Chalk Iconography in Olokun Worship Author(s): Norma Rosen Source: African Arts, Vol. 22, No.

3 (May, 1989), pp. 44-53+88 Published by: UCLA James S. Coleman African Studies Center Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3336778 Accessed: 06/01/2010 04:40
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Chalk Iconography
in

Olokun

Worship

NORMA ROSEN

The Edo people of Nigeria believe that Olokun, god of the sea, is a powerful and benevolent deity who can bring children, health, riches, and other blessings to those who worship him. One of his praise names is Oba n' Ame No Se No Rre Oke (The King of the Sea Is Greater Than the King of the Land). Olokun has a palace of cowries in his kingdom beneath the sea, but the oba (king) of the land does not. A popular worship song praises his omnipotence: A ighigbe oban' amel I vba oba n' ame mwen (You do not

fight the king of the water/ I come to meet the king of the water for help). Shrines to Olokun (Figs. 2, 9, 12, 18, 19), peopled with molded figures representing his wives, children, and chiefs, are meant to replicate his underwater kingdom. Their display of imported cooking pots, European dishes, and other prestige items (Fig. 8) refer to the wealth bestowed by the deity. I was initiated into the priesthood of Olokun in Benin City in July 1984.1 During the fourteen-day ceremony, I became

intrigued by the close connection between the physical images or objects and the chants and songs used by ohen (priests, both male and female)2 in worship. In most weekly Olokun ceremonies, for example, seven songs, like the one that follows, are sung as a salutation to the spirit before the officiating ohen begins divination: Rhie egogo rrel Rhie emabarrelNiya gha ga okunmwenl E ni s'ede ehil E avba egbel Ewoe n' ame (Bring the bell/ Bring the iron rod/ That I can use to serve my Olokun/ So that I can live as my spirits wish/ We have met ourselves/ Spirits of the water). Images are also drawn (i.e., sifted through the fingertips) in powdered white chalk (orhue)3or painted with a chalk-and-water paste for the same purpose (Figs. 1, 3). Worshipers may wear ceremonial garments (adaigho) embellished with cowries, coins, beads, and bells (Figs. 9, 10, 18) as they dance and pray near the visually impressive arrangement of shrine objects. Beautiful objects are used, such as the fan (ezuzu) and the musical instruments that are particular to Olokun worship: the egogo (bell), emaba (iron rod for beating the bell),4 ema (drum), ukuse (maraca), and aza (bell for invocation). These instruments may also be drawn in chalk. Only through this integration of the verbal and visual can the deity be invoked. As my understanding developed, it became clear that every ritual action performed, every object used, and every image drawn or painted in orhue on the floor of the shrine was a tool for conveying prayer. For example, at the opening of an afternoon ceremony called Ugie Avan that took place during my initiation, the chief priest sifted an intricate drawing before the shrines of Olokun and Ogun, god of iron. By the end of the ceremony it was obliterated by the vigorous dancing of devotees. These drawings were not intended as permanent decoration but as a transitory medium of communication from priest to deity. The reverse is also true: they are regarded as the deity's footprints. Chalk images within the environment of the shrine5 can therefore be viewed as a language shared by humans and spirits. As I documented the chalk iconography of various Olokun shrines in and around Benin City, their ohen interpreted

1. A DRAWINGOF THE CEREMONIAL STAFFOF OFFICE (ADA) AND SWORD (EBEN) IS SIFTED IN POWDEREDWHITECHALK(ORHUE) AT THE OLOKUN SHRINEOF PRIESTESSAIGBOVIA. OREDO LOCALGOVERNMENT AREA, 1985.

OPPOSITEPAGE: 2. OLOKUN SHRINE. ITREPLICATES THE GOD'S UNDERWATER KINGDOM, WITHMOLDEDREPRESENTATIONS OF WIVES,CHIEFS, THATOF OLOKUN HIMSELF. AND CHILDRENFLANKING THE DEITY IMPORTED DISHES SIGNIFYTHE WEALTH CAN BESTOW;THE BELLSAND THE FAN ARE PARTICULAR TO OLOKUNWORSHIP. BENIN CITY.

44

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the designs for me and explained their functions. They are bound neither to a specific style or method of illustration, nor to a particular combination of designs. The images themselves may vary, as we shall see later in this paper in connection with the design called igha-ede. A myth recounts how orhue images were involved in a test of power between Olokun and Osanobua, the Creator God. Osanobua's children lived in

erinmwin (heaven, or the spirit world; as opposed to agbon, earth, or the physical world) and were given charge of various metaphysical forces. Olokun was the eldest son. The others were Sango (divinity of thunder), Ogun (divinity of iron), Orunmila (divinity of divination, decision-making, dreams, and prophetic visions), Esu (divinity of conflict aid unpredictability - a trickster), and Ogiuwu (divinity of death). Daughter Obiemwen

(divinity of human fertility) was the eldest child. Early in his childhood, before his father had created the world and humanity, Olokun proved to Osanobua that he possessed the wisdom to control the affairs of the universe. Osanobua had decided to test Olokun by sending him to the river to fetch water with a woven reed basket. The clever Olokun immediately recognized his father's motive

45

and decided to show him that he could not be tricked. Before he left on his errand, he drew many patterns with orhue on the ground in front of the house6 and then called out to his father to save the patterns by removing them if a rainstorm should come. Apparently Osanobua was preoccupied and agreed to this request. Upon reaching the river, Olokun, knowing that a porous basket would never serve as a water container, decided to bathe instead. On his way back to the house, he caused a rainstorm that destroyed the white kaolin designs. Upon his return, when Osanobua asked him

