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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 OBJECTIVES Our project is mainly concerned with developing a Face Recognition system using Eigenface recognition Algorithm. The Eigenface recognition is one of the mostsuccessful techniques that have been used in image recognition and compression. 1.2 FACE RECOGNITION Computerized human face recognition has been an active research area for the last 20 years. It has many practical applications, such as bankcard identification, aces control, mug shots searching, security monitoring, and surveillance systems. Face recognition is used to identify one or more persons from still images or a video image sequence of a scene by comparing input images with faces stored in a database. It is a biometric system that employs automated methods to verify or recognize the identity of person based on his/her physiological characteristic. In general, a biometric identification system makes use of either physiological characteristics or behavior patterns to identify a person. Because of human inherent protectiveness of his/her eyes, some people are reluctant to use eye identification systems. Face recognition has the benefit of being a passive, nonintrusive system to verify personal identity in a natural and friendly way. The face is our primary focus of attention in social intercourse, playing a major role in conveying identity and emotion. Hence face recognition has become an important issue in many applications such as security systems, credit card verification and criminal identification. Face Recognition is an emerging field of research with many challenges such as large set of images, improper illuminating conditions. Much of the work in face recognition by computers has focused on detecting individual features such as the eyes, nose, mouth and head outline, and defining aface model by the position, size, and relationships among these features. Such approaches have proven to depend on the precise features. Computational models of face recognition are interesting because they can contribute not only to theoretical knowledge but also to practical applications. Unfortunately, developing a computational model of face detection and recognition is Dept. of ECE, BGSIT Page 1

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quite difficult because faces are complex, multidimensional and meaningful visual stimuli. The user should focus his attention toward developing a sort of early, pre attentive Pattern recognition capability that does not depend on having three-dimensional information or detailed geometry. He should develop a computational model of face recognition that is fast, reasonably simple, and accurate. Eigenface approach is one of the simplest and most efficient methods that can

locate and track a subject's head, and then recognize the person by comparing characteristics of the face to those of known individuals. This approach treats the face recognition problem as an intrinsically two-dimensional (2-D) recognition problem rather than requiring recovery of three-dimensional geometry, taking advantage of the fact that faces are normally upright and thus may be described by a small set of 2-D characteristic views. In eigenface approach, after the dimensional reduction of the face space, the distance is measured between two images for recognition. If the distance is lessthan some threshold value, then it is considered as a known face else it is an unknown face.Face recognition is a very high level computer vision task, in which many early vision techniques can be involved. Face Recognition can be divided into two parts. 1.3 FACE DETECTION Face detection is largely motivated by the need for surveillance and security, humancomputerintelligent interaction. Detecting faces is challenging due to the wide varietiesof face appearances and the complexity of the backgrounds. The methods proposed forface detection so far generally fall into two major categories: feature-based methods andclassification-based approaches. 1.3.1 FEATURE BASED METHODS These methods detect faces by searching for facial features andgrouping them into faces according to their geometrical relationships. Since theperformance of feature-based methods primarily depends on the reliable locationof facial features, it is susceptible to partial occlusion, excessive deformation, andlow quality of images. 1.3.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED METHODS These methods have used the intensity values of images as theinput features of the underlying classifier. The Gabor filter banks, whose kernels are similar to the 2D Dept. of ECE, BGSIT Page 2

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receptive field profiles of the mammalian cortical simplecells, exhibit desirable characteristics of spatial locality and orientation selectivity.As a result, the Gabor filter features extracted from face images should be robustto variations due to illumination and facial expression changes. We propose aclassification-based approach using Gabor filter features for detecting faces.

1.4 FACE IDENTIFICATION

The first step of human face identification is to extract the relevant features from facial images. Research in the field primarily intends to generate sufficiently reasonable familiarities of human faces so that another human can correctly identify the face. The question naturally arises as to how well facial features can be quantized. If such a quantization if possible then a computer should be capable of recognizing a face given a set of features. Investigations by numerous researchers over the past several years have indicated that certain facial characteristics are used by human beings to identify faces. There are three major research groups which propose three different approaches to the face recognition problem. The largest group has dealt with facial characteristics which are used by human beings in recognizing individual faces. The second group performs human face identification based on feature vectors extracted from profile silhouettes. The third group uses feature vectors extracted from a frontal view of the face. Although there are three different approaches to the face recognition problem, there are two basic methods from which these three different approaches arise. The first method is based on extracting feature vectors from the basic parts of a face such as eyes, nose, mouth, and chin. In this method, with the help of deformable templates and extensive mathematics, key information from the basic parts of a face is gathered and then converted into a feature vector. L. Yullie and S. Cohen played a great role in adapting deformable templates to contour extraction of face images. The second method is based on the information theory concepts, in other words, on the principal component analysis methods. In this approach, the most relevant information that best describes a face is derived from the entire face image. Based on the Karhunen- Loeve expansions in pattern recognition, M. Kirby and L. Sirovich have shown that any particular face could be economically represented in terms of a best coordinate system that they termed "eigenfaces". These are the eigenfunctions of the Dept. of ECE, BGSIT Page 3

A Matlab based Face Recognition using PCA proposed a face recognition method based on the eigenfaces approach. 1.4.1 PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS METHOD

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averaged covariance of the ensemble of faces. Later, M. Turk and A. Pentland have

We have focused our research toward developing a sort of unsupervised pattern recognition scheme that does not depend on excessive geometry and computations like Elastic bunch templates. Eigenfaces approach seemed to be an adequate method to be used in face recognition due to its simplicity, speed and learning capability.

A previous work based on the eigenfaces approach was done by M. Turk and A. Pentland, in which, faces were first detected and then identified. In this thesis, a face recognition system based on the eigenfaces approach, similar to the one presented by M. Turk and A. Pentland, is proposed. The scheme is based on an information theory approach that decomposes face images into a small set of characteristic feature images called eigenfaces, which may be thought of as the principal components of the initial training set of face images. Recognition is performed by projecting a new image onto the subspace spanned by the eigenfaces and then classifying the face by comparing its position in the face space with the positions of known individuals. Actual system is capable of both recognizing known individuals and learning to recognize new face images. The eigenface approach used in this scheme has advantages over other face recognition methods in its speed, simplicity, learning capability and robustness to small changes in the face image.

