Ohmmeters

A Meter I Rs E Series
R E s R I = +
= R s ( R I
I

Rs
Im

A Meter

Rx

I Rm Rx

Digital Voltmeter

Rx

Shunt
+ R m R ) x x R R + E

Digital

R I

Shunt Ohmmeter
I

Rs
Im

When R x = Im = E R s + Rm

A Meter

Rx Rm

Rm R s v = Vm m R + R R E s m s R mR x R mR x Rm + R x vm = E= E R mR x R s (R m + R x ) + R mR x Rs + Rm + R x Im = vm Rx E = R m R s (R m + R x ) + R mR x

Shunt

Sample Problem
Complete the design of the shunt ohmmeter and generate a calibration plot when Rm=1000 and the meter has a full-scale reading of 100 A.
I

Rs
Im

A Meter

Rx Rm

Vm

Sample Problem
Complete the design of the shunt ohmmeter and generate a calibration plot when Rm=1000 and the meter has a full-scale reading of 100 A.
I

Rs
Im

First step: Determine Rs

+

A Meter

Rx Rm

Vm

Sample Problem
Complete the design of the shunt ohmmeter and generate a calibration plot when Rm=1000 and the meter has a full-scale reading of 100 A.
I

Rs
Im

First step: Determine Rs

+

A Meter

When Rx is infinite, I = Im = 100 A. Rx

Vm

1.5 V

Rs + Rm =

E I m fullscale

Rm

1.5V = = 15,000 100A

R s = 15,000 1,000 = 14,000

Sample Problem
Second Step: Generate a calibration curve

Rs
Im

A Meter

1.5 V

Rx Rm

Vm

Sample Problem
Second Step: Generate a calibration curve

Rs
Im

A Meter

1.5 V

Rx Rm

Make a spread sheet giving the meter current Im as a function of selected values of the unknown resistance, Rx
Vm

R m R ) x x R R

R s ( R I

Sample Problem
Rx
0 10 100 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 100000 500000 1000000

Im
0.0 1.1 9.7
Im 120.0 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 1 10 100 1000 Rx 10000 100000 1000000

34.9 51.7 68.2 84.3 91.5 99.1 99.8 99.9

Other Displacement Sensors

Variable capacitance Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) Variable inductance Mutual inductance Ultrasound transit time

Temperature Measurement Definitions

Electrical Equivalent Heat Form of energy of a body as an effect of their molecular motion Q Heat Flux Transport of thermal energy dQ
dt =Q

Charge Q

Current
I= dQ dt

Temperature The degree of heat in a body as measured on a defined scale

Voltage V

Temperature Measurement More Definitions

Heat Capacity The amount of heat to increase the temperature of a body by one unit
Q = CT

Electrical Equivalent

Capacitance

Specific Heat Heat capacity per unit mass

Cs = C m

Thermal Resistance A constant relating heat flux and temperature difference

T = R T Q

Resistance
V = RI

Sample Problem
How much will a thermometer whose initial temperature is 20C affect the temperature of the kidney?
m=10g Cs=1 J/gC Thermometer

RT

RT=5Cs/J

m=50g Cs=4 J/gC

Approach: convert to an equivalent electrical circuit

Heat capacity
Ck = 50g 4 J gC = 200 J C

m=10g Cs=1 J/gC

Thermometer

CT = 10g 1 J
C total = 200 J C

gC

= 10 J
C

C
C

+ 10 J

= 210 J

RT + Tk Csk
Q

m=50g Cs=4 J/gC

+ CsT RT TT

Heat
Q k = 200 J Q T = 10 J Q total C 37C = 7,400J 20C = 200J C = 7,600J

Final Temperature of kidney and thermometer

T= Q total 7,600J = = 36.2C J C total 210 C

+ T
C sk C sT C sk + C sT

Plot the Thermometers Response

First-order dynamic system with response in the form
T(t) = 20C + 16.2C(1- e
-t R T C total

Time constant
C total C Ct = k Ck + C t

36.2C 20C

= R T C total = 5

Cs J 9.52 = 47.6s J C

Temperature

47.6 s

Time

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is a function of temperature
A
L

L R = A

is temperature dependent therefore resistance will be temperature dependent

R T = R 0 [1 + (T T0 )]
Where is the temperature coefficient of resistance for the material

