DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2.

Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague

Lecture Notes 2
2. Series and parallel circuits
2.1 Equivalent circuits 2.2 Impedances in series and in parallel 2.3 Delta to star and star to delta transformation 2.4 Source transformation 2.5 Simple networks 2.5.1 Voltage division of series components 2.5.2 Current division of parallel components 2.6. Simple series circuits 2.7 Simple parallel circuits 2.8 Conductance 2.9 Power calculations

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague

2.1 Equivalent circuits

Fig. 2.1.: Equivalent circuits A useful procedure in network analysis is to simplify the network by reducing the number of components. This can be done by replacing the actual components with other notional components that have the same effect. A particular technique might directly reduce the number of components, for instance by combining impedances in series. On the other hand it might merely change the form in to one in which the components can be reduced in a later operation. For instance, one might transform a voltage generator into a current generator using Norton's theorem in order to be able to later combine the internal resistance of the generator with a parallel impedance load. A resistive circuit is a circuit containing only resistors, ideal voltage sources (An ideal voltage source is a voltage source that maintains the same voltage across the source's terminals no matter what current is drawn from the terminals of the source or what current flows into the terminals), AND ideal current sources (It is reminiscent of the ideal voltage source - but with voltage and current interchanged). If the sources are constant (DC) sources, the result is a DC circuit. The analysis of a circuit refers to the process of solving for the voltages and currents present in the circuit. The solution principles outlined here also apply to phasor analysis of AC circuits that will be discussed later.. Two circuits are said to be equivalent (see Fig.2.1) with respect to a pair of terminals if the voltage across the terminals and current through the terminals for one network have the same relationship as the voltage and current at the terminals of the other network. If V2 = V1 implies I2 = I1 for all (real) values of V1, then with respect to terminals ab and xy, circuit 1 and circuit 2 are equivalent . The above is a sufficient definition for a one-port network. For more than one port, then it must be defined that the currents and voltages between all pairs of corresponding ports must bear the same relationship. For instance, star and delta networks are effectively three port networks and hence require three simultaneous equations to fully specify their equivalence.

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague

2.2 Impedances in series and in parallel

Circuits consisting of just one battery and one load resistance are very simple to analyze, but they are not often found in practical applications. Usually, we find circuits where more than two components are connected together. There are two basic ways in which to connect more than two circuit components: series and pa rallel. First, an example of a series circuit is shown in Fig. 2.2:

Fig.2.2.: A series circuit Here, we have three resistors (labeled R1, R2, and R3), connected in a long chain from one terminal of the battery to the other. (It should be noted that the subscript labeling -- those little numbers to the lower-right of the letter "R" -- are unrelated to the resistor values in ohms. They serve only to identify one resistor from another.) The defining characteristic of a series circuit is that there is only one path for electrons to flow. In this circuit the electrons flow in a counter-clockwise direction, from point 4 to point 3 to point 2 to point 1 and back around to 4. Now, let's look at the other type of circuit, a parallel configuration in Fig. 2.3:

Fig.2.3.: A parallel configuration Again, we have three resistors, but this time they form more than one continuous path for electrons to flow. There's one path from 8 to 7 to 2 to 1 and back to 8 again. There's -3-

DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague another from 8 to 7 to 6 to 3 to 2 to 1 and back to 8 again. And then there's a third path from 8 to 7 to 6 to 5 to 4 to 3 to 2 to 1 and back to 8 again. Each individual path (through R1, R2, and R3) is called a branch. The defining characteristics of a parallel circuit is that all components are connected between the same set of electrically common points. Looking at the schematic diagram, we can see that points 1, 2, 3, and 4 are all electrically common. So are points 8, 7, 6, and 5. Note that all resistors as well as the battery are connected between these two sets of points. And, of course, the complexity doesn't stop at simple series and parallel either! We can have circuits that are a combination of series and parallel (Fig.2.4), too.

