Heat Transfer Doe

DOE-HDBK-1012/2-92
JUNE 1992
DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOK
THERMODYNAMICS, HEAT TRANSFER,
AND FLUID FLOW
Volume 2 of 3
U.S. Department of Energy FSC-6910
Washington, D.C. 20585
Distribution Statement A. Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
Heat Transfer REFERENCES
REFERENCES
VanWylen, G. J. and Sonntag, R. E., Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics
SI Version, 2nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York, ISBN 0-471-04188-2.
Kreith, Frank, Principles of Heat Transfer, 3rd Edition, Intext Press, Inc., New
York, ISBN 0-7002-2422-X.
Holman, J. P., Thermodynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Streeter, Victor, L., Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, ISBN
07-062191-9.
Rynolds, W. C. and Perkins, H. C., Engineering Thermodynamics, 2nd Edition,
McGraw-Hill, New York, ISBN 0-07-052046-1.
Meriam, J. L., Engineering Mechanics Statics and Dynamics, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, ISBN 0-471-01979-8.
Schneider, P. J. Conduction Heat Transfer, Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., California.
Holman, J. P., Heat Transfer, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Knudsen, J. G. and Katz, D. L., Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill,
New York.
Kays, W. and London, A. L., Compact Heat Exchangers, 2nd Edition, McGraw-
Hill, New York.
Weibelt, J. A., Engineering Radiation Heat Transfer, Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Publish., New York.
Sparrow, E. M. and Cess, R. E., Radiation Heat Transfer, Brooks/Cole Publish.
Co., Belmont, California.
Hamilton, D. C. and Morgan, N. R., Radiant-Interchange Configuration Factors,
Tech. Note 2836, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.
McDonald, A. T. and Fox, R. W., Introduction to Fluid mechanics, 2nd Edition,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, ISBN 0-471-01909-7.
Rev. 0 Page v HT-02
REFERENCES Heat Transfer
REFERENCES (Cont.)
Zucrow, M. J. and Hoffman, J. D., Gas Dynamics Vol.b1, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, ISBN 0-471-98440-X.
Crane Company, Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe, Crane Co.
Technical Paper No. 410, Chicago, Illinois, 1957.
Esposito, Anthony, Fluid Power with Applications, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New
Jersey, ISBN 0-13-322701-4.
Beckwith, T. G. and Buck, N. L., Mechanical Measurements, Addison-Wesley
Publish Co., California.
Wallis, Graham, One-Dimensional Two-Phase Flow, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1969.
Kays, W. and Crawford, M. E., Convective Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw-
Hill, New York, ISBN 0-07-03345-9.
Collier, J. G., Convective Boiling and Condensation, McGraw-Hill, New York,
ISBN 07-084402-X.
Academic Program for Nuclear Power Plant Personnel, Volumes III and IV,
Columbia, MD: General Physics Corporation, Library of Congress Card #A
326517, 1982.
Faires, Virgel Moring and Simmang, Clifford Max, Thermodynamics, MacMillan
Publishing Co. Inc., New York.
HT-02 Page vi Rev. 0
Heat Transfer HEAT TRANSFER TERMINOLOGY
HEAT TRANSFER TERMINOLOGY
To understand and communicate in the thermal science field, certain terms and
expressions must be learned in heat transfer.
EO 1.1 DESCRIBE the difference between heat and temperature.
EO 1.2 DESCRIBE the difference between heat and work.
EO 1.3 DESCRIBE the Second Law of Thermodynamics and
how it relates to heat transfer.
EO 1.4 DESCRIBE the three modes of heat transfer.
EO 1.5 DEFINE the following terms as they relate to heat
transfer:
a. Heat flux
b. Thermal conductivity
c. Log mean temperature difference
d. Convective heat transfer coefficient
e. Overall heat transfer coefficient
f. Bulk temperature
Heat and Temperature
