MONOGRAPH FUNCTION: DEFINITION AND ANALYSIS

Originally approved October 1998 SAVE International gratefully acknowledges John W. Bryant, CVS, FSAVE, and the Paul Revere Chapter for their contributions to the development of this Monograph.

Table of Contents Page No. 3 3 4 6 6 6 7 7 8 8 9

ABSTRACT IDENTIFYING AND DEFINING FUNCTIONS CLASSIFYING FUNCTIONS DEVELOPING FUNCTION RELATIONSHIPS ASSIGNING COST AND/OR OTHER MEASUREMENT CRITERIA TO FUNCTIONS ESTABLISHING FUNCTION WORTH SELECTING FUNCTIONS FOR STUDY SUMMARY REFERENCES OTHER SUGGESTED READINGS FIGURES

FUNCTION: DEFINITION AND ANALYSIS Abstract: Understanding, defining and analyzing functions is an essential factor in the success of a value analysis study. The Value Methodology Standard 1 defines the function analysis phase to include: identify functions, classify functions, function models, establish function worth, cost functions, establish value index and select functions for study. This paper follows those steps with the exception of function models. That subject will be a separate monograph in this series. The primary objective of the function analysis phase is to determine the most beneficial areas for value improvement. While unnecessary cost removal has been the traditional target for value studies, it is important to emphasize that, more frequently today, value studies are conducted to improve a product or services performance such as time or quality without increasing cost. I. Identifying and Defining Functions: The determination of function(s) is a requisite for all Value studies. 2 All cost is for function, 3 Snodgrass and Kasi also state that, Identifying functions of a product, service, construction design, process, etc. is the keystone of effective Value Analysis and Engineering. It guarantees an understanding of what something does. It moves an individual or team from a general understanding to a specific and precise understanding and, consequently, to better value products. 4 It is this aspect that separates value analysis from other problem solving disciplines. Under the professional certification program of SAVE International, credit for value studies is not allowed unless candidates demonstrate their use of function definition and analysis in those studies. Thus after the steps in the information phase, as defined in the Value Methodology Standard, have been completed, the next task is to investigate the project thoroughly using function analysis. Function analysis is concerned with locating unnecessary costs and specific requirements (or other project driven characteristics) and determining the value of the project selected for study. A function is that which makes an item or service work or sellin other words, an items function is why the customer buys the product or service. An item, including structures and services, is a means to the end of providing a function, not the end itself. In using the function approach, the value study team constantly returns to the primary reason for design and build cyclesthe ultimate use of the item. Customers buy a product or service because it will provide a function that satisfies their need at a cost they are willing to incur. If, as is almost always the case, they wish to minimize their total cost they must look beyond price and consider other costsoperational, maintenance and usage. For successful product improvement, a function must be carefully defined from the aspect of total life cycle cost so its associated costs can be properly assigned. Function Definition Preliminary attempts to define the functions of an item or process often involve several concepts that seem to need extensive description. Although this could conceivably describe the functions satisfactorily, it is neither concise nor workable enough for successful analysis. The longer the description the more confusing it becomes. If we take a complex idea and condense it into two words, say a verb and a noun, we lose information. If we do it on purpose we have to decide what information

we can afford to lose. Then we are left with the most significant aspect of the products purposethe primary function. 5 A function is always expressed by a verb and noun. This two word description has several advantages: (i) The description pinpoints the functions and is not cluttered with superfluous information, thereby forcing the planner to decide what data is fundamental and should be retained and what is unimportant and should be rejected. This facilitates concentration on the exact requirements when alternatives for providing the function are developed during the creative phase of the study. Possible alternative solutions for providing the functions are not restricted. This is helpful in the creative phase of the value methodology job plan when the effort should not be limited to a narrow range of possible alternatives. Functions that repeat in the design can easily be identified and often combined or even eliminated. And, very importantly, the definitions promote full understanding by all team members regardless of their knowledge, educational, and technical backgrounds.