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why he had not fetched water, he simply answered with a question about the disappearance of his designs. Osanobua confessed that it was not possible to separate the designs from the land and that the rain had dissolved them. Olokun then told his father that a porous basket could not be used for fetching water (see Imasogie 1980 for a similar account). Impressed by the child's wisdom, Osanobua later gave him the power to bring health, wealth, and children to the world. As a result of this episode, the Edo pray that children will surpass their parents: A bie omo no se omwen e re Osanobua na bie Olokun (Pray to have a child greater than yourself; that is why Osanobua had Olokun). Olokun worship is affected by the direction of the sun, time of day, and calendar day. The god is served either in the morning or in the evening as the sun begins to bend in the west. Worship and divination related to Olokun take place during daylight hours, except for special sacrifices, night dances held during annual festivals (Okpovbie O Ghe Ukpogbe), and the ceremony related to initiation (Na Na Khue Akhue Bo). River ceremonies for him occur on market days in Benin City and environs. Because messages are customarily sent to the deity as the sun rises or sets, early-morning worship is of paramount importance to a member of the Olokun cult. Generally, the floor in front of the altar is washed at the beginning of each day. In the morning, before a ceremony begins, a single design or group of orhue images will be sifted or painted there.

4. OLOKUN CHALKIMAGERY CALLEDEZE AME.

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During prayer an ohen may invoke various spirits that operate with Olokun in his palace beneath the sea, calling out their praise names, such as Oba n' Ame (King of the Water), Eze n' Unghegbe n' Ebo (Glittering White River [That and Earth], or Reflects Heaven Adesukhunmwun (Stainless Sky). As a direct salutation, while praying they may sift four or more parallel vertical lines in orhue on the floor as well as on shrine objects such as bases of water vessels and molded figures. As the ceremony continues, Olokun can be invoked through the voice of a bell and a salutation song like this one: Okpeegogo edegbel Okpeemabaedegbel Okpeukuse edegbel Ede gbel Edegbel Ede Obagbel Ede Osa gbe (The bell ringer, the day has dawned/ The drummer in charge of the drum-maraca, the day has dawned/ The maraca player, the day has dawned/ The day has dawned/ The day has dawned/ Oba's day has dawned/ God's day has dawned). Most orhue iconography can be classified as salutatory designs, serving designs, purification designs, or initiation designs. Since I have already mentioned salutatory designs with an emphasis on ritual functions for Olokun, I offer a concise explanation of the other categories. Serving designs. These are used for invocatory purposes and for offering gifts to the spirit realm, erinmwin. Worshipers believe that the heavenly spirits must be fed so that they can carry out their work in the physical world. When requesting aid, the ohen usually offers the heart, liver, breast, and left leg or wing of an animal sacrifice to the shrine. Purificationdesigns. The ohen uses these to make the body spiritually clean, so that his ability to receive clear visions and messages from the spirit realm is not hampered: Ihonmwen egbe n' ebo mwen (I purify myself for my shrine). Without a purified body an ohen cannot be free to treat ill clients and select or prepare medicinal substances. An ohen leads a disciplined life in which many taboos must be observed.7 These vary with particular specialties of worship. When taboos are violated, by necessity or accident, purification may be necessary. In addition, routine purification is a necessary aspect of anohen's existence. It is typically carried out be-

46

6. DIVINATION PLATE(IHA OKPAN) WITHOLOKUN DIVINATION TOOLS SUCH AS COWRIESAND COINS. TO THE RIGHTIS A MEDICINE GOURD (UKOKOGHOEBO) FILLED WITHSUBSTANCES TO PROTECTTHE BODY. THE MEDICINEBELT(AKPLODE) FOR WORSHIPOF THE DEITYEZIZAIS EMBELLISHED WITHSEVEN MIRRORS.

fore traveling and before leaving the house to mix with other people, to collect medicinal substances, or to visit patients. It is also performed after visiting with clients, after bathing, and at the end of an illness or menstruation. Dancing on a worship day or entering the shrine during a ceremonial day necessitates prior cleansing rites, as does the initiation of an ohen or novice into the Olokun cult. (The latter will be discussed with regard to initiation designs.) The materials used in conjunction with purification prayers vary according to the complexity of the ritual. In routine situations an ohen passes one alligator pepper seed in a circle over the head and then discards it. At the end of the ritual, after chewing seven of these seeds, the priest sprays himself with the chewed seeds and saliva. An incantation like this one might be used: Orhanl Obo kasalOwe kasa (Freedom, to clear oneself from

5. IGHA-EDEDESIGN WITHWATERIMAGERY.

taboos / To unite the hands to be active and free again/ To unite the legs to be active and free again/ To unite or unbind oneself from an unclean body). When the ohen is delivering a child, carrying out an initiation, or treating an illness that puts him at risk, the cleansing procedure becomes more involved. Because its style is specific to each ohen, whose interpretation has been shaped primarily by those who initiated him, the following description should be regarded simply as one example of these rites. The ohen draws a row of seven circles in chalk in an open space outside facing either east or west- toward the sun. Between seven and fourteen cowries and sometimes coins are placed randomly within the designs. As the ohen prays, he waves in circles overhead a stick of palm broom on which the shell of an egg (ehon okhokho)from a local breed of chicken has been placed. The priest continues this motion with the shell and stick as he walks or spins on one foot through each circle. This action is repeated seven times as the ohen walks back and forth through the design, switching the stick between the right and left hand as his movements change direction. Then he faces the sun and blows impurities off the shell and stick. Next, a one-day-old white chick (ovbi okhokhouko) is tied to afo and ikhinmwin leaves.8 Rotating this bundle over his head, the priest continues to walk through the design. The chick is subsequently slaughtered, and the ohen smears its blood on his face and body: from the left to the right eye, then from the center of the forehead to the base of