In describing heat transfer problems, students often make the mistake of interchangeably using
the terms heat and temperature. Actually, there is a distinct difference between the two.
Temperature is a measure of the amount of energy possessed by the molecules of a substance.
It is a relative measure of how hot or cold a substance is and can be used to predict the direction
of heat transfer. The symbol for temperature is T. The common scales for measuring
temperature are the Fahrenheit, Rankine, Celsius, and Kelvin temperature scales.
Heat is energy in transit. The transfer of energy as heat occurs at the molecular level as a result
of a temperature difference. Heat is capable of being transmitted through solids and fluids by
conduction, through fluids by convection, and through empty space by radiation. The symbol
for heat is Q. Common units for measuring heat are the British Thermal Unit (Btu) in the
English system of units and the calorie in the SI system (International System of Units).
Rev. 0 Page 1 HT-02
HEAT TRANSFER TERMINOLOGY Heat Transfer
Heat and Work
Distinction should also be made between the energy terms heat and work. Both represent energy
in transition. Work is the transfer of energy resulting from a force acting through a distance.
Heat is energy transferred as the result of a temperature difference. Neither heat nor work are
thermodynamic properties of a system. Heat can be transferred into or out of a system and work
can be done on or by a system, but a system cannot contain or store either heat or work. Heat
into a system and work out of a system are considered positive quantities.
When a temperature difference exists across a boundary, the Second Law of Thermodynamics
indicates the natural flow of energy is from the hotter body to the colder body. The Second Law
of Thermodynamics denies the possibility of ever completely converting into work all the heat
supplied to a system operating in a cycle. The Second Law of Thermodynamics, described by
Max Planck in 1903, states that:
It is impossible to construct an engine that will work in a complete cycle and
produce no other effect except the raising of a weight and the cooling of a
reservoir.
The second law says that if you draw heat from a reservoir to raise a weight, lowering the weight
will not generate enough heat to return the reservoir to its original temperature, and eventually
the cycle will stop. If two blocks of metal at different temperatures are thermally insulated from
their surroundings and are brought into contact with each other the heat will flow from the hotter
to the colder. Eventually the two blocks will reach the same temperature, and heat transfer will
cease. Energy has not been lost, but instead some energy has been transferred from one block
to another.
Modes of Transferring Heat
Heat is always transferred when a temperature difference exists between two bodies. There are
three basic modes of heat transfer:
Conduction involves the transfer of heat by the interactions of atoms or molecules of a
material through which the heat is being transferred.
Convection involves the transfer of heat by the mixing and motion of macroscopic
portions of a fluid.
Radiation, or radiant heat transfer, involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic
radiation that arises due to the temperature of a body.
The three modes of heat transfer will be discussed in greater detail in the subsequent chapters
of this module.
HT-02 Page 2 Rev. 0
Heat Flux
The rate at which heat is transferred is represented by the symbol . Common units for heat
Q
transfer rate is Btu/hr. Sometimes it is important to determine the heat transfer rate per unit area,
or heat flux, which has the symbol . Units for heat flux are Btu/hr-ft
2
. The heat flux can be
Q
determined by dividing the heat transfer rate by the area through which the heat is being
transferred.
(2-1)
Q

