Table of Contents

Chapter 1
About This Guide........................................................................................................................ 1
Who This Guide Is For ........................................................................................................ 1
How This Guide Can Help You ............................................................................................ 1
How To Use This Guide ...................................................................................................... 2

Chapter 2
Introduction to Retrofitting ........................................................................................................ 5
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 5
What Is “Retrofitting”? ......................................................................................................... 8
Types of Flooding ............................................................................................................... 8
How Flooding Can Damage Your House ........................................................................... 11
Depth/Elevation of Flooding ......................................................................................... 11
Flow Velocity ............................................................................................................... 13
Flood Frequency ......................................................................................................... 15
Rate of Rise and Rate of Fall ...................................................................................... 16
Duration ..................................................................................................................... 17
Debris Impact ............................................................................................................. 18
Other Hazards .................................................................................................................. 18
Federal, State, and Local Regulations ............................................................................... 20
Financial Assistance for Retrofitting ................................................................................... 22
Federal Programs ....................................................................................................... 22
Non-Federal Help ....................................................................................................... 26

Chapter 3
An Overview of the Retrofitting Methods ................................................................................ 27
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 27
Cautions ........................................................................................................................... 28
Substantial Damage/Substantial Improvement ............................................................ 28
Flood Protection Elevation and Risk ............................................................................ 29
Freeboard ................................................................................................................... 31
Human Intervention ..................................................................................................... 32

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING i

 CONTENTS

Other Considerations .................................................................................................. 33

Construction Terminology .................................................................................................. 34
Construction Type ....................................................................................................... 35
Foundation Type ......................................................................................................... 36
Retrofitting Methods and Costs ......................................................................................... 37
Elevation ..................................................................................................................... 37
Wet Floodproofing ....................................................................................................... 46
Relocation .................................................................................................................. 50
Dry Floodproofing ....................................................................................................... 53
Levees and Floodwalls ................................................................................................ 57
Demolition ................................................................................................................... 62
Summary ......................................................................................................................... 63

Chapter 4
Deciding Which Method Is Right for Your House .................................................................... 65
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 65
Making Your Decision ....................................................................................................... 66
Step 1 – Determine the Hazards to Your House ........................................................... 66
Step 2 – Inspect Your House ....................................................................................... 68
Step 3 – Check with Your Local Officials ...................................................................... 71
Step 4 – Consult a Design Professional and Contractor ............................................... 73
Retrofitting Checklist ................................................................................................... 76
Decision Making Matrixes ........................................................................................... 83

Chapter 5
Elevating Your House ............................................................................................................... 87
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 87
Considerations .................................................................................................................. 88
Amount of Elevation .................................................................................................... 88
Existing Foundation .................................................................................................... 89
Hazards ..................................................................................................................... 90
Access ..................................................................................................................... 90
House Size, Design, and Shape .................................................................................. 91
Service Equipment ...................................................................................................... 91

ii FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 CONTENTS

The Elevation Techniques ................................................................................................. 92

Elevating on Extended Foundation Walls ..................................................................... 92
Alternative Elevation Techniques for Masonry Houses on
Slab-On-Grade Foundations ................................................................................... 100
Elevating on an Open Foundation ............................................................................. 104

Chapter 6
Wet Floodproofing ................................................................................................................. 109
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 109
Considerations ................................................................................................................ 110
Flood Protection Elevation ........................................................................................ 110
Hazards ................................................................................................................... 111
Post-Flood Cleanup .................................................................................................. 111
Modifications Required for Wet Floodproofing ................................................................. 111
Installing Openings ................................................................................................... 111
Using Flood-Resistant Materials ................................................................................ 114
Protecting Service Equipment ................................................................................... 114

Chapter 7
Other Methods ........................................................................................................................ 115
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 115
Relocation ...................................................................................................................... 115
Dry Floodproofing ........................................................................................................... 122
Levees and Floodwalls ................................................................................................... 131
Demolition ...................................................................................................................... 139

Chapter 8
Protecting Service Equipment ............................................................................................... 143
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 143
Methods of Protection ..................................................................................................... 144
Elevation ................................................................................................................... 144
Relocation ................................................................................................................ 146
Protection in Place .................................................................................................... 146
Anchors and Tiedowns .............................................................................................. 147
Backflow Valves ........................................................................................................ 148

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING iii

 CONTENTS

Appendixes
Appendix A
Bibliography and Sources of Information ......................................................................... 151
Appendix B
Glossary ......................................................................................................................... 155
Appendix C
FEMA Offices .................................................................................................................. 163
Appendix D
NFIP State Coordinating Agencies .................................................................................. 165
Appendix E
State Historic Preservation Offices .................................................................................. 171
Appendix F
Professional Organizations ............................................................................................. 177

iv FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 CHAPTER 1

About This
Guide
Who This Guide Is For
The Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) prepared this
guide specifically for homeowners who want to know how
to protect their houses from flooding. As a homeowner, you need clear
information about the options available to you and straightforward DEFINITION
guidance that will help you make decisions. This guide gives you both, The Federal Emer-
in a form designed for readers who have little or no knowledge about gency Management
flood protection methods or building construction techniques. Agency (FEMA) is the
independent Federal
If you are an engineer, an architect, a construction contractor, or agency that administers
someone with skills in those fields, you may want to ask FEMA for copies the National Flood Insur-
of technical manuals that cover design and construction in greater detail. ance Program (NFIP).
For example, all of the flood protection methods described in this guide The NFIP is the Federal
are described in depth in Engineering Principles and Practices for program, created by
Retrofitting Flood Prone Residential Buildings, FEMA 259, a detailed Congress in 1968, that
design manual issued by FEMA in January 1995. If you would like to makes flood insurance
obtain copies of FEMA 259 or other FEMA documents referred to in this available in communities
guide, call the FEMA Publications Service Center at 1-800-480-2520. that adopt and enforce
See Appendix A for a list of documents concerning flood protection floodplain management
prepared by FEMA and other agencies and organizations. ordinances or laws that
meet the minimum re-
quirements of the NFIP
How This Guide Can Help You regulations.
You should take steps to protect your house if it has been damaged by
flooding or is in an area where flooding is likely to occur. But first, you need
to know what methods are available, how they work, how much they may
cost, and whether they will meet your specific needs. This guide covers all
of those issues. It also explains flood hazards and how they can damage
your house. Don’t forget that flooding is only one of several natural
hazards that may threaten your house. This guide includes maps that will
help you determine whether your house is in an area where earthquakes
or high winds occur, and it explains when your retrofitting project should
include protection against these hazards.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 1

