PROPORTIONAL CLAUSES involve some kind of comparison.

They may be introduced by AS followed, if the register is formal, by correlative SO, e.g. As he reduced his intake, (so) his health deteriorated. As the speaker increased degree of difficulty of the words he used, (so) the audience found it much harder to understand the message.

They may also be introduced by the fronted correlative THE...THE followed by comparative forms, e.g. The harder he worked, the more tired he got. The more autographs he signed, the prouder he felt.

Noncorrelative THE can also be used in the same sense, e.g. He enjoyed it more, the further he read. He earned less, the more time he devoted to his job. COMMON ERRORS When writing, bear in mind the following tips: First and foremost, do not forget to indent all your paragraphs!!! No contractions are not to be used in formal pieces of writing. Do revise all your pieces of writing before handing them in. Remember the three steps? Revision, Editing & Proofreading. All adverbials which are either fronted or in the middle of the sentence are to be separated by commas. Check all your Relative Clauses to make sure whether you need a Defining or a Non-Defining one. Just in case you have forgotten, it is Defining Relative Clauses that provide essential information to identify the Noun they modify, e.g. She is a person who will never let you down. On the contrary is used to deny what has just been said, whereas on the other hand is used to introduce a second contrasting point which is as true as the first one, e.g. Dont you think he is a gentleman? On the contrary, hes the toughest person I know. vs. On the one hand, her strong character has helped her go through very hard times. On the other hand, this character of hers has scared people away. While THE LATEST means the most recent (e.g. George Clooneys latest film), THE LAST means the one coming after all the others and, therefore, there will be no more (e.g. Charles Chaplins last film). A sentence that starts a Reduced Relative Clause has to be immediately followed by the noun it modifies, e.g. Built in the early twenties, the mansion resembles a medieval castle. Sentential Clauses are introduced by WHICH, always preceded by a comma, e.g. He studied very hard, which proved to be useful. THIS is followed by a noun in the singular, whereas THESE is followed by a noun in the plural.

Anticipatory IT can never anticipate a noun or noun phrase, e.g. It is exciting the movie---The movie is exciting. Compare to is used when you consider two things or people alike; compare with is used to say that one is better than the other. Assist means help to do a job or task, while attend means be present. Days of the week and months do take capital letters. Do not use contractions unless you are writing a very informal piece, such as a letter or e- mail to a friend or close relative, or even a colloquial dialogue. CANNOT is but to be spelled as one word! Now, remember that Adjectives are Never Ever to be used in the plural! In some few cases, you have chosen one reason why as the controlling idea of your paragraph and, in fact, provided TWO reasons. Be careful! Concord and coherence are essential. In some other cases, you have included sentences which were irrelevant to your paragraph, as they were not supporting the topic and controlling idea. Beware! In British English, PRACTICE is a noun, while PRACTISE is a verb. In American English, both noun and verb are spelled out with C. DIFFERENT THAN is American English. In British English, you should say DIFFERENT FROM. If you ask me who would I pick. No inversion of order here as this is not a question. If you ask me who I would pick. She stroke people as impatient. STROKE is a verb meaning caress. The verb to be used here is STRIKESTRUCK-STRUCK: She struck people as impatient. Medium height is but an adjective plus a noun; therefore, this phrase cannot be used to premodify a noun; it can be used as an object to the preposition of, e.g. He is a rather plain man, of medium height.

Punctuation: Spanish and English

Coma / Comma: Para separar adverbiales antepuestos. To set off adverbial adjuncts when before the verb they modify. En proposiciones adjetivas explicativas o no especificativas. In Non-defining or Non-restrictive Relative Clauses. Para encerrar vocativos y aposiciones. To set off vocatives and nouns in apposition. En enumeraciones. For enumerations. Para indicar la omisin de un verbo. To indicate the verb has been omitted. Para separar los trminos invertidos del nombre completo de una persona. To separate surname from first name when the surname precedes the first name. Para separar el verbo de decir de una cita, cuando el verbo de decir es posterior a la cita.

Nota: en castellano, las comillas que encierran a la cita se cierran antes de colocar la coma. To separate a quotation from its reporting verb, when the reporting verb follows the quotation. Note: in English, the comma goes before the closing quotation marks. Para separar adjetivos. To separate two or more similar adjectives. Para separar decimales de la parte entera en expresiones numricas escritas con cifras. To separate numerals into thousands and millions. Luego del encabezamiento de una carta. Following a salutation in correspondence (British English).

Nota. en castellano se utilizan los dos puntos. To set off the year in a full day.

Nota: en castellano no se utiliza la coma al escribir fechas. To set off absolute phrases.

Punto y coma / Semicolon: Para separar proposiciones independientes. To set off independent clauses. En enumeraciones, cuando uno de los elementos enumerados requiere coma. In enumerations, whenever one of the elements needs a comma.