7. MUSICALINSTRUMENTS USED IN OLOKUN WORSHIP: THE DRUM(EMA). CALABASH(UKUSE). AND BELLS (EGOGO).

8. RITUAL CLAYVESSEL(URU) COMMONLYFOUND IN OLOKUN SHRINES, WITHCEREMONIAL SWORD, STAFF, AND BELL,AND MOLDEDCHALKAROUND ITS BASE.

the neck, and on the ears, breast, navel, wrists, and ankles. The remains of the chick are thrown between the ohen's spread legs from behind and then discarded. Finally a few coins and large sacrificial cowries are added to a thin solution of chalk, wood ash, and water called Emuen O Gbe Awua (Ashes Kill Taboo). The priest applies this solution to the 47

9. OLOKUN N' OTEGHELE,OLOKUN N' OBO IN FRONTOF HER SHRINE.

body with afo leaves formed into a sponge shape, wiping the eyes from left to right, and sprinkling the head, body, hands, and legs. In the last phase of this ritual, the ohen faces the sun, jumps, and sprays himself with seven alligator pepper seeds he has been chewing. The taboos are thereby released from his body. Afterwards the water is tossed from behind through the legs of the ohen, who always faces the sun. Any cowries or coins that touch his legs or feet are kept as gifts for the shrine. In some instances an ohen may call on a colleague to assist in purification rites of this type. Initiation designs. Designs that appear in Olokun initiation for the priesthood function slightly differently from those used on other occasions: they identify the particular shrine in which the rituals associated with the initiation of a priest are occurring. Usually a member of the initiating team of ohen is appointed to draw a series of floor designs for fourteen consecutive mornings in several locations, including in front of the door of the celebrants' room, the bath house, the house, and the shrine of the ohen in charge of the initiation. Through these drawings, Olokun and associated spirits are constantly being invited into the shrine. It is conventional practice to depict objects that are essential in worship, along with wave-like patterns and water imagery. In the beginning rites of initiation into Olokun, the purification design involves fourteen chalk circles instead of seven. They are drawn in two parallel rows, forming a channel between them through which the novice walks back and forth. At the end of the ritual, the afo and ikhinmwin leaves, tied to a chick, are swept around the feet of the novice while

he stands in the middle of the channel. Afterwards he jumps and spits out chewed alligator pepper seeds and sprays saliva. The priest, standing back to back with the novice, throws the leaves through the novice's legs while the latter straddles the design. The Igha-Ede Symbol in Olokun Worship I chose the orhue design called igha-ede ("division of the day"; igha=to share or divide, ede= day) as a focal point for this study because of its multifaceted nature:

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10. OHEN EBIBIERHEN WITHHIS WIVES, BOTH OLOKUN PRIESTESSES.THEYWEARADAIGHO, CEREMONIAL DRESS FOR OLOKUN WORSHIP.

11. OHEN UHUNMWAMEN DISPLAYING BODY PAINTING.1985.

it cannot be classified in one of the preceding categories alone. Drawn or painted within the environment of the shrine, which in some instances has been sacrificially anointed, the design can be responsible for carrying out various tasks requested by the officiating ohen. Igha-edeis concerned with the division of foods in both erinmwin and agbon, the transmission of messages between the two realms, the sharing of foods among various deities who are being saluted in a ceremony, the allocation of time in ceremonies, the strengthening of medicinal bath preparations, the detection of physical problems, and the protection from negative forces through the creation of an intangible block or gate. When drawn simply, igha-ede is composed of two intersecting lines that form a cross. The cross may be circled at the end points and at the intersection that divides the design into four sections. This image is called ada nene, "four junctions" (Fig. 15). In Benin, four is an important number. The space between earth and heaven is said to be divided by four pillars: Ikadeleenene (ene) no da agbon yi (The four cardinal points that hold the world). Olokun worship requires the use of quartered kola nuts in prayer and sacrifice, and the sections are offered in pairs, either two or four at a time. They are also a tool in divination (Fig. 6). When the kola is split into four along natural lines, the faces will fall either up or down, resulting in two pairs of male

48

12. OLOKUN PRIESTESS IN FRONTOF HER PERSONAL SHRINE. THE FIGUREON THE WALLAT LEFTIS OFOE, THE MESSENGEROF DEATH.THE UNUSUAL ARRANGEMENT OF HIS LIMBSIS A METAPHOR FOR THE UNPREDICTABILITY OF DEATH.

