CHAPTER 1 Architectural Design process and Methodologies

METHODOLOGY- OR A SYSTEMATIC METHOD OF PROBLEM SOLVING, BUILDS UPON THE CONCEPT BY HELPING TO MAKE THE BEST USE OF THE DESIGN TOOLS ACQUIRED IN CREATIVITY BEST ACHIEVE BY DEVELOPING NEW IDEAS.THEN DEVELOPING IT TO THE FULLEST. DESIGN METHODS AND TOOLS WHY USE A METHOD WHEN SOLVING A DESIGN PROBLEM? IMAGINEERING BALANCE BENEFITS TO ADOPT A PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD IDENTIFY THE REAL PROBLEM RECORD THE FINDINGS EFFICIENT MECHANISM IN SHORT A DESIGN METHOD-IS THE VEHICLE YOU USE TO GET A PROJECT FROM ITS BEGINNING TO ITS END DESTINATION. A DESIGN PARADIGM DESIGN TOOLS PRESTATEMENT- THIS IS A STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM THAT YOU, THE DESIGNER WILL HAVE TO RESOLVE. PROBLEM STATEMENT- YOU DONT WRITE THE PROBLEM STATEMENT UNTIL AFTER YOU HAVE DETERMINED THE PROBLEM. INFORMATION THIS IS THE EXHAUSTIBLE STAGE AT WHICH YOU UNCOVER ALL THE OF THE DETAILS THAT RELATE TO YOUR PROBLEM. RECORD ALL THE INFORMATIONS; LITERATURE
1

EXPERIENCED PERSONS OBSERVATION ANALYSIS- THIS IS A THINK STAGE PARTIAL SOLUTIONS CARPETING SHOULD BE PLACED WHERE LECTURES OCCUR SO THAT THE SPACE BE QUIETER.STRONG COLOR CONTRASTS SHOULD BE USED WHERE DISCUSSIONS WILL OCCUR. AUDIOVISUAL AIDS SHOULD BE PLACED WHERE THE ENTIRE CLASS CAN BENEFIT FROM THEM. COMBINED SOLUTION 2 CLASSROOMS SECTIONS WILL BE CREATED: 1 FOR SMALL GROUP DISCUSSIONS WILL UTILIZE CONTRASTING COLOR SCHEMES; A LECTURE SPACE WILL BE PAINTED A PASTEL COLOR. FOR ACOUSTICAL PURPOSES, THE ENTIRE SPACE WILL BE CARPETED. VENETIAN BLINDS, ALLOWING FOR LIGHT AND VISUAL CONTROL OF THE OUTSIDE SURROUNDINGS, WILL BE INSTALLED AT THE WINDOWS. SYNTHESIS THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE PROJECTS SOLUTION IN A GRAPHICAL MANNER EVALUATION MAY TAKE PLACE AT DIFFERENT TIMES; AFTER THE PROJECT HAS BEEN FINISHEDAND HAS BEEN USED FOR A WHILE. BEFORE THE ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE PROJECT FACTORS TO EVALUATE A PROJECT; POPULATION DENSITY BUILDING BULK WIDTH OF STREETS TRAFFIC CONDITIONS AND PARKING/LOADING REQUIREMENTS LAND USE AND ZONING GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS HYDROLOGICAL CONDITIONS METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AVAILABILITY AND CAPACITY OF PUBLIC UTILITY/SERVICE SYSTEM

CHAPTER 2
CONCEPTUALIZATION TECHNIQUES OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
Architectural Concepts- the designers way of responding to the design situation presented in the program. Sometimes called the BIG IDEA, BASIC FRAMEWORK, and PRIMARY ORGANIZER. The designer must divide the project situation into a manageable number of parts, deal with them individually and then synthesize them into one whole simultaneous building. Some concerns and issues of a building; 1. Functional zoning 2. Architectural space 3. Circulation and building form 4. Response to context 5. Building envelope CONTEXT FOR CONCEPT GETTING 1. General Philosophy and life values of the designer some psychological categories that combine to influence the formation of a design philosophy and which affect the making of design decisions are; a. Motivation and interest b. Enhancement of self image c. Dependence on or independence of outside reinforcement of self worth d. Expansion of ones sphere of influence e. Concern to fellow man f. Immediate and deferred goals g. Conservation of what is scarce and valued h. Quest for simplification i. The material and the spiritual 2. Design Philosophy can be attained thru training and experience, has usually developed a design philosophy, a set of postures or values about design which he relies upon for making form in building design. Almost always includes attitudes and values about a range of issues that are closer to design activity. 3. View of the Problem by the designer presented with a specific design project- the way that the designer perceives, understands and describes that project occurs within the framework of his life values and design views. Different designers will see the problem differently. Perceptions usually begin the entire planning process.. 5 4. Categories of concern are; a. Function-[activity, grouping and zoning] b. Space- [ volume required by activities] c. Geometry-[circulation, form and image] d. Context-[site and climate]
3

5. 6.

7. 8.

e. Enclosure-[structure, enclosing planes and openings] f. Systems-[mechanical, electrical, etc.] g. Economic-[first costs, maintenance cost] h. Human Factors-[Perception, behavior] Design Analysis- why do we think of so many great ideas? Because design involves problem solving and solving demands idea production. What then is the PROBLEM? Tentative solution- Brainstorming- a group process in which several people, for a given amount of time, gather together and discuss a particular problem. During this time, they all contribute positive thoughts to the discussion and try to produce a workable solution. Patience should be practiced. Dont be too anxious to come up with the perfect solution. Criticism- above all faith and confidence in yourself say what you feel. Question what you do not understand. PROBLEM SOLUTION CRITICISMS Geometric- the detailed visual inter-relationships between all the parts of the building as the operational stage develops. The visual objectives should be kept in mind at all stages but, because of the inherent difficulties of design team working, there is an increasing need to consider detailed engineering decisions in geometric terms.

CHAPTER 3
MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE
1. ALVAR AALTO-Architecture must create buildings which are conceived as a total artistic expression, it has emotion beyond sentimentality and must be human beyond whimsy. Theories in Designing; a. Standardization b. Functionalism c. Monumentalism d. Responsive and humanism e. Organic Architecture Works; a. Newspaper office and Plant, Turkey [1927-30] b. Paimo Tuberculosis Sanatorium [ 1929-33] Styles of Design; a. He balanced the old and new styles b. He contrast the natural and technological c. He alternates large expanses of smooth glass or wall with slender columns. d. He interrupts the routine rhythm of structure