Q
A
where:
= heat flux (Btu/hr-ft
2
)
Q
= heat transfer rate (Btu/hr)
Q
A = area (ft
2
)
Thermal Conductivity
The heat transfer characteristics of a solid material are measured by a property called the thermal
conductivity (k) measured in Btu/hr-ft-
o
F. It is a measure of a substances ability to transfer heat
through a solid by conduction. The thermal conductivity of most liquids and solids varies with
temperature. For vapors, it depends upon pressure.
Log Mean Temperature Difference
In heat exchanger applications, the inlet and outlet temperatures are commonly specified based
on the fluid in the tubes. The temperature change that takes place across the heat exchanger from
the entrance to the exit is not linear. A precise temperature change between two fluids across
the heat exchanger is best represented by the log mean temperature difference (LMTD or T
lm
),
defined in Equation 2-2.
(2-2) T
1m
(T
2
T
1
)
ln(T
2
/ T
1
)
where:
T
2
= the larger temperature difference between the two fluid streams at either
the entrance or the exit to the heat exchanger
T
1
= the smaller temperature difference between the two fluid streams at either
the entrance or the exit to the heat exchanger
Rev. 0 Page 3 HT-02
HEAT TRANSFER TERMINOLOGY Heat Transfer
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
The convective heat transfer coefficient (h), defines, in part, the heat transfer due to convection.
The convective heat transfer coefficient is sometimes referred to as a film coefficient and
represents the thermal resistance of a relatively stagnant layer of fluid between a heat transfer
surface and the fluid medium. Common units used to measure the convective heat transfer
coefficient are Btu/hr - ft
2
-
o
F.
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
In the case of combined heat transfer, it is common practice to relate the total rate of heat
transfer ( ), the overall cross-sectional area for heat transfer (A
o
), and the overall temperature
Q
difference (T
o
) using the overall heat transfer coefficient (U
o
). The overall heat transfer
coefficient combines the heat transfer coefficient of the two heat exchanger fluids and the thermal
conductivity of the heat exchanger tubes. U
o
is specific to the heat exchanger and the fluids that
are used in the heat exchanger.
(2-3)
Q U
o
A
o
T
0
where:
= the rate heat of transfer (Btu/hr)
Q
U
o
= the overall heat transfer coefficient (Btu/hr - ft
2
-
o
F)
A
o
= the overall cross-sectional area for heat transfer (ft
2
)
T
o
= the overall temperature difference (
o
F)
Bulk Temperature
The fluid temperature (T
b
), referred to as the bulk temperature, varies according to the details of
the situation. For flow adjacent to a hot or cold surface, T
b
is the temperature of the fluid that
is "far" from the surface, for instance, the center of the flow channel. For boiling or
condensation, T
b
is equal to the saturation temperature.
HT-02 Page 4 Rev. 0
Summary
The important information in this chapter is summarized below.
Heat Transfer Terminology Summary
Heat is energy transferred as a result of a temperature difference.
Temperature is a measure of the amount of molecular energy contained
in a substance.
Work is a transfer of energy resulting from a force acting through a
distance.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics implies that heat will not transfer
from a colder to a hotter body without some external source of energy.
Conduction involves the transfer of heat by the interactions of atoms or
molecules of a material through which the heat is being transferred.
Convection involves the transfer of heat by the mixing and motion of
macroscopic portions of a fluid.
Radiation, or radiant heat transfer, involves the transfer of heat by
electromagnetic radiation that arises due to the temperature of a body.
Heat flux is the rate of heat transfer per unit area.
Thermal conductivity is a measure of a substances ability to transfer heat
through itself.
Log mean temperature difference is the T that most accurately represents the
T for a heat exchanger.
The local heat transfer coefficient represents a measure of the ability to transfer
heat through a stagnant film layer.
The overall heat transfer coefficient is the measure of the ability of a heat
exchanger to transfer heat from one fluid to another.
The bulk temperature is the temperature of the fluid that best represents the
majority of the fluid which is not physically connected to the heat transfer site.
Rev. 0 Page 5 HT-02
CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER Heat Transfer
CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction heat transfer is the transfer of thermal energy by interactions between
adjacent atoms and molecules of a solid.
EO 1.6 Given Fouriers Law of Conduction, CALCULATE the
conduction heat flux in a rectangular coordinate system.
EO 1.7 Given the formula and the necessary values,
CALCULATE the equivalent thermal resistance.
EO 1.8 Given Fouriers Law of Conduction, CALCULATE the
conduction heat flux in a cylindrical coordinate system.
Conduction
Conduction involves the transfer of heat by the interaction between adjacent molecules of a
material. Heat transfer by conduction is dependent upon the driving "force" of temperature
difference and the resistance to heat transfer. The resistance to heat transfer is dependent upon
the nature and dimensions of the heat transfer medium. All heat transfer problems involve the
temperature difference, the geometry, and the physical properties of the object being studied.
In conduction heat transfer problems, the object being studied is usually a solid. Convection
problems involve a fluid medium. Radiation heat transfer problems involve either solid or fluid
surfaces, separated by a gas, vapor, or vacuum. There are several ways to correlate the geometry,
physical properties, and temperature difference of an object with the rate of heat transfer through
the object. In conduction heat transfer, the most common means of correlation is through
Fouriers Law of Conduction. The law, in its equation form, is used most often in its rectangular
or cylindrical form (pipes and cylinders), both of which are presented below.
Rectangular (2-4)
Q k A

