11

Basic Relations of Radiation

11.1 Thermal Radiation Thermal radiation is the energy emitted by bodies because of their temperature level. Other types of radiation include gamma rays, xrays, for instance. Radiation is often treated as electromagnetic waves that propagate according to Maxwell's classic electromagnetic theory. Radiation may also be treated as photons as prescribed in Max Planck's concept of the quantum of energy. The electromagnetic theory has been used to predict the radiant properties of materials, while the quantum theory has been used to predict the amount of radiant energy emitted by a body because of its level of temperature.

Infrared-0.7- 1000 urn

Visible -0.4 - 0.7 urn

i
Ultraviolet~0.4 - 10"2um

^ ^
10"

w ^
1012 1013 1014

^ ^
1015

w ^
1016
10'

1018

Frequency, s"1

104

10'

102

10'

10"

lO'1

10'2

10'3

10"4

Wavelength, urn

\
Solar radiation -0.1-3 urn Thermal rad. - 0.1 - 100 urn

Figure 11.1 Electromagnetic wave spectrum.

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In Fig. 11.1, is shown a large range of the electromagnetic-wave spectrum. In theory, electromagnetic waves of zero to infinity wavelengths have thermal radiant energy. In practice, a big portion of the thermal radiation lies in the range from about 0.1 to 100 u,m. This portion is labeled as such in the figure. The visible range is from 0.4 to 0.7 urn; it is important to the extent that it tells the scholars of heat transfer to use their eyes to obtain insight into the thermal radiation phenomenon. When radiation is considered an electromagnetic wave, its transport in a medium takes place with the speed of light, c. The wavelength X and the frequency / are related to the speed of light by c = / . When thermal radiation travels in a vacuum, for instance, for most of the distance between the sun and the earth, the speed of light is 2.9979 x 108 m/s. This speed is attenuated by the atmosphere surrounding the earth. 11.2 Radiation Intensity and Blackbody

dA

Figure 11.2 Notation for radiation intensity.

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Radiation may be conceived as being propagated as a beam (like visible light), as in Fig. 11. 2. A basic quantity that is used to quantify radiative energy in a given direction Q , at a wavelength X, at a position r is the spectral radiation intensity IA (r, Q) . This represents the quantity of energy streaming through a unit area perpendicular to the direction Q , per unit time, per unit solid angle about the direction Q and per unit wavelength about the wavelength A,. The radiation intensity 7(r,Q) represents the amount of energy emitted over the entire wavelength spectrum from A, = 0 to oo in a beam and is defined from the spectral radiation intensity IA (r, Q) , (11.1) The radiation intensity I is the amount of radiant energy passing through a unit area normal to the direction of propagation Q , per unit time, per unit solid angle about the direction Q and per unit time, per unit solid angle about the direction Q . Consider the radiation intensity 7(r,Q) within a solid angle dQ to (or from) a surface element dA, propagating in the direction Q at an angle 0 with the normal n to the surface element, as shown in Fig. 1 1.2. The quantity dq= 7(r,Q)cos6>dQ (11.2)

is the amount of radiant energy per unit time, to (or from) per unit area of the surface owing to radiation contained within a solid angle dQ. The radiative energy flux q to (or from) a surface owing to radiation

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contained in a solid angle over an entire hemisphere is obtained by the integration of Eq. (1 1.2) as q= /cos6k/Q (11.3)

where the symbol indicates the integration with respect to a solid angle over an entire hemisphere. As shown in Fig. 11.2, 0 is the polar angle and 9 is the azimuthal angle. Since dQ. = sinGdOdcp, Eq. (1 1.3) may be written as (11.4) The dimensions of q are energy per unit time, per unit area of the surface (e.g., kJ/h.m 2 .) There is a maximum amount of radiant energy emitted by a body at a given absolute temperature T at a wavelength A,. This maximum amount of radiant emission is the spectral blackbody radiation intensity Ub(T); the emitter of such radiation is named a blackbody. This spectral blackbody radiation intensity is independent of direction. For a blackbody at an absolute temperature T and emitting radiative energy into a vacuum, Ixb(T) is calculated from the relation given by Planck, 1 959 [1], in the form

where h ( = 6.6256 x 10'34 J.s) and k ( = 1.38054 x 10'23 J.K) are the Planck and Boltzmann constants, respectively, T is the absolute temperature and c is the speed of light in a vacuum. For engineering practice, the spectral blackbody emissive flux q^b(T) at a surface is defined as (11.6) As Ixb(T) is independent of direction,

