FM3003 - Calculus III

Dilruk Gallage (PDD Gallage)

Department of Mathematics
University of Colombo
Sri Lanka
2013
Course website
http://fm3003.wikispaces.com
1 Vectors in Euclidean Space
1.1 Introduction
In single-variable calculus, the functions that one encounters are functions of a variable
(usually x or t) that varies over some subset of the real number line (which we denote by R).
For such a function, say, y = f (x), the graph of the function f consists of the points (x, y) =
(x, f (x)). These points lie in the Euclidean plane, which, in the Cartesian or rectangular
coordinate system, consists of all ordered pairs of real numbers (a, b). We use the word
Euclidean to denote a system in which all the usual rules of Euclidean geometry hold. We
denote the Euclidean plane by R
2
; the 2 represents the number of dimensions of the plane.
The Euclidean plane has two perpendicular coordinate axes: the x-axis and the y-axis.
In vector (or multivariable) calculus, we will deal with functions of two or three variables
(usually x, y or x, y, z, respectively). The graph of a function of two variables, say, z = f (x, y),
lies in Euclidean space, which in the Cartesian coordinate system consists of all ordered
triples of real numbers (a, b, c). Since Euclidean space is 3-dimensional, we denote it by R
3
.
The graph of f consists of the points (x, y, z) = (x, y, f (x, y)). The 3-dimensional coordinate
system of Euclidean space can be represented on a at surface, such as this page or a black-
board, only by giving the illusion of three dimensions, in the manner shown in Figure 1.1.1.
Euclidean space has three mutually perpendicular coordinate axes (x, y and z), and three
mutually perpendicular coordinate planes: the xy-plane, yz-plane and xz-plane (see Figure
1.1.2).
x
y
z
0
P(a, b, c)
a
b
c
Figure 1.1.1
x
y
z
0
yz-plane
xy-plane
xz-plane
Figure 1.1.2
1
2 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
The coordinate system shown in Figure 1.1.1 is known as a right-handed coordinate
system, because it is possible, using the right hand, to point the index nger in the positive
direction of the x-axis, the middle nger in the positive direction of the y-axis, and the thumb
in the positive direction of the z-axis, as in Figure 1.1.3.
x
z
y
0
Figure 1.1.3 Right-handed coordinate system
An equivalent way of dening a right-handed system is if you can point your thumb up-
wards in the positive z-axis direction while using the remaining four ngers to rotate the
x-axis towards the y-axis. Doing the same thing with the left hand is what denes a left-
handed coordinate system. Notice that switching the x- and y-axes in a right-handed
system results in a left-handed system, and that rotating either type of system does not
change its handedness. Throughout the book we will use a right-handed system.
For functions of three variables, the graphs exist in 4-dimensional space (i.e. R
4
), which
we can not see in our 3-dimensional space, let alone simulate in 2-dimensional space. So
we can only think of 4-dimensional space abstractly. For an entertaining discussion of this
subject, see the book by ABBOTT.
1
So far, we have discussed the position of an object in 2-dimensional or 3-dimensional space.
But what about something such as the velocity of the object, or its acceleration? Or the
gravitational force acting on the object? These phenomena all seem to involve motion and
direction in some way. This is where the idea of a vector comes in.
1
One thing you will learn is why a 4-dimensional creature would be able to reach inside an egg and remove the
yolk without cracking the shell!
1.1 Introduction 3
You have already dealt with velocity and acceleration in single-variable calculus. For
example, for motion along a straight line, if y = f (t) gives the displacement of an object after
time t, then dy/dt = f

(t) is the velocity of the object at time t. The derivative f

(t) is just a
number, which is positive if the object is moving in an agreed-upon positive direction, and
negative if it moves in the opposite of that direction. So you can think of that number, which
was called the velocity of the object, as having two components: a magnitude, indicated
by a nonnegative number, preceded by a direction, indicated by a plus or minus symbol
(representing motion in the positive direction or the negative direction, respectively), i.e.
f

(t) =a for some number a 0. Then a is the magnitude of the velocity (normally called
the speed of the object), and the represents the direction of the velocity (though the + is
usually omitted for the positive direction).
For motion along a straight line, i.e. in a 1-dimensional space, the velocities are also con-
tained in that 1-dimensional space, since they are just numbers. For general motion along a
curve in 2- or 3-dimensional space, however, velocity will need to be represented by a multi-
dimensional object which should have both a magnitude and a direction. A geometric object
which has those features is an arrow, which in elementary geometry is called a directed line
segment. This is the motivation for how we will dene a vector.
Denition 1.1. A (nonzero) vector is a directed line segment drawn from a point P (called
its initial point) to a point Q (called its terminal point), with P and Q being distinct
points. The vector is denoted by

PQ. Its magnitude is the length of the line segment,

denoted by
_
_

PQ
_
_
, and its direction is the same as that of the directed line segment. The
zero vector is just a point, and it is denoted by 0.
To indicate the direction of a vector, we draw an arrow from its initial point to its terminal
point. We will often denote a vector by a single bold-faced letter (e.g. v) and use the terms
magnitude and length interchangeably. Note that our denition could apply to systems
with any number of dimensions (see Figure 1.1.4 (a)-(c)).
0 x
P Q R S

PQ

RS
(a) One dimension
x
y
0
P
Q
R
S

P
Q

RS
v
(b) Two dimensions
x
y
z
0
P
Q
R
S

P
Q

R
S
v
(c) Three dimensions
Figure 1.1.4 Vectors in different dimensions
4 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
A few things need to be noted about the zero vector. Our motivation for what a vector is
included the notions of magnitude and direction. What is the magnitude of the zero vector?
We dene it to be zero, i.e. 0 =0. This agrees with the denition of the zero vector as just
a point, which has zero length. What about the direction of the zero vector? A single point
really has no well-dened direction. Notice that we were careful to only dene the direction
of a nonzero vector, which is well-dened since the initial and terminal points are distinct.
Not everyone agrees on the direction of the zero vector. Some contend that the zero vector
has arbitrary direction (i.e. can take any direction), some say that it has indeterminate
direction (i.e. the direction can not be determined), while others say that it has no direction.
Our denition of the zero vector, however, does not require it to have a direction, and we will
leave it at that.
2
Now that we know what a vector is, we need a way of determining when two vectors are
equal. This leads us to the following denition.
Denition 1.2. Two nonzero vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the
same direction. Any vector with zero magnitude is equal to the zero vector.
By this denition, vectors with the same magnitude and direction but with different initial
points would be equal. For example, in Figure 1.1.5 the vectors u, v and w all have the same
magnitude