 CHAPTER 1

Your state and local governments probably have adopted building codes
and other rules and regulations that you will need to know about. This
guide points you in the right direction by explaining how your local
officials can advise you. Regardless of the flood protection method you
DEFINITION choose, you will probably need the help of a construction contractor and a
In this guide, the term design professional, such as an engineer or architect. This guide
local officials refers to describes the types of services you can expect contractors and design
the employees of your professionals to provide.
community who are re-
sponsible for floodplain
How To Use This Guide
management, permit-
To get the most from this guide, you should first read Chapters 2, 3, and 4.
ting, building code en-
Chapter 2 explains “retrofitting,” and, by describing how flood, wind, and
forcement, and building
earthquake forces can damage your house, it helps you understand how
inspection. The respon-
retrofitting works. Also in Chapter 2 is a discussion of Federal, State, and
sibilities of local officials
local financial assistance programs that may help pay for your retrofitting
vary from one commu-
project. Chapter 3 provides short descriptions of the six flood protection
nity to the next. In your
methods covered by this guide. It gives you the information you will need
community, you may
as you begin to think about how to protect your house, including the
need to work with one or
approximate costs, advantages, and disadvantages of each method .
more of the following:
Chapter 4 leads you through four steps that will help you decide which
floodplain administrator,
method is best for you. Chapter 4 also explains how to work with local
building official, city en-
officials, contractors, and design professionals.
gineer, and planning and
zoning administrator.
When you finish Chapter 4, you will be ready to focus on one method.
Then you can move to Chapter 5, 6, or 7, depending on your choice.
Those chapters describe the methods in greater detail and include
photographs and illustrations that show how the methods are applied.
Chapter 8 explains how you can protect service equipment (utility
systems; heating, cooling, and ventilating systems; and large appliances)
in conjunction with the retrofitting method you have chosen.

As you read this guide, you will often find information in the margins of
pages — definitions (like the one above), notes, and warnings. Each is
identified by a special symbol:

DEFINITION — The meaning of a technical or other

special term. Where a term is first used in the text, it is
shown in bold type and the definition is provided in the
margin. You can also find these and other definitions in
Appendix B, Glossary.

NOTE — Supplemental information you may find helpful,

including things to consider as you plan your retrofitting
project, suggestions that can make the retrofitting process

2 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 ABOUT THIS GUIDE CHAPTER 1

easier, and the titles and sources of other publications

related to flood protection and retrofitting.

WARNING — Critical information that will help you avoid

mistakes that could result in dangerous conditions,
violations of your community’s ordinances or laws, and
possibly delays and higher costs in your retrofitting NOTE
project. Be sure to read these warnings. If you are Many government
unsure about what a specific warning means or what to agencies, including
do to avoid the problem it describes, consult your local FEMA, and non-profit
officials. Chapter 4 tells you about working with local organizations, maintain
officials. sites on the Internet
where you can find in-
A final note before you begin Chapter 2: No guide or other document of formation about flood-
this type can anticipate every retrofitting situation or every concern a ing, high winds, earth-
homeowner may have about undertaking a retrofitting project. If you have quakes, and other haz-
questions that this guide does not answer, consult your local officials. They ards. Appendix A in-
will usually have the information you need. If FEMA has set up a Disaster cludes a partial list of
Field Office (DFO) in your area, in response to a Presidential declaration of sites that were operat-
a Major Disaster, members of the DFO Mitigation staff can answer ing at the time this guide
questions and advise you. The staff members of the FEMA Regional Office was prepared.
for your state can also help (see Appendix C).

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 3

 CHAPTER 2

Introduction to
Retrofitting
Introduction
Every year, flooding causes over 90 percent of the disaster-related property damage in the
United States and accounts for over 75 percent of all Presidential disaster declarations. In fact,
over the last decade, property damage related to flooding has averaged well over 3.5 billion
dollars a year. In 1996 alone, damages were estimated to have topped 6 billion dollars.

Although recent improvements in construction practices and regulations have made new
houses less prone to flood damage, many existing houses continue to be damaged by flooding
over and over again. National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) insurance loss records show
that more than 30,000 houses have been flooded more than once during the 6-year period
beginning in 1990. These houses, by themselves, have accounted for over 1 billion dollars in
flood damages, and their owners feel trapped in a never-ending cycle of flooding and repairing.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 5

 CHAPTER 2

The good news is that there are ways that this cycle of repetitive flood
damage can be broken. Homeowners across the country have
protected their houses from flooding using the techniques described in
this guide. One example (Figures 2-1 through 2-3) can be found in the
Atlanta area, where some residential neighborhoods built in the 1960’s
were repeatedly flooded by a nearby stream.

After their house flooded for the second time, one family decided to do
something. They hired a contractor, who elevated the house on
concrete piers so that it would be above the level of future floods.

Figure 2-1
This house near Atlanta
was flooded several
times. During the
largest flood, the water
reached as high as 2
feet above the first
floor.

Figure 2-2
The house was
elevated in a way that
added to both its
appearance and its
value.

6 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 INTRODUCTION TO RETROFITTING CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-3
Now the house (in
the background) is
protected from
flooding, unlike the
flooded house in the
foreground.

NOTE
At the outset of the project, the homeowners were concerned Any retrofitting project
about how the house would look after it was elevated. But once you undertake must
construction was complete, the concerns proved groundless. meet the legal require-
Below the elevated house, traditional latticework was installed in ments of your com-
the spaces between the support columns. Access to the front door munity, including the
is now provided by a well-designed double staircase that also floodplain management
serves as an architectural focal point. In addition to providing ordinances your com-
protection from future floods, elevating the house created a space munity adopted to
below that could be used for parking and storage. This retrofitting participate in the NFIP.
method worked so well that other property owners in the neighborhood By enforcing these or-
have chosen to protect their houses the same way. dinances, your com-
munity helps reduce fu-
In other areas where flooding has caused repeated damage, ture flood damages. As
entire houses have been moved outside the flood hazard area or explained later in this
protected by floodwalls and levees designed as attractive chapter, the ordinances
landscaping features. As you read further in this guide, you will see are based on the 100-
that it is possible to protect your house from flooding while preserving year flood, also referred
or even enhancing its attractiveness and value. to as the “base flood.”
Remember these terms;
you will encounter them
many times as you read
this guide. For further in-
formation, see the
section Federal, State,
and Local Regulations
on page 20.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 7