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CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Face recognition is a pattern recognition task performed specifically on faces. It can be described as classifying a face either "known" or "unknown", after comparing it with stored known individuals. It is also desirable to have a system that has the ability of learning to recognize unknown faces. Computational models of face recognition must address several difficult problems. This difficulty arises from the fact that faces must be represented in a way that best utilizes the available face information to distinguish a particular face from all other faces. Faces pose a particularly difficult problem in this respect because all faces are similar to one another in that they contain the same set of features such as eyes, nose, mouth arranged in roughly the same manner.

2.2 BACKGROUND AND RELATED WORK

Much of the work in computer recognition of faces has focused on detecting individual features such as the eyes, nose, mouth, and head outline, and defining a face model by the position, size, and relationships among these features. Such approaches have proven difficult to extend to multiple views and have often been quite fragile, requiring a good initial guess to guide them. Research in human strategies of face recognition, moreover, has shown that individual features and their immediate relationships comprise an insufficient representation to account for the performance of adult human face identification. Nonetheless, this approach to face recognition remains the most popular one in the computer vision literature. Bledsoe was the first to attempt semi-automated face recognition with a hybrid human-computer system that classified faces on the basis of fiducial marks entered on photographs by hand. Parameters for the classification were normalized distances and ratios among points such as eye corners, mouth corners, nose tip, and chin point. Later work at Bell Labs developed a vector of up to 21 features, and recognized faces using standard pattern classification techniques. Dept. of ECE, BGSIT Page 5

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Fischler and Elschlager attempted to measure similar features automatically. They described a linear embedding algorithm that used local feature template matching and a global measure of fit to find and measure facial features. This template matching approach has been continued and improved by the recent work of Yuille and Cohen. Their strategy is based on deformable templates, which are parameterized models of the face and its features in which the parameter values are determined by interactions with the face image. Connectionist approaches to face identification seek to capture the configurational nature of the task. Kohonen and Kononen and Lehtio describe an associative network with a simple learning algorithm that can recognize face images and recall a face image from an incomplete or noisy version input to the network. Fleming and Cottrell extend these ideas using nonlinear units, training the system by back propagation. Others have approached automated face recognition by characterizing a face by a set of geometric parameters and performing pattern recognition based on the parameters. Kanade's face identification system was the first system in which all steps of the recognition process were automated, using a top-down control strategy directed by a generic model of expected feature characteristics. His system calculated a set of facial parameters from a single face image and used a pattern classification technique to match the face from a known set, a purely statistical approach depending primarily on local histogram analysis and absolute gray-scale values. Recent work by Burt uses a smart sensing approach based on multiresolution template matching. This coarse to fine strategy uses a special purpose computer built to calculate multiresolution pyramid images quickly, and has been demonstrated identifying people in near real time.

2.3FACE RECOGNITION WITH EIGENFACES

It is the most thoroughly researched among these. According to Sirovich and Kirby [1] principal component or eigenvectors can be used to represent face images. Their research showed that a face could be approximately reconstructed by a collection of weights describing each face, and a standard eigenpicture. The weights of each face are obtained by projecting the test image on the eigenpicture. Turk and Pentland [2] used this Dept. of ECE, BGSIT Page 6

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idea of eigenface for face detection and identification. Mathematically eigenfaces are the principal components of the distribution of faces or the eigenvectors of the covariance matrix of the set of face images (this is explained in chapter 2). The eigenvectors account for the variation between the images in a set. A face can be represented by a linear combination of the eigenvectors. Later it was shown thatillumination normalization [6] is required for the eigenface approach. Pentland et al [3] used the eigenface recognition technique and extended it to facial features such as eyes, nose, and mouth which can be called eigenfeatures. This modular eigenspace approach comprising of the eigenfeatures namely eigeneyes, eigennose and eigenmouth was found to be less sensitive to changes in appearance than the standard eigenface method. To summarize eigenface method is not invariant to illumination and changes in scale.

2.4 NEURAL NETWORK

As mentioned previously is another approach in face recognition. The difference from eigenface method lies in the fact that it is nonlinear. Due to the non linear nature of the network the feature extraction is more efficient than eigenface. WISARD (Wilkie, Stonham and Aleksanders Recognition Device) was one of the first artificial neural network (ANN) schemes. It was a single layer adaptive network and each individual [4] stored in it had a separate network. Neural network is application oriented. For face detection multilayer perceptron and convolutional neural network [12] has been applied. Again for face verification Cresceptron [5] which is a multiresolution pyramidal structure is used. The Convolutional network provides partial invariance to translation, rotation, scale, and deformation. Lins [6] probabilistic decision-based neural network (PDBNN) has a modular structure and a decision based neural network. PDBNN can be applied to face detection, eye localization and face recognition. PDBNN has the merits of both neural networks and statistical approaches and its distributed computing principle is relatively easy to implement on a parallel computer. However when the number of people increases, the need for more computation also increases. This is because the training time increases. Also, it is not suitable for single model image recognition as multiple model images per person are required for the optimal training of the system.

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2.5 DYNAMIC LINK ARCHITECTURE

It is another method for face recognition. It is an extension of the classical artificial neural network. In this method, memorized objects are represented by sparse graphs, whose vertices are labeled with a multi-resolution description in terms of a local power spectrum and whose edges are labeled with geometrical distance vectors. However in this method the matching process is computationally expensive. Wiskott and Von der Malsburg extended the technique and matched faces against a

gallery of 112 neutral frontal view faces. They reported 86.5 percent and 66.4 percent for matching 111 faces of 15 degree and 110 faces of 30 degree rotation to a gallery of 112 neutral frontal faces. In general, dynamic link architecture is superior to other face recognition techniques in terms of computationally expensive. rotation invariance but the matching process is

2.6 HIDDEN MARKOV MODEL

Another approach to face recognition is Hidden Markov Model . Samaria and Fallside [8] applied this method to human face recognition. Faces were divided into regions like the eyes, nose, mouth which could be associated with the states of the hidden Markov model. Since HMM requires 1 dimensional observation sequence and the images are in 2D , the images must be converted to either 1D temporal sequences or 1D spatial sequences . An unknown test image is first sampled to an observation sequence. Then it is matched against every HMMs in the model face database. The match with the highest likelihood is considered the best match and the relevant model reveals the identity of the test face. The recognition rate is 87 percent using ORL database. The training time is usually high for this approach.

