COOLING LOAD ESTIMATION INTRODUCTION The air inside a building gain heat from a number of sources during winter

and summer season. If the temperature and humidity of the air are to be maintained at a comfortable level this heat must be removed. The amount of heat that must be removed is called the COOLING LOAD. COOLING LOAD in the rate at which heat energy generated by lightening, wall, equipment, application etc. must be removed from a space to maintain its temperature and humidity at the desired values. If the temperature in a given space remains constant relatively constant for a time, it does not follow that there are no heat gains or losses taking place. A steady temperature merely means that the rate of heat gain to the space form all sources is equal to the rate heat lose form the space. Only when the room air receives the energy by convention does this energy become partly the cooling load. The cooling load will generally differ from the heat gain at any instant of time, because radiation from the inside surface of the walls and interior object as well as the solar radiation coming directly into the space through opening does not heat the air within the space directly. The radiation energy in mostly absorbed by floors, interior walls and furniture, which are then cooled primarily by convention as they attain temperatures higher than that of the room air. A BRIEF HISTORY Unlike animals such as a fox or a bear that are born with built in furs, human beings come into this world with little protection against the harsh environmental conditions. Therefore, we can claim that the search for human comfort dates back to the beginning of human history. The development of cooling system took the back seat in the history of thermal comfort since there was no quick way of creating coolness. Therefore early attempt at cooling were passive measures such as blocking off direct sunlight and using thick stone walls to
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store coolness at night. A more sophisticated approach was to take advantage of evaporative cooling by running water through the structure, as done in the Alhambra castle. Ofcourse, natural ice and snow served as cold storage medium and provide some cooling. Air cooling system for thermal comfort were built in 1890s, but they did not find widespread use until the development of mechanical refrigeration in the early 1910s. Frigidaire introduced the first room air conditioner in the late 1920s Today most residential and commercial buildings are equipped with modern air-conditioning system that can heat, cool, humidify, dehumidify, clean, and even deodorize the airin other words, condition the air for peoples desires. PURPOSE FOR COOLING LOAD ESTIMATION Accurate estimation of cooling load is an essential ingredient to a successful HVAC system design. This forms the basis for selection of the proper sized air conditioning equipment and distribution system, compared to over-sized systems, which has lower installation cost, better performance, more efficient operation and impose less demand on utilities which is in the area of energy use and conservation. Most A/C equipment breakdown can be attributed to money estimations made by practioners between the actual loads. And the equipment capacity; this identifies weakness at the side of the service providers FACTORS THAT AFFECTS COOLING LOAD The various factors that influence space cooling load are; a) Geographical site condition (latitude, longitude, wind velocity, precipitation etc ) b) Outdoor design conditions (temperature, humility etc) c) Indoor design conditions d) Building characteristics (material sizes and shape) e) Configuration (location orientation and shading) f) Operating schedules (lighting, occupancy and equipment)

CONCEPT OF BUILDING STRUCTURE AS APPLIED TO LOAD (HEAT GAIN) Building and building space gain sensible heat in summer and lose it in winter by conduction, convection (ventilation and infiltration), and radiation. They may also gain and lose latent heat (moisture). Both sensible and latent heat may be produced within conditioned spaces by occupants and by machine and equipment. Light produce sensible heat in the space. More often than not a specified design condition cannot be maintained in the space by merely cooling or heating the air in or supplied to space. Humidification (in winter) and dehumidification (in summer) are often essential to the attainment of design conditions. SPACE CHARACTERISTICS Building space are characterized by the following features - Size and shape - Constructional materials - Windows, doors opening etc - Surrounding conditions - Occupants (activity, number, duration) - Appliances (power, usage), lighting fixtures - Air leakage (infiltration or exfiltration)

THE SUMMER AIR CONDITIONING (COOLING) LOAD The summer cooling load means much more than merely cooling the air in a building. In addition to cooling the air, it also implies controlling. a) The relative humidity b) Providing adequate ventilation c) Filtering out contaminate (air cleaning) and d) Distributing the conditioned air to the lived-in space in proper amounts, without objectionable noise. LOAD CLASSIFACATION Cooling load is classified by: i. Source
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ii. iii.

Heat Inside-outside environment.

SOURCES - Heat transfers (gain) through the building by condition, as a result of the outdoor-indoor temperature difference. - Solar heat gains (radiation) through glass or the transparent materials - Heat gains from ventilation air and/or infiltration of outside air. - Internal heat gains generated by occupants, lights, appliances, and machinery.

In cooling load calculation, there are four related heat flow terms; 1) space heat gain, 2) space cooling load, 3) space heat extraction rate and 4) cooling coil load. What does these terms mean? 1) The heat gain for a building is a simultaneous summation of all external heat flows plus the heat flows generated inside the building. The heat gain varies throughout the 24 hours of the day, as the solar intensity, occupancy; lights, appliances etc keep varying with time. 2) The cooling load is an hourly rate at which heat must be removed from a building in order to hold the indoor air temperature at the design value. In other words, cooling load is the capacity of equipment required to account for such a load. Theoretically, it may seem logical to address that the space heat gain is equivalent to space cooling load but in practice Heat gain cooling load.

The primary explanation for this difference is the time lag or thermal storage affects of the building elements. Heat gains that enter a building are absorbed/stored by surfaces enclosing the space (walls, floors and other interior elements) as well as objects within the space (furniture, curtains etc.) These elements radiates into the space even after the heat gain sources are no longer present. Therefore the time at which the space may realize the heat gain as a cooling load is considerably offset from the time the heat started to flow. This thermal storage effect is critical in determining the instantaneous heat gain and the cooling load of a space at a particular time. Calculating the nature and magnitude of these re-radiated loads to estimate a more realistic cooling load is described in the subsequent sections.

