MOR 499: The Art and Science of Decision Making Spring 2013 Tuesdays and Thursdays 4:00-5:50 PM Professor:

Dr. Cheryl Wakslak Office: BRI 307B Office Phone: (213) 740-7137 E-mail: [email protected]

Lecture Class Tuesday/Thursday 4:00-5:50 PM

Room: HOH 422

Office Hours: Email me, and well set up an appointment

Introduction and Course Objective

Over the last thirty years, psychologists and economists have joined forces to study how people process information and make choices, rather than how they would make decisions if they were fully rational and selfish. This course is devoted to understanding the nature, causes, and consequences of such deviations from optimal choice. Throughout, our goal will be to leverage insights from this growing area of scholarship (dubbed behavioral economics or judgment and decision making) to enhance your ability to make decisions right now and in the future, as you move into leadership positions in the business world. We will develop frameworks for keeping biases in check, for understanding when to rely on intuition and when not to, and for improving your ability to generate excellent alternatives and make decisions you can stand behind proudly. Finally, along the way you will learn how to conduct simple research projects to improve organizational decision processes, e.g., to serve effectively on a team of consultants tasked with analyzing and improving organizational decision making.
Learning Objectives The objectives for this course are to improve the quality of students life and business decisions and to improve the ability of students to influence the decision behavior of others. This course will help you develop the following: Global Objective. o Understanding how people make decisions in the real, messy, everyday world, and how we can use this knowledge to make better decisions. Detailed Objectives. At the end of this course, you should know how to: o Leverage an understanding of peoples decision making into better organizational results. o Make the best decisions possible for yourself and your organization. o Think like a researcher and conduct simple organizational research projects to improve organizational decision processes or address social policy considerations. 1

Who Should Not Take This Class If you are seeking a quantitative course about decision making, you may not like this class. If you cant stand psychology, you may not like this class. If youve taken many courses about social psychology, you may find some course content redundant with your past training. This course is focused on managerial decision making rather than consumer decision making, but the two topics have considerable overlap since understanding consumers and colleagues often requires similar insights. If you have already taken a course on consumer behavior, please look closely at this syllabus to ensure that the topics covered will be new enough to you for this course to be a good use of your time. Prerequisites: None. Course Notes and Required Materials: Class information and course readings are available through your Blackboard account. There is no required textbook. Class slides will be posted after lecture sessions. Class Policies:
Laptops and Cell Phones: Laptops and cell phones are not permitted in class. Absences: When you are absent, the class cant benefit from your comments and insights on the material, and this will of course hurt your class participation grade. If you are absent, you should arrange beforehand with a classmate to take notes and pick up any assignments or handouts. Late Arrivals: Please arrive on time to avoid disrupting the class. Email Correspondence: I am often, but not always, on email. Therefore, to make sure that you get any information you need well before deadlines, please email me at least 24 hours before you need an answer, want to set up a meeting, etc.

Grading Summary: Components Short Weekly Assignments Midterm Final Project (due at time of scheduled final exam) Participation TOTAL ASSIGNMENTS AND GRADING DETAIL Short Writing Assignments (25%). Individual writing assignments will be assigned 5 times throughout the semester; each assignment is therefore worth 5% of your grade. These assignments are an integral part of the course and designed to get you thinking seriously about the course topics. The tentative schedule for these assignments is listed in the course schedule included in this syllabus. Papers are due at the start of the class session. Papers will lose 1 point on the grading scale (see next paragraph) for every day they are late. For truly extenuating circumstances, please contact me directly. If for some reason you must miss class, you must submit your assignment 2 % of Grade 25% 30% 35% 10% 100%