(ii)

(iii) (iv)

A function must be expressed in a measurable parameter in order to obtain a value for it later in the analysis. Nouns may be either measurable or nonmeasurable. Nonmeasurable nouns must be explained so that they may be translated into a measurable element and later evaluated. For example: The definition Support Transformer is not measurable and cant be evaluated. Support Weight can be measured and evaluated by specifying the weight of the transformer such as 500 pounds. Alternatives would then be developed that can more economically support 500 pounds, not trying to more efficiently support a transformer. Usually explanation columns are included on function analysis worksheets of large projects because common functions such as support weight, conduct current or control flow may occur several times without being redundant. For example, control flow in a building may refer to water, air or people (see Figure 2 for a typical function analysis worksheet). This rigid definition process may incur difficulty when defining aesthetic functions. Commonly we see functions such as enhance appearance, increase prestige or attract user where the noun is not quantifiable but depends upon personal judgment. Typically marketing personnel and/or user surveys are needed to evaluate these type of functions. II. Classifying Functions In value studies functions exist in two categories: basic and secondary. (Function models further contain subsets such as higher and lower order functions unique to that technique). A basic function is the primary purpose(s) for which the item or service was designed when it is operating in its normally prescribed manner. This function must be accomplished to meet the purpose of the product, structure, or service. A product or service may have more than one basic function. Secondary functions are ones that support the basic function (and, hence, are sometimes referred to as support functions). They result from a specific design approach to achieve the basic function. If the design changes, the need for existing secondary functions may be modified or even eliminated. To enhance the analytical an evaluation process some practitioners break secondary functions into a subclassification of required (by the current design), aesthetic, and unwanted such as the emits heat function of an overhead projector.

It is important to remember that although items often possess secondary functions when evaluated as part of the total project, they also have their own basic functions when studied as individual items. Paint, for example, typically has the basic function of protect components which can be measured in terms of retarding corrosion or extending useful life. Paint may also have a secondary function of enhance appearance. There are instances where these functions are reversedan anodized part is painted so that it matches the rest of the equipment. Here, enhance appearance is the basic function, the protective quality of the paint is secondary or even unnecessary, since the part is already protected by the anodizing. The distinction between what is needed (basic functions that provide value) and what is not needed (secondary functions that have no value or even have a negative value) is vital to the successful Value study. Elimination of unnecessary cost is dependent upon it. The most common approach to classifying functions is to list the physical parts of the project, or steps of a procedure, and attempt to define the functions associated with each part or step. For larger projects assemblies or groups of assemblies, elements of a structure, etc., may be the appropriate level of analysis. Then those functions are rated as basic or secondary in relation to the function of the entire project, or whatever the scope of the project the team has defined. Figure 1 shows a highway guiderail assembly and its prime information. Figure 2 illustrates a function worksheet for the guiderail. It is important to recognize that different value study teams would define the functions slightly differently, but clear understanding by all members of the team is most important. There is no theoretically perfect answer to a function definition problem. This step of function definition and classification has become known as random function analysis. Figure 3 illustrates typical function definitions. In SUMMARY: Functions are defined using an active verb and a measurable noun. Basic Function: The principle reason a product or service exists when operating in its normally prescribed manner. Once defined, a basic function may not change. Basic function alone cannot sell a product or service, but secondary (supporting) functions cannot be sold without satisfying the basic function. The loss of the basic function causes the loss of the value of the product or service. Secondary (Support) Functions represent the method to carry out the basic functions. They may be subcategorized as required, aesthetic or unwanted. If the design approach to achieving the basic function changes then secondary functions may also alter, disappear or have new ones created.