Schematic Relation of Heat Gain to Cooling Load The convective heat flows are converted to space cooling load instantaneously whereas radiant loads tend to be partially stored in a building. The cooling load for the space is equal to the summation of all instantaneous heat gain plus the radiant energy that has been absorbed by surfaces enclosing the space as well as objects within the space. Thus heat gain is often not equal to cooling load. In heating load calculations however, the instantaneous heat loss from the space can be equated to the space heating load and it can be use directly to size the heating equipment. 3) The space heat extraction rate is usually the same as the spacecooling load but with an assumption that the space temperature remains constant.

4)

The cooling coil load is the summation of all the cooling loads of the various spaces served by the equipment plus any loads external to the spaces such as duct heat gain, duct leakage, fan heat, and outdoor makeup air.

Cooling Loads Classified by Kinds of Heat There are two distinct components of the air conditioning load; (1) the sensible load (heat gain) and (2) the latent load (water vapor gain). Sensible Loads Sensible heat gain is the direct addition of heat to a space,which shall result in increase in space temperatures. The factors influencing sensible cooling load: 1) Solar heat gain through building envelope (exterior walls, glazing, skylights, roof, floors over crawl space) 2) Partitions (that separate spaces of different temperatures) 3) Ventilation air and air infiltration through cracks in the building, doors, and windows 4) People in the building 5) Equipment and appliances operated in the summer 6) Lights Latent Loads A latent heat gain is the heat contained in water vapor. Latent heat does not cause a temperature rise, but it constitutes a load on the cooling equipment. Latent load is the heat that must be removed to condense the moisture out of the air. The sources of latent heat gain are: 1) People (breathing) 2) Cooking equipment 3) Housekeeping, floor washing etc. 4) Appliances or machinery that evaporates water 5) Ventilation air and air infiltration through cracks in the building, doors, and windows The total cooling load is the summation of sensible and latent loads.

Cooling Loads Classified by Inside-Outside Environment Buildings can be classified as envelope-load-dominated and interiorload-dominated. The envelope heat flows are termed external loads, in that they originate with the external environment. The other loads are termed internal loads, in that they are generated from within the building itself. The percentage of external versus internal load varies with building type, site climate, and building design decisions. It is useful to identify whether internal or external loads will dominate a building, as this information should substantially change the focus of design efforts related to control and energy efficiency. INTERNAL LOADS The primary sources of internal heat gain are lights, occupants, and equipment operating within the space. Internal loads are a major factor in most nonresidential buildings. The amount of heat gain in the space due to lighting depends on the wattage of the lamps and the type of fixture. When fluorescent lighting is used, the energy dissipated by the ballast must also be included in the internal load. As lighting is often the largest single component of the internal load, care must be exercised in its evaluation. The portion of the heat emanating from lighting which is in the form of radiant energy is not an instantaneous load on the air-conditioning system. The radiant energy from the lights is first absorbed by the walls, floor, and furnishings of the space, and their temperatures then increase at a rate dependent on their mass. As the surface temperature of these objects rises above the air temperature, heat is converted from the surface and finally becomes a load on the cooling system. Thus because of the mass of the objects absorbing the radiation there is a delay between turning the light on and the energy from the lights having an effect on the load. The cooling load from the lighting persists after the lights are turned off for the same reason. To accommodate these circumstances the following format has been developed for estimating the internal heat gain from lights. Internal cooling loads consist of the following: 1) Sensible & latent loads due to people 2) Sensible loads due to lighting 3) Sensible loads due to power loads and motors (elevators, pumps, fans & other machinery)
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4)

Sensible & latent loads due to appliances

Solar radiation Computer & equipment conductive heat gains Infiltration hot air

occupant

People The average amount of heat given off by a person depends on the level of activity, and can range from about 100 W for a resting person to more than 500 W for a physically very active person. Note that latent heat constitutes about one-third of the total heat dissipated during resting, but rises to almost two-thirds the level during heavy physical work. Also, about 30 percent of the sensible heat is lost by convection and the remaining 70 percent by radiation. The latent and convective sensible heat losses represent the instant cooling load for people since they need to be removed immediately.

FIGURE 1627 If the moisture leaving an average resting persons body in one day were collected and condensed it would fill a 1-L container.

The radiative sensible heat, on the other hand, is first absorbed by the surrounding surfaces and then released gradually with some delay. It is interesting to note that an average person dissipates latent heat at a minimum rate of 30 W while resting. Noting that the enthalpy of vaporization of water at 330C is 2424 kJ/kg, the amount of water an average person loses a day by evaporation at the skin and the lungs is (Fig. 1627) which justifies the sound advice that a person must drink at least 1 L of water every day.

Therefore, a family of four will supply 4 L of water a day to the air in the house while just resting. This amount will be much higher during heavy work. Heat given off by people usually constitutes a significant fraction of the sensible and latent heat gain of a building, and may dominate the cooling load in high occupancy buildings such as theaters and concert halls. The design cooling load of a building should be determined assuming full occupancy. In the absence of better data, the number of occupants can be estimated on the basis of one occupant per 1m2 in auditoriums, 2.5m2 in schools, 35m2 in retail stores, and 1015m2 in offices. Lights Lighting constitutes about 7 percent of the total energy use in residential buildings and 25 percent in commercial buildings. Therefore, lighting can have a significant impact on the heating and cooling loads of a building. Not counting the candle light used for emergencies and romantic settings, and the kerosene lamps used during camping, all modern lighting equipment is powered by electricity. The basic types of electric lighting devices are incandescent, fluorescent, and gaseous discharge lamps.