and female sections, according to tradition. How they fall determines whether the reading is positive or negative. The number four is also of great significance in daily life. For example, the Edo week is divided into four days, and each day into four sections: morning, afternoon, evening, and night. In the traditional kitchen, cooking pots are set on four stones or four molded sand supports. The igha-ede design represents a crossroads or junction, duality in nature, and the balance between positive and negative elements in the face of constant change. It is believed that spirits congregate at junctions to either bless humans or tempt them into wrongdoing or misfortune. The Edo say, "Uhien, avbe ada mwen aro" (Even the junctions have eyes). A simple cross configuration may symbolize the intersection of the earthly and otherworldly realms.9 A person who stands in the center of the image can "cross over" and speak in erinmwin. Through igha-ede, one can send the spirits messages as well as gifts of food and drink. Those suffering from illness may be treated with special bathing preparations while standing at the intersection of the design and requesting aid. Igha-ede can also deliver a message from Olokun to the ohen who owns the shrine in which the design operates. An expression commonly recited in prayer refers to directional points: Ekpen vbeorielaho, ghegun mwen deyu unu agbon (East and West, I beg you; do not let me fall into the mouth of the world).10 In other words the priest is asking the spirits to keep him (or his client) from falling into the hands of enemies. The concept of directions and their implied intersection, and of the division into physical and spiritual realms, is evident in various rituals. While in trance, a priest may salute all spirits present in all corners of the world by offering them ground orhue. He may dance to the perimeters of the compound beyond the shrine and blow orhue from his palm or fan to the north, south, east, and west. Therefore, just as igha-edeindicates the division of physical space, it can also divide psychic space that is spiritually charged. In order to improve one's condition, one must offer Olokun sacrificial gifts revealed through divination. In a group situation, however, the ohen may use his rattle staff (ukhurhe), which is usually carved with decorative patterns, to drive

13. OHEN UYIEKPEN,PRIESTOF OGUN. BENIN CITY,1985.

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14. CHALKDRAWINGSIFTEDPRIORTO AN UGIEAVAN (AFTERNOONDANCE) FOR OGUN. MAY1984. HIS ABILITY TO OVERCOMEOBSTACLESAND HIS POWER TO OPERATEDAYAND NIGHTIS REPRESENTED.

radiating outward from the center. The following examples were chosen from six shrines, none of them connected by membership or proximity: three were located in villages outside Benin City, and three in different areas within the city limits. The igha-ede in Figure 15, mentioned earlier, shows ada nene ("four junctions"), which was drawn with powdered white orhue. The example shown in Figure 16 (top) was done in front of the

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evils from the heads of celebrants and to appeal to the spirits until appropriate sacrificial offerings can be made. The officiating priest may call for his ukhurhe during an Ugie (weekly ceremony) and recite: Esell ghi lele mwenl Lele mwen omol Eseghi lele mwen Eseghi lele uwal Leleuwa omo oool Ese ghi lele uwa (Sacrifices won't follow me/ Won't follow my child/ Sacrifices won't follow you all/ Won't follow your children/ Sacrifices won't follow you all). While the priest asks the spirits to protect all those present, he passes the ukhurhe in a circular movement over the heads of the participants as they bend down. Afterwards the ohen walks to the nearest junction and blows the impurities off the staff. While dancing the ohen may request that a drink be served to the spirits present. He passes a glass filled with gin over the heads of those in attendance and pours it on the ground at the nearest crossroads. The following song12 precedes this libation: Okun mwen d'ayonl Daghorome,13 Daghorome dal Gha dal Gha

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da, akudalGha da, gha da, akudalAyon ma gbe erha mwenl Ayon ma gbe iye mwenl Gha da, gha dal Ideghe deghe ghi gbe okhuael Amen n ukpahoghi le okhiokhi (My Olokun, come and drink this wine for me/ Be drinking, be drinking, be drunker/ Be drinking, be drinking, be drinking, be drunker/ Wine did not kill my mother/ Wine did not kill my father/ Be drinking, be drinking; Nothing happens to a basket suspended in air/ Water for washing hands is floating in circles). The last two lines are separate incantations that have been added to the song for dramatic effect, their unusual images emphasizing the extreme nature of the situation. According to my informant, the song repeatedly refers to the unwavering ability of spiritual beings to act in the world of humans. In this particular context, it is emphasized that their powers cannot be hampered by drink. Igha-ede can be drawn in the shrine or in an area nearby where the ohen sleeps. Before retiring for the night, the priest may offer kola nut sections and gin to the design, along with a prayer, to increase his ability to receive messages from the spirits through dreams. Variants of Igha-ede The method of composition and the process by which chalk designs are illustrated are unique to each ohen. In attending various ceremonies and visiting different shrines to Olokun, I never found two identical images, for each priest's perception of the deity differs somewhat. I recorded many variants of the igha-ededesign, as well as interpretations by their makers. Despite their differences, all share the basic configuration of a cross dividing the figure into symmetrical quadrants, with design elements

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16. IGHAEDE DESIGNS WITHFORKEDLINES REPRESENTING THREEJUNCTIONS(ADA EHA), CROSSES REPRESENTING 201 JUNCTIONS (ADA N' URI), AND FEATHER-LIKE SYMBOLS REPRESENTING THE LEAF ATTHE CENTEROF THE PALM.

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17. IGHA-EDEDESIGN, USED TO HOLDOFF NEGATIVE FORCES.

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to set off sacred areas, which initiates can only view or pass by, where monuments, objects, and important instruments of worship are kept. The igha-ede in Figure 16 (bottom) was drawn in front of the same shrine as the one in the preceding example. The ohien changed the design every three days and held an afternoon dance every nine days for worshipping Olokun. This design also contains ome and many ada n' uri crosses (201 junctions). The dots signify cowries, which symbolize Olokun's ability to bring prosperity and other blessings. The double-triangle symbol in the quadrant at bottom right represents a container made of hide called ekpokin, used for presenting gifts to royalty or ohen. These further emphasize Olokun's ability to bestow gifts upon humans. Once drawn in a designated area and anointed with gin, kola, and ground yam (obobo), the design in Figure 17 can be used to hold off negative forces. It is

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18. MADAMEAGBONAVBREIN FRONTOF THE SHRINEOF IGIOHEN-AIYIVIERUEMWOYA. BENIN CITY,1985.