2. MARCEL LAJOS BREUER -[a Hungarian Architect]-A building has a straight geometrical lines even when this line are free, it must always be an evident that they have been studied and they did not spring up spontaneously. Phases of his work; a. Amerikanismus- influences of American techniques b. Constructivism- designing each floor in recessed to floors below it. c. Harnishmacher- he named after the structure he designed. Works; Harnishmacher house, Germany Unesco Secretariat building and conference hall with Nervi and Zehrfuss 3. FELIX CANDELA [born in Madrid, worked as an engineer specialized in construction of light concrete roof]-Architecture becomes an art only when it is scientific. Works; a. Cosmic Rays pavilion University, Mexico City [1951] b. The Xochimilco Restaurant [1958] his favorite work. 4. ANTHONY GAUDI [Spanish Architect] When you limit architecture to aesthetic experiment you are making technology at end instead of means. Styles of Design; a. Never use 90 degrees angles b. Use of hyperboloid and parabolic Works; a. Casa Vicens b. Sagrada Familia, Barcelona his famous work 5. WALTER GROPIUS [German Architect and founder of Bauhaus. Pioneer in modern architecture and first adviser of TAC]- Arts and Architecture the new unity. Styles of Design; a. Less ornaments and with modern structural features. b. Functionalism or International Style. Works; a. Fagus Factory b. Hall of Machinery 6. PHILIP JOHNSON [An American Architect also an advocate of International Style in U.S]-Volume rather than Mass. Works; a. The glass house, Connecticut b. New York State building at Lincoln Theater

7. LOUIS KAHN [American Architect famous for monumental structures in brick and concrete] Searching for what a materials want to be. Styles in design; a. Form is used to describe the pure ideal existence of architectural program Work; a. Yale Art Gallery brought him a nationwide recognition 8. LE CORBUSIER [a pseudonym for Charles Eduard Jeanerette, a Swiss Architect and one of the masters of modern Architecture.]- A house is like a machine to Live in. Styles in Design a. The Pelotis b. Curtain Wall c. Free plan d. Free faade e. Roof garden Works; a. UN Headquarters with Oscar Niemeyer 9. Adolf Loos [born in Czechoslovakia]-Ornaments equal Crimes. Styles in Design; a. Palin White Walls b. Rectilinear lines c. Rectangular Fenestration Works; a. Steiner House, Vienna 10. ERICH MENDELSOHN [German Architect]-Architecture as a piece of Sculpture. Styles in Design; a. A dynamic sculptural quality b. Horizontal emphasis c. Materials like steel, glass and concrete are commonly used d. Organic unity e. Symmetrical composition Works; a. Einstein tower, Berlin 11. LUDWIG MIES VANDEROHE- Form must be created from the nature of our work with the methods of our time, yet to prefer aestheticism is another aestheticism. Styles in Design; a. Skin and Bone
6

b. Pure Form c. Universal in Space d. Less is more and almost nothing Works; a. German Pavilion b. Seagram Building with Philip Johnson

12. RICHARD JOSEPH NEUTRA [A MODERNIST Architect] A house is like a flower plot in which you can root something out of its family life and will bloom. Work; Kauffman house, palm Spring Cal. 13. OSCAR NIEMEYER [A Brazilian Architect]- To avoid repetition of already known forms and solutions an architectural work must contain basically a minimum of creative ability and must convey a personal contribution of an architect. Architecture is not merely a matter of engineering, but an expression of spirit of the imagination of poetry. Styles in Design; a. Free forms b. Straight and curved lines ramps c. Curve lines in plans d. Glass wall e. Low pitch roof Works; a. Pampulhas Cruciform Church b. UN Building, New York with Le Corbusier 14. IEOH MING PEI [ a Chinese Architect] Styles; a. Abstract form using stone, concrete, glass and steel b. Buildings and nature were combined especially the light and shadow mixed. Work; a. Louvre Pyramid, France 15. AUGUSTE PERRET [French Architect]- Truth is indispensable to Architecture and every Architectural lie Corrupts. -Any project is bad if it is more difficult or more complicated to construct than necessary.
7

Work; a. Notre dame Du Raincy Cathedral, France 16. ELIEL SAARINEN [Finnish Architect mostly of his buildings are neo-classical style]- Beauty Grows from necessity not from repetition of formulas. Works; a. Helsinki Railway Station, Finland b. National Museum, Finland 17. EERO SAARINEN [known for his powerful sculptural forms, a constructivist architect]- Function influence but does not dictate form. Works; a. St. Louis Arch b. Transworld Airways Terminal c. Auditorium at MIT Campus 18. LOUIS HENRY SULLIVAN- Form Follows Function. Works; a. Carson Pirie Scott Dept. Store b. Transportation Building, Chicago 19. KENZO TANGE [Japanese Architect]-Modern Architecture need not be western. Styles; a. Simplicity rules in designing b. Ban on ornament c. Honesty to materials d. Avoidance by all cost the attitude of Buddhism. Work; a. Tokyo National Gymnasium, 1964 Olympics 20. PIER LUIGI NERVI [an Italian Architect and engineer]-Strength through Form. Styles; a. Applications of Roman and Renaissance for aesthetically pleasing structures b. Rib and vault c. Using sophisticated pre fabrication materials Works; a. Olympic Stadium, Rome b. Palazzetto Dello Sport
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21. FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT- Organic Architecture Works; a. Solomon R Guggenheim Museum, NY b. The falling Water, PA-the finest house of the 20 th century

CHAPTER 4
FUNCTIONAL CONCEPTS AND THE INTERIOR ENVIRONMENT
Solving problems in Architectural Design begins with familiar study of plan elements, which develops into consideration of interior and exterior areas and details. The various units of plan are first arranged in a horizontal manner in order to secure a workable relationship between the different areas. This pattern is dictated by the function of the building and the desirable size and shape of the units themselves. The rooms of the house The galleries of the museum The units of the factory - All this must be laid out to facilitate movement through building, quickly and easily. There should thus be economy and directness of circulation. - This type is called Planning For Potential Circulation THE PRINCIPLES RELATED TO FUNCTION 1. Need for adjacency

rule 2424 24

DINING

KITCH EN

BEDROOM

T& B

LIVING

DEN

O
TENNIS TENNIS

BOA BOA TING TING & & FISH HOU FISH HOU ING SING ING SING & & PAAR PAAR KING KING

SWIMMING SWIMMING

HOUS HOUS ING & ING & PAAR PAAR KING KING

Clubhouse, Entertainment, Health Club, Sports Shops

2. Relatedness to Departments [ example: Hospital]

NURSING
Pediatric Pediatric ss Intensive Orthoped ics ics Medical Medical

Intensive Care Care Orthoped

Surgical Surgical ATION DIAGNOSTIC------------THERAPHEUTIC

Radiolog Radiolog yy Surgery Surgery Laborator Laborator yy
Respirator Respirator y y

ADMINISTR
Offices, Offices, Acct.etc. etc. Acct.