FIGURE 1628 A 15-W compact fluorescent lamp provides as much light as a 60-W incandescent lamp. The amount of heat given off per lux of lighting varies greatly with the type of lighting, and thus we need to know the type of lighting installed in order to predict the lighting internal heat load accurately. The lighting efficacy of common types of lighting is given in Table 16 9. Note that incandescent lights are the least efficient lighting sources, and thus they will impose the greatest load on cooling systems (Fig. 1628). So it is no surprise that practically all office buildings use high-efficiency fluorescent lights despite their higher initial cost.

Note that incandescent lights waste energy by (1) consuming more electricity for the same amount of lighting and (2) making the cooling
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system work harder and longer to remove the heat given off. Office spaces are usually well lit, and the lighting energy consumption in office buildings is about 20 to 30 W/m2 (2 to 3W/ft2) of floor space. The energy consumed by the lights is dissipated by convection and radiation. The convection component of the heat constitutes about 40 percent for fluorescent lamps, and it represents the instantaneous part of the cooling load due to lighting. The remaining part is in the form of radiation that is absorbed and reradiated by the walls, floors, ceiling, and the furniture, and thus they affect the cooling load with time delay. Therefore, lighting may continue contributing to the cooling load by reradiation even after the lights have been turned off. Sometimes it may be necessary to consider time lag effects when determining the design cooling load. The ratio of the lighting wattage in use to the total wattage installed is called the usage factor, and it must be considered when determining the heat gain due to lighting at a given time since installed lighting does not give off heat unless it is on. For commercial applications such as supermarkets and shopping centers, the usage factor is taken to be unity. Equipment and Appliances Most equipment and appliances are driven by electric motors, and thus the heat given off by an appliance in steady operation is simply the power consumed by its motor. For a fan, for example, part of the power consumed by the motor is transmitted to the fan to drive it, while the rest is converted to heat because of the inefficiency of the motor. The fan transmits the energy to the air molecules and increases their kinetic energy. But this energy is also converted to heat as the fast-moving molecules are slowed down by other molecules and stopped as a result of friction. Therefore, we can say that the entire energy consumed by the motor of the fan in a room is eventually converted to heat in that room. Of course, if the motor is in one room (say, room A) and the fan is in another (say, room B), then the heat gain of room B will be equal to the power transmitted to the fan only, while the heat gain of room A will be the heat generated by the motor due to its inefficiency (Fig. 1629).

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FIGURE 1629 An 80 percent efficient motor that drives a 100-W fan contributes 25 W and 100 W to the heat loads of the motor and equipment rooms, respectively. The power rating Wmotor on the label of a motor represents the power that the motor will supply under full load conditions. But a motor usually operates at part load, sometimes at as low as 30 to 40 percent, and thus it consumes and delivers much less power than the label indicates. This is characterized by the load factor fload of the motor during operation, which is fload = 1.0 for full load. Also, there is an inefficiency associated with the conversion of electrical energy to rotational mechanical energy. This is characterized by the motor efficiency motor, which decreases with decreasing load factor. Therefore, it is not a good idea to oversize the motor since oversized motors operate at a low load factor and thus at a lower efficiency. Another factor that affects the amount of heat generated by a motor is how long a motor actually operates. This is characterized by the usage factor fusage, with fusage _ 1.0 for continuous operation. Motors with very low usage factors such as the motors of dock doors can be ignored in calculations. Then the heat gain due to a motor inside a conditioned space can be expressed as motor, total = motor load usage / load (W) Heat generated in conditioned spaces by electric, gas, and steam appliances such as a range, refrigerator, freezer, TV, dishwasher, clothes washer, drier, computers, printers, and copiers can be significant, and thus must be considered when determining the peak
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cooling load of a building. There is considerable uncertainty in the estimated heat gain from appliances owing to the variations in appliances and the varying usage schedules. The exhaust hoods in the kitchen complicate things further. Also, some office equipment such as printers and copiers consume considerable power in the standby mode. A 350-W laser printer, for example, may consume 175 W and a 600-W computer may consume 530 W when in standby mode.

FIGURE 1630 In hooded appliances, about 68 percent of the generated heat is vented out with the heated and humidified air. The heat gain from office equipment in a typical office with computer terminals on most desks can be up to 47 W/m2. This value can be 10 times as large for computer rooms that house mainframe computers. When the equipment inventory of a building is known, the equipment heat gain can be determined more accurately using the data given in the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. The presence of thermostatic controls and typical usage practices make it highly unlikely for all the appliances in a conditioned space to operate at full load. A more realistic approach is to take 50 percent
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of the total nameplate ratings of the appliances to represent the maximum use. Therefore, the peak heat gain from appliances is taken to be regardless of the type of energy or fuel used. unhooded appliance = 0.5 appliance, input (W) For cooling load estimate, about 34 percent of heat gain can be assumed to be latent heat, with the remaining 66 percent to be sensible in this case. In hooded appliances, the air heated by convection and the moisture generated are removed by the hood. Therefore, the only heat gain from hooded appliances is radiation, which constitutes up to 32 percent of the energy consumed by the appliance (Fig. 1630). Therefore, the design value of heat gain from hooded electric or steam appliances is simply half of this 32 percent. An internal load calculation is the area of engineering judgment. The internal loads are sometimes about 60% of the load; however, these data are generally the least amount of information available to you at the design stage and therefore the generic rules are most often employed to fix the variables. The equations used in estimating internal loads are: 1) People Q sensible = N (QS) (CLF) Q latent = N (QL) N = number of people in space. QS, QL = Sensible and Latent heat gain from occupancy is given in 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals Chapter 28, Table 3 CLF = Cooling Load Factor, by hour of occupancy. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28, table 37.Note: CLF = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours or of cooling is off at night or during weekends. 2) Lights The lights result in sensible heat gain. Q = 3.41 W FUT FBF (CLF) W = Installed lamp watts input from electrical lighting plan or lighting load data FUT = Lighting use factor, as appropriate FBF = Blast factor allowance, as appropriate

