Modelling the Universe

The Structure of the Universe Our solar system consists of the Sun, planets, asteroids, planets satellites and comets. Our galaxy (on average containing 1012 stars) is known as the Milky Way. The Universe has about 1011 galaxies. It is saturated by electromagnet radiation (usually in the microwave region), interstellar dust and dark matter. Neutrinos and black holes are thought to contain the dark matter.

All the stars had the same start as a stellar. - They begin as a large interstellar gas cloud consisting mainly of atoms of hydrogen and a few other elements (e.g. Fe) - Gravitational attraction between the atoms of the dust cloud causes the cloud to collapse. - The gravitational collapse causes the gas cloud to heat up. - The atoms have greater kinetic energy and move faster. - The chance of fusion reactions becomes greater. - Hydrogen nuclei fuse together to form helium nuclei at temperatures of 107K; 4 0 41 (Known as hydrogen burning) 1 2 + 2 +1 + 2 - Fusion reactions increase the temperature of the cloud. - A star of stable size is formed when the gravitational pressure balances out the radiation pressure (from photons released in fusion reactions) The size of the star depends on the mass of the initial dust cloud. The final fate of the star depends upon this mass. The core of an older star is layered with different shells of elements. When all the fuel is used up, the radiation pressure decreases. The increase in the gravitational pressure causes the helium nuclei in the outer layer to fuse together. The increase in the power production from the helium shell causes the outer layer of the star to expand due to radiation pressure. For a star of mass < 3 solar masses - Surface area increases and surface temperature drops. It becomes a red giant. - The core continues to collapse. When the temperature reaches 108K, the helium starts to fuse. This is known as helium flash and about half the material surrounding the core is ejected away as a planetary nebula. - The remnant core left is a White Dwarf. There are no further reactions inside. Glows brightly due to photons produced from past fusion reactions leaking away. High density. - Prevented from further gravitational collapse by electron degeneracy or Fermi pressure. This comes about because two electrons cannot exist in the same quantum state. The maximum mass of a white dwarf is about 1.4 solar masses; this upper limit to the mass of a white dwarf is known as the Chandrasekhar limit.

For a star of mass > 3 solar masses - Surface area increases and surface temperature drops. Becomes a super red giant. - When the core collapses to form a white dwarf, its mass is greater than 1.4 solar masses. The gravitational pressures are enormous and overcome the Fermi pressure. The electrons within the core combine with protons to produce neutrons and neutrinos. The neutrinos escape and the central core becomes entirely packed within neutrons. - The outer shells surrounding the neutron core rapidly collapses and rebound against the solid neutron core. This generates a shock wave, which explodes the surface layers of the star as a supernova. - The supernova blasts off heavier elements like iron and oxygen into space. (All elements originate from supernovae) - For stars with mass in the range 3-10 solar masses, the remnant core is a neutron star. For stars of above 3 masses, the neutron core continues to collapse into a black hole. An astronomical unit is the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun. 1 AU 1.5 x 1011m. The light-year is the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in a period of 1 year. 1 ly 9.5 x 1015m. The Stellar parallax: Can be used to calculate the distance a star is away. The parallax is the angle . Arc seconds is a unit of measurement of an angle. 1 arc second = 3600 degrees A parsec is the distance that gives a parallax angle of 1 second of arc (or 1/3600 degrees). 1 pc 3.1 x 10 16m A relationship between distance d in pc and parallax p in arc seconds is: =
1 1

Example Sirius is a very bright star in the night sky. It has a parallax of 0.38 arc sec. Find the distance in parsecs and light years. d = 1/(0.38) = 2.63 pc. 1pc = 3.1x1016m and 1ly= 9.5x1015m => 2.63 x (3.1x1016)/(9.5x1015) = 8.6 ly Olbers paradox states that for an infinite, uniform and static universe, the night sky should be bright because of light received from stars in all directions. - In an infinite universe, the number of stars in a spherical shell increases with distance 2. - The light received from each star decreases with distance2. Olbers paradox is based on incorrect assumptions. The universe is neither static nor infinite. The fabric of space, which includes the galaxies, has been expanding since the big bang. Hence: - The universe is finite in size - The universe is not static but expanding (as confirmed by redshift of light from distant galaxies and Hubbles law) - The finite age of the universe means that light from distant galaxies has not reached us yet.