19. OLOKUN PRIESTAGHATOTIKOLO IMAFU. THE UNUSUAL ACCUMULATION OF COWRIES AN INDICATES EXTREMELY SUCCESSFUL PRACTICE. THE STRINGS OF COWRIESWITHBELLSTIED ATTHE ENDS DESIGNATE THE SHRINEAS A SACRED SPACE AND SERVEA PROTECTIVE FUNCTION.

door of an Olokun shrine on the eastern side of the building. First the circle (okhi), approximately forty-five centimeters in diameter, was painted with a mixture of orhue and water. After it was dry, the rest of the design was drawn with powdered orhue. The forked lines at the end of the cross represent three junctions (ada eha) and the ability for sacrificial offerings to be sent through igha-ede. The ohen explained that these ends acted as hands passing gifts or messages between men and spirits. The small crosses are symbols for "201 junctions" (ada n' uri). The with infinity, and the design describes the infinite power of spiritual beings. Two common salutations are offered during prayer. One is I ye erhunmwun na tue b ebo okpa yan uri no bie mwen (With this prayer, I salute 201 deities who gave birth to me). The other is Olokunovie isahen okpa yan uri ya kieurhoefene emoikpiavbe ikhuoo gha ame (Olokun passes 201 keys to open the doors of wealth for sons and daughters of the water). The four feather-like elements represent ome, the leat at the center of a palm. According to an Edo saying, the ome never falls and always grows upward, reaching toward heaven: Ohan i mu ogiomeno vio oboda so (The center palm tree leaf whose hands stretch to the sky is not afraid). Ome is used in Olokun shrines

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called "A Ma Na YaGbe Ode Ebe Rua," a sign that prevents problems from occurring. This igha-ede,painted with orhue and water, typically with the three middle fingers of the right hand, was made in conjunction with Olokun and Eziza, a deity associated with medicines derived from leaves, the bark of trees, and roots from the bush. The central image of the design represents the ever-flowing nature of water and water currents: A yan bu eze a i won ame oren fo (You go to the river, though one can never finish the water) (see also Figs. 4, 5). The many sets of three curved marks signify creatures that live in the water. The tripleline crosses represent the power of the night people - deities that operate after sunset, like Esu, Eziza, and Ogun - to protect or tempt humans in the junctions where spirits congregate. The night people can be offered sacrificial gifts: Ebo no setin gue ason guan (The deity that is able to talk to the strong people of the night). The arrow symbol (osagbe)is described as the arrow that meets its target. Poison, in the form of a message using this image, can be sent to an enemy. The shaft of the arrow is covered by a snake representing the power of Eziza to move quickly through the bush. It refers to the swift, effective action of medicine. The following verse is popular in worship:

Eziza nu gbi ebo sel Eziza gue ebo wegbe (Eziza makes the medicine to be effective/ Eziza makes the medicine to be strong). The S marks are idiosyncratic, decorative images that identify this ohen. The design in Figure 20, by the same ohen who executed the one in Figure 17, is used with a medicinal bath preparation that is believed to stop bleeding that occurs after the first trimester of pregnancy, which might lead to miscarriage. The process of preparing the bath with this igha-ede was described to me by an ohen of Eziza.14 Early in the morning, the leaves of the oguovu tree, which produces a thick white sticky sap, are collected from the bush. The client squeezes them with orhue and water into a bath pot (uwawa). Prior to preparing the bath, the priest prays with a mixture of ground orhue and salt, the traditional preparation for prayer, and touches the head and stomach of the client. The medicine is placed in the center of the igha-ede in the morning, and the priest prays for it to take immediate effect. The uwawa is left there, with two crossed broom straws over its mouth to protect the medicine from negative forces, until the sun begins to bend in the west. Cowries are placed at the center of the design, representing junctions. The S in the upper right quadrant is a decorative mark par-

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24. IGHA-EDE REFERRING TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF GIFTS, MESSAGES AND PRAYERS THATARE SENT TO THE SPIRITWORLD.

20. IGHA-EDEUSED IN CONJUNCTIONWITHA THATIS BELIEVED MEDICINAL BATHPREPARATION TO STOP BLEEDINGDURING PREGNANCY

22. IGHA-EDESIFTEDIN RED, BLACK,AND WHITE. THE WHIRLWIND IMAGEREFERSTO THE DEITYEZIZA.

L~

A PHOTOGRAPHIC 21. IGHA-EDEDRAWNTO FACILITATE SESSION ATAN OLOKUN SHRINE.

23. IGHA-EDESIGNIFYINGOLOKUN'SABILITY ANYWHERE TO SEND MESSAGES TO TO TRAVEL HIS WORSHIPERS.

ticular to this ohen. The arrows leading outward from the center toward the four that the cardinal points indicate medicine should be spiritually blessed from all directions. The priest places a red parrot feather (ebakhue) on the forehead of the client, who then bathes using the medicinal preparation, a native sponge, and native soap. Afterwards the feather and the sponge are placed in the sun. It is believed that as they dry, the bleeding will subside and eventually stop. The igha-ede in Figure 21 was drawn prior to a photographic session in front of the altar of an Olokun shrine. The procedure was meant to gain the deity's permission to take pictures and therefore prevent any problems other than mechanical failure. The officiating ohen instructed one of the members, a priestess, to prepare the design with powdered orhue, and she sifted it with great skill and ease. Cowries and ten-kobo coins, suggestive of Olokun and his ability to bring blessings, were placed at the ends of the design. Then all members of the shrine prayed, holding pieces of orhue, and offered four-sectioned kola, gin, and a white cock as gifts to the shrine. A priestess placed various leaves in a white enamel bowl set in the center of the igha-ede drawing. As the photographer began to squeeze the leaves with water, elders added groundorhue as they prayed. A small amount of this preparation was sprinkled on the camera equipment. Then the photographer was led out of the shrine to take a protective bath. The igha-ede in Figure 22 was drawn in front of the compound, before the steps leading to the interior of the shrine, on a weekly ceremony day for worship and divination. The shrine's officiating ohen, who created the large (diameter 61 cm) design with the aid of several followers and several children, had been initiated into the cults of Olokun, Ogun, Eziza, Orunmila, and Sango. The color combination - red (ume, a camwood pigment), black (charcoal), and white