5 (by the Pythagorean Theorem). And we see that u and w are parallel, since
they lie on lines having the same slope
1
2
, and they point in the same direction. So u = w,
even though they have different initial points. We also see that v is parallel to u but points
in the opposite direction. So u=v.
1
2
3
4
1 2 3 4
x
y
0
u
v
w
Figure 1.1.5
So we can see that there are an innite number of vectors for a given magnitude and
direction, those vectors all being equal and differing only by their initial and terminal points.
Is there a single vector which we can choose to represent all those equal vectors? The answer
is yes, and is suggested by the vector w in Figure 1.1.5.
2
In the subject of linear algebra there is a more abstract way of dening a vector where the concept of direction
is not really used. See ANTON and RORRES.
1.1 Introduction 5
Unless otherwise indicated, when speaking of the vector with a given magnitude and
direction, we will mean the one whose initial point is at the origin of the coordinate
system.
Thinking of vectors as starting from the origin provides a way of dealing with vectors in
a standard way, since every coordinate system has an origin. But there will be times when
it is convenient to consider a different initial point for a vector (for example, when adding
vectors, which we will do in the next section).
Another advantage of using the origin as the initial point is that it provides an easy cor-
respondence between a vector and its terminal point.
Example 1.1. Let v be the vector in R
3
whose initial point is at the origin and whose ter-
minal point is (3, 4, 5). Though the point (3, 4, 5) and the vector v are different objects, it is
convenient to write v =(3, 4, 5). When doing this, it is understood that the initial point of v
is at the origin (0, 0, 0) and the terminal point is (3, 4, 5).
x
y
z
0
P(3, 4, 5)
(a) The point (3,4,5)
x
y
z
0
v=(3, 4, 5)
(b) The vector (3,4,5)
Figure 1.1.6 Correspondence between points and vectors
Unless otherwise stated, when we refer to vectors as v = (a, b) in R
2
or v = (a, b, c) in R
3
,
we mean vectors in Cartesian coordinates starting at the origin. Also, we will write the zero
vector 0 in R
2
and R
3
as (0, 0) and (0, 0, 0), respectively.
The point-vector correspondence provides an easy way to check if two vectors are equal,
without having to determine their magnitude and direction. Similar to seeing if two points
are the same, you are now seeing if the terminal points of vectors starting at the origin
are the same. For each vector, nd the (unique!) vector it equals whose initial point is
the origin. Then compare the coordinates of the terminal points of these new vectors: if
those coordinates are the same, then the original vectors are equal. To get the new vectors
starting at the origin, you translate each vector to start at the origin by subtracting the
coordinates of the original initial point from the original terminal point. The resulting point
will be the terminal point of the new vector whose initial point is the origin. Do this for
each original vector then compare.
6 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
Example 1.2. Consider the vectors

PQ and

RS in R
3
, where P = (2, 1, 5), Q = (3, 5, 7), R =
(1, 3, 2) and S =(2, 1, 0). Does

PQ =

RS?
Solution: The vector

PQ is equal to the vector v with initial point (0, 0, 0) and terminal point
QP =(3, 5, 7) (2, 1, 5) =(32, 51, 75) =(1, 4, 2).
Similarly,

RS is equal to the vector w with initial point (0, 0, 0) and terminal point SR =
(2, 1, 0) (1, 3, 2) =(21, 1(3), 0(2)) =(1, 4, 2).
So

PQ =v =(1, 4, 2) and

RS =w=(1, 4, 2).

PQ =

RS
y
z
x
0

P
Q

R
S
Translate

PQ to v
Translate

RS to w
P
(2, 1, 5)
Q
(3, 5, 7)
R
(1, 3, 2)
S
(2, 1, 0)
(1, 4, 2)
v=w
Figure 1.1.7
Recall the distance formula for points in the Euclidean plane:
For points P =(x
1
, y
1
), Q =(x
2
, y
2
) in R
2
, the distance d between P and Q is:
d =
_
(x
2
x
1
)
2
+(y
2
y
1
)
2
(1.1)
By this formula, we have the following result:
For a vector

PQ in R
2
with initial point P =(x
1
, y
1
) and terminal point
Q =(x
2
, y
2
), the magnitude of

PQ is:
_
_

PQ
_
_
=
_
(x
2
x
1
)
2
+(y
2
y
1
)
2
(1.2)
1.1 Introduction 7
Finding the magnitude of a vector v = (a, b) in R
2
is a special case of formula (1.2) with
P =(0, 0) and Q =(a, b) :
For a vector v =(a, b) in R
2
, the magnitude of v is:
v =
_
a
2
+b
2
(1.3)
To calculate the magnitude of vectors in R
3
, we need a distance formula for points in
Euclidean space (we will postpone the proof until the next section):
Theorem 1.1. The distance d between points P =(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and Q =(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) in R
3
is:
d =
_
(x
2
x
1
)
2
+(y
2
y
1
)
2
+(z
2
z
1
)
2
(1.4)
The proof will use the following result:
Theorem 1.2. For a vector v =(a, b, c) in R
3
, the magnitude of v is:
v =
_
a
2
+b
2
+c
2
(1.5)
Proof: There are four cases to consider:
Case 1: a = b = c =0. Then v =0, so v =0 =

0
2
+0
2
+0
2
=

a
2
+b
2
+c
2
.
Case 2: exactly two of a, b, c are 0. Without loss of generality, we assume that a = b =0 and
c =0 (the other two possibilities are handled in a similar manner). Then v =(0, 0, c), which
is a vector of length | c| along the z-axis. So v =|c| =

c
2
=

0
2
+0
2
+c
2
=

a
2
+b
2
+c
2
.
Case 3: exactly one of a, b, c is 0. Without loss of generality, we assume that a = 0, b = 0
and c = 0 (the other two possibilities are handled in a similar manner). Then v = (0, b, c),
which is a vector in the yz-plane, so by the Pythagorean Theorem we have v =

b
2
+c
2
=

0
2
+b
2
+c
2
=

a
2
+b
2
+c
2
.
x
y
z
0
a
Q(a, b, c)
S
P
R
b
c
v
Figure 1.1.8
Case 4: none of a, b, c are 0. Without loss of generality, we can as-
sume that a, b, c are all positive (the other seven possibilities are
handled in a similar manner). Consider the points P = (0, 0, 0),
Q = (a, b, c), R = (a, b, 0), and S = (a, 0, 0), as shown in Figure
1.1.8. Applying the Pythagorean Theorem to the right trian-
gle PSR gives |PR|
2
= a
2
+ b
2
. A second application of the
Pythagorean Theorem, this time to the right triangle PQR,
gives v =|PQ| =
_
|PR|
2
+|QR|
2
=

a
2
+b
2
+c
2
.
This proves the theorem. QED
8 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
Example 1.3. Calculate the following:
(a) The magnitude of the vector

PQ in R
2
with P =(1, 2) and Q =(5, 5).
Solution: By formula (1.2),
_
_

PQ
_
_
=
_
(5(1))
2
+(52)
2
=

36+9 =

45 =3

5.
(b) The magnitude of the vector v =(8, 3) in R
2
.
Solution: By formula (1.3), v =

8
2
+3
2
=

73.
(c) The distance between the points P =(2, 1, 4) and Q =(4, 2, 3) in R
2
.
Solution: By formula (1.4), the distance d =
_
(42)
2
+(2(1))
2
+(34)
2
=

4+9+49 =

62.
(d) The magnitude of the vector v =(5, 8, 2) in R
3
.
Solution: By formula (1.5), v =
_
5
2
+8
2
+(2)
2
=

25+64+4 =

93.
Exercises
A
1. Calculate the magnitudes of the following vectors:
(a) v =(2, 1) (b) v =(2, 1, 0) (c) v =(3, 2, 2) (d) v =(0, 0, 1) (e) v =(6, 4, 4)
2. For the points P =(1, 1, 1), Q =(2, 2, 2), R =(2, 0, 1), S =(3, 1, 2), does

PQ =

RS?
3. For the points P =(0, 0, 0), Q =(1, 3, 2), R =(1, 0, 1), S =(2, 3, 4), does