 CHAPTER 2

What Is “Retrofitting”?
Retrofitting is making changes to an existing building to protect it from
flooding or other hazards such as high winds and earthquakes. You
NOTE have already seen an example of these changes, and you’ll learn
Retrofitting specifically more in the following chapters. But you may be wondering at this point
for earthquake hazards why retrofitting is necessary. Why aren’t houses and other buildings
is often referred to as constructed in such a way that they won’t need these changes?
“rehabilitation.”
One reason is that construction technology, including both methods and
materials, continues to improve, as does our knowledge of hazards and
their effects on buildings. Many houses existing today were built when
little was known about where and how often floods and other hazardous
events would occur or how buildings should be protected, and houses
being built today may benefit from improvements based on what we
DEFINITION learn in the future. As a result, retrofitting has become a necessary and
Hazard mitigation is important tool in hazard mitigation.
action taken to reduce
or eliminate long-term
risk to people and prop-
Types of Flooding
erty from hazards such This guide focuses primarily on retrofitting for flood protection. If you
as floods, hurricanes, decide to retrofit your house, you’ll need to be aware of other potential
earthquakes, and fires. hazards as well, such as high winds and earthquakes. They are
discussed later, but first it is important that you understand flooding –
where and how it occurs, the nature of the threat it poses, and how it
can affect your house.

Most of the flooding that occurs in the United States is either riverine
or ocean flooding, although flooding also occurs around lakes and
ponds and in isolated areas where storm drainage systems are not
adequate. Riverine flooding, as its name implies, occurs when rivers
DEFINITION and streams overflow their banks (Figure 2-4). Riverine flood waters
A flash flood is a flood can move quite rapidly, as in a flash flood, or very slowly, as they
that rises and falls very often do where the land is gently sloping or flat. The primary causes of
quickly and usually is riverine flooding are rainfall and melting snow (and sometimes a
characterized by high combination of both). Water from rain and melting snow eventually
flow velocities (see finds its way into stream channels. When the amount of water being
page 13). Flash floods carried by a stream exceeds the capacity of the stream channel, it
often result from intense spreads out into the area along the stream, commonly referred to as
rainfall over a small the floodplain. Usually, the houses and other buildings at greatest risk
area. from riverine flooding are those near the stream channel, where the
depths and speed of flood waters are often greatest.

8 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 INTRODUCTION TO RETROFITTING CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-4
This house in Georgia
was inundated by
riverine flooding.

DEFINITION
Storm surge is the rise
Ocean flooding, which is caused by storm surge and wave action, in the level of the ocean
affects primarily coastal areas, especially those along the beachfront, that results from the de-
but it can also affect areas around bays, and it can back up along crease in atmospheric
rivers and streams that empty into bays. Ocean flooding is most pressure associated
dangerous, and causes the most severe damage, where large waves with hurricanes and
are driven inland by the wind (Figure 2-5). These wind-driven waves other storms.
occur primarily along the open coast, where they can destroy houses,
Wave action refers to
wash away protective dunes, and erode the soil, often so much that
the characteristics and
the ground surface is lowered several feet. But they can also move
effects of waves that
inland where the land is flat and there are no large dunes or other
move inland from an
obstacles to break them. In these areas the level of damage can rival
ocean, bay, or other
that along the open coast.
large body of water.
Large, fast-moving
waves can cause ex-
treme erosion and scour,
and their impact on
buildings can cause se-
vere damage. During
hurricanes and other
high-wind events, storm
surge and wind increase
the destructiveness of
waves and cause them
to reach higher eleva-
tions and penetrate
further inland.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 9

 CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-5
The extreme impact of
large, fast-moving
waves, combined with
the removal of
supporting soil by
erosion and scour, can
have devastating effects
on buildings exposed to
ocean flooding. This
house along the Gulf of
Mexico shoreline was
destroyed during
Hurricane Opal.

Ocean flooding can also move inland into low-lying areas beyond the
limit of wave action. The danger in these areas is primarily from
DEFINITION inundation due to storm surge, but even here, fast-moving flood
Erosion is the removal waters can scour away the soil around building foundations.
of soil that lowers the
ground surface across Another cause of flooding, which can affect houses outside identified
an area. Scour is the re- floodplains, is the limited capacity of local drainage systems, including
moval of soil around storm sewers, culverts, and drainage ditches and swales. These
objects that obstruct flow, systems are usually designed to carry up to a specific amount of
such as the foundation water, which is referred to as the “design capacity” of the system.
walls of houses and When heavy rainfall over an area causes the design capacity of the
other buildings. system to be exceeded, water will begin to back up and fill low-lying
areas near system inlets and along open ditches. Depending on the
amount of rainfall and its intensity, the flood water may continue to
rise and may eventually affect houses.

A similar problem occurs when drainage system inlets are plugged or

DEFINITION obstructed by mud or other debris and when drainage system outlets
Rainfall intensity refers are covered by water during riverine or coastal floods. In the latter
to the amount of rain situation, water can flow backwards in the system and reach areas
that falls during a given that otherwise might not have flooded.
amount of time. It is usu-
ally expressed in inches
of rainfall per hour. The
higher the number of
inches per hour, the
greater the intensity.

10 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 INTRODUCTION TO RETROFITTING CHAPTER 2

How Flooding Can Damage Your House

To understand how flooding can damage your house, you need to
know about six important flood characteristics: depth/elevation, flow
velocity, frequency, rate of rise and rate of fall, duration, and debris DEFINITION
load. Most of these characteristics apply to both riverine and ocean
flooding, and they can vary – sometimes greatly – from one place to An elevation datum, or
another. The flood conditions at a particular site, such as the location datum plane, is an ar-
of your house, are determined largely by the combination of these bitrary surface that
characteristics. The following paragraphs explain these characteristics. serves as a common ref-
The section Federal, State and Local Regulations, which you’ll find erence for the elevations
later in this chapter, and Chapter 4 explain how you can find out about of points above or below
the flood conditions at your house. it. Elevations are ex-
pressed in terms of feet,
meters, or other units of
Depth/Elevation of Flooding measure and are identi-
The depth and elevation of flooding are so closely related that they fied as negative or
can be viewed as a single characteristic for the purposes of this positive depending on
discussion. Flood depth is the height of the flood water above the whether they are above
surface of the ground or other feature at a specific point. Flood or below the datum
elevation is the height of the flood water above an established plane. Three common
reference datum. The standard datums used by most Federal elevation datums are
agencies and many State and local agencies are the National Mean Sea Level (MSL),
Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD) and the North American Vertical NGVD, and NAVD.
Datum (NAVD); however, other datums are in use. The use of other
datums is important because elevations of the ground, flood waters,
DEFINITION
and other features cannot be meaningfully compared with one another
unless they are based on the same datum. Under the National
Flood Insurance Pro-
When the elevation of the ground (or another surface such as the gram, the lowest floor
lowest floor of your house) and the elevation of the flood water are of a building is the floor
both based on the same datum, the flood depth at any point is equal to of the lowest enclosed
the flood elevation at that point minus the elevation of the ground (or area within the building,
other surface) at that point. Figure 2-6 illustrates this relationship. One including the basement.
more thing you should know: ground elevations are established by The only exception is an
surveys; flood elevations may be calculated or they may be known enclosed area below an
from water marks left by past floods. elevated building, but
only when the enclosed
area is used solely for
parking, storage, or
building access. The el-
evation of the lowest
floor can be very impor-
tant in retrofitting, as you
will see in later chapters.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 11

 CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-6
In this example, the 100-
year flood elevation is
391.6 feet (10.1 feet

,,,,,
above the benchmark

,,,,,
elevation of 381.5 feet),
and the elevation of the
lowest floor of the
house is 389.3 feet (7.8
feet above the same
benchmark). The flood
depth above the lowest
floor is therefore equal
to 391.6 feet - 389.3 feet,
or 2.3 feet during the
100-year flood.
The depth of flooding at your house is important primarily because
flood waters, even when they are not moving, exert pressure on
structural components such as walls and concrete floor slabs. The
pressure exerted by still water is called “hydrostatic pressure.” It is
caused by the weight of the water, so it increases as the depth of the
water increases. As shown in Figure 2-7, flood water, including water
that has saturated the soil under the house, pushes in on walls and up
on floors. The upward force on floors is called “buoyancy.”

As shown in Figure 2-7b, water that has saturated the soil poses a
special hazard for basement walls. Because hydrostatic pressure
increases with the depth of the water, the pressure on basement walls is
greater than the pressure on the walls of the upper floor, as indicated by
the arrows in the figure. This pressure is made even greater by the
weight of the saturated soil that surrounds the basement.

Figure 2-7
Hydrostatic pressure
acts on walls and
concrete slab floors.
The weight of saturated
soils adds to the
pressure on basement
walls. Figure 2-7a
shows a house with a
concrete slab floor.
Figure 2-7b shows a
house with a basement.

12 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 INTRODUCTION TO RETROFITTING CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-8
The walls of this
The walls of houses built basement in North
according to standard Dakota failed because
construction practice are not of the pressure exerted
designed to resist this pressure. by water and saturated
Once the pressure exceeds the soil.
strength of the walls (including
basement walls), it can push
them in (see Figure 2-8), cause
extensive structural damage, and
possibly cause the house to
collapse. In some areas, the
buoyant force of hydrostatic
pressure on basement floors has
pushed entire houses out of the
ground.

Note that in the preceding illustration of hydrostatic pressure, no

water is shown inside the house. If water is allowed to enter, the
hydrostatic pressures on both sides of the walls and floor become the
same, or “equalized” (Figure 2-9), and the walls are much less likely
to fail. As discussed in Chapters 3, 5, and 6, this is an important
consideration in some types of retrofitting methods.

Figure 2-9
Once water enters the
house, hydrostatic
pressure is equalized.
Figure 2-9a shows a
house with a concrete
slab floor. Figure 2-9b
shows a house with a
basement.

Flow Velocity
Flow velocity is the speed at which flood waters move. It is usually
measured in feet per second, abbreviated as “fps.” Flow velocities
during riverine floods can easily reach 5 to 10 fps, and in some
situations may be even greater. Expressing velocities in fps is common
in floodplain studies and engineering analyses. Here, it may be helpful
to relate fps to a more familiar unit of measure. For example, 10 fps is
roughly equal to 7 miles per hour.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 13

 CHAPTER 2

The velocity of riverine flood waters depends on a number of factors;

one of the most important is the slope of the stream channel and
floodplain. As you might expect, flood waters will generally move much
faster along streams in steep mountainous areas than streams in flatter
areas. Even within the same floodplain, however, flow velocity can still
vary. As water flows over the ground, its velocity depends largely on
the roughness of the ground surface. For example, water will flow
more swiftly over parking lots, roads, and other paved surfaces and
will flow more slowly over ground covered with large rocks, trees,
dense vegetation, or other obstacles. Also, flow velocities in the
floodplain will usually be higher nearer the stream channel than at the
outermost fringes of the floodplain, where water may flow very slowly
or not at all. In areas subject to ocean flooding, velocities depend
largely on the speed of the wind and, like riverine flow velocities, on
the slope and roughness of the ground surface.

If your house is in an area where flood waters are flowing, especially if

they are moving more than about 5 fps, the flow velocity is important
for several reasons. Flowing water pushes harder on the walls of a
building than still water. So instead of just the hydrostatic pressure
caused by the weight of the flood water resting against the walls of
your house, you have the additional pressure of moving water,
referred to as “hydrodynamic pressure” (Figure 2-10). As water flows
around your house, it pushes against the side of the house that faces
the flow (the upstream side). As it flows past the sides of the house, it
creates friction that can tear at wall coverings, such as siding. On the
side of the house that faces away from the flow (the downstream side)
the water creates a suction that pulls on walls.

Figure 2-10
Moving water acts on
the front, sides, and
back of a house.

In some situations, the combination of these forces can destroy one or

more walls (Figure 2-11), cause the house to shift on its foundation, or
even sweep the house away.

14 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 INTRODUCTION TO RETROFITTING CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-11
Moving water can
cause walls to
collapse, as illustrated
by this riverine flood
damage in Georgia.

Flowing water can also cause erosion and scour. As discussed

previously, erosion is the removal of soil that lowers the ground
surface across an area. Scour is the removal of soil around objects
that obstruct flow, such as foundation walls. Both erosion and scour
can weaken the structure of a house by removing supporting soil and
undermining the foundation. In general, the greater the flow velocity
and the larger the house, the greater the extent and depth of erosion
and scour. Also, keep in mind that any objects being carried by flood
waters will be moving at roughly the same speed as the water. The
dangers associated with these objects are discussed later, in the
section Debris Impact.