2.7 GEOMETRICAL FEATURE MATCHING TECHNIQUE

It is based on the computation of the geometrical features of the face. The overall configuration is described by a vector representing the position and size of the facial features like eyes, nose, mouth and shape of the outline of the face. Kanades [ 9] face recognition based on this approach reached a 75 percent recognition rate. Brunelis and Poggios [10] method extracted 35 features from the face to form a 35 dimensional vector. The recognition was performed with a Bayes classifier. They reported a Dept. of ECE, BGSIT Page 8

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recognition rate of 90 percent on a database of 47 people. In these methods, typically 35 45 feature points per face were generated. Geometrical feature matching depends on precisely measured distances between features, which in turn depend on the accuracy of the feature location algorithms.

2.8TEMPLATE MATCHING
In this method a test image is represented as a two-dimensional array of intensity values and is compared using a metric such as Euclidean distance with a single template representing the whole face. In this method, each viewpoint of an individual can be used to generate a template. Thus, multiple templates can represent each person in the database. A single template corresponding to a viewpoint can be made up of smaller distinctive templates [24] [10]. Bruneli and Poggio [10] extracted four features namely the eyes, nose, mouth and the entire face and compared the performance with their geometrical method with the template method. The template matching method was found to be superior to the geometrical matching technique. Drawbacks of template matching include the complexity of the computation and the description of the templates. As the recognition system is tolerant to certain discrepancies between the test image and the template, the tolerance might average out the differences that make a face unique.

2.9 THE ACQUISITION MODULE

This is the entry point of the face recognition process. It is the module where the faceimage under consideration is presented to the system. An acquisitionmodule can request a face image from several different environments: The face imagecan be an image file that is located on a magnetic disk, it can be captured by a framegrabber or it can be scanned from paper with the help of a scanner.

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2.10 OUTLINE OF A TYPICAL FACE RECOGNITION SYSTEM

Vector Face Image Normalized face Image Feature

Classified known or unknown

Figure 2.1: Outline of a Face Recognition System

There are six main functional blocks, whose responsibilities are given below:

2.11 THE PRE-PROCESSING MODULE

In this module, by means of early vision techniques, face images are normalized and if desired, they are enhanced to improve the recognition performance of the system. Some or all of the following pre-processing steps may be implemented in a face recognition system: 2.11.1 IMAGE SIZE NORMALIZATION It is usually done to change the acquired image size to a default image size such as 128 x 128, on which the face recognition system operates. This is mostly encountered in systems where face images are treated as a whole like the one proposed in this thesis. 2.11.2 HISTOGRAM EQUALIZATION It is usually done on too dark or too bright images in order to enhance image quality and to improve face recognition performance. It modifies the dynamic range (contrast range) of the image and as a result, some important facial features become more apparent.

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Histogram equalization is applied in order to improve the contrast of the images. The peaks in the image histogram, indicating the commonly used grey levels, are widened, while the valleys are compressed.

Figure 2.2: Histogram Equalization

2.11.3 Median Filtering For noisy images especially obtained from a camera or from aframe grabber, median filtering can clean the image without losing information. 2.11.4 High Pass Filtering Feature extractors that are based on facial outlines, may benefit the results that are obtained from an edge detection scheme. High-pass filtering emphasizes the details of an image such as contours which can dramatically improve edge detection performance. 2.11.5 Background Removal In order to deal primarily with facial information itself, face background can be removed. This is especially important for face recognition systems where entire information contained in the image is used.

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A Matlab based Face Recognition using PCA 2.11.6 Rotation Correction

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When the locations of eyes, nose and mouth are given for a face image, this data can be used to rotate the image so that all the face images are exactly positioned the same. When the positions for the right and left eyes are known, the inverse tangent of the angle between the lines, l1 and l2, connecting the mid-points of two eyes can be calculated. The image can be rotated using the calculated angle. This process is drawn in Figure 2.9.6.

Figure 2.3: The rotation correction procedure when eye, nose and mouth locations are given.

2.11.7 Masking By using a mask, which simply has a face shaped region, the effect ofbackground change is minimized. The effect of masking is studied only onFERET database images. The mask used in this study is shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: The face shaped mask

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Figure 2.5: Masking

2.11.8 Translational and Rotational Normalizations In some cases, it is possible to work on a face image in which the head is somehow shifted or rotated. Especially for face recognition systems that are based on the frontal views of faces, it may be desirable that the pre-processing module determines and if possible, normalizes the shifts and rotations in the head position. 2.11.9 Illumination Normalization Face images taken under different illuminations can degrade recognition performance especially for face recognition systems based on the principal component analysis in which entire face information is used for recognition. A picture can be equivalently viewed as an array of reflectivities r(x). Thus, under a uniform illumination I, the corresponding picture is given by

The normalization comes in imposing a fixed level of illumination I0 at a reference point x 0 on a picture. The normalized picture is given by

In actual practice, the average of two reference points, such as one under each eye, each consisting of 2 x 2 array of pixels can be used.

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2.12 THE FEATURE EXTRACTION MODULE

After performing some pre-processing (if necessary), the normalized face image is presented to the feature extraction module in order to find the key features that are going to be used for classification. In other words, this module is responsible for composing a feature vector that is well enough to represent the face image.

2.13 THE CLASSIFICATION MODULE

In this module, with the help of a pattern classifier, extracted features of the face image is compared with the ones stored in a face library (or face database). After doing this comparison, face image is classified as either known or unknown.