Emergen Emergen cy cy
Physical Physical Therapy Therapy

INISTRATIONE Obstetric INISTRATIONE Obstetric mergency ian mergency ian

etacetcetc..DM etacetcetc..DM

Nurse Nurse LOCKE LOCKE RS NURSES RS

Mothe Labor Mothe Labor rs room rs room entry MOTHER entry Preparat Preparat ion BABY ion

Nurse Nurse statio statio n n

SUPPLIES
DELIV DELIV ERY ERY ROOM ROOM S Observa S Observa Locker tion Locker
s& s& sleep sleep
tion

Clean Clean stora stora ge ge

Soiled Soiled storag storag e e

Nurse Nurse ry ry

Doctor Doctor s s Entry Entry

Recove Recove ry ry

Post Post partum partum

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DOCTOR BUBBLE DIAGRAM OR SCHEMATIC RELATIONSHIPS OF UNITS

3. Sequence in time--------EXAMPLE: PARKING GARAGE

CHECKING IN
Enter Enter Gara Gara ge ge Chec Chec kk Car Car Get Get Ticke Ticke t t Exit Exit by by Foot Foot

THEN CHECKING OUT

Retur Retur nfor for n car car Subm Subm it it ticket ticket
Make Make payme payme ntt ntt

Get Get receip receip t t

Wait Wait For For car car

Garag Garag e e

Get Get car car

Depa Depa rt rt
Garage Garage

4. Required environments
a. Furniture types b. Need to view

Best View

Good View

No View

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5. Relative proximity to building

INCOMING PASSSENGER

RUN S RUNWAY WAY S

OUTGOING PASSENGER

FUNCTIONAL DESIGN- this deals with the development of plan arrangement to serve in a purely mechanical way the functions of the building. It discovers the proper sizes of rooms and their relations to each other. It furnishes the elements of comfort: light, heat and ventilation. It determines the correct sizes and location of the structural members which give the building strength. However, even when all these requirements are satisfied, architecture does not necessarily exist. The building may remain only an engineering structure without the spirit of architecture which is called LOGICAL BEAUTY.

USER POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS

CHARACTERISTICS ARCHITECTURAL IMPLICATION

CULTURAL FACTOR Consideration variation exist among people with respect to their cultural background, religious attitudes, intellectual development, skill development, attitudes toward others, and where and how they live in terms of spatial features and modern technology. People of different nationalities, as well as individuals of the same nationality, vary considerably in terms of size. Differences in size impact on architectural space, including clearances and reach distances. The impact of restricted mobility on human12

BODY SIZE

MOBILITY

PA PA AR AR KI KI NG NG & & SE SE RV Lo Lo RV IC adi adi IC E ng ng E & & Unl Unl oa oa din din g g

TAXI TAXI

STRENGTH SENSORY FACTORS MOTOR SKILLS

COGNITIVE SKILLS

architectural interfaces may be critical o the operational utility of a system concept. Architectural features that require lifting, pushing, pulling or twisting must be tailored to the weakest member of the expected user population. Principal sensory factors associated with architectural systems relate to visions, hearing and touch. A limited number of people have superior motor skill capabilities as a result of either innate capability or training. Still others are even more limited by physical handicaps Understanding the operational aspects of the proposed architectural concepts is critical to its effective use.

USER EFFICIENCY- it is often said that user efficiency does not sell productsappearance does. From a human factors point of view, however, efficiency is of prime importance to the eventual effectiveness of any system.

PARAMETER VISION

HEARING

VARIABLES What a person sees clearly establishes the basic input to that person. His use response depends on how well the architectural concept implies what the designer intends the user to do with it. The critical variables include the following; 1. Visibility- is critical features bright or are they obscured by intervening elements glare or shadow? 2. Legibility- are critical features clear, or are they distorted by lack of contrast or illusory geometrics. 3. Conspicuousness- is features that are important to detecting, recognizing and understanding lost in the background. 4. Recognizability- are features natural, familiar and or similar to the observers expectations, or are they distorted or purposely made to look like what they are not? What people hear not only affect their ability to communicate but may also affect their general capacity to perform other tasks. The critical variables include; 1. Audibility if certain sounds must be heard, the acoustic environment must be designed to carry the sounds and not block them. 2. Intelligibility- the acoustic environment must be designed so that it will not distort the sounds intended for the listener. 3. Signal to noise ratio- the combined communications and acoustic system must be designed to maximize the probability that extraneous noises will not obscure the desired sound
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signal. 4. Noise annoyance- adequate noise attenuation must be provided to minimize the possible deleterious effects that an annoying noise can have on individual task performance. STABILITY How well a person performs ambulation or biomechanical or other manipulative tasks depends on the stability-aiding elements of the architectural system and or the possible impediments designed into the system. In addition, there are critical visual interactions that may add to the instability of the user. Among the typical features to examine are the slopes of floors, walkways, stair treads, handrails and door thresholds. Structural vibration also impacts on user stability. MOBILITY How well people perform dynamic tasks, tasks in which they must move their bodies and limbs depends both on the clearances provided around their task envelope and on the supporting area provided to maintain stability. CONVENIENCE How ell people perform various tasks depends on a great extent on how conveniently they can move from one place to another. This requires careful consideration of functional relationships. The sequence of events , time constraints, and emergency demands in order to create a logical and energy saving arrangement of spaces and activities within spaces, lack of convenience not only reduces immediate user efficiencies but also may add to fatigue and possible operator failures.

CHAPTER 5 VALUE, ASPIRATION AND CULTURE

(Philippine Architecture) Pre Hispanic architecture is usually characterized by its use of indigenous woody materials. Filipino living is well- organized and independent villages, the barangays. The native dwellers lived in houses made of wood and bamboo, roofed by nipa palm leaves called BAHAY KUBO ( nipa hut) Other materials used: Yantok (rattan) Stone Clay BAHAY KUBO (nipa hut) The mainstream form of the housing
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Supported by four or more post

Arrangement of typical BAHAY KUBO SILONG: Space beneath the house Serve as work place; granary or pen for livestock BULWAGAN (living area) The principal space Used as receiving guest, dining and sleeping SILID Served as dressing room and closet For pillows and also mats BATALAN ( shower) Open porch, install as part of the house An unroofed platform, were water jars are placed BANGERAHAN: A storage shelf and drainer The structure and design of the nature houses resulted from various factors that may be dictated by the natural setting, available resources, customs, beliefs and needs of the occupants. Examples: Coastal areas, hinterlands, mountain areas SPANISH COLONIZATION Introduced European architecture Antilles styles ( through Manila galleon) Ex. The city of Manila 20th CENTURY Ex. The Makati City ASPIRATION A drawing of something in, out (or through by or as if by suction ) A dream of something VALUES Webster defines value as that which is desirable or worthy of esteem for its own sake; thing or quality having intrinsic worth. In the sociological context acts, customs, institution, etc., regarded in particular especially favorable way by a people, ethnic group.
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Value affect all of our decisions including: How we think ______ and dont think Believe ___________ and dont believe Act ______________ and react Do ______________ and dont do FOUR BASIC VALUES 1. Integrity 2. Discipline 3. Hardwork 4. Justice Architectural Design Values Make up an important part of what influences an architect and designer when they make their decisions. Traditional Design Values Is a long tradition of being inspired b and re- use design elements of existing buildings and products The tradition based on design value 1. Critical traditions/ regionalist 2. Revivalist 3. Conceptualists AESTHETIC DESIGN VALUES The expansion of architectural and industrial design ideas and vocabularies, which took place during the last century, has created a diverse aesthetic reality within these two domains. SEVEN VALUES OF AESTHETIC DESIGN 1. Artistic aspects and self expansion It is characterized by a belief that individual self expression; should be utilized and/or be the base used in designing. 2. The spirit of the time design value: Is based on the conception that every age has a certain spirit or set of shared attitudes that should be utilized when designing. 3. The structural, functional and material honesty design value: Structural honesty is linked to the notion that