electronically before it is due. Papers have a strict 600 word limit. Please print the word count at the end of the assignment. All papers should be double spaced with 1 margins and 12 point font. Papers will be graded on a 7-point scale. The endpoints will be used sparingly, with 7 reflecting an extraordinary response and 1 an unacceptable one. Most of the grades will be in the middle of the scale (3, 4, 5). In general, these assignments do not have one correct answer. Use this as an opportunity to escape the perceived need of giving the professor what you think she wants, and instead give the professor what you think. I am looking for you to demonstrate understanding, but more, to reveal insight and creativity. Be specific; deeply develop your core point; and dont waste time regurgitating the reading. Most importantly, be realistic: ask yourself how willing you would be to sit in a managers office advocating the use of your recommendation. Midterm (30%). The midterm will be on Tuesday, March 5. It will contain a mix of multiplechoice and short answer questions. Final Project (35%). The final project has two components: a 10-page paper and a 10-15 minute presentation. The presentations take place during the last four days of class and the paper is due on the day of the scheduled final exam. Again, being trapped under a heavy object is the only excuse for late papers unless prior arrangement has been made with the instructor. There are three project options: Option 1: Business Proposal: Describe an original business idea that capitalizes on one or more of the phenomena discussed in the course. Your paper and presentation should clearly outline the proposal and argue for why it should be effective. Provide a brief review of past research relevant to the phenomena and cite any research that would support the viability and potential of your new venture. . Option 2: Study a Case of Biased Managerial Decision-Making: Identify and research a real, unwise managerial decision that was made due to one of the biased decision processes covered in this course. Your paper and presentation should describe the managerial setting in detail, what judgment errors were made, as well as evidence supporting the offered interpretation. Summarize past research on the relevant judgmental error and suggest strategies that might have been used to prevent the error, citing appropriate research to support your recommendations. Option 3: Design an Intervention to Solve an Organizational Problem: Develop a proposed behavioral intervention to solve a problem at a particular organization and develop an argument for why your proposal should be implemented. The idea is to use the insights of the course to solve a real problem. For example, an organizational problem of interest might be high rates of absenteeism in a specific facility. A behavioral intervention might involve mailings to workers emphasizing low absenteeism rates among their peers. Put together a compelling proposal to convince management at the company to implement your intervention and detailing both how to deploy it and how to measure its effectiveness. Describe in detail the managerial setting, the problem to be addressed, the proposed intervention and the research that gave rise to it, and methods proposed for evaluating the interventions effectiveness. You have the option of completing this project solo or in groups of up to 4. If you elect to do the project with a group, the group will turn in a single paper and make a single presentation, with each member of the group receiving the same grade. Notes: I recommend meeting with me to discuss your individual or group project well before it is due, so I can provide any input that might be helpful. Also, as concerns the grading of the oral delivery portion of your final project, I will not penalize people for language difficulties when their first language is other than English.

Participation (10%). You will only get out of this course as much as you are willing to put into it. Your class participation grade will reflect class attendance and the quality of your involvement in the classs activities and discussions. Near-perfect on-time attendance is expected. You are expected to come to class prepared for discussion, by having read that days required reading. You are also expected to speak during class and make a contribution to the discussion. If you are uncomfortable with class participation, please let me know at the beginning of term and I will work with you to help you overcome this barrier. Overall, my goal is to have a lively and widespread discussion; it is not important that every contribution you make is correct; what is important is that it is thought-out, provocative, and engaging. Finally, at the end of every class session I will ask you to spend 3-5 minutes jotting down some take-away lessons from that days session. You will give these in on your way out of class. They will not be formally graded, but they will be an important check on your class attention, an opportunity for you to crystallize that days information, and a feedback mechanism for me regarding your digestion of the course material. Extra Credit (up to 5%). You can receive extra credit if you find a current example (within the last four months) from the press that illustrates or relates to an idea we discussed in the course. You must write a brief paragraph explaining why this is a useful example of something we spoke about and submit the paragraph along with the article or article link by email to me at [email protected]. If the example is appropriate, I will give you extra credit (max of 1% per example, 5% for the course). MARSHALL GUIDELINES Add/Drop Process In compliance with USC and Marshalls policies classes are open enrollment (R-clearance) through the first week of class. All classes are closed (switched to D-clearance) at the end of the first week. This policy minimizes the complexity of the registration process for students by standardizing across classes. I can drop you from my class if you dont attend the first two sessions. Please note: If you decide to drop, or if you choose not to attend the first two session and are dropped, you risk being not being able to add to another section this semester, since they might reach capacity. You can only add a class after the first week of classes if you receive approval from the instructor. Returning Coursework: Coursework will be returned or available for pickup by students (in the case of Final Projects). Returned paperwork, unclaimed by a student, will be discarded after 4 weeks and will therefore not be available should a grade appeal be pursued following receipt of his/her grade. It is students responsibility to file and retain returned coursework. Technology Policy This is a course where in-class computer use is unnecessary and will only serve as distraction. So no laptop, PDA, ipad, cellphone use in class, please. If you need technology support because of a learning issue, please contact me at the very beginning of the semester. Statement for Students with Disabilities: Any student requesting academic accommodations based on a disability is required to register with Disability Services and Programs (DSP) each semester. A letter of verification for approved accommodations can be obtained from DSP. Please be sure the letter is delivered to me as early in 4

