

= Ie+ r

=0

cos sin d d

(12-21)

= Ie+ r Units:

W m2

)
(12-22)

J = Ie+ r

( W m2 )

 Spectral Quantities the variation of radiation with wavelength.

 The spectral intensity for emitted radiation I,e(,,) for example, is simply the total radiation intensity I(,) per unit wavelength interval about .
 dQ e I , e ( , , ) = dA cos d d

W 2 m sr m

(12-23)

Then the spectral emissive power becomes

E =
2

=0

/2
=0

I , e ( , , ) cos sin d d

(12-24)

 The spectral intensity of radiation emitted by a blackbody at a thermodynamic temperature T at a wavelength has been determined by Max Planck , and is expressed as
2 2hc0 I b ( , T ) = 5 exp ( hc0 kT ) 1

( W/m

sr m

(12-28)

Radiation Intensity

Eb = I b

(12-17)

Then the spectral blackbody emissive power is ()

Eb ( , T ) = I b ( , T )

(12-29)

2 = 400 1 = 550

A2 = 5 cm2

A1 = 3 cm2 T1 = 600 K

Radiative Properties
Many materials encountered in practice, such as metals, wood, and bricks, are opaque () to thermal radiation, and radiation is considered to be a surface phenomenon for such materials. In these materials thermal radiation is emitted or absorbed within the first few microns of the surface. Some materials like glass and water exhibit different behavior at different wavelengths:
Visible spectrum () semi-transparent, Infrared spectrum () opaque.

Emissivity ()
Emissivity of a surface the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface at a given temperature to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. The emissivity of a surface is denoted by , and it varies between zero and one, 0 1. The emissivity of real surfaces varies with:
the temperature of the surface, the wavelength, and the direction of the emitted radiation.

Spectral directional emissivity the most elemental emissivity of a surface at a given temperature.

 Spectral directional emissivity

, ( , , , T ) =
I ,e ( , , , T ) I b ( , T )
(12-30)

The subscripts and are used to designate spectral and directional quantities, respectively. The total directional emissivity (intensities integrated over all wavelengths)
( , , T ) =
I e ( , , T ) I b (T )
(12-31)

The spectral hemispherical emissivity

(,T ) =
Eb ( , T ) E ( , T )
(12-32)

 The total hemispherical emissivity

(T ) =
Eb (T ) E (T )
(12-33)

Since Eb(T) = T4 the total hemispherical emissivity can also be expressed as

(T ) =
E (T )

Eb (T )

( , T ) Eb ( , T ) d T 4

(12-34)

To perform this integration, we need to know the variation of spectral emissivity with wavelength at the specified temperature.

Gray and Diffuse Surfaces

Diffuse surface a surface which properties are independent of direction.

 Gray surface surface properties are independent of wavelength.

emissivity wavelength

emissivity temperature

Average emissivity ()

Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity

When radiation strikes a surface, part of it:
is absorbed (absorptivity, ), is reflected (reflectivity, ), and the remaining part, if any, is transmitted (transmissivity, ).

 Absorptivity ():
Absorbed radiation Gabs = = G Incident radiation
(12-37)

Reflectivity ():
Reflected radiation Gref = = G Incident radiation
(12-38)

Transmissivity ():
Transmitted radiation Gtr = = G Incident radiation
(12-39)

 The first law of thermodynamics requires that the sum of the absorbed, reflected, and transmitted radiation be equal to the incident radiation.
Gabs + Gref + Gtr = G
(12-40)

Dividing each term of this relation by G yields

+ + = 1
(12-41)

For opaque surfaces, = 0, and thus

+ =1
(12-42)

These definitions are for total hemispherical properties.

 Like emissivity, these properties can also be defined for a specific wavelength and/or direction.

Spectral directional absorptivity

, ( , , ) =
I ,abs ( , , ) I ,i ( , , )
(12-43)

Spectral directional reflectivity

, ( , , ) =
I ,ref ( , , ) I ,i ( , , )
(12-43)

 Spectral hemispherical absorptivity

( ) =
G ,abs ( ) G ( )
(12-44)

Spectral hemispherical reflectivity

( ) =
G ,ref ( ) G ( )
(12-44)

Spectral hemispherical transmissivity

( ) =
G ,tr ( ) G ( )
(12-44)

 The average absorptivity, reflectivity, and transmissivity of a surface can also be defined in terms of their spectral counterparts as

G d

G d

G d

G d

G d

G d

(12-46)

The reflectivity () differs somewhat from the other properties in that it is bidirectional in nature. Direction of incident radiation () Direction of reflection ()

 For simplicity, surfaces are assumed to reflect in a perfectly specular or diffuse manner.