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Functional honesty is linked to the idea that a building or product form shall be shaped on the basis of its intended function, often known as Form follows function. Material honesty implies that materials should be used and selected on the basis of their property. 4. The simplicity and minimalism design value Is based on the idea of simplicity is beauty 5. The nature and organic design Is based on the idea of nature 6. The basic, tradition and vernacular aesthetic design value Is based on a belief that a building and product should be designed from timeless principles that transcend particular designers, cultures and climates. 7. The regionalism design value Is based on the belief that building and to some degree products should be designed in accordance with the particular characteristics of a specific space.

CHAPTER 6
DESIGN AND PUBLIC POLICY Public policy can be generally defined as the course of action or inaction taken by governmental entities with regard to a particular issue or set of issues. Other scholars define it as a system of course of action, regulatory measures, laws and funding priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by governmental entity or its representatives. Concerns The integration of design, architecture and public policy is often overlooked in its importance to our quality of life. In order to raise public awareness and to explore these important issues. ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN By having a group of active practitioners as the core of the design faculty, architecture at MIT is centered on contemporary practice. While we are keenly aware of the necessity to learn, to borrow, to exchange with other disciplines and we actively pursue interdisciplinary collaboration, we believe the basic intelligence of architecture is generated first of all from the bottom up and from within.
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Design today is confronted by and has to address a set of contemporary conditions namely climate change, globalization, technology and urbanization. As difficult as it might be, we are also extremely interested in how these issues will inform and inspire design, thus education. Practice in turn is about giving the best of the knowledge produced at school to the society. With such conviction and idealism, we prepare our students for the future.

COMPUTATION The Computation discipline group inquires into methods of architectural design, and challenges the limits of current technology, as well as conventional design teaching and practice. It focuses on the development of innovative computational tools, processes, and theories, and applying these in creative, socially meaningful responses to challenging design problems. Faculty, research staff, and students work in diverse and mutually supportive areas including: Digital modeling and visualization Rapid prototyping and CAD/CAM technologies Shape representation and shape synthesis Generative and parametric algorithms Digitally mediated remote collaboration in design and construction Software/hardware development of advanced tools for design at all scales from buildings and industrial artifacts to urban and larger spatial configurations.

CHAPTER 7 Activity analysis and linkages for efficiency in shelter

Activity - something somebody does: something that somebody takes part in or does (often used in the plural) leisure activities
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Analysis - close examination: the examination of something in detail in order to understand it better or draw conclusions from it. Design from linked Requirements in a Housing Problem A requirement is a situation that must be present otherwise an observable human or social need would go unsatisfied. Any two requirements that would either help or hinder one another in solution therefore interact and need to be thought if a satisfactory solution is to be found for both. Requirement are thought of as points and links as lines between them. Once these groups of heavily interlink requirements have been found we have the necessary size of problem, without it being limited to a single recognizable conceptual classification. A schematic diagram is the most useful description of the solution . LIST OF REQUIREMENTS 1. People should be able to dispose of refuse without having to store it in their dwelling and without having to leave their dwelling. 2. Refuse for collection should be stored in such a way as to facilitate ease of transfer to a disposal unit. 3. For a heating system to be efficient there should be minimum heat loss from the dwelling. 4. All dwellings should have some sunlight in day living areas. 5. People should be able to collect deliveries in a secure place, those in receipts of goods should feel that their goods are secure. 6. People should be able to control the noise that enters their dwelling. 7. There should be enough outdoor space for recreation, gardening, and outdoor entertainment of visitors. 8. Ventilation should be a through flow of air. 9. Children need supervision when away from the dwelling. 10. All dwellings should have some sunlight in day living areas. The first problem is to find a measure of just how good any particular groupings of requirements are in terms of most links inside groups and least links between groups. This measure can then be used to compare any divisions of the whole set until the best one is found. The mathematics to drive such a measure is complex and demands that all requirements have an equal probability of finding a total solution whether links are positive (i.e. two requirements help one another in solution) or negative (i.e. they hinder one another). In this particular case the procedure used was to compare all possible groupings of just a single requirements together with all the rest left as groups of just a single requirement. In this way the groups of heavily interlinked requirements were built up from the set of single requirements.
19

The final group selected area shown in diagram, or what we call a schematic diagram. A schematic diagram for each of the groups was then produced as the result of further discussion of what originally intended by the requirements. It was also possible to state the basic idea behind each diagram, which necessarily left out the details.

CHAPTER 8 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPT OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

How does the Environment influence Values? Values can influences peoples own self-concept. In design, it is readily accepted fact that people will generally take better care of space and its contents if it contains some extra comforting additions that normally are absent. For example, carpeting, in a residence hall or office might make the users feel that those providing for them cared more about creating a pleasant place for them to live and work than just building a basic shell for their use. You must recognize the implication here that the human values are evident in the physical environment. As a designer you must discover what will please people enough to draw them to a particular place and what will make them stay there. How values influence Environment? Living environment is deeply affected by human values, and the housing environment rises in part, upon human feelings: that is values. Some designs are, indeed vernacular, this means that their seemingly primitive form is actually as highly evolved as the
20

present people and environmental conditions permit and require. Vernacular living environments most often satisfy people quite comfortably and completely. Their materials are indigenous to the area, and the physical arrangement of the living spaces is uniquely and adequately planned for the lifestyle of the inhabitants. It takes sensitivity, along with knowledge to realize what you can change and when. Recognizing the value of an institution as large as a country or small as a family can help guide your selection of an appropriate design. Misinterpreting information can lead to disastrous, perhaps to the creation of totally inappropriate environmental solution. Folk Beliefs In Construction And Design In the process of building a man makes decisions, which are, derives from his own idea. His ideas, and therefore in a sense his self, seem to be embodied in the buildingin the design. The architecture of folks evolves and modified by ideas and imitation. Man discovered that over and above satisfying his functional needs, the decisions he made in designing a building created a relationship between him and the building, giving it meaning.

CHAPTER 9 ENERGY CONSERVATION AND THE DESIGN PROCESS

Energy Conservation It refers to reducing energy through using less of an energy service. Energy conservation differs from efficient energy use, which refers to using less energy for a constant service. For example, driving less is an example of energy conservation. Driving the same amount with a higher mileage vehicle is an example of energy efficiency. Energy conservation and efficiency are both energy reduction techniques.