PQ =

RS?
B
4. Let v =(1, 0, 0) and w=(a, 0, 0) be vectors in R
3
. Show that w =|a| v.
5. Let v =(a, b, c) and w=(3a, 3b, 3c) be vectors in R
3
. Show that w =3v.
C
x
y
z
0
P(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
)
Q(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
)
R(x
2
, y
2
, z
1
)
S(x
1
, y
1
, 0)
T(x
2
, y
2
, 0)
U(x
2
, y
1
, 0)
Figure 1.1.9
6. Though we will see a simple proof of Theorem 1.1
in the next section, it is possible to prove it using
methods similar to those in the proof of Theorem
1.2. Prove the special case of Theorem 1.1 where the
points P =(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and Q =(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) satisfy the fol-
lowing conditions:
x
2
> x
1
>0, y
2
> y
1
>0, and z
2
> z
1
>0.
(Hint: Think of Case 4 in the proof of Theorem 1.2,
and consider Figure 1.1.9.)
1.2 Vector Algebra 9
1.2 Vector Algebra
Now that we know what vectors are, we can start to perform some of the usual algebraic
operations on them (e.g. addition, subtraction). Before doing that, we will introduce the
notion of a scalar.
Denition 1.3. A scalar is a quantity that can be represented by a single number.
For our purposes, scalars will always be real numbers.
3
Examples of scalar quantities are
mass, electric charge, and speed (not velocity).
4
We can now dene scalar multiplication of
a vector.
Denition 1.4. For a scalar k and a nonzero vector v, the scalar multiple of v by k,
denoted by kv, is the vector whose magnitude is | k| v, points in the same direction as v if
k >0, points in the opposite direction as v if k <0, and is the zero vector 0 if k =0. For the
zero vector 0, we dene k0 =0 for any scalar k.
Two vectors v and w are parallel (denoted by v w) if one is a scalar multiple of the other.
You can think of scalar multiplication of a vector as stretching or shrinking the vector, and
as ipping the vector in the opposite direction if the scalar is a negative number (see Figure
1.2.1).
v
2v 3v 0.5v
v
2v
Figure 1.2.1
Recall that translating a nonzero vector means that the initial point of the vector is
changed but the magnitude and direction are preserved. We are now ready to dene the
sum of two vectors.
Denition 1.5. The sum of vectors v and w, denoted by v+w, is obtained by translating
w so that its initial point is at the terminal point of v; the initial point of v+w is the initial
point of v, and its terminal point is the new terminal point of w.
3
The term scalar was invented by 19
th
century Irish mathematician, physicist and astronomer William Rowan
Hamilton, to convey the sense of something that could be represented by a point on a scale or graduated ruler.
The word vector comes from Latin, where it means carrier.
4
An alternate denition of scalars and vectors, used in physics, is that under certain types of coordinate trans-
formations (e.g. rotations), a quantity that is not affected is a scalar, while a quantity that is affected (in a
certain way) is a vector. See MARION for details.
10 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
Intuitively, adding w to v means tacking on w to the end of v (see Figure 1.2.2).
v
w
(a) Vectors v and w
v
w
(b) Translate w to the end of v
v
w
v+w
(c) The sum v+w
Figure 1.2.2 Adding vectors v and w
Notice that our denition is valid for the zero vector (which is just a point, and hence can
be translated), and so we see that v+0 =v =0+v for any vector v. In particular, 0+0 =0.
Also, it is easy to see that v+(v) = 0, as we would expect. In general, since the scalar
multiple v = 1v is a well-dened vector, we can dene vector subtraction as follows:
vw=v+(w). See Figure 1.2.3.
v
w
(a) Vectors v and w
v
w
(b) Translate w to the end of v
v
w
vw
(c) The difference vw
Figure 1.2.3 Subtracting vectors v and w
Figure 1.2.4 shows the use of geometric proofs of various laws of vector algebra, that is,
it uses laws from elementary geometry to prove statements about vectors. For example, (a)
shows that v+w=w+v for any vectors v, w. And (c) shows how you can think of vw as
the vector that is tacked on to the end of w to add up to v.
v
v
w w
w+v
v+w
(a) Add vectors
w
w
vw
vw
v
(b) Subtract vectors
v
w
v+w
vw
(c) Combined add/subtract
Figure 1.2.4 Geometric vector algebra
Notice that we have temporarily abandoned the practice of starting vectors at the origin.
In fact, we have not even mentioned coordinates in this section so far. Since we will deal
mostly with Cartesian coordinates in this book, the following two theorems are useful for
performing vector algebra on vectors in R
2
and R
3
starting at the origin.
1.2 Vector Algebra 11
Theorem 1.3. Let v =(v
1
, v
2
), w=(w
1
, w
2
) be vectors in R
2
, and let k be a scalar. Then
(a) kv =(kv
1
, kv
2
)
(b) v + w=(v
1
+w
1
, v
2
+w
2
)
Proof: (a) Without loss of generality, we assume that v
1
, v
2
> 0 (the other possibilities are
handled in a similar manner). If k =0 then kv =0v =0 =(0, 0) =(0v
1
, 0v
2
) =(kv
1
, kv
2
), which
is what we needed to show. If k =0, then (kv
1
, kv
2
) lies on a line with slope
kv
2
kv
1
=
v
2
v
1
, which
is the same as the slope of the line on which v (and hence kv) lies, and (kv
1
, kv
2
) points in
the same direction on that line as kv. Also, by formula (1.3) the magnitude of (kv
1
, kv
2
) is
_
(kv
1
)
2
+(kv
2
)
2
=
_
k
2
v
2
1
+k
2
v
2
2
=
_
k
2
(v
2
1
+v
2
2
) =| k|
_
v
2
1
+v
2
2
=| k| v. So kv and (kv
1
, kv
2
)
have the same magnitude and direction. This proves (a).
x
y
0
w
2
v
2
w
1
v
1
v
1
+w
1
v
2
+w
2
w
2
w
1
v
v
w
w
v+w
Figure 1.2.5
(b) Without loss of generality, we assume that
v
1
, v
2
, w
1
, w
2
> 0 (the other possibilities are han-
dled in a similar manner). From Figure 1.2.5, we
see that when translating w to start at the end of
v, the new terminal point of w is (v
1
+w
1
, v
2
+w
2
),
so by the denition of v+w this must be the ter-
minal point of v+w. This proves (b). QED
Theorem 1.4. Let v =(v
1
, v
2
, v
3
), w=(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
) be vectors in R
3
, let k be a scalar. Then
(a) kv =(kv
1
, kv
2
, kv
3
)
(b) v + w=(v
1
+w
1
, v
2
+w
2
, v
3
+w
3
)
The following theorem summarizes the basic laws of vector algebra.
Theorem 1.5. For any vectors u, v, w, and scalars k, l, we have
(a) v+w=w+v Commutative Law
(b) u+(v+w) =(u+v) +w Associative Law
(c) v+0 =v =0+v Additive Identity
(d) v+(v) =0 Additive Inverse
(e) k(lv) =(kl)v Associative Law
(f) k(v+w) = kv+kw Distributive Law
(g) (k+l)v = kv+lv Distributive Law
Proof: (a) We already presented a geometric proof of this in Figure 1.2.4(a).
(b) To illustrate the difference between analytic proofs and geometric proofs in vector alge-
bra, we will present both types here. For the analytic proof, we will use vectors in R
3
(the
proof for R
2
is similar).
12 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
Let u=(u
1
, u
2
, u
3
), v =(v
1
, v
2
, v
3
), w=(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
) be vectors in R
3
. Then
u+(v+w) =(u
1
, u
2
, u
3
) +((v
1
, v
2
, v
3
) +(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
))
=(u
1
, u
2
, u
3
) +(v
1
+w
1
, v
2
+w
2
, v
3
+w
3
) by Theorem 1.4(b)
=(u
1
+(v
1
+w
1
), u
2
+(v
2
+w
2
), u
3
+(v
3
+w
3
)) by Theorem 1.4(b)
=((u
1
+v
1
) +w
1
, (u
2
+v
2
) +w
2
, (u
3
+v
3
) +w
3
) by properties of real numbers
=(u
1
+v
1
, u
2
+v
2
, u
3
+v
3
) +(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
) by Theorem 1.4(b)
=(u+v) +w
This completes the analytic proof of (b). Figure 1.2.6 provides the geometric proof.
u
v
w
u+v
v+w
u+(v+w) =(u+v) +w
Figure 1.2.6 Associative Law for vector addition
(c) We already discussed this on p.10.
(d) We already discussed this on p.10.
(e) We will prove this for a vector v =(v
1
, v
2
, v
3
) in R
3
(the proof for R
2
is similar):
k(lv) = k(lv
1
, lv
2
, lv
3
) by Theorem 1.4(a)
=(klv
1
, klv
2
, klv
3
) by Theorem 1.4(a)
=(kl)(v
1
, v
2
, v
3
) by Theorem 1.4(a)
=(kl)v
(f) and (g): Left as exercises for the reader. QED
A unit vector is a vector with magnitude 1. Notice that for any nonzero vector v, the
vector
v
v
is a unit vector which points in the same direction as v, since
1
v
>0 and
_
_
v
v
_
_
=
v
v
=1. Dividing a nonzero vector v by v is often called normalizing v.
There are specic unit vectors which we will often use, called the basis vectors:
i =(1, 0, 0), j =(0, 1, 0), and k=(0, 0, 1) in R
3
; i =(1, 0) and j =(0, 1) in R
2
.
These are useful for several reasons: they are mutually perpendicular, since they lie on
distinct coordinate axes; they are all unit vectors: i = j = k = 1; every vector can
be written as a unique scalar combination of the basis vectors: v = (a, b) = ai +bj in R
2
,
v =(a, b, c) =ai +bj +ck in R
3
. See Figure 1.2.7.
1.2 Vector Algebra 13
1
2
1 2
x
y
0
i
j
(a) R
2
x
y
0
ai
bj
v=(a, b)
(b) v =ai +bj
1
2
1 2
1
2
x
y
z
0
i
j
k
(c) R
3
x
y
z
0
ai
bj
ck
v=(a, b, c)
(d) v =ai +bj +ck
Figure 1.2.7 Basis vectors in different dimensions
When a vector v = (a, b, c) is written as v = ai +bj + ck, we say that v is in component
form, and that a, b, and c are the i, j, and k components, respectively, of v. We have:
v =v
1
i +v
2
j +v
3
k, k a scalar =kv = kv
1
i +kv
2
j +kv
3
k
v =v
1
i +v
2
j +v
3
k, w=w
1
i +w
2
j +w
3
k=v+w=(v
1
+w
1
)i +(v
2
+w
2
)j +(v
3
+w
3
)k
v =v
1
i +v
2
j +v
3
k=v =
_
v
2
1
+v
2
2
+v
2
3
Example 1.4. Let v =(2, 1, 1) and w=(3, 4, 2) in R
3
.
(a) Find vw.
Solution: vw=(23, 1(4), 12) =(1, 5, 3)
(b) Find 3v+2w.
Solution: 3v+2w=(6, 3, 3) +(6, 8, 4) =(12, 5, 1)
(c) Write v and w in component form.
Solution: v =2i +j k, w=3i 4j +2k
(d) Find the vector u such that u+v =w.
Solution: By Theorem 1.5, u=wv=(vw) =(1, 5, 3) =(1, 5, 3), by part(a).
(e) Find the vector u such that u+v+w=0.
Solution: By Theorem 1.5, u=wv =(3, 4, 2) (2, 1, 1) =(5, 3, 1).
(f) Find the vector u such that 2u+i 2j =k.
Solution: 2u=i +2j +k=u=
1
2
i +j +
1
2
k
(g) Find the unit vector
v
v
.
Solution:
v
v
=
1