,
T
x
Cylindrical (2-5)
Q k A

,
T
r
HT-02 Page 6 Rev. 0
Heat Transfer CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER
where:
= rate of heat transfer (Btu/hr)
Q
A = cross-sectional area of heat transfer (ft
2
)
x = thickness of slab (ft)
r = thickness of cylindrical wall (ft)
T = temperature difference (F)
k = thermal conductivity of slab (Btu/ft-hr-F)
The use of Equations 2-4 and 2-5 in determining the amount of heat transferred by conduction
is demonstrated in the following examples.
Conduction-Rectangular Coordinates
Example:
1000 Btu/hr is conducted through a section of insulating material shown in Figure 1 that
measures 1 ft
2
in cross-sectional area. The thickness is 1 in. and the thermal conductivity
is 0.12 Btu/hr-ft-F. Compute the temperature difference across the material.
Figure 1 Conduction Through a Slab
Rev. 0 Page 7 HT-02
Solution:
Using Equation 2-4:
Q k A

,
T
x
Solving for T:
T

Q

,
x
k A
,
1000
Btu
hr
,
1
12
ft
,
0.12
Btu
hr ft F
1 ft
2
T 694F
Example:
A concrete floor with a conductivity of 0.8 Btu/hr-ft-F measures 30 ft by 40 ft with a
thickness of 4 inches. The floor has a surface temperature of 70F and the temperature
beneath it is 60F. What is the heat flux and the heat transfer rate through the floor?
Solution:
Using Equations 2-1 and 2-4:
Q

Q
A
k

,
T
x
,
0.8
Btu
hr ft F
,
10F
0.333 ft
24
Btu
hr ft
2
HT-02 Page 8 Rev. 0
Using Equation 2-3:
Q k A

,
T
x
Q A
,
24
Btu
hr ft
2
(1200 ft
2
)
28,800
Btu
hr
Equivalent Resistance Method
It is possible to compare heat transfer to current flow in electrical circuits. The heat transfer rate
may be considered as a current flow and the combination of thermal conductivity, thickness of
material, and area as a resistance to this flow. The temperature difference is the potential or
driving function for the heat flow, resulting in the Fourier equation being written in a form
similar to Ohms Law of Electrical Circuit Theory. If the thermal resistance term x/k is written
as a resistance term where the resistance is the reciprocal of the thermal conductivity divided by
the thickness of the material, the result is the conduction equation being analogous to electrical
systems or networks. The electrical analogy may be used to solve complex problems involving
both series and parallel thermal resistances. The student is referred to Figure 2, showing the
equivalent resistance circuit. A typical conduction problem in its analogous electrical form is
given in the following example, where the "electrical" Fourier equation may be written as
follows.
= (2-6)
Q
T
R
th
where:
= Heat Flux ( /A) (Btu/hr-ft
2
)
Q

Q
T = Temperature Difference (
o
F)
R
th
= Thermal Resistance (x/k) (hr-ft
2
-
o
F/Btu)
Rev. 0 Page 9 HT-02
Electrical Analogy
Figure 2 Equivalent Resistance
Example:
A composite protective wall is formed of a 1 in. copper plate, a 1/8 in. layer of asbestos,
and a 2 in. layer of fiberglass. The thermal conductivities of the materials in units of
Btu/hr-ft-
o
F are as follows: k
Cu
= 240, k
asb
= 0.048, and k
fib
= 0.022. The overall
temperature difference across the wall is 500F. Calculate the thermal resistance of each
layer of the wall and the heat transfer rate per unit area (heat flux) through the composite
structure.
Solution:
R
Cu
x
Cu
k
Cu
1 in

,
1 ft
12 in
240
Btu
hr ft F
0.000347
hr ft
2
F
Btu
R
asb
x
asb
k
asb
0.125 in

,
1 ft
12 in
0.048
Btu
hr ft F
0.2170
hr ft
2
F
Btu
R
fib
x
fib
k
fib
2 in

,
1 ft
12 in
0.022
Btu
hr ft F
7.5758
hr ft
2
F
Btu
HT-02 Page 10 Rev. 0
Q
A
(T
i
T
o
)
(R
Cu
R
asb
R
fib
)
500F
(0.000347 0.2170 7.5758)
hr ft
2
F
Btu
64.2
Btu
hr ft
2
Conduction-Cylindrical Coordinates
Heat transfer across a rectangular solid is the most direct application of Fouriers law. Heat
transfer across a pipe or heat exchanger tube wall is more complicated to evaluate. Across a
cylindrical wall, the heat transfer surface area is continually increasing or decreasing. Figure 3
is a cross-sectional view of a pipe constructed of a homogeneous material.
Figure 3 Cross-sectional Surface Area of a Cylindrical Pipe
Rev. 0 Page 11 HT-02
The surface area (A) for transferring heat through the pipe (neglecting the pipe ends) is directly
proportional to the radius (r) of the pipe and the length (L) of the pipe.
A = 2rL
As the radius increases from the inner wall to the outer wall, the heat transfer area increases.
The development of an equation evaluating heat transfer through an object with cylindrical
geometry begins with Fouriers law Equation 2-5.
Q k A