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(11.7) The quantity in Eq. (1 1.7) is the amount of radiative energy emitted by a blackbody at temperature T per unit of its surface, per unit time, per unit wavelength in all directions in the hemispherical space. Substituting Eq. (11.5)intoEq.(11.7),

(11-8) where q^,(T} is the spectral blackbody emissive flux as the surface (W/m2.um), d = 27ihc2 = 3.743 x 108 W.um4/m2 c2 = hc/k= 1.4387 x!0 4 um.K. Figure 1 1 .3 is a plot of the spectral blackbody emissive flux as a function of wavelength at various temperatures. From this figure, it is clear that at any given wavelength, the radiative energy emitted by a blackbody increases as the absolute temperature of the body increases. Each curve displays a peak, and the peaks shift toward smaller wavelengths as the temperature rises. The locus of the peaks calculated analytically by Wien's displacement rule is

Wmax = 0.28976 cm.K = 28997.6 /fln.K

(11.9)

The blackbody radiation intensity Ib(T) is found by the integration of IM (T) over the wavelengths ranging from 0 to oo.

(ii.io)
Put Eq.(l 1 .5) into Eq.(l 1.10) and integrate, Ib(T) = (11.11)

where the Stefan-Boltzmann constant cr = 5.6697 x 10"8 W/(m2.K4).

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10

10

0.1

0.4

0.6

Wavelength, X,(um)

Figure 1 1 .3 Spectral blackbody emissive power. The blackbody emissive flux qb(T) at an absolute temperature T is gained by integrating qxb(T) over all wavelengths, (11.12) This emissive flux has the dimensions of energy per unit time, per unit area. From Eqs. ( 1 1 . 1 1 ) and (11.12), it can be seen that

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n
The generalized idea of a blackbody is one that possesses the characteristic of allowing all incident radiation to enter the medium without surface reflection and without allowing it to leave the medium again. A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation from all directions at all frequencies without reflecting, transmitting, or scattering it outwards. The blackbody emits as much radiative energy as it absorbs, if it is at thermal equilibrium with the enclosure walls. For practical purposes, a cavity such as a hollow sphere whose interior surfaces are kept at a uniform temperature T can be used to approximate a blackbody. If a very tiny hole (compared to the cavity) is made, any radiation entering the cavity through the hole is almost entirely absorbed since it has very little possibility to escape through the hole. Such a cavity is considered an approximate blackbody. By a similar argument, radiation leaving the cavity through the hole is considered almost a blackbody radiation at temperature T. 11.3 Reflectivity, Absorptivity, Emissivity and Transmissivity Real Surfaces Consider a beam of radiant energy incident on a real surface. Part of this radiation is reflected, part of it is absorbed and the rest is transmitted. Let l% be the spectral radiation intensity incident on the surface. The spectral radiant heat flux incident on the surface can be expressed as q ^ = [ /^ cos 9* dQ? energy/( time x area x wavelength ) (11.14)

where 0' is the polar angle between the direction of the incident radiation and the normal to the surface. The spectral hemispherical reflectivity px is defined as

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_ radiant energy reflected/( time x area x wavelength ) Px ~

V*. (11.15) The spectral hemispherical absorptivity ax is defined as
a^

energy absorbed/( time x area x wavelength ) . =radiant ^A (11.16)

For an opaque surface, the relationship between the spectral hemispherical reflectivity and the spectral hemispherical absorptivity is Px + a x = l . (11.17)

For much of engineering practice, the reflectivity and the absorptivity, averaged over the entire wavelengths, is of relevance. When this is done, the resulting hemispherical reflectivity p and the hemispherical absorptivity a are defined as follows:-

(1U8)

(11.19)

For an opaque surface, p + a=l. (11.20)

The radiant energy emitted by a real surface at an absolute temperature T is always less than that emitted by a blackbody surface at the same temperature. Let qx(T) be the spectral emissive flux from a real surface at an absolute temperature T and q^b(T) be the spectral blackbody

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emissive heat flux for a blackbody surface at the same temperature. The hemispherical emissivity ex of the surface is defined as
=

(11.21)

The hemispherical emissivity e over the entire range of wavelengths is found by

where q(T) and qb(T) are the emissive fluxes from the real surface at temperature T, and the blackbody at temperature T, respectively.
Incident radiation