Flood Frequency
You may have been told that your house is in the 100-year floodplain,
or you may have heard that term used to describe a specific flood. You
may also have heard similar terms used, such as 50-year flood or 500-
year flood. These terms are occasionally used incorrectly and can be
misleading. Flood frequencies are usually determined through
statistical and engineering analyses performed by floodplain
management agencies and other organizations who need information
on which to base engineering designs and flood insurance rates. The

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 15

CHAPTER 2

results of those analyses define the probability, expressed as a

percentage, that a flood of a specific size on a specific stream will be
equaled or exceeded in any year.

For example, the flood that has a 1-percent probability (1 in 100) of

being equaled or exceeded in any year is referred to as the 100-year
flood. This term is simply a convenient way to express probability. It
should not be interpreted to mean a flood that happens exactly once
every 100 years. Nor does it imply that once a 100-year flood occurs,
there is little risk of another 100-year flood occurring in the near future.
To the contrary, changes in climatic conditions, such as those caused
by El Niño, often result in “clusters” of floods that occur over relatively
short times at the same location.

For most homeowners, the value of these terms is that they indicate
relative frequencies and sizes. On the average over a long period, a
100-year flood is expected to occur less often than a 50-year flood and
more often than a 500-year flood. At the same point along the same
flooding source, such as a river, ocean, or bay, a 100-year flood will be
more severe than a 50-year flood and less severe than a 500-year
flood. For example, if your house is in the 100-year floodplain of a
nearby stream or river, the 100-year flood elevation at your house will
probably be lower than the 500-year flood elevation, and the water
from a 50-year flood might not even reach your house.

The 100-year flood is particularly important for homeowners because it

is the basis of NFIP flood insurance rates and regulatory floodplain
management requirements. These requirements are discussed in
detail on pages 20 and 21. In the NFIP, the 100-year flood is referred
to as the “base flood,” the 100-year flood elevation as the “base flood
elevation” (BFE), and the floodplain associated with the base flood as
the Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA). Other Federal agencies, such
as the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, use the 100-year flood for
planning and engineering design, as do many State and local
agencies. These agencies often have their own names for the 100-
year flood.

Rate of Rise and Rate of Fall

You may not have heard these terms before, but they describe
important characteristics of flooding: how rapidly the elevation (and
therefore the depth) of water increases and decreases during a flood.
These rates are usually expressed in terms of feet or inches per hour.
Flood waters with high flow velocities, such as those in areas of steep

16 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 INTRODUCTION TO RETROFITTING CHAPTER 2

terrain, and water released by the failure of a dam or levee, usually

rise and fall more rapidly than slower-moving floodwaters, such as
those in more gently sloping floodplains.

Rate of rise is important because it affects how much warning you will
have of an impending flood. For example, homeowners in the
floodplains of large rivers like the Mississippi and Missouri may know
days in advance that flooding is occurring upstream and will eventually
reach their houses. But in the floodplains of streams with high rates of
rise, homeowners may have only a few hours’ notice of a coming flood
or perhaps none at all. With adequate warning, you will be better
prepared to take steps to protect yourself and your property. If the
flood protection method you choose for your house depends partly on
action you must take each time flooding threatens, warning time will
be especially important. Chapters 3, 4, 6, and 7 discuss this issue
further.

Rate of rise and rate of fall are important also because of their effect
on hydrostatic pressure. As explained in the discussion of flood depth/
elevation, hydrostatic pressure is most dangerous for a house when
the internal and external pressures are not equalized. This situation
occurs when the level of water inside the house is significantly higher
or lower than the level outside. When flood waters rise rapidly, water
may not be able to flow into a house quickly enough for the level in the
house to rise as rapidly as the level outside. Conversely, when flood
waters fall rapidly, water that has filled a house may not be able to flow
out quickly enough, and the level inside will be higher than the level
outside. In either situation, the unequalized hydrostatic pressures can
cause serious structural damage, possibly to the extent where the
house collapses.

Duration
Duration is how long a flood lasts. One of the meanings of duration is
how long is takes for the creek, river, bay, or ocean to return to its
normal level. As a homeowner, you may be more interested in how
long flood waters remain in or around your house or perhaps how long
they block nearby streets. In many floodplains, duration is related to
rate of rise and rate of fall. Generally, water that rises and falls rapidly
will recede more rapidly, and water that rises and falls slowly will
recede more slowly. An example of this relationship is the extensive
flooding that occurred in the broad, flat floodplains of the Midwest in
1993. In those areas, floodwaters rose slowly and remained high for
many weeks or longer.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 17

CHAPTER 2

If your house is flooded, duration is important because it determines

how long the structural members (such as the foundation, floor joists,
and wall studs), interior finishes (such as drywall and paneling),
service equipment (such as furnaces and hot water heaters), and
building contents will be affected by flood waters. Long periods of
inundation are more likely to cause damage than short periods.
Duration can also determine how long your house remains
uninhabitable.

Debris Impact
Flood waters can pick up and carry objects of all types – from small to
large, from light to heavy – including trees, portions of flood-damaged
buildings, automobiles, boats, storage tanks, mobile homes, and even
entire houses. In cold climates, wintertime floods can also carry large
pieces of ice. Dirt and other substances such as oil, gasoline, sewage,
and various chemicals can also be carried by flood waters. All of these
types of debris add to the dangers of flooding. Even when flow velocity
is relatively low, large objects carried by flood waters can easily damage
windows, doors, walls, and, more importantly, critical structural
components of your house. As velocity increases, so does the danger of
greater damage from debris. If flood waters carrying large amounts of
dirt or hazardous substances enter your house, your cleanup costs are
likely to be higher and your cleanup time greater.

As you read the remaining sections of this guide, keep these six flood
characteristics and their effects in mind. The section titled Federal,
State, and Local Regulations and Chapter 4 explain how you can find
out more about flooding in your area, including flood elevations near
your house.

Other Hazards
Two more hazards you should be aware of are high winds (including
hurricanes) and earthquakes. For houses in areas subject to these
hazards, some retrofitting methods are more appropriate than others.
Chapters 3, 4, and 5 discuss this issue further. But regardless of the
method you choose, if your house is in a high-wind or earthquake
hazard area, your contractor or design professional must ensure that
all structural changes made can withstand not only the expected flood
forces but the expected forces of winds or earthquakes as well.

Wind is similar to flowing water in that it pushes against the side of the
house that faces the wind and pulls on the side that faces away (Figure 2-
12). Wind passing over a house can exert a lifting force on the house.