,
T
r
From the discussion above, it is seen that no simple expression for area is accurate. Neither the
area of the inner surface nor the area of the outer surface alone can be used in the equation. For
a problem involving cylindrical geometry, it is necessary to define a log mean cross-sectional
area (A
lm
).
(2-7) A
lm
A
outer
A
inner
ln
,
A
outer
A
inner
Substituting the expression 2rL for area in Equation 2-7 allows the log mean area to be
calculated from the inner and outer radius without first calculating the inner and outer area.
A
lm
2 r
outer
L 2 r
inner
L
ln
,
2 r
outer
L
2 r
inner
L
2 L
,
r
outer
r
inner
ln
r
outer
r
inner
This expression for log mean area can be inserted into Equation 2-5, allowing us to calculate the
heat transfer rate for cylindrical geometries.
Q k A
lm
,
T
r
k
1
1
1
1
1
]
2 L
,
r
o
r
i
ln
r
o
r
i
,
T
o
T
i
r
o
r
i
(2-8)
Q
2 k L(T)
ln(r
o
/ r
i
)
where:
L = length of pipe (ft)
r
i
= inside pipe radius (ft)
r
o
= outside pipe radius (ft)
Example:
A stainless steel pipe with a length of 35 ft has an inner diameter of 0.92 ft and an outer
diameter of 1.08 ft. The temperature of the inner surface of the pipe is 122
o
F and the
temperature of the outer surface is 118
o
F. The thermal conductivity of the stainless steel
is 108 Btu/hr-ft-
o
F.
Calculate the heat transfer rate through the pipe.
Calculate the heat flux at the outer surface of the pipe.
Solution:
Q
2 k L (T
h
T
c
)
ln(r
o
/r
i
)
6.28

,
108
Btu
hr ft F
(35 ft) (122F 118F)
ln
0.54 ft
0.46 ft
5.92 x 10
5
Btu
hr
Q

Q
A
Q
2 r
o
L
5.92 x 10
5
Btu
hr
2 (3.14) (0.54 ft) (35 ft)
4985
Btu
hr ft
2
Example:
A 10 ft length of pipe with an inner radius of 1 in and an outer radius of 1.25 in has an
outer surface temperature of 250F. The heat transfer rate is 30,000 Btu/hr. Find the
interior surface temperature. Assume k = 25 Btu/hr-ft-F.
Solution:
Q
2 k L(T
h
T
c
)
ln(r
o
/ r
i
)
Solving for T
h
:
T
h
Q ln(r
o
/ r
i
)
2 k L
T
c
,
30,000
Btu
hr
,
ln
1.25 in
1 in
2 (3.14)

,
25
Btu
hr ft F
(10 ft)
250F
254F
The evaluation of heat transfer through a cylindrical wall can be extended to include a composite
body composed of several concentric, cylindrical layers, as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 Composite Cylindrical Layers
Example:
A thick-walled nuclear coolant pipe (k
s
= 12.5 Btu/hr-ft-F) with 10 in. inside diameter
(ID) and 12 in. outside diameter (OD) is covered with a 3 in. layer of asbestos insulation
(k
a
= 0.14 Btu/hr-ft-
o
F) as shown in Figure 5. If the inside wall temperature of the pipe
is maintained at 550F, calculate the heat loss per foot of length. The outside temperature
is 100F.
Figure 5 Pipe Insulation Problem
Solution:
Q
L
2 (T
in
T
o
)
1
1
1
1
1
]
ln
,
r
2
r
1
k
s
ln
,
r
3
r
2
k
a
2 (550
0
F 100
o
F)
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
ln

,
6 in
5 in
12.5
Btu
hr ft
o
F
ln

,
9 in
6 in
0.14
Btu
hr ft
o
F
971
Btu
hr ft
Summary
Conduction Heat Transfer Summary
Conduction heat transfer is the transfer of thermal energy by interactions between
adjacent molecules of a material.
Fouriers Law of Conduction can be used to solve for rectangular and cylindrical
coordinate problems.
Heat flux ( ) is the heat transfer rate ( ) divided by the area (A).
Q