Fig.2.4.: Another parallel configuration In this circuit, we have two loops for electrons to flow through: one from 6 to 5 to 2 to 1 and back to 6 again, and another from 6 to 5 to 4 to 3 to 2 to 1 and back to 6 again. Notice how both current paths go through R1 (from point 2 to point 1). In this configuration, we'd say that R2 and R3 are in parallel with each other, while R1 is in series with the parallel combination of R2 and R3. This is just a preview of things to come. Don't worry! We'll explore all these circuit configurations in detail, one at a time! The basic idea of a "series" connection (Fig.2.5) is that components are connected end-to-end in a line to form a single path for electrons to flow:

Fig.2.5.: A series connection

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague The basic idea of a "parallel" connection (Fig.2.6), on the other hand, is that all components are connected across each other's leads. In a purely parallel circuit, there are never more than two sets of electrically common points, no matter how many components are connected. There are many paths for electrons to flow, but only one voltage across all components:

Fig.2.6.: A parallel connection Series and parallel resistor configurations have very different electrical properties. We'll explore the properties of each configuration in the sections to come.

REVIEW: In a series circuit, all components are connected end-to-end, forming a single path for electrons to flow. In a parallel circuit, all components are connected across each other, forming exactly two sets of electrically common points. A "branch" in a parallel circuit is a path for electric current formed by one of the load components (such as a resistor).

Any two terminal network of impedances Zi , i=1n (such as resistors) can eventually be reduced to a single impedance by successive applications of impendances in series or impendances in parallel. Impedances in series:

Z eq = Z 1 + Z 2 + Z 3 + L Z n
impedances in parallel:
1 1 1 1 1 = + + +L Z eq Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 Zn

(2.1)

(2.2)

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague The above simplified for only two impedances in parallel:
Z eq = Z1Z 2 Z1 + Z 2

(2.3)

2.3 Delta to- star and star-to-delta transformation

A network of impedances with more than two terminals cannot be reduced to a single impedance equivalent circuit. An n-terminal network can, at best, be reduced to n impedances. For a three terminal network, the three impedances can be expressed as a three node delta () network or a four node star (Y) network. These two networks are equivalent and the transformations between them are given below. A general network with an arbitrary number of terminals cannot be reduced to the minimum number of impedances using only series and parallel combinations. In general, Y- and -Y transformations must also be used. It can be shown that this is sufficient to find the minimal network for any arbitrary network with successive applications of series, parallel, Y- and Y; no more complex transformations are required.

Fig.2.7.:Delta and star networks. For equivalence, the impedances between any pair of terminals must be the same for both networks, resulting in a set of three simultaneous equations. The equations below are expressed as resistances but apply equally to the general case with impedances, so that R Z . Delta-to-star transformation equations

(2.4)

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague Star-to-delta transformation equations

(2.5)

General form of network node elimination The star-to-delta and series-resistor transformations are special cases of the general resistor network node elimination algorithm. Any node connected by N resistors (R1 .. RN) to N nodes 1 .. N can be replaced by 2 resistors interconnecting the remaining N nodes. The resistance between any two nodes x and y is given by:
R xy = R x R y
i =1 N

1 Ri

(2.6)

For a star-to-delta (N = 3) this reduces to:

Rab = Ra Rb ( R R ( R R + Ra Rc + Rb Rc ) Ra Rb + Ra Rc + Rb Rc 1 1 1 + + )= a b a b = Ra Rb Rc Ra Rb Rc Rc

(2.7)

For a series reduction (N = 2) this reduces to:

Rab = Ra Rb ( R R ( R + Rb ) 1 1 + )= a b a = Ra + Rb Ra Rb Ra Rb

(2.8)

1 For a dangling resistor (N = 1) it results in the elimination of the resistor because 2 =0.

2.4 Source transformation

Fig.2.8.:A non-ideal generator with internal impedance

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague A generator with an internal impedance (i.e. non-ideal generator) can be represented as either an ideal voltage generator or an ideal current generator plus the impedance. These two forms are equivalent and the transformations are given below. If the two networks are equivalent with respect to terminals ab, then voltageV and current I must be identical for both networks. Thus,

Vs = RI S

or

IS =

Vs R

(2.9)

Norton's theorem states that any two-terminal network can be reduced to an ideal current generator and a parallel impedance. Thvenin's theorem states that any two-terminal network can be reduced to an ideal voltage generator plus a series impedance.