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CLF = Cooling Load Factor, by hour of occupancy. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28, Table 38. Note: CLF = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours or if cooling is off at night or during weekends. COOLING-LOAD FACTORS FOR LIGHTING No. of hours Ficture X, hours of Ficture X, hours of after lights operation operation are turned on 10 16 10 16 0 0.08 0.19 0.01 0.05 1 0.62 0.72 0.76 0.79 2 0.66 0.75 0.81 0.83 3 0.69 0.77 0.84 0.87 4 0.73 0.80 0.88 0.89 5 0.75 0.82 0.90 0.91 6 0.78 0.84 0.92 0.93 7 0.80 0.85 0.93 0.94 8 0.82 0.87 0.95 0.95 9 0.84 0.88 0.96 0.96 10 0.85 0.89 0.97 0.97 11 0.32 0.90 0.22 0.98 12 0.29 0.91 0.18 0.98 13 0.26 0.92 0.14 0.98 14 0.23 0.93 0.12 0.99 15 0.21 0.94 0.09 0.99 16 0.19 0.94 0.08 0.99 17 0.17 0.40 0.06 0.24 18 0.15 0.36 0.05 0.20 3) Power Loads & Motors Three different equations are used under different scenarios: a. Heat gain of power driven equipment and motor when both are located inside the space to be conditioned Q = 2545 (P / Eff) FUM FLM P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or manufacturers data Eff = Equipment motor efficiency, as decimal fraction FUM = Motor use factor (normally = 1.0) FLM = Motor load factor (normally = 1.0)
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b.

c.

Note: FUM = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours Heat gain of when driven equipment is located inside the space to be conditioned space and the motor is outside the space or air stream Q = 2545 P FUM FLM P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or manufacturers data Eff = Equipment motor efficiency, as decimal fraction FUM = Motor use factor FLM = Motor load factor Note: FUM = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours Heat gain of when driven equipment is located outside the space to be conditioned space and the motor is inside the space or air stream Q = 2545 P [(1.0-Eff)/Eff] FUM FLM P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or manufacturers data Eff = Equipment motor efficiency, as decimal fraction FUM = Motor use factor FLM = Motor load factor Note: FUM = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours

4) Appliances Q = 3.41 W Fu Fr (CLF) W = Installed rating of appliances in watts. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28; Table 5 thru 9 or use manufacturers data. For computers, monitors, printers and miscellaneous office equipment, see 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 29, Tables 8, 9, & 10. Fu = Usage factor. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28, Table 6 and 7 Fr = Radiation factor. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28, Table 6 and 7 CLF = Cooling Load Factor, by hour of occupancy. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28, Table 37 and 39. Note: CLF = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours or of cooling is off at night or during weekends.

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HEAT GAIN FROM HVAC SYSTEM a. Supply Fan Heat Load Supply and/or return fans that circulate or supply air to the space add heat to the space or system depending on the location relative to the conditioned space. The heat added may take one or all of the following forms: Instantaneous temperature rise in the air stream due to fan drive inefficiency. Temperature rise in the air stream when the air is brought to static equilibrium and the static and kinetic energy is transformed into heat energy. The location of the fan and motor relative to the cooling coil and space being conditioned determines how the heat is added to the system. If the fan is downstream of the cooling coil (draw-thru) then the fan heat load is added to the space-cooling load. If the fan is upstream of the cooling coil, then the fan heat load is added to the system cooling coil load. The heat energy is calculated as follows: Q = 2545 [P / (Eff1 Eff2)] P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or manufacturers data 2545 = conversion factor for converting horsepower to Btu per hour Eff1 = Full load motor and drive efficiency Eff2 = Fan static efficiency Note: See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28; Table 4 for motor heat gain. b. Duct Heat Gain Unless the return ductwork system is extensive and uninsulated or passes over a non-conditioned space, only the heat gained by the duct supply system is significant. This heat gain is normally estimated as a percentage of the space sensible cooling load (usually 1% to 5%) and applied to the temperature of the air leaving the cooling coil in the form of temperature increase.