Q
Heat conductance problems can be solved using equivalent resistance formulas
analogous to electrical circuit problems.
CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER Heat Transfer
CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer by the motion and mixing of the molecules of a liquid or gas is
called convection.
EO 1.9 Given the formula for heat transfer and the operating
conditions of the system, CALCULATE the rate of heat
transfer by convection.
Convection
Convection involves the transfer of heat by the motion and mixing of "macroscopic" portions of
a fluid (that is, the flow of a fluid past a solid boundary). The term natural convection is used
if this motion and mixing is caused by density variations resulting from temperature differences
within the fluid. The term forced convection is used if this motion and mixing is caused by an
outside force, such as a pump. The transfer of heat from a hot water radiator to a room is an
example of heat transfer by natural convection. The transfer of heat from the surface of a heat
exchanger to the bulk of a fluid being pumped through the heat exchanger is an example of
forced convection.
Heat transfer by convection is more difficult to analyze than heat transfer by conduction because
no single property of the heat transfer medium, such as thermal conductivity, can be defined to
describe the mechanism. Heat transfer by convection varies from situation to situation (upon the
fluid flow conditions), and it is frequently coupled with the mode of fluid flow. In practice,
analysis of heat transfer by convection is treated empirically (by direct observation).
Convection heat transfer is treated empirically because of the factors that affect the stagnant film
thickness:
Fluid velocity
Fluid viscosity
Heat flux
Surface roughness
Type of flow (single-phase/two-phase)
Convection involves the transfer of heat between a surface at a given temperature (T
s
) and fluid
at a bulk temperature (T
b
). The exact definition of the bulk temperature (T
b
) varies depending
on the details of the situation. For flow adjacent to a hot or cold surface, T
b
is the temperature
of the fluid "far" from the surface. For boiling or condensation, T
b
is the saturation temperature
of the fluid. For flow in a pipe, T
b
is the average temperature measured at a particular cross-
section of the pipe.
Heat Transfer CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
The basic relationship for heat transfer by convection has the same form as that for heat transfer
by conduction:
(2-9)
Q h A T
where:
= rate of heat transfer (Btu/hr)
Q
h = convective heat transfer coefficient (Btu/hr-ft
2
-F)
A = surface area for heat transfer (ft
2
)
T = temperature difference (F)
The convective heat transfer coefficient (h) is dependent upon the physical properties of the fluid
and the physical situation. Typically, the convective heat transfer coefficient for laminar flow
is relatively low compared to the convective heat transfer coefficient for turbulent flow. This is
due to turbulent flow having a thinner stagnant fluid film layer on the heat transfer surface.
Values of h have been measured and tabulated for the commonly encountered fluids and flow
situations occurring during heat transfer by convection.
Example:
A 22 foot uninsulated steam line crosses a room. The outer diameter of the steam line
is 18 in. and the outer surface temperature is 280
o
F. The convective heat transfer
coefficient for the air is 18 Btu/hr-ft
2
-
o
F. Calculate the heat transfer rate from the pipe
into the room if the room temperature is 72
o
F.
Solution:
Q h A T
h (2 r L) T
,
18
Btu
hr ft
2
F
2 (3.14) (0.75 ft) (22 ft) (280F 72F)
3.88 x 10
5
Btu
hr
Many applications involving convective heat transfer take place within pipes, tubes, or some
similar cylindrical device. In such circumstances, the surface area of heat transfer normally given
in the convection equation ( ) varies as heat passes through the cylinder. In addition,
Q h A T
the temperature difference existing between the inside and the outside of the pipe, as well as the
temperature differences along the pipe, necessitates the use of some average temperature value
in order to analyze the problem. This average temperature difference is called the log mean
temperature difference (LMTD), described earlier.
It is the temperature difference at one end of the heat exchanger minus the temperature difference
at the other end of the heat exchanger, divided by the natural logarithm of the ratio of these two
temperature differences. The above definition for LMTD involves two important assumptions:
(1) the fluid specific heats do not vary significantly with temperature, and (2) the convection heat
transfer coefficients are relatively constant throughout the heat exchanger.
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Many of the heat transfer processes encountered in nuclear facilities involve a combination of
both conduction and convection. For example, heat transfer in a steam generator involves
convection from the bulk of the reactor coolant to the steam generator inner tube surface,
conduction through the tube wall, and convection from the outer tube surface to the secondary
side fluid.
In cases of combined heat transfer for a heat exchanger, there are two values for h. There is the
convective heat transfer coefficient (h) for the fluid film inside the tubes and a convective heat
transfer coefficient for the fluid film outside the tubes. The thermal conductivity (k) and
thickness (x) of the tube wall must also be accounted for. An additional term (U
o
), called the
overall heat transfer coefficient, must be used instead. It is common practice to relate the total
rate of heat transfer ( ) to the cross-sectional area for heat transfer (A
o
) and the overall heat
Q
transfer coefficient (U
o
). The relationship of the overall heat transfer coefficient to the individual
conduction and convection terms is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Recalling Equation 2-3:
Q U
o
A
o
T
o
where U
o
is defined in Figure 6.
An example of this concept applied to cylindrical geometry is illustrated by Figure 7, which
shows a typical combined heat transfer situation.
Figure 7 Combined Heat Transfer
Using the figure representing flow in a pipe, heat transfer by convection occurs between
temperatures T
1
and T
2
; heat transfer by conduction occurs between temperatures T
2
and T
3
; and
heat transfer occurs by convection between temperatures T
3
and T
4
. Thus, there are three
processes involved. Each has an associated heat transfer coefficient, cross-sectional area for heat
transfer, and temperature difference. The basic relationships for these three processes can be
expressed using Equations 2-5 and 2-9.
Q h
1
A
1
( T
1
T
2
)
Q
k
r
A
lm
( T
2
T
3
)
Q h
2
A
2
( T
3
T
4
)
T
o
can be expressed as the sum of the T of the three individual processes.
T
o
( T
1
T
2
) ( T
2
T
3
) ( T
3
T
4
)
If the basic relationship for each process is solved for its associated temperature difference and
substituted into the expression for T
o
above, the following relationship results.
T
o

