1.

TIMBER ELEMENTS

Timber is a unique constructional material in that it is entirely natural, this gives it a good aesthetic appeal but creates problem with design since advanced knowledge of its strength capability is not known. To overcome this difficulty, the stress grading method of strength classification has been deviseed. 1.1 Stress grading This is based on an assessment of features in timber that are known to influence strength; Guidelines on such assessments is given in BS 4978 for softwoods and BS 5756 for Tropical Hardwoods. we have Visual stress grading and Machine stress grading. Visual stress grading is a manual process carried out by approved graders who have been trained and have demonstrated their proficiency in the technique. The graders examine each piece of timber to check the size and frequency of specific physical characteristics such as: knots, slope of grain, rate of growth, wane, resin pockets and distortions. These are compared with permitted limits given in BS 4978 to determine if a piece is accepted into one of the two visual stress grades or rejected. The two visual grades referred to in the standards are general structural (GS) grade and special structural (SS) grade Machine stress grading is based on the principle that strength is related to stiffness, therefore, since stiffness may be established by measuring deflection under load, the method offers a non destructive testing technique. The four machine Grades specified in BS 4978 are MGS, MSS, M75 and M50. In order that stress graded timber may be identified, every piece is indelibly marled on at least one face, with its grade and the company or machine that graded it. 1.2 Structural design of timber Design of timber elements is carried out in accordance with BS 5268: Structural Use of Timber. This code is divided into seven (7) parts. For the purpose of this cause we shall mostly dwell on the part 2 of the code. That is

BS 5268: Part 2: Code of Practice for Permissible Stress Design, Materials and Workmanship. 1.3 Strength classes By reference to BS 5268 part 2, timber that has been categorised by stress grading may be further classified into strength classes in relation to grade and species of timber. There are nine strength classes from the weakest, lowest grade, softwood SC1 to the densest, highest grade, hardwood SC9. The various timber species are assigned into strength classes by tables 3 8 of BS 5268. Table 3, which is that for softwood species and grade combinations graded in accordance with BS 4975, is reproduced here in table 2.2 It is possible for stress grading machines to be set to allot timber directly into strength classes, timber graded in this way would be marked with the relevant strength class reference such as SC1, SC2, and so on. Strength class classification is intended to simplify the design, specification and supply of structural timber. 1.4 Grade stresses Grade stresses for each of the nine strength classes are given, without reference to timber species, in table 9 of BS 5268, this has been reproduced here, By choosing one of the strength classes from this table, the designer can determine the size of a timber member without specifying its species, the supplier may then provide any species from within the stipulated strength classes. 1.5 Design stresses The grade stresses given above are basic stresses applicable in a dry exposure condition, within certain dimensional and geometrical parameters and subject to permanent loading. If any of these conditions change then the basic grade stress is affected. Therefore to obtain the permissible design stresses, modification factors known as K factors are given in BS 5268 to be used when necessary to adjust the grade stesses.

1.6 Modification Factors There are over 70 K factors of which the following are relevant to the design of simple flexural and compression members: K: K: K: K: K: K: K: Wet exposure geometrical property modification factor Wet exposure stress characteristics modification factor Duration of loading modification factor Notched end shear stress modification factor Bending stress depth modification factor Load shearing modification factor ( =1.1) Slenderness ratio modification factor for compression members

1.6.1 Geometrical Properties: K The geometrical properties of timber sections are normally quoted for the dry conditions 18% moisture content or below. For wet exposure conditions, the geometrical properties are obtained by multiplying the dry exposure values by a modification factor K given in table 2 of the BS 5268 and reproduced here as table 2.5. This has the effect of increasing the geometrical properties induced by swelling of timber when wet. Timbers used indoors or protected from contact with water are normally considered as dry. 1.6.2 Dry and wet exposure condition K. Strength Characteristics of timber varies with the moisture content. The grade stresses and modulus of elasticity given in the table 8 of the code are based on timber exposed to dry conditions. Where wet conditions exist, multiply the values by a modifications factor K provided in table 16 of the code.

1.6.3 Duration of Loading, K The stresses given in tables 10 and 9 of the code apply to long-term loading. Where applied loads will be for shorter durations the grade stresses are
3

multiplied by a modification factor K for various load combination (Table 17 of BS 5268). 1.6.4 Load-Sharing Systems, K The grade stresses given in tables 8 and 9 of the code apply to individual members e.g. isolated beams and columns, rather than assemblies. When four or more members such as rafters, joist or wall studs, are placed at centres not exceeding 610 mm, they act together to resist a common load, the grade stress should be multiplied by a load-sharing factor K which has a value of 1.1. Types of members There are certain design considerations that apply specifically to either flexural members such as beams or compressive members such as posts. 1.7FLEXURAL MEMBERS Flexural members are members subjected to bending. Beams, rafters and joists are examples. The main design consideration of flexural members are (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) bending deflection lateral buckling shear bearing