the semester as possible. DSP is located in STU 301 and is open 8:30 a.m.5:00 p.m., Monday through Friday. The phone number for DSP is (213) 740-0776. Statement on Academic Integrity: USC seeks to maintain an optimal learning environment. General principles of academic honesty include the concept of respect for the intellectual property of others, the expectation that individual work will be submitted unless otherwise allowed by an instructor, and the obligations both to protect ones own academic work from misuse by others as well as to avoid using anothers work as ones own. All students are expected to understand and abide by these principles. SCampus, the Student Guidebook, contains the Student Conduct Code in Section 11.00, while the recommended sanctions are located in Appendix A. http://www.usc.edu/dept/publications/SCAMPUS/gov/ Students will be referred to the Office of Student Judicial Affairs and Community Standards for further review, should there be any suspicion of academic dishonesty. The Review process can be found at: http://www.usc.edu/student-affairs/SJACS/ Failure to adhere to the academic conduct standards set forth by these guidelines and our programs will not be tolerated by the USC Marshall community and can lead to dismissal. Emergency Preparedness/Course Continuity: In case of an emergency in which travel to campus is difficult, USC executive leadership will announce an electronic way for instructors to teach students in their residence halls or homes using a combination of Blackboard, teleconferencing, and other technologies. In addition, you may be assigned a "Plan B" project that can be completed at a distance. Incomplete Grades: An incomplete (IN) grade may be assigned due to an emergency that occurs after the 12 th week of classes. An emergency is defined as a serious documented illness, or an unforeseen situation that is beyond the students control, that prevents a student from completing the semester. Prior to the 12th week, the student still has the option of dropping the class. Arrangements for completing an IN course should be initiated by the student, and negotiated with the instructor. Class work to complete the course should be completed within one calendar year from the date the IN was assigned. The IN mark will be converted to an F grade should the course not be completed.

CLASS SESSIONS OVERVIEW

# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Date Tues 1/15 Thurs 1/17 Tues 1/22 Thurs 1/24 Tues 1/29 Thurs 1/31 Tues 2/5 Thurs 2/7 Tues 2/12 Thurs 2/14 Tues 2/19 Thurs 2/21 Tues 2/26 Thurs 2/28 Tues 3/5 Thurs 3/7 Tues 3/12 Thurs 3/14 Tues 3/19 Thur 3/21 Tues 3/26 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Thurs 3/28 Tues 4/2 Thurs 4/4 Tues 4/9 Thurs 4/11 Tues 4/16 Thurs 4/18 Tues 4/23 Thurs 4/25 Tues 4/30 Thurs 5/2 Topic Introduction Heuristics and Biases 1 Heuristics and Biases 2 Prospect Theory Self-Serving Biases & Optimism Expectancies and Memory Fairness Fairness and Cooperation Social Norms and Conformity Optional In-Class Office Hours Want/Should Conflicts Choice over Time Commitment Devices & Mental Accounting Midterm Review Midterm Making tradeoffs Emotion at Work Enhancing Creativity SPRING BREAK No Class (Passover) Cognitive Dissonance, Escalation Bounded Ethicality General Well-Being Group Decision Making Influence Intuition vs. Analysis Improving Org Decision Making 1 Improving Org Decision Making 2 Presentations Presentations Presentations, Wrap-Up Readings/Assignments Due
Read: Brooks (2011); Muoio (1998) Read: Tversky & Kahneman (1974); Munger (1995) Read: Gladwell (2003); Gawande (1999) Due: Homework 1 Read: Tversky & Kahneman (1981). Read: Lovallo & Kahneman (2003); Gladwell (2009); Williams (2012) Read: Livingston (1988); Bazerman, Loewenstein, & Moore (2002); Chase & Dasu (2001) Due: Homework 2 Prepare: The Kidney Case Read: Brafman & Brafman (2008) Prepare: OPower Case -Read: Cassidy (2006) Read: Trope, Liberman, & Wakslak (2006) Watch: Gilbert video Read: Leiber (2010); Loewenstein (2001) Due: Homework 3 -Read: Shafir, Simonson, & Tversky (1993); Osnos (1997) Read: Zimmerman & Lerner (2012); Ariely (2010) Read: Grossman (1997); Keeney (1992); Amabile et al (2002) Due: Homework 4 No class No class Read: Tavris & Aronson (2007) Read: Banaji, Bazerman, & Chugh (2003) Read: Frank (1999); Gertner (2003); Melton (2012) Prepare: Challenger Case. -Read: Hayashi (2001); Gladwell (2005); Guszcza (2008) Read: Krakauer (1996) Due: Homework 5 Read: Heath, Larrick, & Klayman (1998); Pfeffer & Sutton (2006); Thaler & Sunstein (2003); Loewenstein & Ubel (2010) --Final projects due at time of scheduled final exam