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Examples of
Material Gold Platinum Silver Nickel Nichrome Manganin (C-1) 0.0040 0.00392 0.0041 0.0067 0.0004 0.00001

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Examples

Industrial Sensors

Microfabricated Sensor

Thin-Film Gold Temperature Sensor

Nasal

Oral/Nasal

In place on an infant R0 is the resistance at temperature T0 Is the temperature coefficient of resistance

R = R0 (1 + (T T0 ))

Thermistor
Semiconductor Oxides

Lead Wires Insulation

High sensitivity Inexpensive Non-linear Moderate stability

1 1 R = R0 exp T T 0
R0 is the resistance at absolute temperature T0 Is a constant

Thermistor

Effective temperature coefficient of about 5%/C at body temperature (37C)

Compare with RTD

Commercial Thermistors

Disk Probes

Bead

Chip

Linearizing Thermistor Characteristics

Linearizing Circuits

Standard Thermistor Curves

Sample Problem
A thermistor with the curve C characteristic is to be used in an autoclave sterilizer that sterilizes at a temperature of 120C. When the autoclave is not operating, the thermistor resistance is 2,000 at room temperature of 25C. What is its resistance at the autoclaves operating temperature? First step: use the standard thermistor curve C to determine the resistance ratio between the two temperatures

1.0

0.023

Resistance ratio =

R120C R25C

= 0.023

R120C = 0.023 x 2,000 = 46

Thermocouple

Free electrons in a metal at a temperature greater than absolute zero will have a kinetic energy associated with the metals temperature.

Thermocouple

When one end of the metal is heated, the electrons at that end have a higher energy than those at the cooler end and there is a pressure for them to move to the lower temperature end. In other words, a voltage is developed between the hot and the cold ends.

Thermocouple
Material A T1 + EA T2

EA = A(T1 T2) = Seebeck Coefficient

Thermocouple
Material A T1 + EA T2

Voltmeter reads zero! EA = A(T1 T2) = Seebeck Coefficient

Thermocouple
EA T1 + EA EA Material A T2

Voltmeter reads zero! EA = A(T1 T2) = Seebeck Coefficient

Thermocouple
EA T1 + EB EA Material A T2

EA - EB = A(T1 T2) B(T1 T2) = (A B )(T1 T2) = Seebeck Coefficient AB = A B = Seebeck Coefficient for Materials A & B

Thermocouple
T2 T1 Material A + V Sensing Junction Material B Reference Junction V = AB(T1 T2)

Thermocouple
T2 T1 Material A +

Sensing Junction

Material B V

T3

Reference Junction

V = AB(T1 T2)

Thermocouple
T2 T1 Material A +

Sensing Junction

Material B Material C V = AB(T1 T2)

T3

Reference Junction

The meter can be connected with wire of a third metal and located remotely

T4

Thermopile
T1 T2 + V

V = NAB(T1 T2) Where N is the number of thermocouples

Thermocouple
ANSI Type Materials Temp. Range -200 to 350C 0 to 750C -200 to 900C -200 to 1250C 0 to 1450C Voltage (mV) -5.60 to 17.82 0 to 42.28 -8.82 to 68.78 -5.97 to 50.63 0 to 16.74

T J E K R

Copper Constantan Iron Constantan Chromel Constantan Chromel Alumel Platinum-13% Rhodium Platinum

V = (T T0 ) + (T T0 )2

Thermocouple Table for Type K (Chromel Alumel) Thermocouples

Thermoelectric Voltage in mV
C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 0.000 0.397 0.798 1.203 1.612 2.023 2.436 2.851 3.267 3.682 1 0.039 0.437 0.838 1.244 1.653 2.064 2.478 2.893 3.308 3.723 2 0.079 0.477 0.879 1.285 1.694 2.106 2.519 2.934 3.350 3.765 3 0.119 0.517 0.919 1.326 1.735 2.147 2.561 2.976 3.391 3.806 4 0.158 0.557 0.960 1.366 1.776 2.188 2.602 3.017 3.433 3.848 5 0.198 0.597 1.000 1.407 1.817 2.230 2.644 3.059 3.474 3.889 6 0.238 0.637 1.041 1.448 1.858 2.271 2.685 3.100 3.516 3.931 7 0.277 0.677 1.081 1.489 1.899 2.312 2.727 3.142 3.557 3.972 8 0.317 0.718 1.122 1.530 1.941 2.354 2.768 3.184 3.599 4.013 9 0.357 0.758 1.163 1.571 1.982 2.395 2.810 3.225 3.640 4.055 10 0.397 0.798 1.203 1.612 2.023 2.436 2.851 3.267 3.682 4.096

Sample Problem
A type K thermocouple is to be used to measure the temperature of an infant incubator in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU). This incubator should be at a temperature of 35 C, and the NICU itself is kept at a temperature of 23 C. 1. If the incubator is indeed at 35 C, what will the thermocouple voltage be? 2. If the reference junction of the thermocouple is placed in an ice bath, what will the thermocouple voltage be?