18 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 INTRODUCTION TO RETROFITTING CHAPTER 2

The combination of push, pull, and lift acts on the entire house, including
the foundation, and can result in extensive damage if the structural
system and building envelope are not adequately designed and
constructed.
DEFINITION
The ability of the wind to damage a building is increased if the wind or The building envelope
windborne debris breach the building envelope by breaking windows, is the entire exterior sur-
collapsing doors, or puncturing walls. Once the envelope is breached, face of the building —
wind will enter the building and the pressure on the walls and roof will including walls, doors,
increase, as shown in Figure 2-12. Wind and flood forces can combine and windows – which
in different ways, depending on the directions of the wind and flood encloses or envelopes
flow. When the wind and flood flow direction are the same, the load on the space within.

Figure 2-12
Wind forces on sealed
building and building
with opening.

,, ,,,, ,, ,,,,
,, ,,,, ,, ,,,,
the house is greater than the load from either wind or flood alone.

The movement of the ground during an earthquake can place large

horizontal and vertical loads on a house (Figure 2-13). Like the loads
that result from flood flow and wind, earthquake loads can cause
extensive damage to a house if they have not been accounted for in
the structural design.

High-wind and earthquake hazards vary throughout the United

Figure 2-13
Earthquake forces
act in both
horizontal and

,,,,,,,,,,
vertical directions.

,,,,,,,,,,
HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 19
 CHAPTER 2

States. In Chapter 4, you will find maps that show the areas where
these hazards are greatest.

DEFINITION Federal, State, and Local Regulations

Under the NFIP, dam- In most communities throughout the United States, construction in
age to a building, floodplains is governed by combinations of Federal, State, and local
regardless of the cause, regulations. At the Federal level, the Federal Emergency Management
is considered substan- Agency (FEMA) administers the NFIP. Congress created the NFIP in
tial damage if the cost 1968 when it passed the National Flood Insurance Act. The NFIP is a
of restoring the building voluntary program whose goal is to reduce the loss of life and the
to its before-damage damage caused by flooding, to help the victims of floods, and to lower
condition would equal the costs of flood damage borne by the taxpayer. It does this by
or exceed 50 percent of • guiding future development away from flood hazard areas,
the market value of the
• requiring that new buildings, substantially improved buildings,
structure before the
and repaired substantially damaged buildings in the SFHA be
damage occurred.
constructed in compliance with floodplain management
Similarly, an improve- ordinances and laws intended to reduce flood damage,
ment of a building (such • providing floodplain residents with financial assistance after
as reconstruction, reha- floods, and
bilitation, or an addition)
• transferring the cost of flood losses from the taxpayer to the
is considered a sub-
owners of floodprone buildings by requiring the purchase of flood
stantial improvement
insurance for buildings in the SFHA.
if its cost equals or ex-
ceeds 50 percent of the The NFIP operates through a partnership between the Federal
market value of the Government, the states, and individual communities such as counties
building before the start and incorporated cities, towns, and villages. Participation in the NFIP
of construction of the is voluntary. In a participating community, affordable federally backed
improvement. flood insurance is made available to property owners and renters. In
return, the community adopts and enforces a floodplain management
For more information, ordinance or law, which it uses to define a regulatory floodplain and
consult your local offi- then control development within that floodplain, including new
cials or refer to the construction, substantial improvement of existing buildings, and repair
FEMA publication An- of substantially damaged buildings.
swers to Questions
about Substantially A participating community’s floodplain management ordinance or law
Damaged Buildings, must, at a minimum, meet the requirements of the NFIP regulations,
FEMA 213. but each community is free to establish additional or more stringent
requirements as it sees fit. For example, the regulatory floodplain defined
by a community must include the entire SFHA, but it may also include
other flood hazard areas within the community. Additionally, some states
require communities to adopt and enforce floodplain management
requirements that exceed the minimum requirements of the NFIP.

20 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 INTRODUCTION TO RETROFITTING CHAPTER 2

These points are particularly important because of their potential effect

on your retrofitting project. In this guide, you will find many references
to requirements imposed by your community’s floodplain management
ordinance or law. These are the minimum requirements that all
DEFINITION
communities must adopt and enforce in their floodplain management
ordinances or laws to be compliant with the NFIP regulations. The NFIP regulations
Remember that you must comply with your community’s requirements, do not prohibit develop-
which may be more stringent. ment in the SFHA.
Instead, they require
Usually, communities enforce other requirements that affect that residential buildings
construction, both inside and outside of the regulatory floodplain. in the SFHA be elevated
These requirements include those associated with building codes and to or above the BFE.
land use regulations, such as zoning and subdivision ordinances. But floodplain develop-
ment can reduce the
To provide communities with the information they need to enact and amount of space avail-
enforce floodplain management ordinances or laws, FEMA conducts able to convey flood
floodplain studies for communities throughout the United States and waters and increase
publishes the results in Flood Insurance Studies (FISs) and Flood flood elevations. So this
Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs) (Figure 2-14). The FIS and FIRM for development must be
your community provide information about the names and locations of controlled. The flood-
flooding sources, sizes and frequencies of past floods, limits of the way is the regulatory
SFHA and floodway, flood flow velocities, and elevations of the base means of providing the
flood throughout the SFHA. With this information, communities can required control.
manage floodplain development and FEMA’s Federal Insurance
Administration can establish accurate flood insurance rates. The floodway is the por-
tion of the SFHA that
Other Federal agencies, such as the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, must be kept free of
U. S. Geological Survey, and Natural Resources Conservation Service new development so
(formerly U. S. Soil Conservation Service), also publish flood that flood elevations will
information, as do some State and local agencies. This information is not increase. The flood-
often useful as a supplement to FISs and FIRMs, but because it is way usually consists of
developed to meet other needs, it is not used for the NFIP unless it the stream channel and
has been reviewed and approved by FEMA. land along either side.
The flood hazard is usu-
If you have questions about flood hazards in your community, ally greater in the
including the limits of the regulatory floodplain, flood elevations, or floodway than in the
sizes and frequencies of past floods, check with your local officials. surrounding areas of
Usually, they will have copies of the FIS and FIRM for your the SFHA, referred to as
community. They can also help you determine whether your house is the “flood fringe.”
in the regulatory floodplain and advise you about flood protection
methods, including those described in this guide. Local officials can
also advise you about floodplain management requirements, building
codes, and other requirements that may determine the types of
changes you can make to your house. See Chapter 4 for more

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 21

 CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-14
This portion of a FIRM
shows the SFHA (dark
tint), 500-year
floodplain (light tint),
floodway (hash-marked
area between the
dashed lines), BFEs
(numbered wavy lines
and/or numbers in
parentheses), and the
insurance rate zones
(AE and A= SFHA, VE =
Coastal High Hazard
Area, and X = area
outside SFHA).

information about working with local officials. You can also get help
from your FEMA Regional Office (Appendix C) and the office of your
State NFIP Coordinator (Appendix D).