Dos puntos / Colon: Despus o antes de anunciar una enumeracin. After or even before announcing an enumeration.

Para separar el verbo de decir de la cita textual, cuando el verbo de decir la precede. To separate the reporting verb from the quotation, whenever the reporting verb comes first. Luego de las frmulas de saludo en cartas y documentos.

Note: in American English the Colon is used following salutations in correspondence. Para conectar proposiciones relacionadas entre s sin usar otro nexo. To connect independent clauses without using cohesive devices. En la relacin causa-efecto. To show cause-effect. Ante la conclusin o resumen de la proposicin anterior. Before the conclusion or summary of a previous clause. Para separar las horas de los minutos en la expresin del tiempo. To separate hours from minutes in time expressions. Para indicar divisin en expresiones matemticas. To show division in mathematical expressions. En la transcripcin de dilogo en una obra de teatro, despus del nombre propio para introducir el dilogo. In transcriptions of dialogue, following the speaker's name. Luego de un ttulo corto o introduccin. After a brief heading or introductory term. Para separar ttulo de subttulo. To separate titles and subtitles. En los encabezamientos de memorandums y correos electrnicos. To punctuate memorandum and e-mail headings and subject lines.

Puntos Suspensivos / Suspensive Dots - Ellipsis Points: Al finalizar una enumeracin abierta o incompleta. At the end of an open or incomplete enumeration. Para indicar duda, temor o vacilacin. To indicate faltering speech. Para dejar un enunciado en suspenso. To show a sentence has been left unfinished. Para indicar que parte de la cita se ha omitido. To indicate there has been an omission within a quote.

Note: They are usually not used to indicate the omission of words preceding the quoted phrase.

Parntesis / Brackets Parentheses: Para encerrar incisos aclaratorios o incidentales. To enclose phrases and clauses providing examples, explanations, or supplementary facts. Para intercalar algn dato. To set off definitions, translations, alternate names for words, etc. Para introducir una opcin en el texto. Para reconstruir las palabras completas en una abreviatura.

Para encerrar las letras o nmeros que encabezan clasificaciones o enumeraciones.

Nota: puede usarse slo el parntesis de cierre. Para mencionar datos bibliogrficos o histricos. To set off bibliographical or historical data. Para mencionar a qu una ciudad, provincia o pas pertenece el lugar antes indicado. To enclose the name of a city or state inserted into a proper name for identification.

Corchetes / Square Brackets Brackets: Para introducir una nota aclaratoria dentro de un texto que va entre parntesis. Para agregarle al original alguna frase faltante, aclaracin,nota, etc. To enclose editorial comments, corrections, clarifications, or any other phrase inserted into a text. To set off insertions that supply missing letters. To indicate that the capitalization or type-face of the original passage has been altered.

Raya o guin largo / Dash: Para encerrar aclaraciones o incisos que interrumpen el discurso. To emphasize parenthetic or amplifying material. To set off or introduce defining or enumerating phrases. To introduce a summary statement following an enumeration. To indicate interrupted speech or a speaker's confusion or hesitation. Para sealar cada intervencin en un dilogo. Para introducir o encerrar los verbos de decir o las aclaraciones descriptivas dentro de un dilogo. En listas, para indicar que, en ese rengln, se omite la palabra que acaba de mencionarse arriba.

En Dash: It appears only in typeset material. It is shorter than the em dash but slightly longer than the hyphen. It is usually used instead of a hyphen meaning 'up to and including / through' when in-between numbers, dates, or other notations that indicate range. We use it most commonly to indicate inclusive dates and numbers: July 9 August 17; pp. 3759.

The en dash is slightly longer than the hyphen but not as long as the em dash. (It is, in fact, the width of a typesetter's letter "N," whereas the em dash is the width of the letter "M"thus their names.) Em Dash: The em dash is the mark of punctuation most of us think of when we hear the term "dash" in regard to a sentence. It is significantly longer than the hyphen. We use the em dash to create a strong break in the structure of a sentence. Dashes can be used in pairs like parenthesesthat is, to enclose a word, or a phrase, or a clause or they can be used alone to detach one end of a sentence from the main body. Dashes are particularly useful in a sentence that is long and complex or in one that has a number of commas within it.

Long Dash: It is equivalent to a two-em dash and is used to indicate missing letters in a word, or even to indicate a missing word.

Puntuacin de dilogo / Punctuation of Dialogue: --Hola. "Hello."