The Doppler effect can also be observed in the starlight from distant galaxies. Light emitted from a star moving away from us will have a longer wavelength. The entire spectrum from a star is shifted by the same fraction to longer wavelengths which is known as redshift. If a star is moving towards us, then the entire spectrum is shifted to shorter wavelengths which is known as blueshift. The speed v of a star can be determined by measuring the wavelength of known spectrum lines using the Doppler equation; = Example The wavelength of a particular spectral line in the laboratory is 119.5 nm. The same spectral line emitted from a star has a wavelength of 121.6 nm. Find the speed of the star and state whether it is moving away or coming towards us. (121.6-119.5)x10-9/(119.5 x10-9) x 3 x108 = 5.3x106 ms-1 hence it is moving away from us. All galaxies are moving away from each other because of space expanding. Hubbles law states the recessional speed of a galaxy is directly proportional to its distance from us. = where H0 is the Hubble Constant. 1 = 0 Example A galaxy at a distance of 100 Mpc has a recessional speed of 8000 kms -1. Use this information to determine the Hubble constant in s-1 and estimate the age of the universe in years. v = H0x 8000kms-1=H0(100x106x3.1x1016) => H0 = 2.58x10-18s-1. Age = 1/H0 = 3.88x1017 s = 12 billion Yrs. The Evolution and Fate of the Universe The cosmological principle states the universe is homogeneous (on a large scale, density is evenly distributed), isotropic (the same in all directions) and has universal laws of physics (laws of physics can be applied everywhere). The big bang model assumes space and time evolved from a singularity in an even that took place 12 billion years ago. - It was infinitesimally small, infinitely dense and very hot. All four forces (gravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear and weak nuclear) were united. - An expansion of the universe led to its cooling - At 10-6s, the temperature of the universe was about 1014K. The universe consisted of energetic quarks and leptons. - At 10-3s the temperature of the universe was about 1012 K. The strong nuclear force became dominant and combined the quarks to form hadrons (including protons and neutrons). - At 107 K fusion reactions between protons produce helium nuclei. - At 104 K, electrons combined with nuclei to form hydrogen and helium atoms. - Gravitational forces become dominant. Hydrogen and helium clump together to form stars and eventually clusters of galaxies. - The temperature of the universe is now 2.7K. It is saturated with EM waves of the microwave region. On the Earth, this background microwave radiation is isotopic.

Evidence for the Big Bang - The universe is expanding - Hubbless law shows galaxies are receeding from us. - The temperature of the universe is 2.7K (with small ripples). - The universe is saturated with background microwave radiation - The most distant galaxies (and hence the youngest) show a chemical composition of 25% helium. The final fate of the universe depends on its density. This is hard to calculate because it includes dark matter. The fate of the universe depends upon the critical density 0 ; 0 = 3 0 2 8

1.2 1026 kgm3 (as we dont know the exact value of 0 )

[Closed Theory] If the density is higher than 0 then the gravitational force between matter will be strong enough to decelerate, halt and contract the expansion of the universe, getting hotter as it approaches the big crunch. The universe will then oscillate between big bangs and big crunches. [Flat Theory] If the density is equal to 0 then the rate of expansion of such a universe will tend to zero and the volume tend to a limit. (Most cosmologists believe this to be the case) [Open Theory] If the density is less than 0 the gravitational force between matter in such a universe is too weak to decelerate the expansion of the universe. The universe will expand forever as the temperature decreases resulting in the big freeze.

Robbie Peck; Darrick Wood School, Bromley, London