2
2
+1
2
+(1)
2
(2, 1, 1) =
_
2

6
,
1

6
,
1

6
_
14 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
We can now easily prove Theorem 1.1 from the previous section. The distance d between
two points P =(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and Q =(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) in R
3
is the same as the length of the vector wv,
where the vectors v and w are dened as v =(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and w=(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) (see Figure 1.2.8).
So since wv =(x
2
x
1
, y
2
y
1
, z
2
z
1
), then d =wv =
_
(x
2
x
1
)
2
+(y
2
y
1
)
2
+(z
2
z
1
)
2
by
Theorem 1.2.
x
y
z
0
P(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
)
Q(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
)
v
w
wv
Figure 1.2.8 Proof of Theorem 1.2: d =wv
Exercises
A
1. Let v =(1, 5, 2) and w=(3, 1, 1).
(a) Find vw. (b) Find v+w. (c) Find
v
v
. (d) Find
_
_
1
2
(vw)
_
_
.
(e) Find
_
_
1
2
(v+w)
_
_
. (f) Find 2v+4w. (g) Find v2w.
(h) Find the vector u such that u+v+w=i.
(i) Find the vector u such that u+v+w=2j +k.
(j) Is there a scalar m such that m(v+2w) =k? If so, nd it.
2. For the vectors v and w from Exercise 1, is vw =vw? If not, which quantity
is larger?
3. For the vectors v and w from Exercise 1, is v+w =v+w? If not, which quantity
is larger?
B
4. Prove Theorem 1.5(f) for R
3
. 5. Prove Theorem 1.5(g) for R
3
.
C
6. We know that every vector in R
3
can be written as a scalar combination of the vectors i,
j, and k. Can every vector in R
3
be written as a scalar combination of just i and j, i.e. for
any vector v in R
3
, are there scalars m, n such that v = mi +nj? Justify your answer.
1.3 Dot Product 15
1.3 Dot Product
You may have noticed that while we did dene multiplication of a vector by a scalar in the
previous section on vector algebra, we did not dene multiplication of a vector by a vector.
We will now see one type of multiplication of vectors, called the dot product.
Denition 1.6. Let v =(v
1
, v
2
, v
3
) and w=(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
) be vectors in R
3
.
The dot product of v and w, denoted by v w, is given by:
v w=v
1
w
1
+v
2
w
2
+v
3
w
3
(1.6)
Similarly, for vectors v =(v
1
, v
2
) and w=(w
1
, w
2
) in R
2
, the dot product is:
v w=v
1
w
1
+v
2
w
2
(1.7)
Notice that the dot product of two vectors is a scalar, not a vector. So the associative law
that holds for multiplication of numbers and for addition of vectors (see Theorem 1.5(b),(e)),
does not hold for the dot product of vectors. Why? Because for vectors u, v, w, the dot
product u v is a scalar, and so (u v) w is not dened since the left side of that dot product
(the part in parentheses) is a scalar and not a vector.
For vectors v =v
1
i +v
2
j +v
3
k and w=w
1
i +w
2
j +w
3
k in component form, the dot product
is still v w=v
1
w
1
+v
2
w
2
+v
3
w
3
.
Also notice that we dened the dot product in an analytic way, i.e. by referencing vector
coordinates. There is a geometric way of dening the dot product, which we will now develop
as a consequence of the analytic denition.
Denition 1.7. The angle between two nonzero vectors with the same initial point is the
smallest angle between them.
We do not dene the angle between the zero vector and any other vector. Any two nonzero
vectors with the same initial point have two angles between them: and 360

. We will
always choose the smallest nonnegative angle between them, so that 0

180

. See
Figure 1.3.1.