52

26. OHEN OSAGIEDE, PRIESTOF EZIZA, IN HIS SHRINE.

(orhue)- appeals to all deities. Olokun is invoked through the use of orhue, and Eziza, Ogun, and Sango through red and black pigments. The ohen explained that she calls the gods to join in worship by thus inviting them into the shrine. As the various deities recognize the design painted on the ground, incantations also call them to participate: Okunmwentie ere mwen tie ere rre oool rre ool Emokpoluwa15 Do ye okpo Eronmwondugie (My Olokun, call him/ Emokpoluwa, my own/ Call him here). The cyclone or whirlwind image of this igha-ede refers to Eziza, who operates quickly and effectively in the physical world. In addition, he is associated with the strength of the breeze to carry objects off suddenly and is charged with overseeing medicines derived from plant substances. It is believed that when the deity was in the physical world, he lived in the forest as a native doctor. The design illustrated in Figure 23 signifies the ability of Olokun to travel anywhere to send messages: EhohoOkun (Air of Olokun). Because there is water in the air, Olokun can move freely. It is believed that he can enter any of the fourteen paths or roads drawn in this figure in order to communicate with worshipers. The deity's fourteen important praise names are also signified by these lines. The central intersection represents "201 junctions"; therefore, worshipers perceive that Olokun's protection is constant: Ohinmwin Ame n'Ogboi I Khue (The Depth of a Big Sea Which a Novice Dares Not Try). The lines radiating from the center can also be viewed as earlymorning-sun rays casting shadows or outlines around objects. On a ceremonial day, this design is drawn in the four corners of the shrine. The images in Figure 24 and Figure 25 were created by the same ohen in ground orhue within a week's time, and they serve the same purpose: Igha-ede no gha emwin n' ihen (The divider of the day that

TO THAT 25. IGHA-EDEWHOSE PURPOSE IS SIMILAR OF THE EXAMPLEIN FIGURE24.

shares food among all of the deities). This ohen explained that the ends of the igha-ede in Figure 24 are like fingers, enabling sacrificial gifts, messages, and prayers sent through the image to be appropriately distributed. As the ohen prays, she sifts numerous additional fine chalk lines from the ends of the design, like those at the top. Figure 25 shows a more elaborate drawing, rich with various uses of line. The ohen explained that the additions call upon various deities to accept gifts and respond with aid. A complex design like this one can be executed only by an ohen of many deities. Without proper initiation into their cults, it would not be possible to communicate effectively with them. In either case, igha-edeis first drawn on the ground with Osanobua, the Creator God, represented at the center, surrounded by the deities whom the ohen contacts. In this case, Eziza, Olokun, Sango, Ogun, Orunmila, and Esu are all indicated. She then puts leaves onto the design that are specific to igha-ede. After praying, using a kola nut split into many

small pieces, she places the kola bits along with alligator pepper seeds within the quadrants of the design. Then a cock is slaughtered and the blood placed on the leaves. Its cooked liver, heart, and breast are split and divided on the design, along with obobo. A special white obobois placed in the center as food for Osanobua. Unlike other chalk designs, which appear to be limited to a specific purpose such as salutation, serving, purification, or initiation, the igha-ede is extraordinary in its range of functions, as this sample of variants indicates. Although it does not have the permanence of a threedimensional object and can be instantly obliterated by dancing devotees, its function is no less valuable. When properly anointed by an ohen, the design allows man to communicate with the spirit realm. Finally, stylistic differences within the igha-ede model can identify the owner of a particular shrine. In this way, each ohen can appeal to various deities through his artistry and be compensated for his efforts by the Creator. O Notes,page88 53