Work the second part of the problem first: The reference junction is at 0 C and the sensing junction is at 35 C, so the voltage can be found from the table V = 1.407 mV Thermocouple Table for Type K (Chromel Alumel) Thermocouples
Thermoelectric Voltage in mV
C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 0.000 0.397 0.798 1.203 1.612 2.023 2.436 2.851 3.267 3.682 1 0.039 0.437 0.838 1.244 1.653 2.064 2.478 2.893 3.308 3.723 2 0.079 0.477 0.879 1.285 1.694 2.106 2.519 2.934 3.350 3.765 3 0.119 0.517 0.919 1.326 1.735 2.147 2.561 2.976 3.391 3.806 4 0.158 0.557 0.960 1.366 1.776 2.188 2.602 3.017 3.433 3.848 5 0.198 0.597 1.000 1.407 1.817 2.230 2.644 3.059 3.474 3.889 6 0.238 0.637 1.041 1.448 1.858 2.271 2.685 3.100 3.516 3.931 7 0.277 0.677 1.081 1.489 1.899 2.312 2.727 3.142 3.557 3.972 8 0.317 0.718 1.122 1.530 1.941 2.354 2.768 3.184 3.599 4.013 9 0.357 0.758 1.163 1.571 1.982 2.395 2.810 3.225 3.640 4.055 10 0.397 0.798 1.203 1.612 2.023 2.436 2.851 3.267 3.682 4.096

Now determine the voltage for a thermocouple with its reference junction at 0 C and its sensing junction at room temperature, 23 C. V = 0.919 mV Thermocouple Table for Type K (Chromel Alumel) Thermocouples
Thermoelectric Voltage in mV
C 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 0.000 0.397 0.798 1.203 1.612 2.023 2.436 2.851 3.267 3.682 1 0.039 0.437 0.838 1.244 1.653 2.064 2.478 2.893 3.308 3.723 2 0.079 0.477 0.879 1.285 1.694 2.106 2.519 2.934 3.350 3.765 3 0.119 0.517 0.919 1.326 1.735 2.147 2.561 2.976 3.391 3.806 4 0.158 0.557 0.960 1.366 1.776 2.188 2.602 3.017 3.433 3.848 5 0.198 0.597 1.000 1.407 1.817 2.230 2.644 3.059 3.474 3.889 6 0.238 0.637 1.041 1.448 1.858 2.271 2.685 3.100 3.516 3.931 7 0.277 0.677 1.081 1.489 1.899 2.312 2.727 3.142 3.557 3.972 8 0.317 0.718 1.122 1.530 1.941 2.354 2.768 3.184 3.599 4.013 9 0.357 0.758 1.163 1.571 1.982 2.395 2.810 3.225 3.640 4.055 10 0.397 0.798 1.203 1.612 2.023 2.436 2.851 3.267 3.682 4.096

Equivalent Circuit
35C 23C 0C

Sensing Junction

Reference Junction 0.919 mV

1.407 mV V

V = 1.407 0.919 = 0.488 mV

Potentiometer
Vref = R2 E R1 + R 2

R1 R R2

I = 0 when V = Vx I +

vref A

Vx

Historical Potentiometer

Leeds and Northrup K-2 Potentiometer

Galvanometer

Modern Potentiometers: Analog to Digital Converters

Vref Vx
Vc +

tstop Vx
+ -

Time
Counter
Stop

Vref

Staircase Generator

Digital output

Application: Electronic Thermometer

Easy to read digital display Rapid response Equilibrium indication Disposable protective sheath Inexpensive enough for home use

Wheatstone Bridge
R R
1

4 2R R

R1 E R2

Vm + + V1 + V2

R3 R4

Meter voltage

V
= V Vm =
m

E 4 R

R
+

V
2

R
1

E 4 4R R 3 R E 2 R +