360

(a) 0

< <180

360

(b) =180

360

(c) =0

Figure 1.3.1 Angle between vectors

We can now take a more geometric view of the dot product by establishing a relationship
between the dot product of two vectors and the angle between them.
16 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
Theorem 1.6. Let v, w be nonzero vectors, and let be the angle between them. Then
cos =
v w
vw
(1.8)
Proof: We will prove the theorem for vectors in R
3
(the proof for R
2
is similar). Let v =
(v
1
, v
2
, v
3
) and w=(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
). By the Law of Cosines (see Figure 1.3.2), we have
vw
2
=v
2
+w
2
2vwcos (1.9)
(note that equation (1.9) holds even for the degenerate cases =0

and 180

).

x
y
z
0
v
w
vw
Figure 1.3.2
Since vw=(v
1
w
1
, v
2
w
2
, v
3
w
3
), expanding vw
2
in equation (1.9) gives
v
2
+w
2
2vwcos =(v
1
w
1
)
2
+(v
2
w
2
)
2
+(v
3
w
3
)
2
=(v
2
1
2v
1
w
1
+w
2
1
) +(v
2
2
2v
2
w
2
+w
2
2
) +(v
2
3
2v
3
w
3
+w
2
3
)
=(v
2
1
+v
2
2
+v
2
3
) +(w
2
1
+w
2
2
+w
2
3
) 2(v
1
w
1
+v
2
w
2
+v
3
w
3
)
=v
2
+w
2
2(v w) , so
2vwcos =2(v w) , so since v =0 and w=0 then
cos =
v w
vw
, since v >0 and w >0. QED
Example 1.5. Find the angle between the vectors v =(2, 1, 1) and w=(3, 4, 1).
Solution: Since v w=(2)(3) +(1)(4) +(1)(1) =1, v =

6, and w =

26, then
cos =
v w
vw
=
1

26
=
1
2

39
0.08 = =85.41

Two nonzero vectors are perpendicular if the angle between them is 90

. Since cos90

=
0, we have the following important corollary to Theorem 1.6:
Corollary 1.7. Two nonzero vectors v and w are perpendicular if and only if v w=0.
We will write v w to indicate that v and w are perpendicular.
1.3 Dot Product 17
Since cos >0 for 0

<90

and cos <0 for 90

< 180

, we also have:
Corollary 1.8. If is the angle between nonzero vectors v and w, then
v w is
_

_
>0 for 0

<90

0 for =90

<0 for 90

< 180

By Corollary 1.8, the dot product can be thought of as a way of telling if the angle be-
tween two vectors is acute, obtuse, or a right angle, depending on whether the dot product
is positive, negative, or zero, respectively. See Figure 1.3.3.
0

<90

v
w
(a) v w>0
90

< 180

v
w
(b) v w<0
=90

v
w
(c) v w=0
Figure 1.3.3 Sign of the dot product & angle between vectors
Example 1.6. Are the vectors v =(1, 5, 2) and w=(3, 1, 1) perpendicular?
Solution: Yes, v w since v w=(1)(3) +(5)(1) +(2)(1) =0.
The following theorem summarizes the basic properties of the dot product.
Theorem 1.9. For any vectors u, v, w, and scalar k, we have
(a) v w=w v Commutative Law
(b) (kv) w=v (kw) = k(v w) Associative Law
(c) v 0 =0 =0 v
(d) u (v+w) =u v+u w Distributive Law
(e) (u+v) w=u w+v w Distributive Law
(f) |v w| vw Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality
5
Proof: The proofs of parts (a)-(e) are straightforward applications of the denition of the
dot product, and are left to the reader as exercises. We will prove part (f).
(f) If either v =0 or w=0, then v w=0 by part (c), and so the inequality holds trivially. So
assume that v and w are nonzero vectors. Then by Theorem 1.6,
v w=cosvw , so
|v w| =|cos| vw , so
|v w| vw since |cos| 1. QED
5
Also known as the Cauchy-Schwarz-Buniakovski Inequality.
18 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
Using Theorem 1.9, we see that if uv =0 and uw=0, then u(kv+lw) = k(uv)+l(uw) =
k(0) +l(0) =0 for all scalars k, l. Thus, we have the following fact:
If uv and uw, then u(kv+lw) for all scalars k, l.
For vectors v and w, the collection of all scalar combinations kv+lw is called the span
of v and w. If nonzero vectors v and w are parallel, then their span is a line; if they are
not parallel, then their span is a plane. So what we showed above is that a vector which is
perpendicular to two other vectors is also perpendicular to their span.
The dot product can be used to derive properties of the magnitudes of vectors, the most
important of which is the Triangle Inequality, as given in the following theorem:
Theorem 1.10. For any vectors v, w, we have
(a) v
2
=v v
(b) v+w v+w Triangle Inequality
(c) vw vw
Proof: (a) Left as an exercise for the reader.
(b) By part (a) and Theorem 1.9, we have
v+w
2
=(v+w) (v+w) =v v+v w+w v+w w
=v
2
+2(v w) +w
2
, so since a |a| for any real number a, we have
v
2
+2|v w| +w
2
, so by Theorem 1.9(f) we have
v
2
+2vw+w
2
=(v+w)
2
and so
v+w v+w after taking square roots of both sides, which proves (b).
(c) Since v =w+(vw), then v =w+(vw) w+vw by the Triangle Inequality,
so subtracting w from both sides gives vw vw. QED
v
w
v+w
Figure 1.3.4
The Triangle Inequality gets its name from the fact that in any triangle,
no one side is longer than the sum of the lengths of the other two sides (see
Figure 1.3.4). Another way of saying this is with the familiar statement the
shortest distance between two points is a straight line.
Exercises
A
1. Let v =(5, 1, 2) and w=(4, 4, 3). Calculate v w.
2. Let v =3i 2j k and w=6i +4j +2k. Calculate v w.
For Exercises 3-8, nd the angle between the vectors v and w.
1.3 Dot Product 19
3. v =(5, 1, 2), w=(4, 4, 3) 4. v =(7, 2, 10), w=(2, 6, 4)
5. v =(2, 1, 4), w=(1, 2, 0) 6. v =(4, 2, 1), w=(8, 4, 2)
7. v =i +2j +k, w=3i +6j +3k 8. v =i, w=3i +2j +4k
9. Let v =(8, 4, 3) and w=(2, 1, 4). Is v w? Justify your answer.
10. Let v =(6, 0, 4) and w=(0, 2, 1). Is v w? Justify your answer.
11. For v, w from Exercise 5, verify the Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality |v w| vw.
12. For v, w from Exercise 6, verify the Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality |v w| vw.
13. For v, w from Exercise 5, verify the Triangle Inequality v+w v+w.
14. For v, w from Exercise 6, verify the Triangle Inequality v+w v+w.
B
Note: Consider only vectors in R
3
for Exercises 15-25.
15. Prove Theorem 1.9(a). 16. Prove Theorem 1.9(b).
17. Prove Theorem 1.9(c). 18. Prove Theorem 1.9(d).
19. Prove Theorem 1.9(e). 20. Prove Theorem 1.10(a).
21. Prove or give a counterexample: If u v =u w, then v =w.
C
22. Prove or give a counterexample: If v w=0 for all v, then w=0.
20 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
1.4 Cross Product
In Section 1.3 we dened the dot product, which gave a way of multiplying two vectors. The
resulting product, however, was a scalar, not a vector. In this section we will dene a product
of two vectors that does result in another vector. This product, called the cross product, is
only dened for vectors in R
3
. The denition may appear strange and lacking motivation,
but we will see the geometric basis for it shortly.
Denition 1.8. Let v =(v
1
, v
2
, v
3
) and w=(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
) be vectors in R
3
. The cross product
of v and w, denoted by vw, is the vector in R
3
given by:
vw=(v
2
w
3
v
3
w
2
, v
3
w
1
v
1
w
3
, v
1
w
2
v
2
w
1
) (1.10)
1
1
1
x
y
z
0
i
j
k=ij
Figure 1.4.1
Example 1.7. Find i j.
Solution: Since i =(1, 0, 0) and j =(0, 1, 0), then
i j =((0)(0) (0)(1), (0)(0) (1)(0), (1)(1) (0)(0))
=(0, 0, 1)
=k
Similarly it can be shown that j k=i and ki =j.
In the above example, the cross product of the given vectors was perpendicular to both
those vectors. It turns out that this will always be the case.
Theorem 1.11. If the cross product vw of two nonzero vectors v and w is also a nonzero
vector, then it is perpendicular to both v and w.
Proof: We will show that (vw) v =0:
(vw) v =(v
2
w
3
v
3
w
2
, v
3
w
1
v
1
w
3
, v
1
w
2
v
2
w
1
) (v
1
, v
2
, v
3
)
=v
2
w
3
v
1
v
3
w
2
v
1
+v
3
w
1
v
2
v
1
w
3
v
2
+v
1
w
2
v
3
v
2
w
1
v
3
=v
1
v
2
w
3
v
1
v
2
w
3
+w
1
v
2
v
3
w
1
v
2
v
3
+v
1
w
2
v
3
v
1
w
2
v
3
=0 , after rearranging the terms.
vwv by Corollary 1.7.
The proof that vww is similar. QED
As a consequence of the above theorem and Theorem 1.9, we have the following:
Corollary 1.12. If the cross product vw of two nonzero vectors v and w is also a nonzero
vector, then it is perpendicular to the span of v and w.
1.4 Cross Product 21
The span of any two nonzero, nonparallel vectors v, w in R
3
is a plane P, so the above
corollary shows that vw is perpendicular to that plane. As shown in Figure 1.4.2, there
are two possible directions for vw, one the opposite of the other. It turns out (see Appendix
B) that the direction of vw is given by the right-hand rule, that is, the vectors v, w, vw
form a right-handed system. Recall from Section 1.1 that this means that you can point your
thumb upwards in the direction of vw while rotating v towards w with the remaining four
ngers.
x
y
z
0