2.14 TRAINING SET

Training sets are used during the "learning phase" of the face recognition process. The feature extraction and the classification modules adjust their parameters in order to achieve optimum recognition performance by making use of training sets.

2.15 FACE LIBRARY OR FACE DATABASE

After being classified as "unknown", face imagescan be added to a library (or to a database) with their feature vectors for latercomparisons. The classification module makes direct use of the face library.

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CHAPTER 3

FACE RECOGNITION USING PRINCIPAL COMPONENTANALYSIS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Principal component analysis (PCA) was invented in 1901 by Karl Pearson.The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is one of the most successful techniques that have been used in image recognition and compression. PCA is a statistical method under the broad title off actor analysis. The purpose of PCA is to reduce the large dimensionality of the data space (observed variables) to the smaller intrinsic dimensionality of feature space (independent variables), which are needed to describe the data economically. This is the case when there is a strong correlation between observed variables. The jobs which PCA can do are prediction, redundancy removal, feature extraction, data compression, etc. Because PCA is a classical technique which can do something in the linear domain, applications having linear models are suitable, such as signal processing, image processing, system and control theory, communications, etc. Depending on the field of application, it is also named the discrete KarhunenLove transform (KLT), the Hotelling transform or proper orthogonal decomposition (POD). Face recognition has many applicable areas. Moreover, it can be categorized into face identification, face classification, or sex determination. The most useful applications contain crowd surveillance, video content indexing, personal identification (ex: driverslicence), entrance security, etc. The main idea of using PCA for face recognition is to express the large 1-D vector of pixels constructed from 2-D facial image in to the compact principal components of the feature space. This can be called eigenspace projection. Eigenspace is calculated by identifying the eigenvectors of the covariance matrix derived from set official images (vectors).

3.2 OUTLINE OF THE PROPOSED FACE RECOGNITION SYSTEM

The proposed face recognition system passes through three main phases during a facerecognition process. Three major functional units are involved in these phases and

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they are depicted in Figure 3.1. The characteristics of these phases in conjunction with

Figure 3.1: Functional block diagram of the proposed face recognition system

3.3 FACE LIBRARY FORMATION PHASE

In this phase, the acquisition and the pre-processing of the face images that are going to be added to the face library are performed. Face images are stored in a face library in the system. We call this face database a "face library" because at the moment, it does not have the properties of a relational database. Every action such as training set or eigenface formation is performed on this face library. Face library is initially empty. In order to start the face recognition process, this initially empty face library has to be filled with face images. The proposed face recognition system operates on image files of any resolution. In order to perform image size conversions and enhancements on face images, there exists the "pre-processing" module. This module automatically converts every face image to 200 x 180 (if necessary) and based on user request, it can modify the dynamic range of face images (histogram equalization) in order to improve face recognition performance. After acquisition and pre-processing, face image under consideration is added to the face library. Each face is represented by two entries in the face library: One entry corresponds to the face image itself (for the sake of Dept. of ECE, BGSIT Page 16

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speed, no datacompression is performed on the face image that is stored in the face library) and the other corresponds to the weight vector associated for that face image. Weight vectors of the face library members are empty until a training set is chosen and eigenfaces are formed.

3.4 TRAINING PHASE

After adding face images to the initially empty face library, the system is ready toperform training set and eigenface formations. Those face images that are going to be inthe training set are chosen from the entire face library. Now that the face library entries are normalized, no further pre-processing is necessary at this step. After choosingthe training set, eigenfaces are formed and stored for later use. Eigenfaces are calculatedfrom the training set, keeping only the M images that correspond to the highest eigenvalues. These M eigenfaces define the M-dimensional "face space". As new faces are experienced, the eigenfaces can be updated or recalculated. The corresponding distribution in the M-dimensional weight space is calculated for each face library member, by projecting its face image onto the "face space" spanned by the eigenfaces. Now the corresponding weight vector of each face library member has been updated which were initially empty. The system is now ready for the recognition process. Once a training set has been chosen, it is not possible to add new members to the face library with the conventional method that is presented in "phase 1" because, the system does not know whether this item already exists in the face library or not. A library search must be performed.

3.5 RECOGNITION AND LEARNING PHASE

After choosing a training set and constructing the weight vectors of face library members, now the system is ready to perform the recognition process. User initiates the recognition process by choosing a face image. Based on the user request and the acquired image size, pre-processing steps are applied to normalize this acquired image to face library specifications (if necessary). Once the image is normalized, its weight vector is constructed with the help of the Eigen faces that were already stored during the training phase. After obtaining the weight vector, it is compared with the weight vector of every face library member within a user defined "threshold". If there exists at least one face library member that is similar to the acquired image within that threshold then, the face Dept. of ECE, BGSIT Page 17

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image is classified as "known". Otherwise, a miss has occurred and the face image is

3.6 MATHEMATICS OF PCA

A 2-D facial image can be represented as 1-D vector by concatenating each row (or column) into a long thin vector. Lets suppose we have M vectors of size N (= rows of image columns of image) representing a set of sampled images. pjs represent the pixel values.

The images are mean centered by subtracting the mean image from each image vector. Let m represent the mean image.

And let wibe defined as mean centered image.

Our goal is to find a set of eis which have the largest possible projection onto each of the wis. We wish to find a set of M orthonormal vectors ei for which the quantity

is maximized with the orthonormality constraint

It has been shown that the eis and is are given by the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the covariance matrix.

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where W is a matrix composed of the column vectors wi placed side by side. The size of C is N N which could be enormous. For example, images of size 64 64 create the covariance matrix of size 40964096. It is not practical to solve for the eigenvectors of C directly. A common theorem in linear algebra states that the vectors ei and scalars i can be obtained by solving for the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the M M matrix W TW. Let di and I be the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of WTW, respectively.