Referencescited Dieterlen, Germaine. 1982. Le titre d'lionneur des Aroiu (Dogon-Mali). Paris: Societe des Africanistes. Dieterlen, Germaine. 1971. "Les ceremonies soixantaires du Sigui chez les Dogon," Africa 16. Dieterlen, Germaine. 1959. "Tendances de l'ethnologie francais (II)," Caliiers Interinationalxde Sociologie 27. Dieterlen, Germaine. 1957. "Les resultats des missions Griaule au Soudan francaise (1931-56)," Archizves de Sociologiedes Religions 3:137-42. Dieterlen, Germaine. 1956. "Parente et mariage chez les Dogon (Soudan francais)," Africa 26:107-48. Griaule, Marcel. 1952. "Le savoir des Dogon," Journal de la Societe des Africaniistes 22:27-42. Griaule, Marcel. 1948. Dieu d'eal: EntretiCesavec Ogotelimeli. Paris: Editions du Chene. (English ed., Conversationis with An Introduction to DogoinReligious Ideas. LonOgotemmiiieli: don: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.) Griaule, Marcel. 1938. Masques dogoni. Paris: Institut d'Ethnologie. Griaule, Marcel and Germaine Dieterlen. 1965. Le renardpale. Paris: Institut d'Ethnologie. (English ed., The Pale Fox. Chino Valley: Continuum Foundation, 1986.) Mauss, Marcel. 1968. Oezures. 3 vols. Paris: Les Editions de Minuit. ROSEN: Notes, fromlpage 53 Oklierremiazba oto e i ghi lo: "If a palm tree does not cooperate with the ground it will not bear fruit." Without the deep concern and sensitivity shown this work by my excellent research assistant, Mr. Pius Guobadia, the path would have been most difficult. Mr. Ademola Williams, lecturer in textiles at the University of Benin, who advised on the interpretation of illustrations based on my field notes, was also of great assistance, and Dr. Thomas E. Aigbovia, director of statistics for the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, Bendel State, offered valuable information and support. I am very grateful to my colleagues at the University of Benin (UNIBEN) for their continuous support of this project: Prof. S. Irein Wangboje, dean, Faculty of Creative Arts and deputy vice chancellor; Dr. Joseph Nevadomsky, head of cultural research, Centre for Social, Cultural and Environmental Research; Dr. Foluso Ogbe, Department of Botany; Principal Health Sister Joan Nwuga; and Mr. Makole Azugbene, faculty officer for Creative Arts.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Page: 35, 38, 41 Photos: PhotographicServices, The MetropolitanMuseum of Art 39 Photo: Charles Uht 44, 46, 48 (bottom), 50 Photos: Norma Rosen 46-47, 50-53 Drawings: Norma Rosen 45, 48 (top), 49, 51, 53 Photos: Phyllis Galembo 47 Photos: Gene Ogami 54 Photo: Michel Pont 55, 59 Photos: Richard Todd 57 Photo: Jamesde Vere Allen 58, 60 (left and top) Photos: J. Morley-Smith 60 (bottom)Photo: Tom Allfree 61-62 Drawings: Michelle Anderson 62 Photo: Prof. Dr. Dr. E. Dammann, courtesy of Bwana Fadhil Abdulrahmanof Lamu 63 (left) Photo: David Ponting 63 (right) Photo: Ann Dill 64-67 Photos: G. I. Jones 68 Photo: Norton Studios 69-71 (top), 72 Photos: RobertColbrener 71 (bottom), 73, 75 Photos: Bill Selley 74 Photo: David Levy, Parsons School of Design 80 (top) Photo: Anice Hoachlander 80 (bottom), 81 (left) Photos: FrankoKhoury 81 (right) Photo: A. Mewbourn 82 (left) Photo: Marsha Boston 82 (right), 83 (top) Photos: Bo Gabrielsson 83 (bottom)Photo: Feliciano 84 (top) Photo: Otto E. Nelson 84 (bottom)Photo: Roman Szechter 85 (left) Photo: PhotographicServices, The MetropolitanMuseum of Art 85 (right) Photo: Pierre-Alain Ferrazzini

I am also grateful to Chief Nosakhare Isekhure (Isekhure of Benin) for giving me advice on ritual matters; Ohen Ebibierhen, Priest Ama Orunwense, for initiating me into the Olokun priesthood; and to Babalawo Azaigueni, priest, and traditional doctor Imafidon Azaigueni for initiating me into the Ifa priesthood. Thanks go to Miss Esther E. Emokpae for her excellent typing and endless patience, and to Karen Kimmons for her organizational skills in preparing the final draft. A very special acknowledgment must be given to my research adviser, Mr. Ikponmwosa Osemwegie, who for numerous hours combed through this material and who directed the course of my field work. Finally, without the participation and cooperation of the following people, this work would not have been possible: Madam Aigbovia, Igiohen (Chief Priest), Oredo Local Government Area (Fig. 22); Madam Igbinesa Eresoyen, Igiohen, Benin City (Fig. 16); Madam Ighomo Ogbebo, Igiohen, Oredo Local Government Area (Figs. 24, 25); Chief Priest Anthony E. Ogiemwanye, Igiohen, Oredo Local Government Area (Figs. 17, 20); the late Chief Ehidiaduwa Onaghino, Igiohen, Benin City; Pa Onaiwu Ugiagbe, Benin City (Figs. 21, 23); Chief Priest Uyekpen, Igiohen, Benin City. 1. The information presented in this paper has been gathered solely from field research. My ongoing investigation into the traditional uses of pattern and decoration in Olokun ritual, which began in Benin and its environs in February 1984, has been funded in part by the University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria, through the University Research and Publications Committee. I used Agheyisi (1986), Aigbe (1985), Melzian (1937), and A Dictionary of the Yoruba Language (1979) as orthographical sources. 2. Though both men and women can be priests, for the sake for convenience I shall use the masculine pronoun when referring generally to ohen. Before an ohen can initiate someone else into the priesthood, he must have gone through a third-month ceremony and a third-year ceremony following his own initiation. 3. White chalk (kaolin) is sold in molded form according to size and weight. Pieces are presented as sacrificial gifts to the shrine or river and are also used in prayer; in prayer to Olokun, it is sometimes ground and mixed with salt. 4. Emaba, an instrument combining a bell and a drum, is no longer in use. The miniature rattle used in sacrificial river rites is also referred to by this name, as is the stick used to beat a drum. 5. This environment encompasses the interior of the shrine, the compound (surrounding it on the north, south, east, and west), and junctions in roads closest to the shrine. 6. It is uncertain whether there is a relationship between the description of designs in this myth and the use of iconography in the shrine. 7. The following are some taboos related to Olokun priests: a) Those who display the unusual condition of hair growth called agbiyagha(hair from the spirit world) are not permitted to carry loads on their heads; b) Sexual intercourse is forbidden in the afternoon; c) After sexual intercourse one must bathe before entering the shrine; d) A menstruatingohen may not enter her shrine or don protective charms or cloths that are worn for worship, and in fact she will usually lock her shrine and abstain from any ritual practices; e) It is forbidden to visit a mother and her newborn; f) One must not walk underneath a clothesline; g) One must not view or dress a corpse; h) Initiation rites may not be discussed with noninitiates; i) Because of divination, it may sometimes be taboo to eat after sunset; j) One must abstain from partaking of food and drink that are offered openly at public gatherings. 8. Afo is cassified as Nekhere, a small spreading plant with a fragrant lavender flower during the dry season; ikhinmwin is Smooth Neubouldia (Gledhill 1979: 53, fig. 90). 9. The description of the deity called Adabi in Melzian's Bini dictionary (1937:2) parallels the explanation for igha-ede: "ADABI - A deity which stands on the boundary between heaven and the world. On their way to heaven, people rest a while - ADABI is also worshiped by Olokun priestesses and priests." In certain situations one might perhaps regard Adabi as the spiritual force that operates igha-ede. 10. As explained by Bini historian Ikponmwosa Osemwegie. 11. Ese can mean an obstacle; sacrifices open life paths that become blocked by various problems. 12. Although this song is used in the shrine, its source can be" traced to the palm-wine bar. 13. Daghorome da is a combination of Ishan and Edo languages. 14. Most of the ohen I interviewed were initiated into the priesthoods of other deities as well as Olokun. Many were also followers of Orunmila, Ogun, Sango, and Eziza. Medicines that can be aided by the use of igha-ede were categorized by informants. The first category is ebo, made from various plant substances that are generally macerated by hand, then cooked into ashes in an earthenware vessel. The ash is ground on a stone or in a mortar, mixed with gin to form a thick paste, and marked on the client's body through razor incisions. The second category, ukhunmwun, comprises medicine that can be ingested in liquid form. In some instances roots or barks are mixed with native gin in a bottle. The third category, oki, is a bath preparation that is generally made from leaves macerated by hand and squeezed with water. 15. Emokpoluwa, a praise name for the priestess's shrine, was spoken while she was dancing in trance during her Olokun initiation.