--Hola --dijo Mara. "Hello," said Mara. --Hola. Cmo ests? --aadi Pedro--. Ests bien? "Hi! How are you?," added Pedro. "Are you all right?" Guin / Hyphen: Para separar los dos elementos que integran una palabra compuesta. To separate two elements forming a compound. Para dividir una palabra al final del rengln. To split a word at the end of a sentence. Cuando precede a una parte de una palabra, para indicar que se trata de un sufijo. Preceding a suffex. Para unir palabras con un valor de enlace similar a una preposicin o conjuncin. To connect words. Para unir dos nmeros. To connect two different numbers. Para separar da, mes y ao en fechas redactadas con nmeros. Dividing letters or syllables, it gives the effect of stuttering, sobbing, or halting speech.

Comillas / Inverted Commas - Quotation Marks: Para reproducir citas textuales. To enclose direct quotations. Para reproducir los pensamientos de los personajes de textos narrativos. Para indicar que una palabra pertenece a otra lengua. To enclose words borrowed from other languages. Para citar ttulos de artculos o poemas.

Cuando se usa metalenguaje, para encerrar la palabra a la que se hace referencia. To enclose words referred to as words, double quotation marks are generally used; single quotation marks may be used in some specialized fields, such as linguistics, philosophy and theology. To enclose translations of foreign or borrowed terms. To enclose single letters within a sentence. To set off dialogue.

Note: (Br E) double inverted commas enclose a quotation within a quotation: *The man said, 'I distinctly heard her say, "I'll kill you ,"and then I heard a shot.' (Am E) single quotation marks enclose a quotation within a quotation: *The man said, "I distinctly heard her say, 'I'll kill you,' and then I heard a shot." Barra / Slash Virgule:

Tiene valor preposicional en ciertas expresiones, como "km/h". Representing the word 'per' and 'to', e.g. 'ft./sec.' or some other prepositions. Para indicar la existencia de dos o ms morfemas posibles. To separate alternatives: 'alumni/ae', 'his/her'. En algunas abreviaturas. With abbreviations.

To replace the word 'and' in some compound terms.

Apstrofo / Apostrophe: En poesa, para indicar la omisin o elisin de una vocal. To indicate that letters have been intentionally omitted. To indicate the possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns. To form plurals, of letters, numerals, abbreviation, symbols, and words referred to as words. To mark omissions in contractions. To mark the omissions of numerals. To produce the inflected forms of verbs made of numerals or individually pronounced letters.

Ampersand: To replace the word 'and' whenever a shorter form is desirable. Used in the name of companies bur not in the name of agencies forming part of the federal government. Used in abbreviations.

LINKING WORDS AND STRUCTURES WITH: The first example provided refers to addition; ,WITH replaces and, e.g. He is tanned and well-built, with bulging biceps. She is a red-haired girl, with a friendly smile.

RELATIVE CLAUSES As you may very well remember, there are two types of Relative Clauses: Defining or Restrictive, and NonDefining or Non-Restrictive. The former are those which are essential to identify the noun they postmodify. The latter can perfectly be omitted without preventing the reader from identifying the subject they postmodify, as they just provide additional information. What follows are two examples to show the difference existing between these two types of clauses: Suppose I have two brothers and you know not only that but also that one of them lives in Ushuaia while the other lives here. If I wanted to break the news of the far-away brother coming for a visit, I would write a Defining Relative Clause: My brother who lives in Ushuaia has just arrived.

This way you can identify which of my brothers has arrived: the one who lives in Ushuaia. If, on the other hand, I had but one brother, and I wanted to break the news that he has just arrived, I would write a Non-Defining Relative Clause: My brother, who lives in Ushuaia, has just arrived.

Whether he lives in Ushuaia is just extra information on which I am not focusing, as you know I have only one brother. The new piece of information is his arrival. That said and done, let's go a bit deeper into Relative Clauses to see how they can be reduced. What is a Reduced Relative Clause? A Reduced Relative Clause is a shorter version of a relative clause. When can a Relative Clause be reduced? When the Relative Pronoun is the head of the relative clause. How is a Relative Clause reduced? The way it is reduced will depend on the type of relative clause it is.

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE IN THE ACTIVE VOICE: When the relative clause is in the Active Voice and its main verb is other than the verb 'to be', it is reduced by omitting the relative pronoun and turning the verb into a Present Participle, e.g. The employees who work with him have decided to celebrate his birthday. The employees working with him have decided to celebrate his birthday. When it is in the Active Voice and the main verb is the verb TO BE, then both the relative pronoun and the verb are omitted; if, what remains is an adjective, then it will pre-modify the noun; if it is a phrase, then it will postmodify the noun, e.g. The employees who are sociable have decided to celebrate his birthday. The sociable employees have decided to celebrate his birthday. The employees who are friendly with him have decided to celebrate his birthday. The employees friendly with him have decided to celebrate his birthday. NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE IN THE ACTIVE VOICE: - John Wayne, who was a famous film actor, starred in Stagecoach. - John Wayne, a famous film actor, starred in Stagecoach. DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE IN THE PASSIVE VOICE: When the relative clause is in the Passive Voice, it is reduced by omitting both the relative pronoun and the auxiliary, so that you get the Past Participle, e.g. - The child who was accused of smashing the window insisted on his being innocent. - The child accused of smashing the window insisted on his being innocent. NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE IN THE PASSIVE VOICE: - My next-door neighbour, who was fired from his job last year, has finally got a new job. - My next-door neighbour, fired from his job last year, has finally got a new job. RESULT CLAUSES SO...THAT