By multiplying left to both sides by W

which means that the first M-1 eigenvectors ei and Eigen values iof WWT are given by W di and i, respectively. W di needs to be normalized in order to be equal to ei. Since we only sum up a finite number of image vectors, M, the rank of the covariance matrix cannot exceed M- 1 (The -1 comes from the subtraction of the mean vector m). The eigenvectors corresponding to non-zero eigenvalues of the covariance matrix produce an orthonormal basis for the subspace within which most image data can be represented with a small amount of error. The eigenvectors are sorted from high to low according to their corresponding eigenvalues. The eigenvector associated with the largest eigenvalue is one that reflects the greatest variance in the image. That is, the smallest eigenvalue is associated with the eigenvector that finds the least variance. They decrease in exponential fashion, meaning that the roughly 90% of the total variance is contained in the first 5% to 10% of the dimensions. A facial image can be projected onto M (<<M) dimensions by computing

where vi = eitwi. vi is the ith coordinate of the facial image in the new space, which came to be the principal component. The vectors ei are also images, so called, eigen images, or eigenfaces in our case. They can be viewed as images and indeed look like faces. So, describes the contribution of each eigenface in representing the facial image by treating Dept. of ECE, BGSIT Page 19

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the eigenfaces as a basis set for facial images. The simplest method for determining which face class provides the best description of a n input facial image is to find the face class k that minimizes the Euclidean distance

where k is a vector describing the kth face class. If kis less than some predefined threshold , a face is classified as belonging to the class k.

3.7 USING EIGENFACES TO CLASSIFY A FACE IMAGE

The eigenface images calculated from the eigenvectors of L span a basis set with whichto describe face images. Sirovich and Kirby evaluated a limited version of this frameworkon an ensemble of M = 115 images of Caucasian males digitized in a controlled manner,and found that 40 eigenfaces were sufficient for a very good description of face images. In practice, a smaller M' can be sufficient for identification, since accurate reconstruction of the image is not a requirement. Based on this idea, the proposed face recognition system lets the user specify the number of eigenfaces (M') that is going to be used in the recognition. For maximum accuracy, the number of eigenfaces should be equal to the number of images in the training set. But, it was observed that, for a training set of fourteen face images, seven eigenfaces were enough for a sufficient description of the training set members. In this framework, identification becomes a pattern recognition task. The eigenfaces span an M' dimensional subspace of the original N 2 image space. The M' significant eigenvectors of the L matrix are chosen as those with the largest associated eigenvalues. A new face image () is transformed into its eigenface components (projected onto "face space") by a simple operation,

for k = 1,...,M'.

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that describes the contribution of each eigenface in representing the input face image,treating the eigenfaces as a basis set for face images. The feature vector is then used in astandard pattern recognition algorithm to find which of a number of predefined faceclasses, if any, best describes the face. The face classesican be calculated by averagingthe results of the eigenface representation over a small number of face images (as few asone) of each individual. In the proposed face recognition system, face classescontainonly one representation of each individual. Classification is performed by comparing the feature vectors of the face library members with the feature vector of the input face image. This comparison is based on the Euclidean distance between the two members to be smaller than a user defined threshold k. If the comparison falls within the user defined threshold, then face image is classified as known, otherwise it is classified as unknown.

3.8 REBUILDING A FACE IMAGE WITH EIGENFACES

A face image can be approximately reconstructed (rebuilt) by using its feature vector andtheeigenfaces as

where

is the projected image.

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The face image under consideration is rebuilt just by adding each eigenface with a contribution of wito the average of the training set images. The degree of the fit or the "rebuild error ratio" can be expressedby means of the Euclidean distance between the original and the reconstructed face image.

It has been observed that, rebuild error ratio increases as the training set members differ heavily from each other. This is due to the addition of the average face image. When the members differ from each other (especially in image background) the average face image becomes messier and this increases the rebuild error ratio. There are four possibilities for an input image and its pattern vector: Near face space and near a face class, Near face space but not near a known face class, Distant from face space and near a face class, Distant from face space and not near a known face class. In the first case, an individual is recognized and identified. In the second case, an unknown individual is presented. The last two cases indicate that the image is not a face image. Case three typically shows up as a false classification. It is possible to avoid this false classification in this system.

where k is a user defined threshold for the faceness of the input face images belonging to kth face class.

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3.9 SUMMARY OF THE EIGENFACE RECOGNITION PROCEDURE

The eigenfaces approach to face recognition can be summarized in the following steps: Form a face library that consists of the face images of known individuals. Choose a training set that includes a number of images (M) for each person with some variation in expression and in the lighting. Calculate the M x M matrix L, find its eigenvectors and eigenvalues, and choose theM' eigenvectors with the highest associated eigenvalues. Combine the normalized training set of images to produce M'eigenfaces. Store these eigenfaces for later use. For each member in the face library, compute and store a feature vector. Choose a threshold that defines the maximum allowabledistance from any face class. Optionally choose a threshold that defines the maximum allowable distance from face space. For each new face image to be identified, calculate its feature vector and compare it with the stored feature vectors of the face library members Ifthe comparison satisfies the condition thenfor at least one member, then classify this face image as "known", otherwise amiss has occurred and classify it as "unknown".

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CHAPTER 4

PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
4.1 FLOWCHART

Start Acquire a training set of face images Image size reduction and grayscale conversion Face Detection Principal Component Analysis, Finding Eigenfaces

Acquire test image

Image size reduction and grayscale conversion Face Detection Projected Test Image (test image feature vector)

Projected training images (image feature vectors)

Compare?