DETAILED SESSION INFORMATION

Reminders: All materials will be posted on Blackboard, labeled by week. Adequate preparation for class includes reading all assigned readings before that sessions class meeting. Class 1: Introduction (January 15, 2013) Brooks, D. (2011). Who You Are, The New York Times, October 20, 2011. Muoio, A. (1998, September 30). Decisions, decisions - Unit of one. Fast Company, 18.

Class 2: Heuristics and Biases 1 (January 17, 2013) Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124-1131. Munger, C. T. (1995). A lesson on elementary, worldly wisdom as it relates to management & business. Outstanding Investor Digest, 1, 49-63.

Class 3: Heuristics and Biases 2 (January 22, 2013) Gladwell, M. (2003). Connecting the Dots: The Paradoxes of Intelligence Reform, The New Yorker, March 10, 2003. Gawande, A. (1999). The Cancer Cluster Myth. The New Yorker, February 8, 1999.

Class 4: Prospect Theory (January 24, 2013) Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211, 453-458. Class 5: Self-serving Biases and Optimism (January 29, 2013) Lovallo, D., & Kahneman, D. (2003, July). How optimism undermines executives decisions. Harvard Business Review, 57-63. Williams, A. (Nov 30, 2012). Saying no to college. The New York Times. o http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/02/fashion/saying-no-to-college.html? pagewanted=1&ref=general&src=me Gladwell, M. (2009). Cocksure: Banks, Battles, and the Psychology of Overconfidence. The New Yorker. July 27, 2009. Class 6: Expectancies and Memory (January 31, 2013) Livingston, J. S. (1988). Pygmalion in management. Harvard Business Review, 81, 121-130. Bazerman, M. H., Loewenstein, G., & Moore, D. A. (2002, November). Why good accountants do bad audits. Harvard Business Review, 80, 96-102. Chase, R. B. & Dasu, S. (June, 2001). Want to perfect your companys service? Use behavioral science. Harvard Business Review, 79-84.

Class 7: Fairness (February 5, 2013)

AustinSmith, D., Feddersen, Galinsky, A. & Liljenquist, K. (2010). The Kidney Case. Dispute Resolution Research Center, Northwestern University: Evanston, IL.

Class 8: Fairness and Cooperation (February 7, 2013) Brafman, O. & Brafman, R. (2008). Sway: The Irresistible Pull of Irrational Behavior. Broadway Books: New York, NY. Chapter 6: In France, the Sun Revolves around the Earth.

Class 9: Social Norms and Conformity (February 12, 2013) Cuddy, A.C. & Doherty, K.T. (2010). OPOWER: Increasing Energy Efficiency through Normative Influence. Harvard Business School Press: Cambridge, MA.

Class 10: Optional In-Class Office Hours/Q&A (February 14, 2013) Class 11: Want/Should Conflicts (February 19, 2013) Cassidy, J. (2006). Mind Games: What Neuroeconomics Tells Us about Money and the Brain. The New Yorker, September 18, 2006.