v
w
vw
vw
P
Figure 1.4.2 Direction of vw
We will now derive a formula for the magnitude of vw, for nonzero vectors v, w:
vw
2
=(v
2
w
3
v
3
w
2
)
2
+(v
3
w
1
v
1
w
3
)
2
+(v
1
w
2
v
2
w
1
)
2
=v
2
2
w
2
3
2v
2
w
2
v
3
w
3
+v
2
3
w
2
2
+v
2
3
w
2
1
2v
1
w
1
v
3
w
3
+v
2
1
w
2
3
+v
2
1
w
2
2
2v
1
w
1
v
2
w
2
+v
2
2
w
2
1
=v
2
1
(w
2
2
+w
2
3
) +v
2
2
(w
2
1
+w
2
3
) +v
2
3
(w
2
1
+w
2
2
) 2(v
1
w
1
v
2
w
2
+v
1
w
1
v
3
w
3
+v
2
w
2
v
3
w
3
)
and now adding and subtracting v
2
1
w
2
1
, v
2
2
w
2
2
, and v
2
3
w
2
3
on the right side gives
=v
2
1
(w
2
1
+w
2
2
+w
2
3
) +v
2
2
(w
2
1
+w
2
2
+w
2
3
) +v
2
3
(w
2
1
+w
2
2
+w
2
3
)
(v
2
1
w
2
1
+v
2
2
w
2
2
+v
2
3
w
2
3
+2(v
1
w
1
v
2
w
2
+v
1
w
1
v
3
w
3
+v
2
w
2
v
3
w
3
))
=(v
2
1
+v
2
2
+v
2
3
)(w
2
1
+w
2
2
+w
2
3
)
((v
1
w
1
)
2
+(v
2
w
2
)
2
+(v
3
w
3
)
2
+2(v
1
w
1
)(v
2
w
2
) +2(v
1
w
1
)(v
3
w
3
) +2(v
2
w
2
)(v
3
w
3
))
so using (a+b+c)
2
=a
2
+b
2
+c
2
+2ab+2ac +2bc for the subtracted term gives
=(v
2
1
+v
2
2
+v
2
3
)(w
2
1
+w
2
2
+w
2
3
) (v
1
w
1
+v
2
w
2
+v
3
w
3
)
2
=v
2
w
2
(v w)
2
=v
2
w
2
_
1
(v w)
2
v
2
w
2
_
, since v >0 and w >0, so by Theorem 1.6
=v
2
w
2
(1cos
2
) , where is the angle between v and w, so
vw
2
=v
2
w
2
sin
2
, and since 0

180

, then sin 0, so we have:

22 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
If is the angle between nonzero vectors v and w in R
3
, then
vw =vw sin (1.11)
It may seem strange to bother with the above formula, when the magnitude of the cross
product can be calculated directly, like for any other vector. The formula is more useful for
its applications in geometry, as in the following example.
Example 1.8. Let PQR and PQRS be a triangle and parallelogram, respectively, as shown
in Figure 1.4.3.
b
h h

P P
Q Q R R
S S
v
w
Figure 1.4.3
Think of the triangle as existing in R
3
, and identify the sides QR and QP with vectors v
and w, respectively, in R
3
. Let be the angle between v and w. The area A
PQR
of PQR is
1
2
bh, where b is the base of the triangle and h is the height. So we see that
b =v and h =w sin
A
PQR
=
1
2
vw sin
=
1
2
vw
So since the area A
PQRS
of the parallelogram PQRS is twice the area of the triangle PQR,
then
A
PQRS
=vw sin
By the discussion in Example 1.8, we have proved the following theorem:
Theorem 1.13. Area of triangles and parallelograms
(a) The area A of a triangle with adjacent sides v, w (as vectors in R
3
) is:
A =
1
2
vw
(b) The area A of a parallelogram with adjacent sides v, w (as vectors in R
3
) is:
A =vw
1.4 Cross Product 23
It may seem at rst glance that since the formulas derived in Example 1.8 were for the
adjacent sides QP and QR only, then the more general statements in Theorem 1.13 that the
formulas hold for any adjacent sides are not justied. We would get a different formula for
the area if we had picked PQ and PR as the adjacent sides, but it can be shown (see Exercise
26) that the different formulas would yield the same value, so the choice of adjacent sides
indeed does not matter, and Theorem 1.13 is valid.
Theorem 1.13 makes it simpler to calculate the area of a triangle in 3-dimensional space
than by using traditional geometric methods.
Example 1.9. Calculate the area of the triangle PQR, where P = (2, 4, 7), Q = (3, 7, 18),
and R =(5, 12, 8).
y
z
x
0
v
w
R(5, 12, 8)
Q(3, 7, 18)
P(2, 4, 7)
Figure 1.4.4
Solution: Let v =