Match

No Match

Show the result

Stop

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4.2 SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

Matlab R2011b

4.3DATA ACQUISITION
Here a directory dialog box is opened up by using Matlab commands to select a folder where the training set of images is stored. This dialog box helps to select any folder thus overcoming the concept of hard coding where the user has to mention the particular folder path. This dialog box is shown below:

Figure 4.1 Selecting training folder

4.4 TRAINING SET

The training set defines the subspace in which recognition will be performed. Aftertraining, the recognition system develops an efficient seperability among the trainingimages using the PCA technique. An assumption is made on the training set: it canaccurately represent each image in the gallery, which means that the separability of the system can also be well applied to the gallery. Training set size determines thedimensionality of the subspace. Apparently, the more sparsely the gallery images aredistributed, the higher separability the recognitionsystem can achieve. Generally, byincreasing the dimensionality, the images should be more sparsely distributed. Hence,there are two

schemes of selecting training sets to enhance recognition performance. Oneis to make the training set more representative of the gallery; the other is to enlarge thetraining set size in order to increase the dimensionality of the subspace. Let the training set of the image be 1, 2, 3..n. Dept. of ECE, BGSIT Page 25

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Figure 4.2 Training Set of Image

4.5 Pre Processing Techniques

4.5.1 Image Size Reduction The images read one by one are reduced into size of 200180 so as to increase the speed of processing and also to get rid of software hang and errors. 4.5.2Grayscale Conversion Then all input images are converted into grayscale for the purpose of normalization and error reduction.

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Fi gure4.3: Grayscale conversion of all images

4.5.3 Normalized Training Set In image processing, normalization is a process that changes the range of pixel intensity values. Applications include photographs with poor contrast due to glare, for example. Normalization is sometimes called contrast stretching. In more general fields of data processing, such as digital signal processing, it is referred to as dynamic range expansion. The purpose of dynamic range expansion in the various applications is usually to bring the image, or other type of signal, into a range that is more familiar or normal to the senses, hence the term normalization. Often, the motivation is to achieve consistency in dynamic range for a set of data, signals, or images to avoid mental distraction or fatigue. For example, a newspaper will strive to make all of the images in an issue share a similar range of grayscale. For example, if the intensity range of the image is 50 to 180 and the desired range is 0 to 255 the process entails subtracting 50 from each of pixel intensity, making the range 0 to 130. Then each pixel intensity is multiplied by 255/130, making the range 0 to 255.

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Figure 4.4: Normalized Training Set

4.6 MEAN
It is defined as the arithmetic average of the training image vectors at each pixel point and its size is (N x 1). The Mean face set is defined by

Subtract the Mean Face. It gives us the difference of the training image from the mean image (size N x 1).

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Figure 4.5: Mean Image

4.7 COVARIANCE MATRIX

Definition: it is the measure of how much two random variables vary together (as distinct from variance, which measures how much a single variable varies). If two variables tend to vary together (that is, when one of them is above its expected value, then the other variable tends to be above its expected value too), then the covariance between the two variables will be positive. On the other hand, if when one of them is above its expected value, the other variable tends to be below its expected value, then the covariance between the two variables will be negative.

An important property of the Eigenface method is obtaining the eigenvectors of the covariance matrix. For a face image of size (Nx x Ny) pixels, the covariance matrix is of size (P x P), P being (Nx x Ny). This covariance matrix is very hard to work with due to its huge dimension causing computational complexity. On the other hand, Eigenface method calculates the eigenvectors of the (Mt x Mt) matrix, Mt being the number of face images, and obtains (P x P) matrix using the eigenvectors of the (Mt x Mt) matrix. Thus, it Dept. of ECE, BGSIT Page 29

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is possible to obtain the eigenvectors of X by using the eigenvectors of Y. A matrix of size (Mt x Mt) is utilized instead of a matrix of size (P x P) (i.e. [{Nx x Ny} x {Nx x Ny}] ). This formulation brings substantial computational efficiency.

4.8 EIGENVECTOR AND EIGENVALUE

Definition: Let A be an n x n matrix. Then a real number is called an eigenvalue of the matrix, A if and only if, there is a n-dimensional nonzero vector, v for which eigenvectors can be considered as the vectors pointing in the direction of the maximum variance and the value of the variance the eigenvector represents is directly proportional to the value of the eigenvalue (i.e. the larger the eigenvalue indicates the larger variance the eigenvector represents). Hence, the eigenvectors are sortedwith respect to their

correspondingeigenvalues. The eigenvector having the largest eigenvalue is marked as the first eigenvector, and so on. In this manner, the most generalizing eigenvector comes first in the eigenvector matrix.

Example:

Eigenvectors

Eigenvalue Eigenvectors

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Figure 4.6 Eigenvectors

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Eigenvalues

Figure 4.7: Eigenvalues

4.9EIGENFACES
Eigenfaces are a set of eigenvectors used in the computer vision problem of human face recognition. The approach of using eigenfaces for recognition was developed by Matthew Turk and Alex Pentland beginning in 1987, and is considered the first facial recognition technology that worked. These eigenvectors are derived from the covariance matrix of the probability distribution of the high-dimensional vector space of possible faces of human beings To generate a set of eigenfaces, a large set of digitized images of human faces, taken under the same lighting conditions, are normalized to line up the eyes and mouths. They are then all resampled at the same pixel resolution. Eigenfaces can be extracted out of the image data by means of a mathematical tool called Principal Component Analysis (PCA).

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Figure 4.8: Eigenfaces

4.10 SELECTING THE TEST IMAGE

The test image is again selected when a dialog box opens. From here, we can select any file image from our hard disk without mentioning the image name and format instantaneously

Figure4.9: Selecting Test Image

4.11 CLASSIFICATION
The process of classification of a new (unknown) face new to one of the classes (known faces) can be carried out in two ways: 4.11.1 Bayesian classifier Dept. of ECE, BGSIT Page 32

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Bayesian classifier is one of the most widely applied statistical approaches in the standard pattern classification. It assumes that the classification problem is posed in probabilistic terms, and that all the relevant probability values are known. The decision process in statistical pattern recognition can be explained as follows: First, the new image is transformed into its eigenface components. The resulting weights form the weight vector newT.

Figure 4.10: Face Space

4.11.2. Nearest Mean Classifier Nearest Mean Classifier is an analogous approach to the Nearest Neighbor Rule(NN-Rule). In the NN-Rule, after the classification system is trained by thesamples, a test data is fed into the system and it is classified in the class of thenearesttrainingsample in the data space with respect to Euclidean Distance. Inthe Nearest Mean Classifier, again the Euclidean distance from each class mean(in this case) is computed for the decision of the class of the test data. Inmathematical terms, the Euclidean distance between the test sample x, and each face class mean i is:

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where x is a d dimensional input data. After computing the distance to each class mean, the test data is classified into the class with minimum Euclidean Distance.