Q
,
1
h
1
A
1
r
k A
lm
1
h
2
A
2
This relationship can be modified by selecting a reference cross-sectional area A
o
.
T
o
Q
A
o
,
A
o
h
1
A
1
r A
o
k A
lm
A
o
h
2
A
2
Solving for results in an equation in the form .
Q

Q U
o
A
o
T
o
Q
1
,
A
o
h
1
A
1
r A
o
k A
lm
A
o
h
2
A
2
A
o
T
o
where:
(2-10) U
o
1
,
A
o
h
1
A
1
r A
o
k A
lm
A
o
h
2
A
2
Equation 2-10 for the overall heat transfer coefficient in cylindrical geometry is relatively
difficult to work with. The equation can be simplified without losing much accuracy if the tube
that is being analyzed is thin-walled, that is the tube wall thickness is small compared to the tube
diameter. For a thin-walled tube, the inner surface area (A
1
), outer surface area (A
2
), and log
mean surface area (A
1m
), are all very close to being equal. Assuming that A
1
, A
2
, and A
1m
are
equal to each other and also equal to A
o
allows us to cancel out all the area terms in the
denominator of Equation 2-11.
This results in a much simpler expression that is similar to the one developed for a flat plate heat
exchanger in Figure 6.
(2-11) U
o
1
1
h
1
r
k
1
h
2
The convection heat transfer process is strongly dependent upon the properties of the fluid being
considered. Correspondingly, the convective heat transfer coefficient (h), the overall coefficient
(U
o
), and the other fluid properties may vary substantially for the fluid if it experiences a large
temperature change during its path through the convective heat transfer device. This is especially
true if the fluids properties are strongly temperature dependent. Under such circumstances, the
temperature at which the properties are "looked-up" must be some type of average value, rather
than using either the inlet or outlet temperature value.
For internal flow, the bulk or average value of temperature is obtained analytically through the
use of conservation of energy. For external flow, an average film temperature is normally
calculated, which is an average of the free stream temperature and the solid surface temperature.
In any case, an average value of temperature is used to obtain the fluid properties to be used in
the heat transfer problem. The following example shows the use of such principles by solving
a convective heat transfer problem in which the bulk temperature is calculated.
Convection Heat Transfer
Example:
A flat wall is exposed to the environment. The wall is covered with a layer of insulation
1 in. thick whose thermal conductivity is 0.8 Btu/hr-ft-F. The temperature of the wall
on the inside of the insulation is 600F. The wall loses heat to the environment by
convection on the surface of the insulation. The average value of the convection heat
transfer coefficient on the insulation surface is 950 Btu/hr-ft
2
-F. Compute the bulk
temperature of the environment (T
b
) if the outer surface of the insulation does not exceed
105F.
Solution:
a. Find heat flux ( ) through the insulation.
Q k A

,
T
x
Q
A
0.8
Btu
hr ft F
,
600F 105F
1 in
1 ft
12 in
4752
Btu
hr ft
2
b. Find the bulk temperature of the environment.
Q h A (T
ins
T
b
)
(T
ins
T
b
)