III. Developing Function Relationships As value studies became larger and more complicated, it was readily apparent that the random function analysis technique was not adequate. The development of function models depicting relationships of functions within the project became essential and evolved into two major typeshierarchy and function analysis system technique (FAST) models. This subject will be covered in a separate monograph. IV. Assigning Cost and/or Other Measurement Criteria to Functions Another key step in function analysis is to relate cost to functions. It is useful to use a function cost worksheet to assist in the application of the function/cost process. Figure 4 illustrates the allocation of costs to functions for the guiderail assembly. It is the cost function relationship that often vividly illustrates where unnecessary cost exists within the study project. The procedure is: 1. List the functions within the scope of the project across the top of the form. 2. List parts, major subassemblies/sub-systems, steps of a procedure, etc. vertically on the left side of the form with their associated costs determined from the Information Phase. 3. Check off which functions are affected by each item/step. 4. Determine how much cost of each item belongs to each function 5. Add all columns vertically to determine how much cost is allocated to each function. Function-cost relationships provide direction for the study team as to opportunities for greatest value improvement on a cost basis. There, of course may be other key criteria such as quality, reliability or productibility. Similar matrices may be developed for those and/or other key management concerns. Figure 5 illustrates a function-time matrix for a factory rehabilitation project. V. Establishing Function Worth In the value methodology, worth is defined as the lowest overall cost to perform a function without regard to criteria or codes. Comparing function cost to function worth is the primary technique to help study teams identify areas with the greatest potential for value improvement. Dimensioning the function models or random function worksheets with cost and/or other key performance parameters often in itself highlights obvious functions needing improvement. Typical observations are, that function costs too much, all that time for that function? or theres our quality problem! Tentative alternatives A technique for developing the worth of functions that was developed in the early days of value analysis and is still effective today is comparing the selected function to the simplest method or product that can be imagined. For example, the function of sealing pressure on a steam system can be compared to a simple canning gasket costing about five cents. A double throw switch could be compared to a spring mousetrap with a couple of terminals added for some $2.00 cost. Rarely would these alternatives provide the actual solution, but they do set goals. It has been proven many times over that much greater results will be achieved by starting at a minimum base alternative and adding to it to achieve required results rather than starting at a higher cost approach and attempting to remove cost from it, as is usually done in cost reduction processes. The disadvantage of this tentative analysis technique is that it tends to have the VM study team enter into the creative phase of the job plan before they have completed the function analysis phase, and therefore they may not do a comprehensive job on either phase. So care must be taken with this technique to allow it to be optimally used.

Basic Material Value A technique to assign worth of functions that has been become increasingly popular is to ascertain the primary material cost associated with the function. The theory is that any costs, in addition to that prime material, occur as a penalty of processing due to the design utilized. Therefore, alternative ways to reduce or eliminate the penalties will be developed. This approach is often called a forcing technique. For example, the metal within a casting may cost $20.00, but the cost of the casting itself may be several times that due to tolerances stipulated and other production processes. If the function of the casting was defined as contain pressure, then the objective would be to find other ways to contain that pressure for the $20.00 worth. Function Standards Several organizations with long established value programs have, with varying degree of success, attempted to develop historical value standards or benchmarks. For example, the function conduct current would have a cost history by ranges of current and under different conditions and tolerances. The approach is similar to developing parametric cost estimates by hardware or systems, but using functions as the parameter. That benchmarked cost would be used as the worth of the function for a new project. This type of data is normally unique to an organization with a long term, established value program or to a team of experienced value professionals. VI. Selecting Functions for Study As discussed above, the very act of establishing the worth of a function will often create obvious choices for improvement. Another step is to create the value index. This index reflects the basic value theory that value is the relationship between cost and worth. The formula is: Value = Worth/ Cost The goal would be to achieve a ratio of 1. Caution is made that the choice of areas to focus on must be made in consonance with the project objectives and goals. It is important to recognize the emphasis may not be on cost but rather other performance factors such as time or quality. Summary The goal of the function analysis phase is to develop full understanding of the project purpose(s) through function analysis. Once this understanding is reached, function analysis helps the team select areas for maximum return on value study resources consistent with the project study objectives. It is the function analysis phase that is the most unique aspect of value methodology and assures that problems, not symptoms, will be examined and resolved by the continuing phases of the value methodology job plan.

References 1. SAVE International. (1997) Value Methodology Standard. Northbrook, IL 2. Miles, L.D. (1989) Techniques of Value Analysis, 3rd edition. McGraw Hill Book Company, p. 12. 3. Macedo, Dobrow and ORourke. Value Management for Construction, John Wiley and Sons. p. 242. 4. Snodgrass, Thomas J and Kasi, Muthiah. Function Analysis, Stepping Stones to Good Value, University of Wisconsin. p 9. 5. Fallon, Carlos, Value Analysis. Value Foundation, Washington, D.C. p. 100. OTHER SUGGESTED READINGS Enhancing Value In Design Decisions, Kirk, Stephen, SAVE International, Northbrook, IL 1993 Getting More For Less Cost, The Value Engineering Way; Jagannathan, G. Chapter 5, pp 41-52 Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, India Management Application of Value Engineering; Parker, Donald E; pp 41-47, Lawrence Miles Foundation, Washington, D.C. Value Engineering, A Systematic Approach; Mudge, A. E., pp 60-65; McGraw Hill Inc. Value Engineering For The Practitioner, Kaufmann, J. J. pp 7-10, North Carolina State University, Raleigh. Value Engineering; Practical Applications; DellIsola Alphonse, R. S. Means Co., Kingston, MA, 1997