Reflected

Absorbed

Transmitted Figure 1 1 .4. Incident radiation on a translucent body. When radiation is incident on a translucent body, part of the incident radiation is reflected, part is absorbed, and the remainder is transmitted through the translucent body (Fig. 11.4). An example of a translucent body is a pane of glass. The relationship between the spectral reflectivity px, the spectral absorptivity ax and the spectral transmissivity TX of the translucent body is (11.23)

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When these radiative properties are averaged over all wavelengths, we get p + a +x=l. (11.24) The reflectivity, absorptivity and transmissivity of a translucent body depend in large part on the surface conditions, the wavelength of the radiation, the composition of the material and the thickness of the body. Since the attenuation of radiation within a body should be analyzed as a bulk process, the evaluation of the reflectivity and transmissivity of a translucent object is more involved. Graybody For simplicity, the graybody assumption is used in many applications. The radiative properties px, c^ , e^ and TX are assumed to be uniform over the entire wavelength spectrum. In other words, graybodies have radiative properties p, a , e and T that are independent of wavelength. 11.4 Kirchhoff s Law of Radiation The absorptivity and the emissivity of a body can be related by Kirchhoff s law of radiation, Planck, 1959 [1]. Consider a body inside a black, closed container whose walls are kept at a uniform absolute temperature T and has reached thermal equilibrium with the walls of the container. If flux q^(T) is the spectral radiative heat flux from the walls at temperature T incident on the body and a^(T) is the spectral absorptivity of the body, then the spectral radiative heat flux q^(T) absorbed by the body at the wavelength A, is

qi(T) = a,(T)q\(T).

(11-25)

Since the body is in radiative equilibrium, qx(T) also expresses the spectral radiative flux emitted by the body at the wavelength X. The incident radiation q\(T) comes from the black walls of the enclosure at temperature T, and the emission by the walls is not influenced by the body regardless if it is a blackbody or not. Let qxb(T) be the spectral blackbody emissive flux at temperature T. Then,

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(11.26) From Eqs. (1 1.25) and (1 1.26), (11.27) The spectral emissivity ex(T) of the body for radiation at temperature T is defined as the ratio of the spectral emissive flux qx(T) of the body to the spectral blackbody emissive flux qxb(T) at the same temperature. Expressed mathematically, (11.28) From Eqs. (1 1 .27) and (1 1 .28), it can be deduced that ex(T) = ax(T). (11.29)

Equation (1 1 .29) is Kirchhoff s law of radiation. The law states that the spectral emissivity for the emission of radiation at temperature T is equal to the spectral absorptivity for radiation from a blackbody at the same temperature T. The relation e(T) = a(T) (11.30)

holds only if the incident and emitted radiation have the same spectral distribution or when the body is gray. This later characteristic is one where the radiative properties are independent of wavelength. PROBLEMS 11.1. The average internal temperature of an oven is 1500C, and the emissivity of the internal surface is e = 0.9 at this temperature. Calculate the radiant energy coming from the oven through an opening 10 cm by 10 cm.

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11.2.

A blackbody enclosure at 1000C has a small aperture into the environment. Determine (i) the blackbody radiation intensity emerging from the aperture, and (ii) the blackbody radiation heat flux from the blackbody. The surface of an outer space station receives solar radiation at a rate of 1.2 kW/m2. The surface has an absorptivity of a = 0.75 for solar radiation and an emissivity of e = 0.86. There are no heat losses into the space station. However, heat is dissipated by thermal radiation into the space at absolute zero. Determine the equilibrium temperature of the surface. A solar collector surface receives solar radiation at 1 kW/m2, and its other side is insulated. The absorptivity of the surface to solar radiation is a = 0.8 while its emissivity is e = 0.6. Assuming the surface loses heat by radiation into a clear sky at an effective temperature of 10C, calculate the temperature of the surface.

11.3.

11.4.

REFERENCES 1. M Planck. The Theory of Heat Radiation. New York: Dover Publications, 1959.

Blackbody and Graybody A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation At all frequencies and from all different directions No phenomena of reflecting, transmitting or scattering It is emitting as much as it is absorbing. At any conditions, graybody has uniform properties They are not dependent on other properties Radiative properties are uniform over all wavelengths Graybody has properties independent of wavelength. K.V. Wong

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