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External Loads External cooling loads consist of the following: 1) Sensible loads through opaque envelope assemblies (roofs, walls, floors) 2) Sensible loads through transparent or translucent envelope assemblies (skylights, windows, glazed openings) 3) Sensible loads through ventilation and infiltration (air leakage) 4) Latent loads through ventilation and infiltration. Because of the inherent differences in these types of heat flows, they are calculated (estimated) using four different equations: 1) Roofs, External Walls & Conduction through Glass The equation used for sensible loads from the opaque elements such as walls, roof, partitions and the conduction through glass is: Q = U A (CLTD) U= Thermal Transmittance for roof or wall or glass. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 24 or 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals, chapter 25. A= area of roof, wall or glass calculated from building plans CLTD = Cooling Load Temperature Difference for roof, wall or glass. Refer 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28, tables 30, 31, 32, 33 and 34. 2) Solar Load through Glass The equation used for radiant sensible loads from the transparent/translucent elements such as window glass, skylights and plastic sheets is: Q = A (SHGC) (CLF) A = area of roof, wall or glass calculated from building plans SHGC = Solar Heat Gain Coefficient. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28, table 35 CLF = Solar Cooling Load Factor. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28, and Table 36. 3) Partitions, Ceilings & Floors The equation used for sensible loads from the partitions, ceilings and floors: Q = U A (Ta - Trc)

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U=

Thermal Transmittance for roof or wall or glass. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 24 or 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals, and Chapter 25. A= area of partition, ceiling or floor calculated from building plans Ta = Temperature of adjacent space (Note: If adjacent space is not conditioned and temperature is not available, use outdoor air temperature less 5F) Trc = Inside design temperature of conditioned space (assumed constant) 4) Ventilation & Infiltration Air Ventilation air is the amount of outdoor air required to maintain Indoor Air Quality for the occupants (sees ASHRAE Standard 62 for minimum ventilation requirements) and makeup for air leaving the space due to equipment exhaust, exfiltration and pressurization. Q sensible = 1.08 CFM (To Tc) Q latent = 4840 CFM (Wo Wc) Q total = 4.5 CFM (ho hc) CFM = Ventilation airflow rate. To = Outside dry bulb temperature, F Tc = Dry bulb temperature of air leaving the cooling coil,F Wo = Outside humidity ratio, lb (water) per lb (dry air) Wc = Humidity ratio of air leaving the cooling coil, lb (water) per lb (dry air) ho = Outside/Inside air enthalpy, Btu per lb (dry air) hc = Enthalpy of air leaving the cooling coil Btu per lb (dry air) Refer to 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 25, for determining infiltration ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SYMBOLS IN COOLING LOAD ESTIMATION Estimating cooling load demands a detailed building plan of a given structure that indicates all heat emitting components that contributes to space heat gain. However, these components located in space gives the total amount of heat gain in space.
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Furthermore, buildings situated at various regions afar-off could be estimated with plans rather than visiting site for documentation i.e. noting lighting points/ fixtures, appliance, no of occupants, electric heater/ coolers, motors etc. which is time consuming and boring. Below shows an architectural drawing displaying various symbols used in load estimation. CONSERVATION STRATEGIES ARCHITECTURAL & MECHANICAL ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE The following load reduction strategies 1) Shape The shape of the building has influence on the cooling and heating load. Ideally the building has to have the least aspect ratio (length/width ratio). The lower aspect ratio means the building has the least surface area of the building envelope (least wall area, glazing area and the roof area). Consider for example a 900 square feet area can be built as ~ 34 ft diameter room or can be made as 30 ft x 30 ft square or 60 ft x 15 ft rectangular. For a 10 ft height, the circular room shall have the surface area of 1067 sq-ft; for square the surface area is 1200 sq-ft and for rectangular the surface area is 1500 sq-ft. The lower surface area shows that not only the building will use less concrete, brick, wood, glazing or insulation but shall also have lower cooling and heating loss from the building envelope. Therefore the building shall be designed for least aspect ratio where possible. 2) Orientation The orientation of a building often is determined by siting considerations. However, for those sites where there is a choice, analyzing the effect of orientation on energy and equipment costs can lead to a more energy-efficient building. While it is important to look at each project on an individual basis, as a general guide, long, narrow buildings facing south with their long axis running east/west will have lower peak cooling loads and may be able to utilize smaller cooling equipment. Conversely, buildings facing east or west with their long axis running north/south will have higher peak cooling loads and electricity demand costs, and may require larger cooling equipment. Orientation as well as directional emphasis changes with latitude in response to solar angles.

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Research has shown that the preferred length of the sides of the building, where the sides are of length x: y is: 1) Tropical zone - 1:3 2) Arid zone - 1:2 3) Temperate zone - 1: 1.6 4) Cool zone - 1:1 Analysis of these ratios indicates that an elongated form to minimize east and west exposure is needed at the lower latitudes. This form slowly transforms to a ratio of 1:1 (cylindrical) at the higher latitudes. This is a direct response to the varying solar angles in the various latitudes. 3) Landscaping Well designed landscaping can reduce cooling costs from summer heat gains in building. Trees planted on the east, west and south sides of a one-or two-story building can effectively reduce summer solar heat gains through windows, which is one of the major contributors to the cooling load on an air conditioning system. External shading with vegetation with natural deciduous trees is very effective at providing shade and cooling by evaporating water through their leaves: during winter they are bare, allowing sunlight to pass through, but during summer they shade the building. 4) Day lighting Day lighting with skylights and other types of architectural glazing features can provide natural lighting creating a pleasant working atmosphere. Day lighting strategies may by particularly effective using skylights in large open areas such as warehouses and manufacturing plants, and in office spaces where the electrical lighting system output can be efficiently varied over a wide range of light levels.