21

One of the primary ways to improve energy conservation in buildings is to use an energy audit. An energy audit is an inspection and analysis of energy use and flows for energy conservation in a building, process, or system to reduce the amount of energy input into the system without negatively affecting the output(s). This is normally accomplished by trained professionals and can be part of some of the national programs discussed above. In addition, recent development of smart phone apps enable homeowners to complete relatively sophisticated energy audits themselves. Building technologies and smart meters can allow energy users, business and residential, to see graphically the impact their energy use can have in their workplace or homes. Advanced real-time energy metering is able to help people save energy by their actions. In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, and distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer. This is called passive solar design or climatic design because, unlike active solar heating systems, it does not involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices. The key to designing a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the local climate. Elements to be considered include window placement and glazing type, thermal insulation, thermal mass, and shading. Passive solar design techniques can be applied most easily to new buildings, but existing buildings can retrofitted.

Energy and Architectural Design Heat, light, sound and water are important elements in the design of spaces along with color, texture, materials and form.

Energy Consumption in Buildings The energy consumed by a building is the result of the energy needs of the structure and the efficiency with which those needs are satisfied. Energy conservation aims at both reducing basic demand by cutting a buildings energy appetite and improving the
22

efficiency of the energy supply system by eliminating waste.

The energy demands of a structure are a function of: 1. Its design 2. The environment in which it is located 3. The way in which it is operated

ENERGY SAVING TIPS A list of commonly recognized energy savings measures for buildings. Energy savings measures for buildings are provided below. Some are simple and inexpensive to implement, while others are more complicated and expensive. The extent of energy savings realized, the implementation cost, and the implementation approach will vary (sometimes substantially) by consumer, building, geographic location, or scale of implementation. For measures that are more expensive, decisions about implementation should consider how much time it will take to recover the investment. For your convenience, the tips below are also available in Adobe Acrobat PDF format. No-Cost Measures

Lower the temperature setting on your hot water heater to 120F. Set your central heating and cooling system thermostats to 68F or lower in the winter and 72F or higher in the summer.

Turn off lights and appliances when not in use. Actively manage indoor temperatures by opening and closing windows and window coverings (e.g., open windows to take advantage of cool evening breezes, close blinds or curtains against direct sunlight in the summer to reduce
23

heat gain, open blinds or curtains to capture heat gain from sunlight during the winter, close blinds or curtains in the winter to reduce heat loss).

Ensure heating registers and vents are not blocked by furniture or window coverings.

Use cold water in your clothes washing machines and run only full loads. Use a clothesline. Use the "air dry" cycle on your dishwasher and run only full loads. Clean refrigerator coils and seals and defrost freezer units. Set the refrigerator temperature to 35F and the freezer temperature to 0F.

Reduce the use of heat-producing appliances (e.g., ovens, ranges, clothes dryers) on hot days.

Unplug or get rid of spare refrigerators and freezers, particularly if they are not ENERGY STAR appliances.

Use the stairs instead of an elevator. Block off chimneys when not in use. Drain sediment from your water heater tank.

Low-Cost Measures

Replace incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent bulbs (CFLs). Install power strips to shut off the power use of appliances that occurs even when they are switched off.

Install ceiling fans and other fans to circulate air in the building. Insulate your water heater and hot water pipes. Replace furnace, air conditioner, and heat pump filters regularly.
24

Install or replace weather stripping around windows and doors. Install storm windows. Install low-flow showerheads and faucets to reduce use of hot water and repair leaky faucets.

Install an ENERGY STAR-rated programmable thermostat. Replace refrigerator and freezer seals as needed to ensure a tight seal. Install dimmers and motion sensors on lights where possible to control electricity use.

Higher-Cost Measures

Hire a qualified company to conduct an energy audit of your building. Weatherize and insulate your building. Replace old appliances with ENERGY STAR appliances. Replace air conditioner units with evaporative coolers, attic fans, or whole-house fans.

Replace old heating units and water heaters with high-efficiency systems. Install solar tubes to reduce the need for indoor lighting, particularly in interior rooms.

Install awnings, tinted window film, and green cover (trees, vines) to reduce a building's heat gain.

Lighting We set out to design a building where no artificial lights would be needed in the daytime. This is more complex that it sounds because artificial lighting is required even
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in buildings where window areas for adequate day lighting have been provided. Experience told us that many people prefer to switch on artificial lights after blocking out all natural light by curtains, particularly in summer. The culprit for this seemingly irrational behavior is glare from window areas, large or small. Glare is not a function of brightness or size of light source but of contrast. Car headlights cause acute glare on a dark road, much less on a properly lit road and are barely perceptible during daytime. Space Cooling and Thermal Comfort Thermal comfort for human beings depends upon air temperature, mean radiant temperature, relative humidity and air velocity. Machines, however, are affected mainly by the air temperature and in exceptional circumstances by the mean radiant temperature or relative humidity. The design of the buildings for people is therefore somewhat different from that for machines. Ceiling fans (for example) will affect the comfort level of people but not of machines. Because people can move about from one space to another and can put on additional clothing or take it off, the comfortable working conditions for machines which are stationary are usually more exacting than for people. Ventilation Structural ventilation of buildings at night helps to cool down the building and the building mass so cooled warms up slowly the next day. During daytime when the outdoor air temperature is high it is best to minimize ventilation. Natural ventilation of day-use spaces (offices and laboratories) in summer is therefore of no use whatsoever. Improper ventilation is generally the reason for the poorer thermal performance of office buildings as compared to houses. Offices tend to be ventilated during the daytime and closed up at night for security. Air-Conditioning The computer areas require greater cooling than is possible with natural cooling methods. The ideal situation would be one in which computers could be 'tropicalised' to work at higher temperatures, or if computers could have built-in air-conditioners to cool only the critical heat generating parts. In the absence of such computers, it is necessary to provide cooling of the entire computer work area.
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Solar Energy Photovoltaic cells are still too expensive for general use and require a further investment in storage batteries. A much better alternative is the use of biomass, plants grown especially for use as fuel. Trees like Ku Babool, Siras, Saru, Nilgiri, Soo Baval, Pardeshi Baval are very useful for this purpose. They require investment only for initial plantation, irrigation and harvesting. Subsequently these plants can be dried and burnt in a furnace which could be used to produce electricity or better still they could be converted into gaseous fuel. Water hyacinth, a water weed that is useful in sewage treatment can be used directly in a biogas digester to produce biogas. The limitation on the production of biomass is the land or water area that is available for this purpose. On the site for this complex, there is plenty of vacant land available and cultivation of biomass is therefore the best method of generating energy from renewable sources. It is important to remember that conversion of fuel to electricity is a low efficiency process and whenever possible the fuel should be used directly as heat energy. Wind Wind, a highly erratic energy source can be used for the major water pumping requirements of the complex. But windmills are not useful for producing electricity. Storage of energy is not a problem with water pumping as water itself can be stored at the higher level. With electricity produced by wind, storage of energy is very expensive. The technology for water pumping by wind mills is readily available in India. The Allahabad Polytechnic is manufacturing wind-mills for low wind-speed areas. There are some other methods of generating energy on site, such as solar ponds or solar towers. They are all in experimental stage and not very practical to use here. Any technique of generating energy that is selected must be easy to maintain.