Q
h A
T
b
T
ins
Q
h
T
b
105F
4752
Btu
hr ft
2
950
Btu
hr ft
2
F
T
b
100F
Summary
Convection Heat Transfer Summary
Convection heat transfer is the transfer of thermal energy by the mixing and
motion of a fluid or gas.
Whether convection is natural or forced is determined by how the medium
is placed into motion.
When both convection and conduction heat transfer occurs, the overall heat
transfer coefficient must be used to solve problems.
The heat transfer equation for convection heat transfer is .
Q hAT
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER Heat Transfer
RADIANT HEAT TRANSFER
Radiant heat transfer is thermal energy transferred by means of electromagnetic
waves or particles.
EO 1.10 DESCRIBE how the following terms relate to radiant
heat transfer:
a. Black body radiation
b. Emissivity
c. Radiation configuration factor
Thermal Radiation
Radiant heat transfer involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that arises due to
the temperature of a body. Most energy of this type is in the infra-red region of the
electromagnetic spectrum although some of it is in the visible region. The term thermal radiation
is frequently used to distinguish this form of electromagnetic radiation from other forms, such
as radio waves, x-rays, or gamma rays. The transfer of heat from a fireplace across a room in
the line of sight is an example of radiant heat transfer.
Radiant heat transfer does not need a medium, such as air or metal, to take place. Any material
that has a temperature above absolute zero gives off some radiant energy. When a cloud covers
the sun, both its heat and light diminish. This is one of the most familiar examples of heat
transfer by thermal radiation.
Black Body Radiation
A body that emits the maximum amount of heat for its absolute temperature is called a black
body. Radiant heat transfer rate from a black body to its surroundings can be expressed by the
following equation.
(2-12)
Q AT
4
where:
= heat transfer rate (Btu/hr)
Q
= Stefan-Boltzman constant (0.174 Btu/hr-ft
2
-R
4
)
A = surface area (ft
2
)
T = temperature (R)
Heat Transfer RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
Two black bodies that radiate toward each other have a net heat flux between them. The net
flow rate of heat between them is given by an adaptation of Equation 2-12.
Q A( T
4
1
T
4
2
)
where:
A = surface area of the first body (ft
2
)
T
1
= temperature of the first body (R)
T
2
= temperature of the second body (R)
All bodies above absolute zero temperature radiate some heat. The sun and earth both radiate
heat toward each other. This seems to violate the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states
that heat cannot flow from a cold body to a hot body. The paradox is resolved by the fact that
each body must be in direct line of sight of the other to receive radiation from it. Therefore,
whenever the cool body is radiating heat to the hot body, the hot body must also be radiating
heat to the cool body. Since the hot body radiates more heat (due to its higher temperature) than
the cold body, the net flow of heat is from hot to cold, and the second law is still satisfied.
Emissivity
Real objects do not radiate as much heat as a perfect black body. They radiate less heat than a
black body and are called gray bodies. To take into account the fact that real objects are gray
bodies, Equation 2-12 is modified to be of the following form.
Q AT
4
where:
= emissivity of the gray body (dimensionless)
Emissivity is simply a factor by which we multiply the black body heat transfer to take into
account that the black body is the ideal case. Emissivity is a dimensionless number and has a
maximum value of 1.0.
Radiation Configuration Factor
Radiative heat transfer rate between two gray bodies can be calculated by the equation stated
below.
Q f
a
f
e
A( T
4
1
T
4
2
)
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER Heat Transfer
where:
f
a
= is the shape factor, which depends on the spatial arrangement of the two objects
(dimensionless)
f
e
= is the emissivity factor, which depends on the emissivities of both objects
(dimensionless)
The two separate terms f
a
and f
e
can be combined and given the symbol f. The heat flow
between two gray bodies can now be determined by the following equation:
(2-13)
Q fA(T
4
1
T
4
2
)
The symbol (f) is a dimensionless factor sometimes called the radiation configuration factor,
which takes into account the emissivity of both bodies and their relative geometry. The radiation
configuration factor is usually found in a text book for the given situation. Once the
configuration factor is obtained, the overall net heat flux can be determined. Radiant heat flux
should only be included in a problem when it is greater than 20% of the problem.
Example:
Calculate the radiant heat between the floor (15 ft x 15 ft) of a furnace and the roof, if
the two are located 10 ft apart. The floor and roof temperatures are 2000F and 600F,
respectively. Assume that the floor and the roof have black surfaces.
Solution:
A
1
= A
2
= (15 ft) (15 ft) = 225 ft
2
T
1
= 2000
o
F + 460 = 2460R
T
2
= 600
o
F + 460 = 1060R
Tables from a reference book, or supplied by the instructor, give:
f
1-2
= f
2-1
= 0.31
Q
1-2
= Af(T
1
4
- T
2
4
)
= (0.174
Btu
hr ft
2 o
R
4
) (225 ft
2
) (0.31) [ (2460
o
R)
4
(1060
o
R)
4
]
= 4.29 x 10
14
Btu/hr
Heat Transfer RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
Summary
Radiant Heat Transfer Summary
Black body radiation is the maximum amount of heat that can be
transferred from an ideal object.
Emissivity is a measure of the departure of a body from the ideal black
body.
Radiation configuration factor takes into account the emittance and
relative geometry of two objects.

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DOE-HDBK-1012/2-92

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