PQ and w=

PR, as in Figure 1.4.4. Then

v =(3, 7, 18)(2, 4, 7) =(1, 3, 25) and w=(5, 12, 8)(2, 4, 7) =
(7, 8, 15), so the area A of the triangle PQR is
A =
1
2
vw =
1
2
(1, 3, 25) (7, 8, 15)
=
1
2
_
_
((3)(15) (25)(8), (25)(7) (1)(15), (1)(8) (3)(7))
_
_
=
1
2
_
_
(155, 190, 29)
_
_
=
1
2
_
(155)
2
+(190)
2
+29
2
=
1
2

60966
A 123.46
Example 1.10. Calculate the area of the parallelogram PQRS, where P = (1, 1), Q = (2, 3),
R =(5, 4), and S =(4, 2).
x
y
0
1
2
3
4
1 2 3 4 5
P
Q
R
S
v
w
Figure 1.4.5
Solution: Let v =

SP and w=

SR, as in Figure 1.4.5. Then

v = (1, 1) (4, 2) = (3, 1) and w = (5, 4) (4, 2) = (1, 2). But
these are vectors in R
2
, and the cross product is only dened
for vectors in R
3
. However, R
2
can be thought of as the subset
of R
3
such that the z-coordinate is always 0. So we can write
v =(3, 1, 0) and w=(1, 2, 0). Then the area A of PQRS is
A =vw =
_
_
(3, 1, 0) (1, 2, 0)
_
_
=
_
_
((1)(0) (0)(2), (0)(1) (3)(0), (3)(2) (1)(1))
_
_
=
_
_
(0, 0, 5)
_
_
A =5
24 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
The following theorem summarizes the basic properties of the cross product.
Theorem 1.14. For any vectors u, v, w in R
3
, and scalar k, we have
(a) vw=wv Anticommutative Law
(b) u(v+w) =uv+uw Distributive Law
(c) (u+v) w=uw+vw Distributive Law
(d) (kv) w=v(kw) = k(vw) Associative Law
(e) v0 =0 =0v
(f) vv =0
(g) vw=0 if and only if v w
Proof: The proofs of properties (b)-(f) are straightforward. We will prove parts (a) and (g)
and leave the rest to the reader as exercises.
x
y
z
0
v
w
vw
wv
Figure 1.4.6
(a) By the denition of the cross product and scalar multipli-
cation, we have:
vw=(v
2
w
3
v
3
w
2
, v
3
w
1
v
1
w
3
, v
1
w
2
v
2
w
1
)
=(v
3
w
2
v
2
w
3
, v
1
w
3
v
3
w
1
, v
2
w
1
v
1
w
2
)
=(w
2
v
3
w
3
v
2
, w
3
v
1
w
1
v
3
, w
1
v
2
w
2
v
1
)
=wv
Note that this says that vw and wv have the same mag-
nitude but opposite direction (see Figure 1.4.6).
(g) If either v or w is 0 then vw=0 by part (e), and either v =0 =0w or w=0 =0v, so v
and w are scalar multiples, i.e. they are parallel.
If both v and w are nonzero, and is the angle between them, then by formula (1.11),
vw=0 if and only if vw sin =0, which is true if and only if sin =0 (since v >0
and w > 0). So since 0

180

, then sin = 0 if and only if = 0

or 180

. But the
angle between v and w is 0

or 180

if and only if v w. QED

Example 1.11. Adding to Example 1.7, we have
i j =k j k=i ki =j
j i =k kj =i i k=j
i i =j j =kk=0
Recall from geometry that a parallelepiped is a 3-dimensional solid with 6 faces, all of
which are parallelograms.
6
6
An equivalent denition of a parallelepiped is: the collection of all scalar combinations k
1
v
1
+k
2
v
2
+k
3
v
3
of
some vectors v
1
, v
2
, v
3
in R
3
, where 0 k
1
, k
2
, k
3
1.
1.4 Cross Product 25
Example 1.12. Volume of a parallelepiped: Let the vectors u, v, w in R
3
represent adjacent
sides of a parallelepiped P, with u, v, w forming a right-handed system, as in Figure 1.4.7.
Show that the volume of P is the scalar triple product u (vw).
h

u
w
v
vw
Figure 1.4.7 Parallelepiped P
Solution: Recall that the volume vol(P) of a par-
allelepiped P is the area A of the base parallel-
ogram times the height h. By Theorem 1.13(b),
the area A of the base parallelogram is vw.
And we can see that since vw is perpendicular
to the base parallelogram determined by v and
w, then the height h is u cos, where is the
angle between u and vw. By Theorem 1.6 we
know that
cos =
u (vw)
uvw
. Hence,
vol(P) = Ah
=vw
uu (vw)
uvw
=u (vw)
In Example 1.12 the height h of the parallelepiped is u cos, and not u cos, be-
cause the vector u is on the same side of the base parallelograms plane as the vector vw
(so that cos > 0). Since the volume is the same no matter which base and height we use,
then repeating the same steps using the base determined by u and v (since w is on the same
side of that bases plane as uv), the volume is w (uv). Repeating this with the base
determined by w and u, we have the following result:
For any vectors u, v, w in R
3
,
u (vw) =w (uv) =v (wu) (1.12)
(Note that the equalities hold trivially if any of the vectors are 0.)
Since vw=wv for any vectors v, w in R
3
, then picking the wrong order for the three
adjacent sides in the scalar triple product in formula (1.12) will give you the negative of the
volume of the parallelepiped. So taking the absolute value of the scalar triple product for
any order of the three adjacent sides will always give the volume:
Theorem 1.15. If vectors u, v, w in R
3
represent any three adjacent sides of a paral-
lelepiped, then the volume of the parallelepiped is |u (vw)|.
Another type of triple product is the vector triple product u(vw). The proof of the
following theorem is left as an exercise for the reader:
26 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
Theorem 1.16. For any vectors u, v, w in R
3
,
u(vw) =(u w)v(u v)w (1.13)
An examination of the formula in Theorem 1.16 gives some idea of the geometry of the
vector triple product. By the right side of formula (1.13), we see that u(vw) is a scalar
combination of v and w, and hence lies in the plane containing v and w (i.e. u(vw), v
and w are coplanar). This makes sense since, by Theorem 1.11, u(vw) is perpendicular
to both u and vw. In particular, being perpendicular to vw means that u(vw) lies
in the plane containing v and w, since that plane is itself perpendicular to vw. But then
how is u(vw) also perpendicular to u, which could be any vector? The following example
may help to see how this works.
Example 1.13. Find u(vw) for u=(1, 2, 4), v =(2, 2, 0), w=(1, 3, 0).
Solution: Since u v =6 and u w=7, then
u(vw) =(u w)v(u v)w
=7(2, 2, 0) 6(1, 3, 0) =(14, 14, 0) (6, 18, 0)
=(8, 4, 0)
Note that v and w lie in the xy-plane, and that u(vw) also lies in that plane. Also,
u(vw) is perpendicular to both u and vw=(0, 0, 4) (see Figure 1.4.8).
y
z
x
0
u
v
w
v w
u (v w)
Figure 1.4.8
For vectors v =v
1
i+v
2
j+v
3
k and w=w
1
i+w
2
j+w
3
k in component form, the cross product
is written as: vw=(v
2
w
3
v
3
w
2
)i+(v
3
w
1
v
1
w
3
)j+(v
1
w
2
v
2
w
1
)k. It is often easier to use the
component form for the cross product, because it can be represented as a determinant. We
will not go too deeply into the theory of determinants
7
; we will just cover what is essential
for our purposes.
1.4 Cross Product 27
A 22 matrix is an array of two rows and two columns of scalars, written as
_
a b
c d
_
or
_
a b
c d
_
where a, b, c, d are scalars. The determinant of such a matrix, written as