Both there theorems will be explained later in details.

2.5. Simple networks

Some very simple networks can be analysed without the need to apply the more systematic approaches. 2.5.1 Voltage division of series components In electronics, a voltage divider (also known as a potential divider) is a simple linear circuit that produces an output voltage (Vout) that is a fraction of its input voltage (Vin) (see Fig. 2.9). Voltage division refers to the partitioning of a voltage among the components of the divider. The formula governing a voltage divider is similar to that for a current divider, but the ratio describing voltage division places the selected impedance in the numerator, unlike current division where it is the unselected components that enter the numerator. A simple example of a voltage divider consists of two resistors in series (Fig.2.10) or a potentiometer . It is commonly used to create a reference voltage, and may also be used as a signal attenuator at low frequencies.

Fig. 2.9.: An impedance voltage devider

Fig.2.10.: Resistive devider

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague Consider n impedances that are connected in series. The voltage Vi across any impedance Zi is as follows:
Vi = Z i I = ( Zi )V Z1 + Z 2 + L + Z n

(2.10)

so for the impedance devider in Fig 2.9.the output voltage is given by:
Vout = Z 2 I = ( Z2 )Vin Z1 + Z 2

And for the equivalent resistive devider (Fig.2.10):

Vout = ( R2 )Vin R1 + R2

(2.11)

If the network is more complicated we simplify the network step by step as follows.The method is called Step-By-Step Simplification Method. The aim is to simplify the circuit by searching of series and parallel connections of circuit elements starting from the output variable This procedure is repeated step by step until reraching some fundamental circuit where it is easy to find voltage and passing current. Then, we will return back to the original circuit , step by step, deviding voltages and currents.Lets have an example:example:

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague

2.5.2 Current division of parallel components

In electronics, a current divider (see Fig.2.11) is a simple linear circuit that produces an output current (Ix) that is a fraction of its input current (IT). Current division refers to the splitting of current between the branches of the divider. The currents in the various branches of such a circuit will always divide in such a way as to minimize the total energy expended. This can be shown by calculus. The formula describing a current divider is similar in form to that for the voltage divider. However, the ratio describing current division places the impedance of the unconsidered branches in the numerator, unlike voltage division where the considered impedance is in the numerator. This is because in current dividers, total energy expended is minimized, resulting in currents that go through paths of least impedance, therefore the inverse relationship with impedance. On the other hand, voltage divider is used to satisfy Kirchoff's Voltage Law. The voltage around a loop must sum up to zero, so the voltage drops must be divided evenly in a direct relationship with the impedance. If two or more impedances are in parallel, the current that enters the combination will be split between them in inverse proportion to their impedances (according to Ohm's law). It also follows that if the impedances have the same value the current is split equally.

Fig.2.11.: Schematic of an electrical circuit illustrating current division.Note, RT. refers to the total resistance of the circuit to the right of resistor RX. Consider n impedances that are connected in parallel. The current Ii through any impedance Zi is:

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague 1 Zi I Ii = 1 1 1 + +L Zn Z1 Z 2 for i = 1,2,...,n.

(2.12)

For special case - current division of two parallel components (see Fig. 2.12) the currents can be calculated as:

I1 =

R2 I R1 + R2

R1 I2 = I R1 + R2

(2.13)

Fig.2.12.: Current devider (two paraller resistors) The common rules for series and parallel circuits can be summarized as: a) Series circuit rules

Components in a series circuit share the same current. Itotal = I1 = I2 = . . . In Total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances, making it greater than any of the individual resistances. Rtotal = R1 + R2 + . . . Rn Total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops. Vtotal = V1 + V2 + . . .Vn

b) Parallel circuit rules

Components in a parallel circuit share the same voltage. Vtotal = V1 = V2 = . . .Vn Total resistance in a parallel circuit is less than any of the individual resistances and is equal to the sum of the individual conductances Rtotal = 1 / (1/R1 + 1/R2 + . . . 1/Rn) Total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents. Itotal = I1 + I2 + . . .+ In

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague

2.6 Simple series circuits

Let's start with an example of a series circuit bellow(Fig.2.13) consisting of three resistors and a single battery :