DESIGN PROCESS The design process: The process of design is such that it has to follow a schematic phase structure. Even in architectural design a distinct process is followed. While the information and decisions
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made in one of the phases / stages of the architectural design process form the basis of the subsequent stages, design is seldom a linear process. Instead, one typically moves back and forth between the phases, allowing ideas from more detailed designs to influence and modify the overall design direction previously established. Conceptual design The first phase in the process involves conceptualizing a preliminary design based on the client's ideas and inputs. Abstract concepts are developed, tested and redeveloped continually with the aim of creating a set of information for the subsequent phases of the design process to evolve and persist. The preliminary design is presented to the clients who suggest the requisite changes. After which the design is reviewed and adjustments and changes are made. During this time, layout, form and overall appearance of both the building and the site are determined. Sketches, drawings and study models or CAD computer aided designs and 3D architectural designs are prepared to help evaluate the ideas and concepts. These set the final direction for refining the design. Drafting and detailing Usually this phase runs parallel to the conceptual design phase. As the conceptual thinking at the level of detail is vital for the construction, maintenance and eventual disassembly of the building and hence, should be included in the early design iterations. Once the size, layout and character of the building and site are refined, design of certain feature elements such as stairs, cabinetry, fireplaces and built-in furniture may begin. Drawings or CAD preparations are created that describe some of the important technical details. Plans, elevations and sections through the building are developed. Architectural details combine to form shape and enclosure, between them are connecting lines or materials arranged according to the production information. Their strategic placing collectively determines that shape and characteristics of the building.

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CAD Views and Rendering After the design and drafting of the building structure, interior and exterior views are created by incorporating color, and the rendering of the materials to be used. The architect chooses and develops a set of views that will enable the architecture to be communicated to, and understood by, all the people involved in the development process as well as the clients. A comprehensive 3D architectural view enables the clients to verify that their specifications regarding the structure have been adequately addressed and depicted. Architectural views usually consist of front, side and plan view; in general and 3D architectural views in particular. Architectural rendering refers to creating a two dimensional or three dimensional image of a structure showing its different attributes. Traditionally architects used hand-drawn sketches, pen and ink drawings, and watercolor renderings to represent their designs. Commercial demand for hand-drawn rendering has declined as computer generated renderings lead architectural rendering into an exciting future Finalization and implementation The design and drafts are scrutinized and presented to the clients. Suggestions and adjustments are incorporated into and the design is finalized. The finalized design is then communicated to all involved in the construction and development process. The design is then implemented and construction begins.

CHAPTER 10 LIGHT, COLOR AND TEXTURE

Light

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When analyzing a two-dimensional work of art, implied mass and light are often described together. In the real world, light serves to reveal the world around us and help us understand forms and spatial relationships. Light and shadow model an objectgive it a three-dimensional appearance. The range of lights and darks are referred to as values. During the Italian Renaissance, painters learned how to model mass in two dimensions through value, a technique called chiaroscuro, literally lightdark. Color Color is a function of light. Without light there is no color. No object possesses color in and of itself. White light is made of color, a fact proven be Sir Isaac Newton in 1666. Newton passed white light through a prism and refracted it into the colors of the rainbow. He then recombined the colors by passing them through a second prism. When we look at an object, a red apple for example, the color we see is the red light waves of the spectrum bouncing off the apple. All of the other colors are absorbed. The color wheel is a circular arrangement of the spectral colors that allows us to see their relationship to each other. Primary Colors: red, blue and yellow, are called primary because theoretically they cannot be made by a mixture of other colors. Secondary Colors: Orange, green, and violet, are each made by mixing two of the primary colors. Tertiary Colors: Are the product of a primary and an adjacent secondary color.

Color Properties

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All colors have three properties, hue, value, and intensity. Hue: the name of the color according to the categories of the color wheel Value: the relative lightness or darkness of the color. A color lighter that the hues normal value is a tint; a color darker than the hues normal value is a shade, Intensity: refers to the relative purity of a color. It is also called chroma or saturation. To lower a colors intensity, an artist may add a little gray, or add the colors complement, or opposite on the color wheel.

Color Harmonies A color harmony, also called a color scheme, is the selective use of two or more colors in a single composition. There are several types: Monochromatic harmonies are composed of a color, its tints and shades, and varying levels of intensity. Complementary harmonies involve colors directly opposite each other on the color wheel. Analogous harmonies combine colors adjacent to each other on the color wheel. Triadic harmonies are composed of any three colors

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equidistant from each other on the color wheel.

Although an artist may choose a specific color harmony for a painting, it is more likely that he or she will speak of working with a restricted palette-a limited number of colors, or an open palette.

Texture Texture may be actual, as found in the materials of architecture and sculpture or it may be visual texture, an illusion created by the painters skill. Naturalistic paintings can reproduce the appearanceof various textures in the same way that photography does. Visual texture is also present in the way brushstrokes are handled: rough, loose, smooth or dappled.

CHAPTER 11 Signs, Symbols and the cultural basis of Architectural design

THREE MAIN TYPES OF SIGNS 1. Indexical Sign or index Something which had an existential between signifier and signified 2. Iconic Signs A different set of relations between signifier and signified although, there is always present an existential and therefore indexical relation as well ICON a sign which refers to the object that is denotes by virtue of certain characters of its own and which it possesses just the same, whether any such object actually exist or not. 3. Symbolic Sign
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Where conventional usage sets the arbitrary relation between signifier and signified. SYMBOL a sign which refers to the object that it denotes by virtue of law, usually any association of general ideas, which operates to cause that symbol to be interpreted as referring to that object. SYMBOLS SYMBOLISM assumes primary importance as the basic strategy of perception. It is a phenomenon (object, sounds, smell or tactile sensation) which has a meaning additional to that which is communicated by its superficial configuration or stimulus profile. BUILDING DESIGN AS AN ICONIC SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION 1. PRAGMATIC DESIGN in which available materials are used, and they put together initially by trial and error until a building form was achieved which actually worked. 2. TYPOLOGIC DESIGN - in which the members of a particular culture share a fixed mental image of what the design of a 48 building from should be like using the materials which happen to be available, at a particular place with a particular climate, to house an established life- style. 3. ANALOGICAL DESIGN the drawing of analogies (usually visual) into the solution of ones design problems with existing buildings, with forms from nature, from painting and so on. 4. CANONIC (geometric) DESIGN in which the form is generated by some two or more dimensional geometric system.