4.12 WEIGHT AND EUCLIDEAN DISTANCE

Figure 4.11: Weight & Euclidean Distance

4.13Matlab Output
Based on the least value of the Euclidean distance, face recognition is carried out.

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Figure 4.12: Output (reconstructed image)

The above output is obtained when we select a different test image of the person which is not present in the database of images. The algorithm finds the correct match.

CHAPTER 5

Face Detection
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Detecting human faces automatically is becoming a very important and challenging task in computer vision research. The significance of the problem can be easily illustrated by its vast applications, as face detection is the first step towards intelligent vision-based human computer interaction. Face recognition, face tracking, pose estimation and expression recognition all require robust face detecting algorithms for successful implementation. Segmenting facial regions in images or video sequences can also lead to more efficient coding schemes [1], content-based representation

(MPEG4) [2], three-dimensional human face model fitting, image enhancement and audio-visual speech integration [3]. Although a major area of interest, many problems still need to be solved, as segmenting a human face successfully depends on many parameters such as skin-tones under varying lighting conditions, complexity level of the background in the image to be segmented and application for which the segmentation is

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A Matlab based Face Recognition using PCA required. Inherent differences due to the existence of different ethnic gender and age groups also complicate the face detection paradigm.

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With so many new applications, the development of faster and more robust face detection algorithms has become a major area of research over the last few years. Techniques based on knowledge of rules that capture the relationship between facial features, feature invariant approaches that tend to define structural features that exist even when the pose, viewpoint and lighting condition vary, and template matching methods that use several standard templates to describe a face, are all being thoroughly investigated. A comprehensive survey on the methods used to detect faces in images can be found in [4]. However, many of the successful claims reported in the literature either use data sets that are too small or the test images acquired are not standard images and so can show biased results favouring one method over another. The comparison difficulties are due to the fact that much less attention has been paid to the development of a standard face detection database that can be used as a benchmark to test the performance of these new algorithms.

5.2 Definition and relation to other tasks

Face detection is a computer technology that determines the locations and sizes of human faces in arbitrary (digital) images. It detects facial features and ignores anything else, such as buildings, trees and bodies. Face detection can be regarded as a specific case of object-class detection. In object-class detection, the task is to find the locations and sizes of all objects in an image that belong to a given class. Examples include upper torsos, pedestrians, and cars. Face detection can be regarded as a more general case of face localization. In face localization, the task is to find the locations and sizes of a known number of faces (usually one). In face detection, one does not have this additional information. Early face-detection algorithms focused on the detection of frontal human faces, whereas newer algorithms attempt to solve the more general and difficult problem of multi-view face detection. That is, the detection of faces that are either rotated along the axis from the face to the observer (in-plane rotation), or rotated along the vertical or left-

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right axis (out-of-plane rotation), or both. The newer algorithms take into account variations in the image or video by factors such as face appearance, lighting, and pose.

5.3 FACE DETECTION USING PCA

In our experiments we use a 10-dimensional principal subspace (M = 10). The projection matrix PM is calculated by an eigenspace decomposition using a set of luminance face test images. To localize a facial region in a new image, the error criterion must be computed for each pixel position, resulting in a distance map. For the moment, we use a simple detector which is based only on the \distance from face space" (DFFS). The globalminimum of the distance map is then selected as the bestmatch. When using M eigenvectors, the computation of the DFFS requires M+ 1 correlations (withthe M \eigenfaces" and the mean image) and an additional energy calculation. The correlations ;ongrey level images and point out the problems causedby the image background.

Fig. 5.1 shows the DFFS map for the luminance image salesman#1. The global minimum is marked by the white circle. Though there is a local minimum at the true face position, the best match is in the background region leading to a false detection. The DFFS is high for non-facial image regions with a high changing in the intensity (e.g. the area thatincludes parts of the light-colored shirt and the dark background). On the other hand, the DFFS becomes relative small in non-facial regions with little variance in the intensity like parts of the background at the right side of the test image. This is due to the fact that an image pattern that can be modeled by noise can be better represented by the eigenfaces than a non-facial image pattern containing a strong edge. Therefore, detection based on the DFFS becomes di_cult even in images with a simple background if the face region does not cover the main part of the test image.We now apply a principal component analysis to the skin probability image de_ned by equation (2) using the same projection matrix. The DFFS map for the skin probability image shown in _g. 2 is displayed in _g. 4a. The true face region is characterized by a local minimum. Similar to the luminance case, the error criterion is also low in background regions with little variance. These regions represent nonskin-colored background, so the probability image isnear zero in these areas.

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5.1 Detected face region

In 5.1 the eigenspace decomposition is used to estimate the complete probability density for a certain object class (e.g. the face class). Assuming a normal distribution, the estimate for the Mahalanobis distance is also a weighted sum of the DFFS and the DIFS similar to equation . A main difference isthat our scaling factor c is much smaller than the one used in because the DIFS provides more information when using the skin probability image instead of the luminance image. The distance map using the combined error criterion is shown in fig. 5.1.The global minimum (marked by the white circle) lies in the true face region and the face is detected correctly. Fig. 5.1 shows the detected face region super imposed on the luminance component.To detect faces at multiple scales, the detectionalgorithm is performed on several scaled versions ofthe skin probability image and the global minimum of the resulting multi-scale distance maps is selected.

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5.2 Detection of more than one face

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Detection results for severalimages of MPEG test sequences are shown in fig 5.2.The global minimum detection based on the assumption that the image contains exactly one face. To detect several faces and reject non-facial images, athreshold can be introduced which allows a tradeoff between false detection and false rejection. Ifthe error criterion at a certain spatial position is less than this predetermined threshold, the subimage located at this position is classified as a face. To prevent overlapping regions, only the global minimumis selected in the next step. For the search of the second (local) minimum, all spatial positions which leadto overlapping regions are discarded. This procedure is repeated until no position with error less thanthe threshold can be found which is not already covered by another detected region. The result of a multiple face detection is given in fig 5.2. 5.4 APPLICATIONS 1. Biometrics 2. A Facial Recognition System 3. Video Surveillance 4. Human Computer Interface 5. Image Database Management 6. Webcam etc..