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In architectural design, climatic graphs and charts are useful to determine the position of the sun and optimize the built form, orientation and exposure of elements (windows, roof and walls) for maximum or minimum solar gain. 5) Shading a) Shading devices are designed from knowledge of the suns azimuth and altitude along with the wall-solar azimuth. In the lower latitudes there is total overheating, whereas in the higher latitudes overheating only occurs during the summer months. b) Tropical regions need both vertical and horizontal shading throughout the year. In higher latitudes, horizontal and vertical shading is only needed during the summer on the south-facing sides of buildings. c) There are obviously seasonal variations near the equator. Solar heating becomes more important than in the upper latitudes. Beginning at the equator and moving north, the need for solar heating increases whiles the need for solar shading diminishes. d) Any breeze in the lower latitude (tropical and arid climates) is beneficial for most of the year whereas in higher latitudes most wind is detrimental and has to be screened. e) Generally, for the tropical zones as much ventilation as possible is desired. For the arid zone cross ventilation is required, but care has to be taken to filter out high-velocity winds. In the temperate zone, cross ventilation and shielding are both necessary (for summer and winter, respectively). In the cool region, the building should be protected from cold, high-velocity winds, although cross ventilation is still required. f) In the arid zone, the low level of humidity can be beneficial for evaporative cooling. In the tropical zone the high level of humidity can be very uncomfortable. 6) Zoning for transitional spaces Transitional areas are one that does not require total climate control and natural ventilation may be sufficient. These include lobbies, stairs, utility spaces, circulation, balconies and any other areas where movement take place. For the tropical and arid zones, the transitional spaces are located on the north and south sides of the building where the sun's penetration is not as great. An atrium can also be used a transitional space. In temperate and cool zones the transitional spaces should be located on the south side of the building to maximize solar gain.
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7) Use of atrium In the tropical zone the atrium should be located in a way to provide ventilation within the built form. In the arid zone the atrium should be located at the center of the building for cooling and shading purposes. For the cool and temperate zones the atrium should be at the center of the building for heat and light. 8) Potential of roof/ground floor as useable exterior space In tropical and arid climates there is a high potential to make use of all external spaces, whereas moving towards the northern latitudes the external spaces have to be covered to be used. 9) Vertical cores and structure The arrangement of primary mass can be used as a factor in climatic design as its position can help to shade or retain heat within the building form. For the tropical zone, the cores are located on the east and west sides of the building form, so as to help shade the building from the low angles of the sun during the major part of the day. In arid zone, the cores should also be located on the east and west sides, but with major shading only needed during the summer. Therefore, the cores are located on the east and west sides, but primarily on the south side. The arrangement of the primary mass in the temperate zone is on the north face, so as to leave the south face available for solar heat gain during the winter. The cool zone requires the maximum perimeter of the building to be open to the sun for heat penetration. Therefore the primary mass is placed in the center of the building so as not to block out the suns rays and to retain heat within the building. 10) Mechanical Design Considerations Thermal Zoning: A method of designing and controlling the HVAC system so that occupied areas can be maintained at a different temperature than unoccupied areas using independent setback thermostats is known as thermal zoning. A zone is defined as a space or group of spaces in a building having similar heating and cooling requirements throughout its occupied area so that comfort conditions may be controlled by a single thermostat. In practice the corner rooms and the perimetric spaces of the building have variations in load as compared to the interior core areas. East facing zone will normally peak at 10 to 12 AM whole most building loads will peak at 3 to 4 PM. South facing zones are similar but will peak usually at noon to 2 PM and may peak in winter. Therefore the building shall be divided into smaller zones to control comfort levels in each zone. The buildings may be zoned into individual floors, rooms, or spaces with distinct loads, such as perimeter and interior zones. All zones should be calculated at both zone peak (for sizing air handling equipment) and building peak (for sizing central equipment).
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Smaller buildings are usually divided into two major zones. These two zones may contain multiple sub-zones. Large projects should consider exposure zoning and velocity of prevailing winds as well as the requirement of interior zones. a) Exterior Zone: The area inward from the outside wall (usually 12 to 18 feet if rooms do not line the outside wall). The exterior zone is directly affected by outdoor conditions during summer and winter. b) Interior Zone: The area contained by the external zone. The interior zone is only slightly affected by outdoor conditions. Thus, the interior zone usually has uniform cooling. Heating is generally provided from the exterior zone. Identifying the thermal zones is the first step in the design of any HVAC system. For large building footprints, assume a minimum of five zones per floor: one zone for each exposure and an interior zone. Single-zone models should be limited to open floor plans with perimeter walls not exceeding 40 feet in length. If specific requirements are met, zonal control may earn a credit towards compliance with whatever building energy efficiency standards are applicable. 11) Window Solar Control Tips The key recommendations include: a) In general cases, specify low U-factors (< 0.40) for residential applications. Even lower values may be desired in extreme heating climates. b) In climates with significant air conditioning loads, specify windows with low SHGC values (< 0.40). c) In general, high (> 70%) Glass Visible Transmittance is desired, especially for day lighting applications. d) For commercial buildings in conjunction with day lighting strategies, analyze the trade-offs between standard glazing and high coolness index (also called spectrally selective) glass. Spectrally selective glass has a relatively high visible transmittance and a relatively low SHGC. e) Low SHGC windows should be considered for east- and west-facing glazing as a means of controlling solar heat gain and increasing occupant comfort. For large commercial and industrial structures, specify low SHGC windows on the east, south, and west facades. SHGC for north-facing windows is not critical for most latitudes in the continental United States. f) For buildings where passive solar heating energy is desired, south-facing windows with high SHGC values coupled with low U-factors should be specified. g) Select windows with comfort in mind. The proper specification of windows can result in higher Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT) in winter and lower MRT in summer, improving occupant comfort and productivity. MRT represents the average temperature an occupant feels from radiant heat exchange with their surroundings.
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h)

i)

j)

k)

l)

m)

n)

o) p)

q)