Fig.2.13.: An example of a simple series circuit The first principle to understand about series circuits is that the amount of current is the same through any component in the circuit. This is because there is only one path for electrons to flow in a series circuit, and because free electrons flow through conductors like marbles in a tube, the rate of electron flow (marble speed) (tube) at any specific point in time must be equal. From the way that the 9 volt battery is arranged, we can tell that the electrons in this circuit will flow in a counter-clockwise direction, from point 4 to 3 to 2 to 1 and back to 4. However, we have one source of voltage and three resistances. How do we use Ohm's Law here? An important caveat to Ohm's Law is that all quantities (voltage, current, resistance, and power) must relate to each other in terms of the same two points in a circuit.

Fig.2.14.: For instance, with a single-battery, single-resistor circuit, we could easily calculate any quantity because they all applied to the same two points in the circuit as given above

I=

E 9 Volts = = 3 mA R 3 k

(2.14)

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague Since points 1 and 2 are connected together with wire of negligible resistance, as are points 3 and 4, we can say that point 1 is electrically common to point 2, and that point 3 is electrically common to point 4. Since we know we have 9 volts of electromotive force between points 1 and 4 (directly across the battery), and since point 2 is common to point 1 and point 3 common to point 4, we must also have 9 volts between points 2 and 3 (directly across the resistor). Therefore, we can apply Ohm's Law (I = E/R) to the current through the resistor, because we know the voltage (E) across the resistor and the resistance (R) of that resistor. All terms (E, I, R) apply to the same two points in the circuit, to that same resistor, so we can use the Ohm's Law formula with no reservation. However, in circuits containing more than one resistor, we must be careful in how we apply Ohm's Law. In the three-resistor example circuit below, we know that we have 9 volts between points 1 and 4, which is the amount of electromotive force trying to push electrons through the series combination of R1, R2, and R3. However, we cannot take the value of 9 volts and divide it by 3k, 10k or 5k to try to find a current value, because we don't know how much voltage is across any one of those resistors, individually.

Fig.2.15.: Back to the example from Fig. 2.13. The figure of 9 volts is a total quantity for the whole circuit, whereas the figures of 3k, 10k, and 5k are individual quantities for individual resistors. If we were to plug a figure for total voltage into an Ohm's Law equation with a figure for individual resistance, the result would not relate accurately to any quantity in the real circuit. For R1, Ohm's Law will relate the amount of voltage across R1 with the current through R1, given R1's resistance, 3k:

But, since we don't know the voltage across R1 (only the total voltage supplied by the battery across the three-resistor series combination) and we don't know the current through R1, we can't do any calculations with either formula. The same goes for R2 and R3: we can apply the Ohm's Law equations if and only if all terms are representative of their respective quantities between the same two points in the circuit. So what can we do? We know the voltage of the source (9 volts) applied across the series combination of R1, R2, and R3, and we know the resistances of each resistor, but since those - 13 -

DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague quantities aren't in the same context, we can't use Ohm's Law to determine the circuit current. If only we knew what the total resistance was for the circuit: then we could calculate total current with our figure for total voltage (I=E/R). This brings us to the second principle of series circuits: the total resistance of any series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. This should make intuitive sense: the more resistors in series that the electrons must flow through, the more difficult it will be for those electrons to flow. In the example problem, we had a 3 k, 10 k, and 5 k resistor in series, giving us a total resistance of 18 k:

In essence, we've calculated the equivalent resistance of R1, R2, and R3 combined.