Face detection is used in biometrics, often as a part of (or together with) a facial recognition system. It is also used in video surveillance, human computer interface and image database management. Some recent digital cameras use face detection for autofocus.[1] Face detection is also useful for selecting regions of interest in photo slideshows that use a pan-and-scale Ken Burns effect. Face detection is gaining the interest of marketers. A webcam can be integrated into a television and detect any face that walks by. The system then calculates the race, gender, and age range of the face. Once the information is collected, a series of advertisements can be played that is specific toward the detected race/gender/age.

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being paid to the development of a standard face image database to evaluate these new algorithms. This paper recognizes the need for a colour face image database and creates such a database for direct benchmarking of automatic face detection algorithms. The database has two parts. Part one contains colour pictures of faces having a high degree of variability in scale, location, orientation, pose, facial expression and lighting conditions, while part two has manually segmented results for each of the images in part one of the database. This allows direct comparison of algorithms. These images are acquired from a wide variety of sources such as digital cameras, pictures scanned in from a photo-scanner and the World Wide Web. The database is intended for distribution to researchers. Details of the face database such as the development process and file information along with a common criterion for performance evaluation measures is also discussed in this paper. Key Words: Face Detection, Colour Face Image Database, Evaluation Performance.

CHAPTER 6

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

6.1 Assessment of Success Rate
Here we have assessed the dependency of output on the number of training images (per individual). Total Number of Images Number of Training Images( per individual) Number of Test Images(per individual) Success Rate (%)

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A Matlab based Face Recognition using PCA 50 50 50 1 5 10 5 5 1 72.3% 87% 88%

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6.2 Advantages

It is simple and fast, and it only needs a small amount of memory. PCA basically performs dimensionality reduction.

Smaller representation of database because we only store the training images in the form of their projections on the reduced basis. Noise is reduced because we choose the maximum variation basis and features like backgrounds with small variations are automatically ignored. It is quite efficient and accurate in terms of success rate.

6.3 Limitations
Mainly frontal face is required. Multiscaling is a problem. Background variations and lightning conditions still pose a difficulty.

6.4 Application Areas Access Control

1. ATM 2. Airport 3. Lockers

Entertainment
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Smart Cards
1. Drivers Licenses 2. Passports 3. Voter Registrations 4. Welfare Fraud 5. Voter Registration

Information Security
1. TV Parental control 2. Desktop Logon 3. Personal Device Logon 4. Database Security 5. Medical Access 6. Internet Access

Law Enforcement and Surveillance

1. Advanced Video surveillance 2. Drug Trafficking 3. Portal Control

Multimedia Management
1. Multimedia management is used in the face based database search

Some Commercial Applications

1. Motion Capture for movie special effects. 2. Face Recognition biometric systems. Dept. of ECE, BGSIT Page 42

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CONCLUSION
We are currently extending the system to deal with a range of aspects (other than full frontal views) by defining a small number of classes for each known person corresponding to characteristic views. Because of the speed of the recognition, the system has many chances within a few seconds to respond to attempt to recognize many slightly different views. In this project we store a set of images in the database ,whenever we input a image that we want to test and if it is in the database will be recognized using the Eigen face algorithm and the reconstructed face will the output image. Here we are not using any filters but we are simply recognizing by reconstructed images of the input. And parallel the Euclidean distances also will be measured.

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The eigenface approach to face recognition was motivated by information theory, leading to the idea of basing face recognition on a small set of image features that best approximate the set of known face images, without requiring that they correspond to our intuitive notions of facial parts and features. Although it is not an elegant solution to the general object recognition problem, the eigenface approach does provide a practical solution that is well fitted to the problem of face recognition. It is fast, relatively simple, and has been shown to work well in a somewhat constrained environment.

FUTURE SCOPE
This project is based on eigenface approach that gives the accuracy maximum 92.5%. There is scope for future using Neural Network and Active Appearance Model techniques that can give better results compared to eigenface approach. With the help of neural network technique accuracy can be improved. The whole software is dependent on the database and the database is dependent on resolution of camera, so in future if good resolution digital camera or good resolution analog camera will be in use then result will be better used. Real time video processing . As for now, the threshold value is difficult to set in real time.Using OpenCV, an external platform provided by Intel consisting of inbuilt libraries and functions, face recognition can be made easier.

REFERENCES
[1] Zhujie, Y. L. Yu. Face Recognition with eigenfaces, Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Industrial Technology, pp. 434-438., 1994. [2] Lizama, E.; Waldoestl, D.; Nickolay, B., An eigenfaces-based automatic face recognition system IEEE International Conference Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 1997. Volume 1, Issue 12-15 Oct 1997 Page(s):174 177. [3] M.Turk and A.Pentland; Face Recognition Using Eigenfaces, Proceedings; IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pages 586-591, 1991. [4] Pablo Navarrete Javier Ruiz-del-Solar Analysis and Comparison of Eigenspace Based Face Recognition Approaches IJPRAI 16(7): 817-830 (2002).

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H.K. Ekenel, J. Stallkamp, H. Gao, M. Fischer, R. Stiefelhagen.; Face Recognition for Smart Interactions, IEEE International Conference on Multimedia & Expo, Beijing, China, July 2007. Page(s):1007 1010. Alex Pentland, BabackMoghaddam, and Thad Starner, View-Based and Modular Eigenspaces for Face Recognition, IEEE Conf. on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, MIT Media Laboratory Tech. Report No. 245 1994.

[6]

[7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]

http://www.face-rec.org/ http://stackoverflow.com/ http://www.mathworks.in/ http://cnx.org/content/m12531/latest/ http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~sis26/Eigenface%20Tutorial.htm#Programming http://www.facerecognition.it/ http://www.shervinemami.info/faceRecognition.html

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