Single-pane windows are impractical in heating-dominated climates. In these regions, multiple-pane, low-e, and gas-filled window configurations are advisable. Specify aluminum-frame windows with thermal breaks or should be avoided at all. Even in milder climates, these windows tend to have low inside surface temperatures during the heating season, giving rise to condensation problems. Wood, vinyl, and fiberglass are the best frame materials for insulating value. Window solar heat gain coefficients should be selected according to orientation. If south exposures are to admit beneficial solar heat during the heating season, their solar heat gain coefficients should be high. These high solar heat gain coefficients will not usually result in overheating problems during the cooling season because of the lower solar radiation levels on southfacing windows, especially those with overhang, at that time. Skylights and east- and west-oriented windows may warrant lower solar heat gain coefficients since they transmit the most solar heat during cooling periods. There isn't much point in spending more money to obtain lower solar heat gain coefficients for north-facing windows. Windows with spectrally selective or low-e coated glazing with low solar heat gain coefficients are often effective in hot, sunny climates. Darker glazing tints also provide lower solar heat gain coefficients, but they may yield somewhat decreased visibility. If exterior or interior shading devices, such as awnings, louvered screens, /sunscreens, Venetian blinds, roller shades, or drapes, will be used on windows, lower window solar heat gain coefficients may not be necessary, depending on individual circumstances. Many shading devices can be adjusted to admit more or less solar heat according to the time of day and the season, but windows with lower solar heat gain coefficients require less maintenance. Exterior shading devices are more effective than interior devices in reducing solar heat gain because they block radiation before it passes through a window. Light-colored shades are preferable to dark ones because they reflect more, and absorb less, radiation. Horizontally oriented adjustable shading devices are appropriate for south-facing windows, while vertically oriented adjustable devices are more effective for shading windows on east and west orientations. Low-e windows and skylights are the best options for decreasing the transmission of ultraviolet radiation. Buy windows with energy efficient label. The window energy label lists the Ufactor, solar heat gain coefficient, visible light transmittance, and air leakage rating. Operable, rather than fixed, windows should be installed in household areas with high moisture production, such as bathrooms, kitchens, and laundry rooms, and in other areas where natural ventilation is desired.
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r)

Select windows with air leakage ratings of 0.2 cubic feet per minute per square foot of window area (cfm/ft2) or less. Check the seals between window components for air tightness. To minimize infiltration around installed windows, caulk and weather-strip cracks and joints

12) Other Miscellaneous Tips a) The heating & cooling load for exterior and interior zones should be calculated in different zones and should have separate HVAC systems b) Design multi-story buildings with typical floor HVAC design and configuration whenever applicable c) Stores, kitchens, cafeterias, and entertainment areas may have their own HVAC systems due to differing design criteria d) Consider separate HVAC systems for areas which directly separate the interior from the exterior (i.e., main entrances and lobbies). These areas may be designed 4 to 6F above interior temperature during summer to reduce the temperature differential shock when entering or leaving the building. e) Explore passive solar strategies and non-energy intensive HVAC and lighting opportunities. Use the following approach in performing the analysis of different systems. f) Consider the building envelope when examining HVAC strategies. g) Consider the building orientation and footprint. h) Landscaping is a natural and beautiful way to shade and block the sun. A well placed tree, bush, or vine can deliver effective shade and add to the aesthetic value to the property. i) Consider thermal mass appropriately placed. j) Light-colored roofs and walls reflect heat away from your home. k) Carefully analyze the buildings application (occupancy hours, intended use, etc.) and maximum occupancy l) Evaluate lighting and equipment loads including special allowance factors, average from 2 to 5 watts/sq ft. lighting and heavy equipment loads (i.e., computers) may have higher loads from 5 to 10 watts/sq ft. Fluorescent light wattage is multiplied by 1.25 to include heat gain due to ballast. m) Consider light troffers for suspended ceilings with ducted supply and plenum return. n) Reflective window coatings reflect heat away from windows, as well as cutting glare and reducing fading of furniture, drapes, and carpeting inside the house. Note: Do not place reflective coatings on south-facing windows if you want to take advantage of heat gain during the winter.
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o)

Weatherization measures--such as insulating, weather-stripping, and caulking-- help seal and protect the building against the summer heat in addition to keeping out the winter cold. The attic is a good place to start insulating because it is a major source of heat gain. p) A properly installed awning can reduce heat gain up to 65% on southern windows and 77% on eastern windows. Also effective are louvers and shutters. q) Double glass is most effective in areas where the conduction component is quite large. r) Solar films are more effective in areas of moderate, sunny climates, i.e. Florida. s) Draperies and curtains made of tightly woven, light-colored, opaque fabrics reflect more of the sun's rays than they let through. t) Ventilate the building during the coolest parts of the day or night, and seal it up during the hottest part of the day. u) Ventilated attics are about 30F cooler than unventilated attics. Properly sized and placed louvers and roof vents help prevent moisture buildup and over heating the attic. v) Optimize energy benefits of glazing through appropriate selection, placing, and design of the building faade. w) Consider day lighting strategies to reduce HVAC requirements. x) Design the HVAC system with the outdoor air rates required by ASHRAE Standard-62 to maintain indoor air quality. Build Tight & Ventilate Right.