. 1.7.1 Bending From the theory of bending M=fZ

Where

xx = bd for rectangular sections. 6

Knowing the applied loads, the maximum bending moment M may be calculated, Hence the required section modulus Z about x x direction may be calculated. xx = M F The symbol f denotes the permissible stress value of the material and is the grade bending stress m, g.par modified by the relevant k factors, these are the previously mentioned k factors in addition to a depth modification factor K. Thus xx required = M m, g.par ( as appropriate)

a suitable section size having a xx greater than that required may then be chosen from one of the BS 5208 tables 98, 99 or 100. The chosen section should then be checked for deflection, shear and lateral buckling failure and bearing

1.7.2 Depth Factor, K The grade bending stresses given in table 8 of the code, only apply to timber sections having a depth h of 300mm. For other depths of beams, the grade bending stresses are multiplied by the depth factor K, defined in the BS code as follows: K = 1.17 K = (300 / h) 300mm. .
5

for solid beams bending a depth < 72mm. for solid beams with 72mm < h<

1.7.3 Deflection Excessive deflection of flexural members may result in damage to surfacing materials, ceilings, partitions and finishes, and to the functional needs as well as aesthetic requirements. It is recommended that to avoid such damage Where t = total deflection of the member tp = permissible deflection
6

= 0.003 x span for longer-span domestic floor joist (i.e. span > 4.67) p > 14 mm t = m + v where m = bending deflection v = shear deflection Deflection due to bending m is calculated using the formulas below For a UDL For a central point load m = 5 x WL3 384 EI m = 1 x PL3 48 EI

the E value to be adopted is E min for isolated members and Emean for load sharing members Deflection due to share v = 19.2M AE

Where A = section area M = mid span bending moment

Thus for a UDL

a = 5 x WL3 + 384 EI

19.2M AE

for a point load

a = 1 x PL3 + 48 EI 1.7.4 Shear

19.2M AE

For flexural member not to fail in shear the applied shear stress parallel to the grain, , should not exceed the permissible shear , adm i.e. ra radm For a beam with a rectangular cross-section, the maximum applied shear stress occurs at the neutral axis and is given by ra = 3Fv 2A

Where Fv = the applied maximum vertical shear force A = cross-sectional area The permissible shear stress is given by radm = rg K1 K2 K3 K5 K8 (as appropriate) where rg = grade shear parallel to grain

1.7.5 Notched Ends, K Notches at the ends of flexural members will results in high shear concentrations which may cause structural failure and must therefore be taken into account during details.
a

In notched members, the grade shear stresses parallel to the grain are h multiplied by a modification factors K calculated ashfollows: e

(i)

For a notch on the top edge for a he for a > he

K = h (he a) + ahe he K = 1.0

(ii)

For notch on the underside

K = he/h According to the code, he <0.5 h

It should be noted that the area used in the expression for calculating ra at a notched end is A = bhe 1.7.6 Bearing Perpendicular to Grain The compressive stress perpendicular to the grain, or the bearing stress which is developed at points of support should also be checked. In order to prevent bearing failure in flexural members c,a,perp c,adm,perp where c,a,perp is applied bearing stress perpendicular to grain c,adm,perp is permissible compression stress perpendicular to grain. c,a,perp = F / bLb
9

where F is the bearing force (usually maximum reaction) b is breadth of section Lb is bearing length c,adm,perp = c,g,perp K3 K8 The values for the grade compression stress perpendicular to the grain is given for each strength class in table 2.2, the higher value may be used when the specification will prevent wane from occurring , otherwise the lower value should be used.

DESIGN SUMMARY FOR TIMBER FLEXURAL MEMBERS i. Bending: Check, using the theory of bending principles, taking into account modification factors for load duration, K3, load sharing, K8 (if applicable), depth, K7 and so on. First calculate the bending moment, M. Calculate the approximate Zxx required = M / m.g.aK7.K8 Choose a suitable timber section from tables. Re-check the Zxx required with a K7 factor for depth included:

10

Final Zxx req. = M / m.g.a/K3. K7.K8 Check the risk of lateral buckling failure by ensuring that the depth to breadth ration meet the standard as provided by table 19 of BS 5268-2:2002.

ii.

Deflection: Compare the permissible deflection (p = 0.003 x span) with actual deflection (t = m + v). For UDL, t : = (5 WL3 / 384 EI) + 19.2 M/AE For central point load: t = (PL3/48 EI + 19.2M/AE) Use Emean for load sharing members and Emin for isolated members.

iii.

Shear: Compare the applied shear stress, (ra = 3Fv / 2A) with the permissible shear stress radm = rg,K3K8 (where applicable) Check shear with a notch

iv.

Bearing: Compare applied bearing stress c,a,perp = F / bearing area With permissible bearing stress: c,a,perp applicable) = c,g,perp K3K8 (where

NOTE: The wet exposure modification factors should be applied where necessary, if the member is to be used externally.

11