Class 12: Choice over Time (February 21, 2013) Trope, Y., Liberman, N., & Wakslak, C. (2007). Construal levels and psychological distance: Effects on representation, prediction, evaluation, and behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17, 83-95. Watch Dan Gilbert discuss his research on affective forecasting here: http://bigthink.com/ideas/5143

Class 13: Commitment Devices and Mental Accounting (February 26, 2013) Leiber, R. (2010). Your Card Has Been Declined, Just as You Wanted. New York Times, August 13, 2010. Loewenstein, R. (2001, February 11). Exuberance is Rational. The New York Times Magazine.

Class 14: MIDTERM REVIEW (February 28, 2013) Class 15: MIDTERM (March 5, 2013) Class 16: Making Tradeoffs (March 7, 2013) Shafir, E., Simonson, I., and Tversky, A. (1993). Reason-based choice. Cognition, 49, 11-36. Osnos, E. (1997, September 27). Too many choices? Firms cut back on new products. Philadelphia Inquirer, D1D7.

Class 17: Emotions at Work (March 12, 2013) Zimmerman, P. & Lerner, J. S. (2012). The emotional decision maker. Government Executive. Ariely, D. (2010). The long-term effects of short-term emotions. Harvard Business Review.

Class 18: Enhancing Creativity (March 14, 2013) Grossman, J. (1997, May). Jump start your business. Inc. Magazine, 19.

Keeney, R. L. (1992). Creativity in decision-making with value-focused thinking. Sloan Management Review, 35, 33-41. Amabile, T.M., Hadley, C.N., & Kramer, S.J. (2002) Creativity under the gun. Harvard Business Review, 80(8), 52-61.

Spring Break! (March 19, 2013; March 21, 2013) No class (Passover) March 26, 2013 Class 19: Cognitive Dissonance, Escalation (March 28, 2013) Tavris, C. and Aronson, E. (2007). Mistakes Were Made (but not by me): Why We Justify Foolish Beliefs, Bad Decisions, and Hurtful Acts. Harcourt Books: USA. Introduction & Chapter 1.

Class 20: Bounded Ethicality (April 2, 2013)

Banaji, M.R., Bazerman, M.H., & Chugh, D. (2003). How (Un)ethical are you? Harvard Business Review, 81, 56-64.

Class 21: General Well-Being (April 4, 2013) Frank, R. H. (1999). Luxury fever: Why money fails to satisfy in an era of excess (pp. 64-93). New York, NY: Free Press. Gertner, J. (2003, September 7). The futile pursuit of happiness . New York Times.

http://momastery.com/blog/2012/01/04/2011-lesson-2-dont-carpe-diem/

Class 22: Group Decision Making (April 9, 2013) Edmondson, A.C. & Feldman, L.R. (2002). Group Process in the Challenger Launch Decision (A). Harvard Business School Press: Cambridge, MA.

Class 23: Influence (April 11, 2013) Class 24: Intuition versus Analysis (April 16, 2013) Hayashi, A. M. (2001) When to trust your gut, Harvard Business Review, 79, 58-65. Gladwell, M. (2005). Blink: The power of thinking without thinking (pp. 147-188). New York, NY: Time Warner. Guszcza, J. (2008, Jul/Aug). Analyzing Analytics: The Debate. Contingencies.

Class 25: Improving Organizational Decision Making 1 (April 18, 2013) Krakauer, J. (1996, September). Into thin air. Outside magazine. Heath, C., Larrick, R. P., & Klayman, J. (1998). Cognitive repairs: How organizational practices can compensate for individual shortcomings. Research in Organizational Behavior 20, 1-37. Class 26: Improving Organizational Decision Making 2 (April 23, 2013)

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Pfeffer, J. & Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-based management. Harvard Business Review, 84, 62-74. Thaler, R. and C. Sunstein (2003). Libertarian Paternalism. American Economic Review 93(2): 175-179. Loewensein, G., & Ubel, P. (2010, July 14). Economics behaving badly. The New York Times

Optional readings: Gawande, A. (2009). The Checklist Manifesto. (Chapter 8, pp. 158-186). New York, NY: Metropolitan Books. Eisenhardt, K. M. (1990). Speed and strategic choice: How managers accelerate decision making. California Management Review, 32, 39-54.