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EXTERNAL COOLING LOAD The total cooling load on a building consist of external as well as internal loads. The external loads consist of heat transfer by conduction through the building walls, roofs, floors, doors etc, heat transfer by radiation through fenestration such as windows and skylights. All these are sensible heat transfer. The external cooling loads consist of the following. 1. Sensible loads through opaque envelope assemblies (roofs, walls, floors) 2. Sensible loads through transparent or translucent envelope assemblies (skylight, windows, glazed opening) 3. Sensible loads through ventilation and infiltration (air leakage) 4. Latent loads through ventilation and infiltration Because of the inherent differences in these types of heat flows, they are calculated (estimated) using different equation. (1) ROOFS, EXTERNAL WALLS & CONDUCTION THROUGH GLASS The transmission of heat through the walls exposed to the outdoors and roof is not steady (i.e. flow of heat is periodic) due to variation in the outside air temperature and the solar radiation intensity over a period of 24 hours. The temperature of walls rises with rise in outside air temperature and the heat is stored in the wall. The stored heat in the wall is given off to the room when the outside temperature falls. Since the outside air temperature changes continuously over a cycle of 24hours, therefore instantaneous heat gain from outside is not equal to the instantaneous heat gain inside the room, the difference being stored or rejected by the wall. The heat stored by the wall is given off later in the evening. Thus peak of incoming heat rate is delayed by the storage effect of the walls and it is also reduced. The figure above shows the curves of instantaneous load coming from outside and actual load felt inside. The shaded are above the actual load shows the heat stored and below the actual load shows the heat released by the walls and other structures. The convenient method of taking into account this lagging effect of storage and the solar radiation is to use an equivalent temperature differential or cooling load temperature difference. The sensible load through opaque elements such as roof, wall and the conduction through glass is; Q = U A te OR CLTD
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Where U = Overall heat transmission coefficient of roof or wall or glass A = area of roof, wall or glass te = Equivalent temperature differential CLTD = cooling temperature difference for roof, wall or glass (2) SOLAR LOAD THROUGH GLASS THE PHYSICS OF SOLAR RADIATION & SOLAR HEAT GAIN THROUGH WINDOWS. The sun is the primary heat source of the earth, and the solar irradiance on a surface normal to the suns rays beyond the earths atmosphere at the mean earthsun distance of 149.5 million km is called the solar constant. The accepted value of the solar constant is 1373 W/m2 (435.4 Btu/h ft2), but its value changes by 3.5 percent from a maximum of 1418 W/m2 on January 3 when the earth is farthest away from the sun, to a minimum of 1325 W/m2 on July 4 when the earth is closest to the sun. The spectral distribution of solar radiation beyond the earths atmosphere resembles the energy emitted by a blackbody at 57820C, with about 9 percent of the energy contained in the ultraviolet region (at wavelengths between 0.29 to 0.4m), 39 percent in the visible region (0.4 to 0.7m), and the remaining 52 percent in the near-infrared region (0.7 to 3.5m). The peak radiation occurs at a wavelength of about 0.48m, which corresponds to the green color portion of the visible spectrum. Part of the solar radiation entering the earths atmosphere is scattered and absorbed by air and water vapor molecules, dust particles, and water droplets in the clouds, and thus the solar radiation incident on earths surface is less than the solar constant. The extent of the attenuation of solar radiation depends on the length of the path of the rays through the atmosphere as well as the composition of the atmosphere (the clouds, dust, humidity, and smog) along the path. Most ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by the ozone in the upper atmosphere. At a solar altitude of 41.80, the total energy of direct solar radiation incident at sea level on a clear day consists of about 3 percent ultraviolet, 38 percent visible, and 59 percent infrared radiation. The part of solar radiation that reaches the earths surface without being scattered or absorbed is the direct radiation. Solar radiation that is scattered or reemitted by the constituents of

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the atmosphere is the diffuse radiation. Direct radiation comes directly from the sun following a straight path, whereas diffuse radiation comes from all directions in the sky. The entire radiation reaching the ground on an overcast day is diffuse radiation. The radiation reaching a surface, in general, consists of three components: direct radiation, diffuse radiation, and radiation reflected onto the surface from surrounding surfaces (Fig. 1650).

FIGURE 1650 Direct, diffuse, and reflected components of solar radiation incident on a window. Common surfaces such as grass, trees, rocks, and concrete reflect about 20 percent of the radiation while absorbing the rest. Snow-covered surfaces, however, reflect 70 percent of the incident radiation. Radiation incident on a surface that does not have a direct view of the sun consists of diffuse and reflected radiation. Therefore, at solar noon, solar radiations incident on the east, west, and north surfaces of a south-facing house are identical since they all consist of diffuse and reflected components. Glass being the major classing material of most building provides the most direct route for entry of solar radiation. For this reason, proper estimation of heat gain through glass is imperative. Glass may be considered opaque to radiation of sources of surface temperature less than 2000C. Of the energy that is incident upon the glass, some is reflected and lost, some is transmitted through the glass, and some is absorbed by the glass as the energy passes through it. This small amount of energy raises the temperature of the glass and the glass
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eventually transmits this heat by convection partly to the room and partly to the exterior. Therefore, the solar energy transmitted inside a building represents a heat gain for the building. Also, the solar radiation absorbed by the glass is subsequently transferred to the indoors and outdoors by convection and radiation. The sum of the transmitted solar radiation and the portion of the absorbed radiation that flows indoors constitute the solar heat gain of the building. The equation used for radiant sensible loads for elements such as window glass, skylight and plastic sheets is Q = A (SHGC) (CLF) Where A - Area of roof, wall or glass calculated from building plans SHGC Solar heat gain coefficient CLF Cooling load factor (3) PARTITIONS, CEILINGS & FLOORS Partition in HVAC parlance is defined on an area which is separated by an adjacent non-conditioned space, the load through ceiling shall not be added when the plenum (space above ceiling and roof) is used directly as the return plenum. If the return ducts are used then there will be temperature difference between the room air and the plenum and this load must be added. VENTILATION & INFILTRATION AIR

(4)

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