Examples of international signages and symbols

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CHAPTER 12 Behavioral stress and circuits

Animal behavior is critically dependent on adequate function of neuronal circuits in the central nervous system (CNS). Monitoring the environment, choosing behavioral strategies and executing appropriate motor acts are all undertaken using patterns of electrical activity generated within the CNS. Much of an animal's physiology is concerned with maintaining the physical environment of circuits in the CNS and when these homeostatic mechanisms go awry, or are inadequate to compensate for an external disturbance, circuit dysfunction and disrupted behaviors ensue. It is important to note that even mild, or predicted, alterations in environmental conditions such as those associated with a changing diet (Xia et al., 1997) or seasonal variations (Rosenthall and Bezanilla, 2000) could be sufficient to exert long-term modulatory effects on neural operation. Much of the variability in behavioral results obtained from different laboratories working with genetically identical strains of mice has been ascribed to idiosyncratic laboratory environments (Crabbe et al., 1999)

The heat shock (HS) response is a highly conserved cellular response to a variety of different stressors including ischaemia, free radicals, excitatory amino acids and high temperature (Morimoto and Santoro, 1998; Sharp et al., 1999). The response is
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characterized by a rapid transcriptional activation of genes (Morimoto, 1993) resulting in increased levels of several heat shock proteins that are distinguished according to their molecular weights (e.g., HSP40, HSP60, HSP70, HSP90). HSPs act as molecular chaperones to assist in refolding proteins to their native states or as proteases to break down denatured protein aggregates (Feder and Hofmann, 1999)

Cognitive architectures can be characterized by certain properties or goals, as follows, though there is not general agreement on all aspects:
1. Implementation of not just various different aspects of cognitive behavior but of

cognition as a whole (Holism, e.g. Unified theory of cognition). This is in contrast to cognitive models, which focus on a particular competence, such as a kind of problem solving or a kind of learning. 2. The architecture often tries to reproduce the behavior of the modeled system (human), in a way that timely behavior (reaction times) of the architecture and modeled cognitive systems can be compared in detail. Other cognitive limitations are often modeled as well, e.g. limited working memory, attention or issues due to cognitive load. 3. Robust behavior in the face of error, the unexpected, and the unknown. (see Graceful degradation). 4. Learning (not for all cognitive architectures)
5. Parameter-free: The system does not depend on parameter tuning (in contrast to

Artificial neural networks) (not for all cognitive architectures)

6. Some early theories such as SOAR and ACT-R originally focused only on the

'internal' information processing of an intelligent agent, including tasks like reasoning, planning, solving problems, learning concepts. More recently many architectures (including SOAR, ACT-R, PreAct, ICARUS, CLARION), FORR have expanded to include perception, action and also affective states and processes including motivation, attitudes, and emotions.
7. On some theories the architecture may be composed of different kinds of sub-

architectures (often described as 'layers' or 'levels') where the layers may be distinguished by types of function, types of mechanism and representation used, types of information manipulated, or possibly evolutionary origin. These are hybrid architectures (e.g., CLARION).
8. Some theories allow different architectural components to be active concurrently,

whereas others assume a switching mechanism that selects one component or module at a time, depending on the current task. Concurrency is normally required for an architecture for an animal or robot that has multiple sensors and effectors in a complex and dynamic environment, but not in all robotic paradigms.
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9. Most theories assume that an architecture is fixed and only the information stored in various subsystems can change over time (e.g. Langley et al., below), whereas others allow architectures to grow, e.g. by acquiring new subsystems or new links between subsystems (e.g. Minsky and Sloman, below). It is important to note that cognitive architectures don't have to follow a top-down approach to cognition (cf. Top-down and bottom-up design). The ability to cope with novel and/or potentially threatening situations, such as an unfamiliar environment or physical danger, is essential to survival. This capacity is built into specific brain circuits whose development is influenced by multiple experiences beginning early in life. Environmental stimuli that activate these circuits are often referred to as stressors, and stress reactions are the bodys chemical and neural responses that promote adaptation. Toxic stress refers to strong, frequent or prolonged activation of the bodys stress management system. Stressful events that are chronic, uncontrollable, and/or experienced without the child having access to support from caring adults tend to provoke these types of toxic stress responses. Studies indicate that such stress responses can have an adverse impact on brain architecture. In the extreme, such as in cases of severe, chronic abuse, toxic stress may result in the development of a smaller brain. Less extreme exposure to toxic stress can change the stress system so that it responds at lower thresholds to events that might not be stressful to others, thereby increasing the risk of stress-related physical and mental illness. Tolerable stress refers to stress responses that could affect brain architecture but generally occur for briefer periods that allow time for the brain to recover and thereby reverse.Nevertheless, it also can become toxic stress in the absence of supportive relationships Positive stress refers to moderate, short-lived stress responses, such as brief increases in heart rate or mild changes in the bodys stress hormone levels. This kind of stress is a normal part of life, and learning to adjust to it is an essential feature of healthy development. Adverse events that provoke positive stress responses tend to be those that a child can learn to control and manage well with the support of caring adults, and which occur against the backdrop of generally safe, warm, and positive relationships. The challenge of meeting new people, dealing with frustration, entering a new child care setting, getting an immunization, and overcoming a fear of animals all can be positive stressors if a child has the support needed to develop a sense of mastery. This is an important part of the normal developmental process. Example of behavioral stress and circuit
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CHAPTER 13 Building materials as expression of Architectural design

Honesty of Expression This is a principle to be observed in connection with use of materials. The materials of architecture have the primary function of enclosing space for the protection of mans interest and activities, an achievement which can be attained more satisfactorily by paying the proper attention to the qualities of materials.

Materials and construction could express in addition, the function of the building. Humble materials should be used with its simple structure and the more ornate reserved for ambitious building.
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False front is a front wall which extends beyond the side wall of a building or above the roof.

ECONOMY OF MATERIALS

Correct specifications of materials for the type of structure is important. For instance, a cheaper cost material for a low cost house and a more expensive material for a luxurious type of house.

Suggested materials For simple structure For ambitious Building:

1.Galvanized Iron Sheet

1. Long Span colored roof tiles

2.Wood Siding concrete hollow 2. Reinforced concrete wall brick Block walling

3.Wood flooring or cement Tiles

3.Concrete slab with vinyl tile floor,granolithic or marble floor

4.Plywood ceiling

4.Spraytex and acoustical

5.Plywood partitions

5.Narra or pine boards panelings

6.Wood or steel windows

6.Aluminum frame windows

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7.Flush doors

7.Panel doors

Building materials have certain physical properties to be structurally useful. Primarily, they must be able to carry a load. This material property is called ELASTICITY. If a material were not elastic and deformation were present in the structure after the removal of the load, repeated loading and unloading eventually would increase the deformation to a point where the structure will become useless.

A second property of a building materials is its STIFFNESS. The property is defined by the elastic modulus, which is the ratio of the stress (force per unit area) to the strain (deformation per unit length)

THE VISUAL EXPRESSION OF MATERIAL Architectural speaking, to produce means a ways to produce in some material but in the theoretical analysis it is necessary to make a distinction between the two concepts.

1. The Materials of Nature/ Ancient Materials For building purposes and for furniture, wood can be used in its natural state. Many different kinds of tools can, however be used for cutting and sawing. Wood, can be bowed and, with modern techniques, bent into complicated curved surfaces.