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Referencescited Agheyisi, R.N. 1986. An Edo-English Dictionary. Benin City: Ethlope Publishing Corp. Aigbe, E.I. 1985. Edo-English Dictionary. Lagos: Academy Press. A Dictionaryof the Yoruba Language.1979. Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press. Gledhill, D. 1979. West African Trees. London: Longman. Imasogie, Osadolor. 1980. Olokun: The Divinity of Fortune. Ibadan: Tokopa Enterprises. Melzian, Hans. 1937. A Concise Dictionary of the Bini Language of Southern Nigeria. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. ALLEN: Notes, from page 63 1. The Swahili coast or Swahili world is generally reckoned to stretch from Mogadishu (2?N) all the way to Tunge Bay, a short distance south of Cape Delgado on the TanzaniaMozambique border (about 12?S), and to include the Comoro Archipelago. The northern border, however, has shifted southward in comparatively recent times. 2. The official account of Napoleon Bonaparte's discoveries in Egypt was published in Paris in many volumes between 1790 and 1814, simply entitled Description d'Egypte. 3. By "Shirazi," I mean following a certain sort of political regime whose links with Shiraz in Persia were tenuous (see Allen 1982). 4. (Greenlaw 1976:103-30). Strictly speaking, this sort of grille work and fretted decoration is known in Sudan, Greenlaw tells us, as shish, shareikha, or sharfa. 5. See N. Bennett's entry on "Furniture" in Encyclopedia Britannica1962. 6. One version of the Swahili Chronicle of nearby Pate Town refers to Siyu as miji uwa mafundi, "town of craftsmen." Referencescited Allen, J. de V. 1982. "The 'Shirazi' Problem in East African Coastal History," in From Zinj to Zanzibar... In Honour of JamesKirkmanon the Occasionof His 75th Birthday, eds. J. de V. Allen and T.H. Wilson. Published as Paideuma 28:9-28. Allen, J. de V. 1979. "Siyu in the 18th and 19th Centuries," Journalof History, 8, 1. Transafrican Bravmann, Rene. 1983. African Islam. Washington, D.C., and London. Freeman-Grenville, G.S.P. 1966. The East African Coast:Select Documentsfrom the First to the LaterNineteenth Century. Oxford. Greenlaw, J.-P. 1976. ThleCoral Buildings of Suakin. Stocksfield and London. Kirkman, J.S. 1966. Ungwana on the Tana. The Hague. Miles, S.B. 1966. The Countries and Tribesof the Persian Gulf. London. 1st ed. 1919. NUNLEY: Notes, from page 75 1. Christine Gait of the Trinidad and Tobago Tourist Board opened this new window on Carnival for me. 2. The Castros became totally committed to this project, going to Trinidad to experience Carnival for themselves. They later talked to Mr. Innis Goden, a producer of a radio program that highlights West Indian communities in the Baltimore and Washington, D.C., areas. Von Martin, from Washington, also advised them about the design of the installation. Financial help arrived in the form of a generous grant from the Rockefeller Foundation, which matched an implementation grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities. We were also offered an additional amount for the design of the installation.

The following articles in this issue were accepted for publication after being refereed by members of the African Arts review panel: "Masks and Mythology among the Dogon," page 34 "Chalk Iconography in Olokun Worship," page 44 "The Kiti Cha Enzi and Other Swahili Chairs," page 54 "A Visit to Ogume in 1937," page 64

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