Financial Assistance for Retrofitting

Federal Programs
FEMA and other Federal agencies have a wide array of financial
assistance programs that help states, communities, and individual
property owners mitigate the negative effects of flood hazards. You may
be eligible to receive financial assistance through one or more of these
programs that will help pay for your retrofitting project. Check with your
local officials, your NFIP State Coordinator (Appendix D), or the FEMA
Regional Office for your state (Appendix C).

If a Presidential declaration of a Major Disaster has been issued for your

area, you may want to seek information from FEMA and the State and
local government representatives supporting the post-disaster recovery
of your community. Keep in mind, however, that the funding for these
programs is limited and that often not everyone’s needs can be met.
Also, most of these programs provide grants to State and local
governments, who must then set priorities for the use of the grant funds,
including any potential use by individual property owners.

22 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 INTRODUCTION TO RETROFITTING CHAPTER 2

Help from FEMA

Increased Cost of Compliance
One of the benefits provided by the NFIP is Increased Cost of
Compliance (ICC) coverage. If your house is covered by an NFIP
DEFINITION
Standard Flood Insurance Policy (SFIP) and has been declared by
your community to be substantially damaged by a flood, ICC coverage Remember, under the
may help pay for some types of retrofitting. ICC coverage applies to NFIP, the lowest floor
most SFIPs issued or renewed after June 1, 1997. of a building is the floor
of the lowest enclosed
As noted earlier, your community’s floodplain management ordinance area within the building,
or law includes requirements concerning construction in your including the basement.
community’s regulatory floodplain. These requirements apply not only The only exception is an
to new buildings, but also to existing buildings that have been enclosed area below an
substantially damaged or that are being substantially improved. If your elevated building, but
house falls into one of the latter two categories, you will be required to only when the enclosed
do one of the following: area is used solely for
parking, storage, or
• Elevate your house so that its lowest floor is at or above the building access.
BFE. (See Chapters 3 and 5.)
• Move your house out of the regulatory floodplain. (See Chapters
3 and 7.)
• Wet floodproof the part of your house that is below the BFE. (This DEFINITION
alternative is allowed only if the part of your house that is below
The NFIP regulations
the BFE is used solely for parking, storage, and building access
define a basement as
and is not a basement as defined by the NFIP. (See Chapters 3
“any area of the build-
and 6.)
ing having its floor
Remember, communities with more restrictive floodplain management subgrade on all sides.”
ordinances or laws, may require a greater level of protection. Note that the NFIP defi-
nition of basement does
Although the substantial damage/substantial improvement requirement not include what is typi-
helps protect lives and property, it has at times placed an additional cally referred to as a
burden on property owners who were trying to repair their damaged “walkout-on-grade”
houses. Under the original terms and conditions of the SFIP, the owner basement, whose floor
of a substantially damaged house was reimbursed for the costs of would be at or above
repairing the damage but not for the costs of complying with State and the surface of the
local requirements concerning substantially damaged structures. For ground that touches the
example, the homeowner would not have been reimbursed for the cost outside walls of the
of elevating the house, even though elevating was required by State or building on at least one
local ordinances or laws. side (see page 29). This
ground surface is
In 1997, to provide relief for the owners of houses substantially referred to as the “adja-
damaged by flooding, Congress authorized the inclusion of ICC cent grade.”

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 23

CHAPTER 2

coverage in the SFIP. With this change in effect, the SFIP reimburses
homeowners not only for the cost of repairing flood damage but also
for the additional cost, up to a maximum amount stated in the SFIP, of
meeting certain State and local floodplain management requirements
concerning substantial damage and repetitive losses.

To learn more about ICC coverage, review your SFIP and contact your
insurance agent, the FEMA Regional Office that serves your
community (Appendix C), or the office of your NFIP State Coordinator
(Appendix D). If a Presidential declaration of Major Disaster has been
issued for your area, you can get help from the local Disaster Field
Office (DFO).

Hazard Mitigation Grant Program

FEMA’s Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP) provides grants to
states for their use in conducting mitigation activities following a
Presidential declaration of a Major Disaster. HMGP grants are awarded
through a cost-sharing arrangement in which the Federal government
provides a grant of up to 75 percent of eligible project costs. Therefore,
a non-Federal contribution of at least 25 percent is required.

The amount of the total HMGP grant funds available after a Major
Disaster is determined by the amount of damage caused by the
disaster. A state receives the HMGP grant from FEMA and can then
provide some or all of the grant funds to communities. Communities
may in turn provide grant funds to individual homeowners for hazard
mitigation retrofitting projects (including elevating houses) or use them
to acquire badly damaged floodprone houses. HMGP grants may be
made only for projects that have been determined to be cost-effective.
States and communities often require individual property owners to
provide all or part of the non-Federal contribution as a condition of
receiving HMGP funds. In these instances, ICC funds (see preceding
section) from a flood insurance claim may be applied towards the non-
Federal contribution.

Flood Mitigation Assistance Program

FEMA’s Flood Mitigation Assistance Program (FMAP) provides
grants to states and communities that participate and are in good
standing in the NFIP. FMAP grants are awarded annually; their
availability is not linked to an area being affected by a disaster or
flood. FMAP grants are available for both flood mitigation projects
(including elevating floodprone houses and acquiring badly damaged
floodprone houses) and the development of state- and community-
based flood mitigation plans. Each state and community must have a

24 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 INTRODUCTION TO RETROFITTING CHAPTER 2

FEMA-approved flood hazard mitigation plan in place prior to

receiving an FMAP project grant. These plans establish priorities for
mitigation projects in the states and communities.

FMAP grants are awarded through a cost-sharing arrangement in

which the Federal government provides a grant of up to 75 percent of
eligible project costs. Therefore, a non-Federal contribution of at least
25 percent is required. FMAP funds are limited; the annual demand
often exceeds the amount available. Also, there are limitations on the
amount of grant funds that may be awarded in a given state or
community. FMAP grants may only be made for projects that have
been determined to be cost-effective.