a b
c d

or det
_
a b
c d
_
,
is the scalar dened by the following formula:

a b
c d

=adbc
It may help to remember this formula as being the product of the scalars on the downward
diagonal minus the product of the scalars on the upward diagonal.
Example 1.14.

1 2
3 4

=(1)(4) (2)(3) =46 =2

A 33 matrix is an array of three rows and three columns of scalars, written as
_
_
a
1
a
2
a
3
b
1
b
2
b
3
c
1
c
2
c
3
_
_
or
_
_
a
1
a
2
a
3
b
1
b
2
b
3
c
1
c
2
c
3
_
_
,
and its determinant is given by the formula:

a
1
a
2
a
3
b
1
b
2
b
3
c
1
c
2
c
3

=a
1

b
2
b
3
c
2
c
3

a
2

b
1
b
3
c
1
c
3

+ a
3

b
1
b
2
c
1
c
2

(1.14)
One way to remember the above formula is the following: multiply each scalar in the rst
row by the determinant of the 22 matrix that remains after removing the row and column
that contain that scalar, then sum those products up, putting alternating plus and minus
signs in front of each (starting with a plus).
Example 1.15.

1 0 2
4 1 3
1 0 2

=1

1 3
0 2

4 3
1 2

+ 2

4 1
1 0

=1(20) 0(83) +2(0+1) =0

28 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
We dened the determinant as a scalar, derived from algebraic operations on scalar en-
tries in a matrix. However, if we put three vectors in the rst row of a 33 matrix, then
the denition still makes sense, since we would be performing scalar multiplication on those
three vectors (they would be multiplied by the 22 scalar determinants as before). This gives
us a determinant that is now a vector, and lets us write the cross product of v =v
1
i+v
2
j+v
3
k
and w=w
1
i +w
2
j +w
3
k as a determinant:
vw=

i j k
v
1
v
2
v
3
w
1
w
2
w
3

v
2
v
3
w
2
w
3

v
1
v
3
w
1
w
3

j +

v
1
v
2
w
1
w
2

k
=(v
2
w
3
v
3
w
2
)i +(v
3
w
1
v
1
w
3
)j +(v
1
w
2
v
2
w
1
)k
Example 1.16. Let v =4i j +3k and w=i +2k. Then
vw=

i j k
4 1 3
1 0 2

1 3
0 2

4 3
1 2

j +

4 1
1 0

k=2i 5j +k
The scalar triple product can also be written as a determinant. In fact, by Example 1.12,
the following theorem provides an alternate denition of the determinant of a 33 matrix
as the volume of a parallelepiped whose adjacent sides are the rows of the matrix and form
a right-handed system (a left-handed system would give the negative volume).
Theorem 1.17. For any vectors u=(u
1
, u
2
, u
3
), v =(v
1
, v
2
, v
3
), w=(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
) in R
3
:
u (vw) =

u
1
u
2
u
3
v
1
v
2
v
3
w
1
w
2
w
3

(1.15)
Example 1.17. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent sides u = (2, 1, 3), v =
(1, 3, 2), w=(1, 1, 2) (see Figure 1.4.9).
y
z
x
0
u
v
w
Figure 1.4.9 P
Solution: By Theorem 1.15, the volume vol(P) of the parallelepiped
P is the absolute value of the scalar triple product of the three
adjacent sides (in any order). By Theorem 1.17,
u (vw) =

2 1 3
1 3 2
1 1 2

=2

3 2
1 2

1 2
1 2

+ 3

1 3
1 1

=2(8) 1(0) +3(4) =28, so

vol(P) =|28| =28.
1.4 Cross Product 29
Interchanging the dot and cross products can be useful in proving vector identities:
Example 1.18. Prove: (uv) (wz) =

u w u z
v w v z

for all vectors u, v, w, z in R

3
.
Solution: Let x =uv. Then
(uv) (wz) =x (wz)
=w (zx) (by formula (1.12))
=w (z(uv))
=w ((z v)u(z u)v) (by Theorem 1.16)
=(z v)(w u) (z u)(w v)
=(u w)(v z) (u z)(v w) (by commutativity of the dot product).
=

u w u z
v w v z

Exercises
A
For Exercises 1-6, calculate vw.
1. v =(5, 1, 2), w=(4, 4, 3) 2. v =(7, 2, 10), w=(2, 6, 4)
3. v =(2, 1, 4), w=(1, 2, 0) 4. v =(1, 3, 2), w=(7, 2, 10)
5. v =i +2j +k, w=3i +6j +3k 6. v =i, w=3i +2j +4k
For Exercises 7-8, calculate the area of the triangle PQR.
7. P =(5, 1, 2), Q =(4, 4, 3), R =(2, 4, 0) 8. P =(4, 0, 2), Q =(2, 1, 5), R =(1, 0, 1)
For Exercises 9-10, calculate the area of the parallelogram PQRS.
9. P =(2, 1, 3), Q =(1, 4, 5), R =(2, 5, 3), S =(3, 2, 1)
10. P =(2, 2), Q =(1, 4), R =(6, 6), S =(3, 0)
For Exercises 11-12, nd the volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent sides u, v, w.
11. u=(1, 1, 3), v =(2, 1, 4), w=(5, 1, 2) 12. u=(1, 3, 2), v =(7, 2, 10), w=(1, 0, 1)
For Exercises 13-14, calculate u (vw) and u(vw).
13. u=(1, 1, 1), v =(3, 0, 2), w=(2, 2, 2) 14. u=(1, 0, 2), v =(1, 0, 3), w=(2, 0, 2)
15. Calculate (uv) (wz) for u=(1, 1, 1), v =(3, 0, 2), w=(2, 2, 2), z =(2, 1, 4).
30 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACE
B
16. If v and w are unit vectors in R
3
, under what condition(s) would vw also be a unit
vector in R
3
? Justify your answer.
17. Show that if vw=0 for all w in R
3
, then v =0.
18. Prove Theorem 1.14(b). 19. Prove Theorem 1.14(c).
20. Prove Theorem 1.14(d). 21. Prove Theorem 1.14(e).
22. Prove Theorem 1.14(f). 23. Prove Theorem 1.16.
24. Prove Theorem 1.17. (Hint: Expand both sides of the equation.)
25. Prove the following for all vectors v, w in R
3
:
(a) vw
2
+|v w|
2
=v
2
w
2
(b) If v w=0 and vw=0, then v =0 or w=0.