2. Stone The great building material of nature, one of the oldest and perhaps the most permanent.

a. Granite is a course grained stone and should be used for large, bold forms with little carving. It is hardest and perhaps the most durable of the building stones. It 56 is often applied to base courses where protection is desired.

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b. Sandstone the various sandstone range in color from white to different tints of red and brown or blue gray. This material is popular for use in buildings whose characters lean more to informality than to formality. c. Marble is a lime one which is sufficiently close in texture to admit of being polished. It may be divided into two classes. d. Limestone has a fine, even texture and its colors range from a light cream to buff and from a light gray to a darker, bluish gray. It is an excellent wall or exterior stone and leads itself very well to carving. 3. Leather Characterized by its high degree of plastic malleability which it requires through the soaking process it undergoes during manufacture. After drying it is no longer malleable but keeps its form unless a special process enables it to keep its flexibility.

4. Ceramic Materials Can be manufactured in many different ways. Clay can be used to make bricks, roofing tiles, or toilet tiles, clay pot. Thus the form of a ceramic object does not always tell us an much about the materials as to the color and texture. 5. Metal 6. At an early stage, objects of iron and other metals were cast in forms. Today, rolling and pressing are perhaps the most important manufacturing method. a. Bronze is one of oldest of allows composing chiefly of copper and tin. It is cast into shape and lends itself to the treatment of many architectural features. Its permanency and beauty have stood the test of time. b. Wrought Iron The delicacy and spontaneity of wrought iron harmonize with rougher surface an informality, it is distinguished from other metals by the manner in which it is produced and by the final effect obtained. Instead of being cast it is worked upon the anvil while it is hot or cooling. c. Copper the ductility of copper makes it particularly adaptable for cornices, spandrel, roofing. The protective green carbonate which forms upon the surface gives an interesting quality to the materials
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d. Lead a flexible and permanent material. It may be poured into interesting shapes, cast, rolled or hammered, patterns, may be beaten into its surface. It is best used in sheets to cover or enclose, and as such may be decorated in a fitting manner. Since it is a soft material, the detail of thee ornament should be simple in character. e. Chrome-Nickel-Steel a hard, nor corrosive metal and can be worked like many others, leading itself to welding stamping and forging. It may be polished or left dull or even enameled in color. It is used in interiors for doors, panels and grille. f. Aluminum are of the white metals and is noted for its lightness. It is non corrosive (non ferrous) and non staining. NATURE Glass is a hard, brittle and usually transparent substance manufactured by fusing together some form of silica and a base lime or lead oxide.

Use : The modern use of a glass has assumed so many forms. Glass has been colored and rolled into various shapes for many architectural uses in a building. Combined with metal is made into furniture and equipment. Where a sense of cleanliness is desired, it is used for wall coverings and panelings. Where a decorative is needed upon the interior, its black, shining surface may assist in producing a mantel.

For modern designs, stained glass is being employed for character dining restaurants. In designing stained glass windows, factors to be kept in mind are:

1. The character of the glass should be established by the nature of the surrounding architecture may be Gothic 2. The dominance of color or design will be coordinate to the color. Realism is not expressive of the conventional combinations necessary with glass and lead. 3. The position of the window and the source of the light should materially affect the choice of colors.

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7. Textiles -The foremost characteristics of textiles is the intertwining of weft with the warf. If a printed pattern is applied to a uniformity coloured piece of textile, a bad expression will be given to the production technique as well as the material itself.

CHAPTER 14
Construction methods and structures as expression Folk Belief in Construction 1. Dont start the construction of a house at a period when the moon is waning, or entering its last quarter. Pick a time on or about a full moon. 2. Start a construction on a Monday; never on a Friday 3. Avoid starting construction when the year is about to end. A better time is when the year has just begun, January to June. 4. Never have a house built when your wife is pregnant and is expected to give birth at that very month. 5. Before giving the order to lay the foundation or put up the post of your house, make peace with all your enemies especially those belonging to your own family or clan. 6. In the North, they usually practice the flowing of blood from some animals or chicken and all foundations or corners of the wall are splattered with this blood in honor of the spirit that might be living within the premises. Also a few drops of wine is offered with some prayer dedication before any wine is partaken. 7. Before cement is poured into the foundation, one peso coins should be dropped inside the forms to bring good luck. Other place silver medals of any patron saints, for protection. Some also place coins at the stair foundation. 8. When any vertical part of the house is being erected, like the first post, or the first row of hollow blocks or cement 60 9. wall, the father or the eldest member of the family should be present to witness. Two contributes to the solidity of the house.
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10. Do not build a house directly perpendicular to the street. If space still allows it, locate the house such that it lies in position which is at angle with the street. This way, the inhabitants keep out of the way of disaster. 10.No part of your house should cover or overhang an anthill (punso) in Tagalog. They say that the small spirit man or nuno will get angry. 11.No part of house should cover or overhang a site of a recently cut tree; neither should the new house overlap any portion of the old house. 12.Never use materials that once belonged to a church. 13.As much as possible, avoid using materials that came from the owners old house. The bad luck of the old house will be transferred to the new house, the old people say. 14.All nails and screws that become bent in the process of building a house should be kept in a box and not left lying around. Leaving them scattered will bring misfortune to these involved in the construction. 15.It is taboo to use wood the sap of which is still fresh what they call weeping wood (lumuluha). 16. The number of the main posts should always be even; not odd, never 13 pcs. 17.Flooring planks whether of wood or of bamboo must be laid parallel to the steps of any stairway to make it 90 degrees to their stair will make the good luck go down the stairs. The longer length of the roof must lie parallel to the road instead of perpendicular to it. 19. The number of steps in every stairs must fall to the count of either oro (gold) or plata (silver) never mata (death) since if the last counting is mata, bad luck or poverty is to be expected. 20. The principal stairs, the masters bed should face the east, so that the rising sun may shine on them. 21. To the Muslims, the principal room and stairway should face the direction of Mecca. 22. Doorways should not face each other along a straight path, or a door to the window. They should lie on a staggered path. Good fortune flows quickly out of the house if arranged in a straight path.
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23. Main doorways should not face the west or where the sun sets. It brings bad luck. 24. Main door should always open towards the inside to bring in good luck. Reverse opening to the outside will bring out the good luck. 25. Do not occupy a new house until it is completely built and blessed. Before you will occupy the new house, bring in first the common necessities in a house like sugar, rice, salt, and also the statue of Christ in a throne. 26. The arrangement of the bed should not directly be parallel and vertical to the girt or rafter as the old folks say it will cut into half your good fortune. 27. Umbilical cord of a child is inserted in the staircase so that the stringer would strongly connect itself to the girder. 28. House plan shaped like a cross should be avoided for this brings bad luck. 29. A basement placed in flat level land indicates graves. This is a sign of early death in the family. 30. To avoid wealth or money from flowing out of the household, main doors should not face the exit doors

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