Kirchhoffs Law (1860)

Consider a small body of surface area As, emissivity , and absorptivity at temperature T contained in a large isothermal enclosure at the same temperature.

 A large isothermal enclosure forms a blackbody cavity regardless of the radiative properties of the enclosure surface.
(enclosure small body radiation blackbody radiation)

The body in the enclosure is too small to interfere with the blackbody nature of the cavity. Therefore, the radiation incident on any part of the surface of the small body is equal to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at temperature T.
G = Eb(T) = T4.

 The radiation absorbed by the small body per unit of its surface area is
Gabs = G = T 4

The radiation emitted by the small body is

Eemit = T 4

Considering that the small body is in thermal equilibrium with the enclosure, the net rate of heat transfer to the body must be zero.
As T 4 = As T 4

Thus, we conclude that

(T ) = (T )
=
(12-47)

 The restrictive conditions inherent in the derivation of Eq. 12-47 should be remembered:
the surface irradiation correspond to emission from a blackbody surface temperature = temperature of the source of irradiation, steady state.

The derivation above can also be repeated for radiation at a specified wavelength : . The form of Kirchhoffs law that involves no restrictions is the spectral directional form

(T ) = (T )

(12-48)

, (T ) = , (T )

Green House Effect ()

0.3 m < l < 3.0 m (Solar Radiation) () 0.9

Atmospheric and Solar Radiation

The sun ():
is a nearly spherical body. diameter of D 1.39 x 109 (m), mass of m 2 x 1030 (kg), mean distance of L=1.5 x 1011 (m) from the earth, emits radiation energy continuously at a rate of Esun 3.8 x 1026 (W), about 1.7 x 1017 (W) of this energy strikes the earth, the temperature of the outer region of the sun is about 5800 K.

 The solar energy reaching the earths atmosphere is called the total solar irradiance Gs, whose value is

Gs = 1373 W/m 2

(12-49)

The total solar irradiance (the solar constant) represents the rate at which solar energy is incident on a surface normal to the suns rays at the outer edge of the atmosphere when the earth is at its mean distance from the sun.

 The value of the total solar irradiance (Gs) can be used to estimate the effective surface temperature of the sun from the requirement that

( 4 L ) G = ( 4 r ) T
2 2 s

4 sun

(12-50)

(~ 5800 K)

The solar radiation undergoes considerable attenuation as it passes through the atmosphere as a result of absorption and scattering.

 The several dips on the spectral distribution of radiation on the earths surface are due to absorption by various gases:
oxygen (O2) at about =0.76 m, ozone (O3)
below 0.3 m almost completely, in the range 0.30.4 m considerably, some in the visible range,

water vapor (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the infrared region, dust particles and other pollutants in the atmosphere at various wavelengths.

 The solar energy reaching the earths surface is weakened considerably by the atmosphere and to about 950 W/m2 on a clear day and much less on cloudy or smoggy days. Practically all of the solar radiation reaching the earths surface falls in the wavelength band from 0.3 to 2.5 m. Another mechanism that attenuates solar radiation as it passes through the atmosphere is scattering or reflection by air molecules and other particles such as dust, smog, and water droplets suspended in the atmosphere.

 The solar energy incident on a surface on earth is considered to consist of direct and diffuse parts. Direct solar radiation GD: the part of solar radiation that reaches the earths surface without being scattered or absorbed by the atmosphere. Diffuse solar radiation Gd: the scattered radiation is assumed to reach the earths surface uniformly from all directions.

 Then the total solar energy incident on the unit area of a horizontal surface on the ground is:

Gsolar = GD cos + Gd

( W/m )
2

(12-49)

Fluorescent Lamp
A fluorescent lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses electricity to excite mercury vapor in argon or neon gas, resulting in a plasma that produces short-wave ultraviolet light. This light then causes a phosphor () to fluoresce (), producing visible light. (~1/4 incandescent lamps ) Unlike incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps always require a ballast () to regulate the flow of power through the lamp.