Fig.2.16.: Knowing this, we could re-draw the circuit with a single equivalent resistor representing the series combination of R1, R2, and R3 (given above). Now we have all the necessary information to calculate thecircuit current, because we have the voltage between points 1 and 4 (9 volts) and the resistance between points 1 and 4 (18 k):

Fig.2.17.: Knowing that current is equal through all components of a series circuit (and we just determined the current through the battery), we can go back to our original circuit schematic and note the current through each component

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague Now that we know the amount of current through each resistor, we can use Ohm's Law to determine the voltage drop across each one (applying Ohm's Law in its proper context):

Notice the voltage drops across each resistor, and how the sum of the voltage drops (1.5 + 5 + 2.5) is equal to the battery (supply) voltage: 9 volts. This is the third principle of series circuits: that the supply voltage is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops. However, the method we just used to analyze this simple series circuit can be streamlined for better understanding. By using a table to list all voltages, currents, and resistances in the circuit, it becomes very easy to see which of those quantities can be properly related in any Ohm's Law equation:

Tab.2.1.. The rule with such a table is to apply Ohm's Law only to the values within each vertical column. For instance, ER1 only with IR1 and R1; ER2 only with IR2 and R2; etc.

You begin your analysis by filling in those elements of the table that are given to you from the beginning:

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague

Tab.2.2.: As you can see from the arrangement of the data, we can't apply the 9 volts of ET (total voltage) to any of the resistances (R1, R2, or R3) in any Ohm's Law formula because they're in different columns. The 9 volts of battery voltage is not applied directly across R1, R2, or R3. However, we can use our "rules" of series circuits to fill in blank spots on a horizontal row. In this case, we can use the series rule of resistances to determine a total resistance from the sum of individual resistances:

Tab.2.3.: In this case, we can use the series rule of resistances to determine a total resistance from the sum of individual resistances:

Tab.2.4.: Now, with a value for total resistance inserted into the rightmost ("Total") column, we can apply Ohm's Law of I=E/R to total voltage and total resistance to arrive at a total current of 500 A.

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague

Tab.2.5.: Then, knowing that the current is shared equally by all components of a series circuit (another "rule" of series circuits), we can fill in the currents for each resistor from the current figure just calculated:

Tab.2.6.: Finally, we can use Ohm's Law to determine the voltage drop across each resistor, one column at a time. Just for fun, we can use a computer to analyze this very same circuit automatically. It will be a good way to verify our calculations and also become more familiar with computer analysis.

REVIEW:

Components in a series circuit share the same current: ITotal = I1 = I2 = . . . In Total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances: RTotal = R1 + R2 + . . . Rn Total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops: ETotal = E1 + E2 + . . . En

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague

2.7 Simple parallel circuits

Let's start with a parallel circuit consisting of three resistors and a single battery given bellow:

Fig.2.18.:An example a simple parallel circuit The first principle to understand about parallel circuits is that the voltage is equal across all components in the circuit. This is because there are only two sets of electrically common points in a parallel circuit, and voltage measured between sets of common points must always be the same at any given time. Therefore, in the above circuit, the voltage across R1 is equal to the voltage across R2 which is equal to the voltage across R3 which is equal to the voltage across the battery. Tab.2.7.: This equality of voltages can be represented in another table for our starting values. Just as in the case of series circuits, the same caveat for Ohm's Law applies: values for voltage, current, and resistance must be in the same context in order for the calculations to work correctly.

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague

Tab.2.8.: However, in the above example circuit, we can immediately apply Ohm's Law to each resistor to find its current because we know the voltage across each resistor (9 volts) and the resistance of each resistor. At this point we still don't know what the total current or total resistance for this parallel circuit is, so we can't apply Ohm's Law to the rightmost ("Total") column.

Fig.2.19.: It is appearent that the total current must equal the sum of all individual resistor ("branch") currents. As the total current exits the negative (-) battery terminal at point 8 and travels through the circuit, some of the flow splits off at point 7 to go up through R1, some more splits off at point 6 to go up through R2, and the remainder goes up through R3. Like a river branching into several smaller streams, the combined flow rates of all streams must equal the flow rate of the whole river. The same thing is encountered where the currents through R1, R2, and R3 join to flow back to the positive terminal of the battery (+) toward point 1: the flow of electrons from point 2 to point 1 must equal the sum of the (branch) currents through R1, R2, and R3.