Class 27: Presentations (April 25, 2013) Class 28: Presentations (April 30, 2013) Class 29: Presentations, Wrap-Up (May 2, 2013) Final projects due at time of scheduled final exam

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Short Homework Assignments HW1 Answer ONE of the following: 1. Suggest at least two ways in which the representativeness heuristic might play a role in the behavior of managers engaged in mergers and acquisitions. 2. Imagine you are hiring a new employee; how is the representativeness heuristic likely to influence your evaluation? What steps should you take to avoid biases? HW2 Answer ONE of the following: 1. Consider the fact that as much as 75% of small businesses fail within three years. A friend of yours wants to quit his job as an investment banker and open a cupcake bakery in Los Angeles. You are concerned about whether overconfidence is playing a role in this decision, and compose a letter to communicate the dangers of this tendency. Compose this letter to your friend, for the purposes of helping him navigate the dangers of overconfidence. Issues you might consider include: what are the most important sources of overconfidence? Why might your friend in particular be overconfident? How can you persuade him to listen to your advice? 2. Research by Kahneman, Tversky, and others supports the view of overconfidence as a decision trap. Consider, in contrast, the following: You can't connect the dots looking forward you can only connect them looking backwards. So you have to trust that the dots will somehow connect in your future. You have to trust in something: your gut, destiny, life, karma, whatever. Because believing that the dots will connect down the road will give you the confidence to follow your heart, even when it leads you off the well-worn path. Steve Jobs (1955 - 2011), Stanford Commencement Address, 2005 How do you reconcile Steve Jobs statement with research on overconfidence? Are there jobs or occupations where you think overconfidence is most helpful (or least harmful)? Are there jobs or occupations where overconfidence is most harmful? HW3 Answer ONE of the following: 1. Mental accounting is generally considered irrational, because it violates fungibility. Are there ways in which, or circumstances under which, mental accounting makes people better off? How? 2. You have been hired as special consultant to the director of Human Resources at a large firm that recruits on Marshalls campus. Drawing on principles of mental accounting, what recommendations would you make for how the firm should structure their compensation package to maximize their recruiting success (i.e., number of offers accepted)? How should the firm structure compensation to retain employees? In both cases assume total compensation is fixed (e.g., you cant merely say Increase salaries). Are there reasons suggested by mental accounting for why optimal compensation strategies might differ for recruiting and retention? 3. Flat-rate pricing has become a widespread and oftentimes popular option for telephone, internet, electricity, and even labor costs. Can principles of mental
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accounting help illuminate the success of flat-rate pricing? Does it make any predictions about what types of flat-rate pricing will be most attractive? Suggest improvements that can be made to flat-rate plans from a mental accounting perspective. HW4 Answer ONE of the following: 1. You are convinced you have a wonderful idea to implement in your organization and would like to present this to your manager. But, you vaguely remember from a decision-making class you once took in college that peoples preferences can be shaped by the choices they are presented with in predictable ways. Can you use these ideas about choice to increase the attractiveness of your idea? Describe two specific things you can do to increase your ideas attractiveness to your manager. 2. Many decisions we make are for our delayed selves (e.g., saving for retirement) or for our organizations long-term, rather than short-term, growth. Given the differences in how we think about the future and the present, as well as other biases we discussed, how can we encourage future-oriented behavior? Identify an important area where a future-oriented focus would be desirable. Devise an intervention for maximizing future-oriented thinking within that area. How would you sell this intervention or convince others to implement it? HW6 Read Into Thin Air and answer all of the following questions (although feel free to focus on some more than others): 1. What are the defining characteristics of the decision-making environment on Mt. Everest? Setting aside the extreme physiological conditions, what are the biggest challenges for good decision making? 2. Describe the decision process used by Hall and Fischer. What mistakes did the guides or members of the climbing teams make during the climb to the summit? Why were these mistakes made? How do these mistakes relate to concepts we have discussed in the course? 3. Like climbers on Everest, managers face unexpected business problems and need to avoid disaster. Distill one lesson from Into Thin Air that you think best captures what managers can learn from this tragedy. Summarize this into a single slogan or motto, and explain what this means and how it derives from the Everest tragedy.

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