Normally, students remember that SO is followed by an adjective or adverb and then THAT. But do you remember that it can modify much, little, many and few? Let's see some examples: The place is so crowded that it is impossible to breathe. It is so expensive that I won't buy it. He is paid so well that he does not bother to work extra hours. I can hear so much noise coming from the street where I live that I can never ever keep a window open. There is so little time left that we had better hurry up. There are so many books to be read that I will never have enough time to read them all. The dinner party had so few guests that it was a bore.

Let's see how to make these sentences more emphatic by using inversion: So crowded is the place that it is impossible to breathe. So expensive is it that I won't buy it. So well is he paid that he does not bother to work extra hours. So much noise can I hear coming from the street where I live that I can never ever keep a window open. So little time is left that we had better hurry up. So many books are there to be read that I will never have enough time to read them all. So few guests did the dinner party have that it was a bore.

SUCH...THAT SUCH, as I am sure you will all remember, is followed by a noun or noun phrase plus THAT, e.g. This page has such a small print that I find it hard to read. The baker's sells such tasty croissants that I can't resist them. He plays such good music that it is a pleasure to go visit him. There is such peace and quiet in her neighbourhood that I am considering moving there. The emphatic version, once again, requires inversion of order: Such small print does this page have that I find it hard to read. Such tasty croissants does the baker's sell that I can't resist them. Such good music does he play that it is a pleasure to go visit him. Such peace and quiet is there in her neighbourhood that I am considering moving there. Such was our annoyance that we got offended.

ADDITION NOT ONLY... BUT ALSO Noun (Phrase) Noun (Phrase) in the Subject: - Not only the waiter but also the busboy work for tips. - Not only the spelling of the words, but also the grammatical forms become conventionalized. in the Predicate: - Shakespeare was not only a writer but (also) an actor. - He was determined to be not only President but also his own principal adviser. She was not only an inspiring teacher but (also) a brilliant researcher. Not only was she an inspiring teacher but (also) a brilliant researcher. He brought about not only affection, but happiness. Not only did he bring about affection, but also happiness. Gerund Gerund I enjoy not only camping but also climbing.

Adjective Adjective Vitamins are not only popular but also effective. Not only are vitamins popular but also effective. I was not only exhausted but also hungry. Not only was I exhausted but also hungry. To listen to your elders is not only wise but also interesting. It is not only wise to listen to your elders but also interesting.

Verb Phrase Verb Phrase - Acupuncture can not only heal but also prevent illness. - Not only can acupuncture heal but also prevent illness. - I not only do exercise but also work every day. - Not only do I do exercise, but also work every day. - She not only took me home but also came the next day to see me. - Not only did she take me home but (also) came the next day to see me. - They not only broke into his house and steal his most valuable possessions, but (they also) set it on fire. - Not only did they break into his house and steal his most valuable possessions, but they also set it on fire. - Those who do well in life not only work hard but also use their instincts. - Not only are migraine headaches painful, but they also cause nausea. - The role we take as the result of being in a certain place in the family not only causes us to think about ourselves in certain ways, it also causes us to think about other people in certain ways. Participle Participle These movies were not only making money, but (they were also) perceived to be original. Prepositional Phrase Prepositional Phrase - There is always a black market not only in this country but also in the neighbouring ones. - The measure proved to be effective not only in terminating an unlawful conspiracy, but (also) in limiting price increases. THAT Clause THAT Clause - He promised not only that he would call, but (also) that he would come back. - Not only did he promise that he would call, but (also) that he would come back.

PARALLEL STRUCTURES MUST FOLLOW THESE CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. Still, here come some unusual cases that appear in Virginia Evans Successful WritingProficiency: - Cathys front door was not only standing wide open, but the lock had also been broken. - He is not only the best student in our class, but also has a wonderful sense of humour. - Not only was she a good listener, but the advice she offered was sound as well. - Not only is the architecture much more pleasing to the eye, but the streets and public areas are considerably better maintained than they used to be. Body: large amount of sth, e.g. a body of evidence, a body of information, large bodies of water, a large body of support for sth. Depiction: description Gratuitous: without good reason; unnecessary, harmful or upsetting Ascertain: establish Ounce: 28.35 grams.