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague

Tab.2.9.: This is the second principle of parallel circuits: the total circuit current is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents. Using this principle, we can fill in the IT spot on our table with the sum of IR1, IR2, and IR3:

Finally, applying Ohm's Law to the rightmost ("Total") column, we can calculate the total circuit resistance:

Tab.2.10.: Calculating the total circuit resistance. Please note something very important here. The total circuit resistance is only 625 : less than any one of the individual resistors. In the series circuit, where the total resistance was the sum of the individual resistances, the total was bound to be greater than any one of the resistors individually. Here in the parallel circuit, however, the opposite is true: we say that the individual resistances diminish rather than add to make the total. This principle completes our triad of "rules" for parallel circuits, just as series circuits were found to have three rules for voltage, current, and resistance. Mathematically, the relationship between total resistance and individual resistances in a parallel circuit looks like this:

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague The same basic form of equation works for any number of resistors connected together in parallel, just add as many 1/R terms on the denominator of the fraction as needed to accommodate all parallel resistors in the circuit. In summary, a parallel circuit is defined as one where all components are connected between the same set of electrically common points. Another way of saying this is that all components are connected across each other's terminals. From this definition, three rules of parallel circuits follow: all components share the same voltage; resistances diminish to equal a smaller, total resistance; and branch currents add to equal a larger, total current. Just as in the case of series circuits, all of these rules find root in the definition of a parallel circuit. If you understand that definition fully, then the rules are nothing more than footnotes to the definition.

REVIEW: Components in a parallel circuit share the same voltage: ETotal = E1 = E2 = . . . En Total resistance in a parallel circuit is less than any of the individual resistances: RTotal = 1 / (1/R1 + 1/R2 + . . . 1/Rn) Total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents: ITotal = I1 + I2 + . . . In. 6+9

1.8 Conductance
When students first see the parallel resistance equation, the natural question to ask is, "Where did that thing come from?" It is truly an odd piece of arithmetic, and its origin deserves a good explanation. Resistance, by definition, is the measure of friction a component presents to the flow of electrons through it. Resistance is symbolized by the capital letter "R" and is measured in the unit of "Ohm." However, we can also think of this electrical property in terms of its inverse: how easy it is for electrons to flow through a component, rather than how difficult. If resistance is the word we use to symbolize the measure of how difficult it is for electrons to flow, then a good word to express how easy it is for electrons to flow would be conductance. Mathematically, conductance is the reciprocal, or inverse, of resistance:

(2.15)

The greater the resistance, the less the conductance, and vice versa. This should make intuitive sense, resistance and conductance being opposite ways to denote the same essential electrical property. If two components' resistances are compared and it is found that component "A" has one-half the resistance of component "B," then we could alternatively express this relationship by saying that component "A" is twice as conductive as component "B." If component "A" has but one-third the resistance of component "B," then we could say it is three times more conductive than component "B," and so on.

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague Carrying this idea further, a symbol and unit were created to represent conductance. The symbol is the capital letter "G" and the unit is the mho, which is "ohm" spelled backwards (and you didn't think electronics engineers had any sense of humor!). Despite its appropriateness, the unit of the mho was replaced in later years by the unit of siemens (abbreviated by the capital letter "S"). If you're looking for a pattern here, Siemens, Celsius, and Hertz are all surnames of famous scientists, the names of which, sadly, tell us less about the nature of the units than the units' original designations. As a footnote, the unit of siemens is never expressed without the last letter "s." In other words, there is no such thing as a unit of "siemen" as there is in the case of the "ohm". The reason for this is the proper spelling of the respective scientists' surnames. The unit for electrical resistance was named after someone named "Ohm," whereas the unit for electrical conductance was named after someone named "Siemens," therefore it would be improper to "singularize" the latter unit as its final "s" does not denote plurality. Back to our parallel circuit example, we should be able to see that multiple paths (branches) for current reduces total resistance for the whole circuit, as electrons are able to flow easier through the whole network of multiple branches than through any one of those branch resistances alone. In terms of resistance, additional branches result in a lesser total (current meets with less opposition). In terms of conductance, however, additional branches results in a greater total (electrons flow with greater conductance): Total parallel resistance is less than any one of the individual branch resistances because parallel resistors resist less together than they would separately:

Fig.2.20.: Parallel connection of four resistors (resistances) Total parallel conductance is greater than any of the individual branch conductances because parallel resistors conduct better together than they would separately:

Fig. 2.21.: Parallel connection of four conductances - 22 -

DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague To be more precise, the total conductance in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the individual conductances: (2.15) If we know that conductance is nothing more than the mathematical reciprocal (1/x) of resistance, we can translate each term of the above formula into resistance by substituting the reciprocal of each respective conductance:

(2.16) Solving the above equation for total resistance (instead of the reciprocal of total resistance), we can invert (reciprocate) both sides of the equation:

(2.17) So, we arrive at our cryptic resistance formula at last! Conductance (G) is seldom used as a practical measurement, and so the above formula is a common one to see in the analysis of parallel circuits.

