AQA Biology AS Condensed Notes Chapter 3: Cell Structure and Membranes

Animal Cell Structure

All cells contain organelles
Organelles are part of cells and each one has a specific function You can see organelles and their internal structure with an Electron Microscope

Different organelles have different functions

Plasma Membrane Made mainly of lipids and proteins Regulates substances in/out, has receptor molecules Nucleus nucleolus ribosomes Double membrane with pores, contains chromatin and DNA controls cell activities, pores allow access, makes

Lysosome Surrounded by membrane Contains digestive enzymes, used to digest foreign cells or worn out cell components Ribosome Floats free/attacked to RER made (protein synthesis) Site where proteins are

Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough and Smooth, rough is covered in Ribosomes Smooth synthesises and processes lipids, Rough folds and processes proteins Golgi Apparatus Fluid filled flattened sacs lips/proteins, makes lysosomes Packages new

Mitochondria Double membrane, inner folds to form cristae. Inside is matrix, contains respiration enzymes Does aerobic respiration.

Analysis of cell components

Magnification is size, resolution is detail
Resolution is important (otherwise image is blurry) Magnification is how much bigger an image is than the specimen Calculated with Magnification = Length of Image / Length of Specimen Example; image (from microscopes) = 5mm, specimen = 0.05mm, therefore 5mm / 0.05mm = 100 (therefore x100 magnification) Resolution is how detailed the image is More specifically its how well a microscope distinguished between two points that are close If a microscope lens cant separate objects, increasing magnification just causes blurriness

There are two main types of microscope Light and Electron

1. Light Microscopes They use light (yeah, thats right) They have a lower resolution that electron microscopes Maximum resolution of about 0.2 micrometers Maximum useful magnification of x1500 2. Electron Microscopes Use electrons instead of light Have a higher resolution so give more detailed images

 Maximum resolution of about 0.0001 micrometers, which is 2000 times that of light microscopes Maximum useful magnification of about x1,500,000

Electron microscopes are either scanning or transmission

Two types of electron microscopes 1. Transmission Electron Microscopes TEMs use electromagnets to focus a beam of electrons which his passed through specimen Dense parts of specimen absorb more electrons, which looks darker on the image you get TEMs give high resolution images which is good However can only be used on thin specimens 2. Scanning Electron Microscopes SEMs scan a beam of electrons across specimen This knocks of electrons from specimen, which gather in a cathode ray tube to form an image Shows the surface of the specimen and can be 3D SEMs can be used on thick specimens, which is good But give lower resolution images than TEMs

Cell fractionation separates organelles

Organelles need to be separated before you can look at them under a microscope Cell Fractionation does this

 Three steps:

1. Homogenisation Breaking up the cells Can be done by grinding cells in blender or vibrating them This breaks up plasma membrane and releases organelles 2. Filtration Getting rid of big bits Homogenised cell solution filtered through gauze to separated tissue debris like connective tissue Organelles are much smaller so pass through gauze 3. Ultracentrifugation separating the organelles To separate an individual organelle you use ultracentrifugation 1. Cell fragments are poured into tube, which is put in centrifuge and spun at low speed separating heaviest organelles (Nucleus) to bottom of tube. 2. Forms thick pellet; rest of organelles stay suspended in supernatant (fluid above) 3. Supernatant drained off, poured into another tube, respun at higher speed. Mitochondria then forms pellet 4. Supernatant again drained into different tube and respun at even higher speed 5. Process repeated and repeated till all organelles separated. Each time pellet is made up of lighter and lighter organelles

Plasma Membranes
Substances are exchanged across plasma membranes
Cells need to take in substances that they need and remove toxic substances to survive Plasma membrane controls what substances enter or leave cell

Plasma membranes are mostly made of lipids

Structure of all membranes is basically the same Composed of lipids (mainly phospholipids), proteins and carbohydrates (usually attached to lipids and proteins) Fluid mosaic model proposed in 1973 to describe arrangement of cells in plasma membrane In model, Phospholipid molecules form continuous double layer (bilayer) This double layer is fluid because the phospholipids are continually moving Protein molecules are scattered through layer, like tiles in a mosaic

Triglycerides are a kind of lipid

Lipids in membranes arent Triglycerides but need to know how they relate to Phospholipids Triglycerides have 1 molecule of Glycerol with 3 molecules of fatty acids attached to it

 Fatty Acid molecules have long tails made of hydrocarbon Tails are hydrophobic and repel water Tails therefore make lipids insoluble in water All fatty acids have same basic structure but hydrocarbon tail varies
Carbon atom links fatty acid to glycerol. Variable R hydrocarbon tail

Triglycerides are formed by condensation reactions

Ester bond forms between glycerol and fatty acid at one of three bonding sites on glycerol This is a condensation reaction; molecule of water is released Process happens twice more to form a triglyceride

Fatty Acids can be saturated or unsaturated

Two kinds of fatty acids, saturated and unsaturated Saturated dont have any double bonds between the carbon atoms in their tail. Therefore the fatty acid is saturated with Hydrogen Unsaturated do have some double bonds between the carbon atoms in their tail, which causes tail to kink, resulting in different properties