Figure 3 TYPICAL VERBS AND NOUNS FOR DEFINING FUNCTIONS The following is a partial list of verbs and nouns concerning either work or sell functions. HARDWARE/STRUCTURE STUDIES: Work Functions Verbs Fasten Filter Hold Impede Increase Induce Insulate Interrupt Limit Locate Modulate Mount Move Nouns Friction Heat Insulation Light Noise Oxidation Power Protection Radiation

Actuate Amplify Attract Change Collect Conduct Contain Control Direct Distribute Emit Enclose Establish

Prevent Protect Rectify Remove Reduce Repel Rotate Secure Shield Shorten Support Test Transmit

Area Corrosion Current Damage Density Energy Flow Fluid Force

Repair Rust Stability Surface Torque Vibration Voltage Volume Weight

Article Assembly Self Functions

Undesirable Nouns Component Item Device Part

Actuate Create Decrease

Verbs Enhance Illustrate Improve

Increase Maintain Satisfy

Nouns Appearance Effect Beauty Exchange Convenience Features

Form Prestige Style

MANUFACTURING/PROCESS STUDIES Verbs Form Generate Improve Increase Inspect Lift Load Minimize Modify Move Produce Receive Nouns Equipment Fixtures Flow Force Light Material Motion

Allow Apply Bake Band Compress Decrease Discard Drive Dry Eliminate Finish Fire

Remove Resist Restrict Shape Shrink Sort Store Support Transmit Transport Verify Weigh

Corrosion Current Dcor Effort Electricity Energy Environment

Shape Supplies Tools Torque Voltage Waste Weight

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Figure 2 FUNCTION WORKSHEET Highway Guiderail Higher Order Function: Reduce Injury
Item Description Post Qty 1 Cost $10.00 Function Support Absorb Transfer Position Transfer Receive Maintain Resist Maintain Resist Resist Resist Absorb Guide Identify Resist Reflect Weight Energy Energy Assembly Energy Energy Alignment Corrosion Force Corrosion Force Corrosion Energy Movement Edge Corrosion Light Explanation Rail/Assembly From vehicle to rail To ground In ground To Post From rail Rail/post Coating

Project Basic Function: Guide Movement

Worth

Block

$1.00

Bolt

$1.00

Washers

$0.50

Coating

Nut

$0.50

Coating From vehicle Direction Of road Coating Auto Headlights

Guardrail

$180.00

$100.00

Reflector

$1.00 $194.00

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Figure 4 FUNCTION-COST MATRIX: Highway Guiderail Cost = $ per assembly

Block

$0.50

$0.50

$1.00

Bolt

$0.90

$0.10

$1.00

Washers

$0.45

$0.05

$0.50

Nut

$0.45

$0.05

$0.50

Guardrail

$20.00

$150.00

$5.00

$5.00

$180.00

Reflector

$1.00

$1.00

Function Costs

$1.00

$22.50

$3.00

$4.00

$0.50

$0.90

$0.45

$0.45

$150.00

$5.20

$5.00

$1.00

$194.00

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Figure 5 FUNCTION-TIME MATRIX: Safety Wall Project Higher Order Function: Maintain Production Time = Hours
Function Activity Transport Matl to site Locate Part. Wall Cut Steel to Length Assemble Steel Inspect Structure Prepare Wall Build Trestle Plaster Material Demolish Trestle Build Trestle Demolish Wall Demolish Trestle Remove Debris Clean Area Repair Site Total 44.0 10.0 7.0 26.0 6.0 1.0 3.0 9.0 8.0 4.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 1.0 16.0 1.0 8.0 8.0 16.0 52.0 7.0 8.0 16.0 173.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 24.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 1.0 4.0 8.0 4.0 7.0 10.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 8.0 1.0 3.0 6.0 Transport Material 8.0 1.0 Prepare Material Create Size Assemble Elements Inspect Work Specify Area Adjust Struct. Fasten Matl. Protect Matl. Readjust Area Release Fastening Total Time 8.0 1.0 8.0 17.0 1.0 19.0 9.0 16.0 5.0 9.0 40.0 8.0

Basic Function: Separate Areas

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