REVIEW: Conductance is the opposite of resistance: the measure of how easy it is for electrons to flow through something. Conductance is symbolized with the letter "G" and is measured in units of Siemens. Mathematically, conductance equals the reciprocal of resistance: G = 1/R

2.9 Power calculations

When calculating the power dissipation of resistive components, use any one of the three power equations to derive the answer from values of voltage, current, and/or resistance pertaining to each component:

(2.18)

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague This is easily managed by adding another row to our familiar table of voltages, currents, and resistances:

Tab.2.11.: Power for any particular table column can be found by the appropriate Ohm's Law equation (appropriate based on what figures are present for E, I, and R in that column). An interesting rule for total power versus individual power is that it is additive for any configuration of circuit: series, parallel, series/parallel, or otherwise. Power is a measure of rate of work, and since power dissipated must equal the total power applied by the source(s) (as per the Law of Conservation of Energy in physics), circuit configuration has no effect on the mathematics. REVIEW: Power is additive in any configuration of resistive circuit: PTotal = P1 + P2 + . . . Pn

One of the most common mistakes made by beginning electronics students in their application of Ohm's Laws is mixing the contexts of voltage, current, and resistance. In other words, a student might mistakenly use a value for I through one resistor and the value for E across a set of interconnected resistors, thinking that they'll arrive at the resistance of that one resistor. Not so! Remember this important rule: The variables used in Ohm's Law equations must be common to the same two points in the circuit under consideration. I cannot overemphasize this rule. This is especially important in series-parallel combination circuits where nearby components may have different values for both voltage drop and current. When using Ohm's Law to calculate a variable pertaining to a single component, be sure the voltage you're referencing is solely across that single component and the current you're referencing is solely through that single component and the resistance you're referencing is solely for that single component. Likewise, when calculating a variable pertaining to a set of components in a circuit, be sure that the voltage, current, and resistance values are specific to that complete set of components only! A good way to remember this is to pay close attention to the two points terminating the component or set of components being analyzed, making sure that the voltage in question is across those two points, that the current in question is the electron flow from one of those points all the way to the other point, that the resistance in question is the equivalent of a single resistor between those two points, and that the power in question is the total power dissipated by all components between those two points. The "table" method presented for both series and parallel circuits in this chapter is good way to keep the context of Ohm's Law correct for any kind of circuit configuration.

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague

Tab.2.12.. You are only allowed to apply an Ohm's Law equation for the values of a single vertical column at a time

Tab.2.13.:Principles for series circuits - Deriving values horizontally across columns is allowable as per the principles of series and parallel circuits:

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG CIRCUITS 2. Series and parallel circuits Faculty of Information TechnologiesCTU in Prague

Tab.2.14.: Principles for parallel circuits Not only does the "table" method simplify the management of all relevant quantities, it also facilitates cross-checking of answers by making it easy to solve for the original unknown variables through other methods, or by working backwards to solve for the initially given values from your solutions. For example, if you have just solved for all unknown voltages, currents, and resistances in a circuit, you can check your work by adding a row at the bottom for power calculations on each resistor, seeing whether or not all the individual power values add up to the total power. If not, then you must have made a mistake somewhere! While this technique of "cross-checking" your work is nothing new, using the table to arrange all the data for the cross-check(s) results in a minimum of confusion.

REVIEW: Apply Ohm's Law to vertical columns in the table. Apply rules of series/parallel to horizontal rows in the table. Check your calculations by working "backwards" to try to arrive at originally given values (from your first calculated answers), or by solving for a quantity using more than one method (from different given values).

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