Phospholipids are similar to triglycerides

The lipids in plasma membranes are mainly phospholipids Phospholipids are similar to triglyceride except one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group The phosphate group is hydrophilic (attracts to water)

 The 2 fatty acid tails are still hydrophobic (repels water) This gives is the double property of repelling water on one side and attracting it on another. This is important in the plasma membrane

Use the emulsion test for lipids

If you want to find out if there is fat in any particular food, use the emulsion test Shake the test substances with ethanol for a minute, then pour the solution into water Any lipid will show up as milky emulsion The more lipid there is, the more noticeable the milky colour will be

Exchange across plasma membranes

Diffusion is the passive movement of particles
Diffusion is the net movement of particles (molecules or ions) from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration Molecules diffuse both ways, but net movement will be to area of lower concentration This continues until particles are evenly spread through the liquid or gas The concentration gradient is the path from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Particles diffuse down a concentration gradient Diffusion is a passive process no energy is needed

 Particles can diffuse across plasma membranes, as long as they can move freely through the membrane E.g. oxygen and CO2 are small enough to pass through spaces between phospholipids

The rate of diffusion depends on several factors

The concentration gradient the higher it is, the faster the rate of diffusion The thickness of the exchange surface the thinner the exchange surface, the faster the rate of diffusion The surface area the larger the surface area the faster the rate of diffusion Microvilli increase surface area for faster diffusion in epithelial cells of intestine. Can increase surface area by 600 times More particles can therefore be exchanged in same time, increasing rate of diffusion

Osmosis is diffusion of water molecules

Osmosis is diffusion of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane, from an area of high water potential to an area of low water potential Water potential is the potential (likelihood) of water molecules to diffuse out of or into a solution A partially permeable membrane allows some molecules to pass through it but not all Plasma membranes are partially permeable Water molecules are small enough to pass through plasma membrane, but large solute molecules cant Pure water by definition has highest possible water potential. All solutions have a lower water potential than pure water

Facilitated diffusion uses carrier proteins and protein channels

Some large molecules e.g. amino acids and glucose, and charged molecules e.g. chloride ions cant diffuse directly through the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane Instead they diffuse through carrier proteins or protein channels in the cell membrane this is facilitated diffusion. Like diffusion, facilitated diffusion moves particles down a concentration gradient Its also passive doesnt use energy Carrier proteins move large molecules into or out of the cell, down their concentration gradient. Different carrier proteins facilitate the diffusion of different molecules (theyre specific) First, a large molecule attaches to a carrier protein in the membrane Then, the protein changes shape This releases the molecules through to the opposite site of the membrane Protein channels form pores in the membrane for charged particles to diffuse through (down their concentration gradient). Different protein channels facilitate diffusion of different charged particles (also specific

Active transport moves substances against a concentration gradient

Active transport uses energy to move molecules and ions across plasma membranes, AGAINST a concentration gradient Carrier proteins are also involved in active transport Process is pretty similar to facilitated diffusion Molecule attaches to carrier protein, protein changes shape, and moves the molecules across membrane releasing it on other side. Only difference is energy is used (ATP) to move the solute against its concentration gradient These are proteins that carry single molecules. Co-Transporters are a type of carrier protein They bind to two molecules at a time The concentration gradient of one of the molecules is used to move the other molecule AGAINST its own concentration gradient.

The products of carbohydrate digestion are absorbed in different ways

All these processes are essential in the body (diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport). For example, to absorb carbohydrate digestion products across intestinal cells: When carbohydrate is first digested, theres a higher concentration of glucose in small intestine than in blood a concentration gradient Glucose moves across epithelial cells of small intestine into blood by diffusion When the concentration in the lumen of intestine becomes lower than concentration in the blood, diffusion stops (due to its passive nature) Rest of glucose is absorbed by active transport Sodium ions floating in the epithelial cells are transported out of the epithelial cells INTO THE BLOOD by the sodium-potassium pump. This creates a concentration gradient (for sodium ions) between the lumen of the intestine and the epithelial cells along the edge theres now a higher concentration of sodium ions in the intestine lumen. This causes sodium ions to diffuse from lumen into cell, down that concentration gradient. They do this via sodium-glucose co-transporter proteins The co-transporter carries glucose into the cell with sodium. Concentration of glucose in cell therefore increases. Glucose diffuses out of the cell into the blood down that concentration gradient through a protein channel by facilitated diffusion. In this way, diffusion, facilitated diffusion and active transport are all used in the process of absorbing the products of digested carbohydrates (e.g. glucose).

Cholera
The Cholera bacterium is a prokaryotic organism

 There are two types of organisms Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Prokaryotic organisms are made of a prokaryotic cell (theyre singlecelled) Eukaryotic organisms are made up of eukaryotic cells (are multicelled) Eukaryotic cells are complex and include all animals and plants Prokaryotic cells are smaller and simpler e.g. bacteria The structure of Prokaryotic cells is important to know, as well as what all the organelles inside are for
The cell wall supports the cell. Its made of a polymer called peptidoglycan. Some bacteria have a capsule made up of secreted slime. It helps to protect the bacteria from attack by immune cells.

The DNA of a bacterium floats free in the cytoplasm. It is circular DNA, present as one long coiled-up strand. Plasmids are small loops of DNA that arent part of the chromosome. They contain genes for things like antibiotic resistance, and can be passed between bacteria. Theyre not always present in bacteria.

Just like in a eukaryotic cell, the plasma membrane is mainly made of lipids and proteins. It controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell.

The flagellum (plural flagella) is a long, hair-like structure that rotates to make the bacterium move. But, not all bacteria have one.

Cholera bacteria produce a toxin that affects chloride ion exchange.

Cholera bacteria produce a toxin when they infect the body, which causes havoc. The toxin causes chloride ion protein channels in the plasma membranes of the small intestine epithelial cells to open. Chloride ions move into the small intestine lumen out of the epithelial cells. This lowers the water potential of the lumen. Water moves out of the blood, across the epithelial cells and into the small intestine lumen by osmosis (to even up the water concentration) The massive increase in water secretion into the intestine lumen leads to really, really, really bad diarrhoea This causes the body to become extremely dehydrated

Oral rehydration solutions are used to treat diarrhoeal diseases

People suffering from diarrhoeal diseases like cholera need to replace all the fluid that theyve lost in the diarrhoea The quickest way to do this is by inserting a drip into a persons vein Not everywhere in the world has access to a drip so an Oral Rehydration Solution is used instead Oral Rehydration Solution: An oral rehydration solution is a drink that contains large amounts of salts (such as sodium ions and chloride ions) and sugars (such as glucose and sucrose) dissolved in water. Sodium ions are included to increase glucose absorption (sodium and glucose are co-transported into the epithelium cells in the intestine).

 Getting the concentration of ORS right is essential for effective treatment. An ORS is cheap and doesnt require training, so good for developing countries.

New oral rehydration solutions can be tested on humans

Due to the importance of ORS, research into developing new, improved ORS is always carried out However, scientists have to prove its safe/better than old ORS This is achieved by clinical testing on humans There are some ethical issues here: Diseases mostly effect children, so trials involve children. The Parent makes the decision for the child (child doesnt get a say in participating) Scientists however believe trials must be in children if treatment is to be shown to be effective against a disease that mainly affects children. Blind trial is usually used some patients in hospital with diarrhoea are given new ORS, some given old, and they dont know which theyre on. The two can then be compared, however some think patient has right to know and decide on the treatment theyre going to have. Scientists say blind trial is important to prevent bias that may skew data as a result of patients knowing what treatment theyre on When new ORS is trialled, theres no way of knowing if its better than the old one Therefore, there is a risk of patients dying even though the original, better treatment was available

AQA Biology Revision

Chapter 3: Cell Structure and Membranes How Science Works Notes

Cells have different Organelles depending on their function

In the exam, there might be a question requiring the application of knowledge on organelles in a cell to explain why its particularly suited to its function. Here are some tips. Structure How might the structure help its job e.g. exchange surface cells have folds to increase surface area, transport cells have lost some of its organelles to make more space Organelles How the organelles help its job e.g. muscle cells need lots of mitochondria, cells that make proteins need lots of ribosomes Epithelial cells in the small intestine are adapted to absorb food efficiently. 1. The walls of the small intestine have lots of finger-like projections called villi to increase the surface area of the intestine. 2. The cells on the surface of the villi have microvilli to increase the surface area even more. 3. They also have lots of mitochondria to provide energy for the transport of digested food molecules into the cell.

You can use the fluid mosaic model to explain membrane properties
In the exam there may be a question in which need to use knowledge of the fluid mosaic model to explain why the plasma membrane has various properties. Here are five important points.

1) The membrane is a good barrier against most water-soluble molecules Phospholipids are the major component of the membranes bilayer The hydrophobic tails of the phospholipids make it difficult for water-soluble molecules to get through the membrane (glucose, sodium ions etc)

2) The membrane controls what enters and leaves Protein channels and carrier proteins in the membrane allow the passage of large/charged substances that wouldnt normally be able to cross the membrane Different cells have different channels/carriers. e.g. the membrane of a nerve cell has many sodium-potassium carrier proteins (Which help to conduct nerve impulses) muscle cells have calcium protein channels (which are needed for muscle contraction) 3) The membrane allows cells to communicate Membranes have receptor proteins These allow cells to detect chemicals released by other cells The chemicals signal to the cells to respond in some way e.g. the hormone insulin binds to receptors in the membranes of liver cells this tells the liver cells to absorb glucose. This cell communication is vital for the body to function properly and in unison Different cells have different receptors in their membranes 4) The membrane allows cell recognition Some proteins and lipids have short carbohydrate chains attached to them

 Theyre called glycoproteins and glycolipids. These molecules tell white blood cells the cell is your own. White blood cells only attack cells that they dont recognise as self (e.g. those of bacteria) 5) The membrane is fluid The phospholipids in the plasma membrane are constantly moving The more unsaturated fatty acids in the phospholipid bilayer, the more fluid it becomes Cholesterol fit in between phospholipids of the bilayer making it less fluid Cholesterol is important as it makes the cell membrane more rigid and stops it breaking up