States and communities often require individual property owners to

provide all or part of the non-Federal contribution as a condition of
receiving FMAP funds. In these instances, ICC funds from a flood
insurance claim may be applied towards the non-Federal contribution. NOTE
This section is not
Help from Other Federal Agencies meant to be an all-inclu-
Small Business Administration (SBA) sive description of
In areas declared a Major Disaster Area by the President, the SBA Federal assistance. Fol-
provides low-interest disaster assistance loans to individuals for both lowing a Presidentially
businesses and private residences. These loans cover the cost of declared Major Disas-
rebuilding a damaged building, including the cost of bringing the ter, State and local
building into compliance with applicable ordinances and laws. The officials will be briefed
loans can pay for retrofitting of substantially damaged buildings on the available types of
required by ordinances or laws (including elevating floodprone houses post-disaster assis-
and rebuilding badly damaged floodprone houses at an alternative tance.
location), as well as some mitigation projects that are not required by
ordinances or laws. At the applicant’s request, the amount of the loan
may be increased by up to 20 percent for hazard mitigation measures
not required by the community’s ordinances or laws.

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)

In an area declared a Major Disaster Area by the President, HUD may
provide additional, or allow for the reprogramming of existing,
Community Development Block Grants. If a community wishes, these
grants may be used for retrofitting substantially damaged houses or
substandard housing (including elevating floodprone houses and
acquiring badly damaged floodprone houses).

U. S. Army Corps of Engineers

The Corps has the statutory authority to participate in flood protection
projects that may include residential retrofitting (including elevating

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 25

CHAPTER 2

floodprone houses and acquiring badly damaged floodprone houses).

Contact the appropriate Corps Division office for further information.
You can find the address and telephone number in the blue pages
(government listings) in your telephone directory.

Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS),

U. S. Department of Agriculture
The NRCS has the statutory authority to participate in small watershed
flood protection projects that may include residential retrofitting.
Contact your local Conservationist for further information. You can find
the address and telephone number in the blue pages (government
listings) in your telephone directory.

Other Assistance Programs

Other Federal programs intended to protect and improve the
environmental quality of floodplains may offer financial assistance.

Non-Federal Help
Programs Sponsored by State and Local Governments
States, local governments, and flood control and drainage districts
sometimes develop financial assistance programs to promote flood
hazard retrofitting projects. Ask your local officials whether such a
program exists in your community.

Voluntary Organizations
After floods and other major disasters, voluntary organizations often
offer their services to support the rebuilding of houses. Donated
materials and labor sometimes become available that could be used to
reduce the cost of a retrofitting project. Check with local officials, local
service organizations, and houses of worship for information about
such services.

Environmental Interest Organizations, Including Land Trusts

and Nature Conservancies
Numerous non-government, non-profit, and quasi-public organizations
are dedicated to enhancing the environmental benefits of floodplains.
Sometimes these organizations provide funds that can be used in the
restoration or protection of the natural beneficial value of the
floodplain.

26 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 CHAPTER 3

An Overview of the
Retrofitting Methods
Introduction
This guide describes six retrofitting methods that you should consider as you think
about how to protect your house from flooding:

ELEVATION – Raising your house so that

the lowest floor is above the flood level.
You can do this in one of four ways.

WET FLOODPROOFING – Making uninhabited portions of your house resistant to

flood damage and allowing water to enter during flooding.

RELOCATION – Moving your house out of the floodplain to higher ground where
it will not be exposed to flooding.

DRY FLOODPROOFING – Sealing your house to prevent flood waters

from entering.

LEVEES AND FLOODWALLS – Building a floodwall or levee around your house

to hold back flood water.

DEMOLITION– Tearing down your damaged house and either rebuilding properly on
the same property or buying or building a house elsewhere.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 27

 CHAPTER 3

This chapter describes the six methods in detail. For each method, you
will find a section that explains how the method works and where it should
and should not be used, lists its advantages and disadvantages, and
provides a cost estimate. But first, there are some general cautions about
retrofitting that you need to be aware of.

WARNING
In the areas listed below, the hazards to lives and property are
usually greater than in other floodprone areas:
• Coastal High Hazard Areas (insurance Zone V, VE, and V1-V30)
shown on a Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM) (See Figure 2-14.)
• floodways shown on a FIRM (See Figure 2-14.)
• alluvial fan flood hazard areas (Zone AO with depths and
velocities) shown on a FIRM
• areas subject to flash floods
• areas subject to ice flows
• areas subject to extremely high-velocity flood flows
Modifying a house to protect it from flood damage in these areas
requires extreme care and may also require complex, engineered
designs. If your house is in one of these areas, you should consider
relocation or demolition (as described later in this chapter and in
Chapter 7) rather than any of the other retrofitting methods discussed
in this guide. If you have any doubt about whether your house is in an
area of unusually severe hazard, consult your local officials.

Cautions
Substantial Damage/Substantial Improvement
As noted in Chapter 2, your community’s floodplain management
NOTE ordinance or law includes restrictions on the types of changes that may
Substantial damage be made to a house that has sustained substantial damage or that is
and substantial im- undergoing substantial improvement. These restrictions prohibit or
provement are de- limit the use of some retrofitting measures. Two of the six methods
fined on page 20 and described in this guide – dry floodproofing and levees/floodwalls – may
in Appendix B. not be used to bring a substantially damaged or substantially improved
house into compliance with your community’s floodplain management

28 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

ordinance or law. Instead, in accordance, with your community’s

requirements, you must do one of the following:

• Move the house out of the regulatory floodplain.

DEFINITION
• Elevate the house so that its lowest floor is at or above the Base
Walkout-on-grade is
Flood Elevation (BFE).
a term commonly used
• Wet floodproof the areas of the house below the BFE and use them to describe a base-
only for parking, storage, and building access. ment whose floor is at
• Demolish the house and either rebuild properly or buy a house ground level on at least
elsewhere. one side of a house.
The term “walkout” is
Additional restrictions apply to the use of wet floodproofing. These are used because most
described later in this chapter and in Chapter 6. basements of this type
have an outside door
Another important floodplain management requirement concerns or doors (entry door,
basements. If your house has a basement and your local officials garage door, or both)
determine that your house is substantially damaged or is being at ground level (see
substantially improved, the basement must be eliminated. You can figure). Note that a
usually do this by filling it with dirt. For floodplain management basement whose floor
purposes, the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) regulations is below grade on all
define a basement as “any area of the building having its floor subgrade sides (a basement as
on all sides.” Your community’s floodplain management ordinance or law defined by the NFIP
may include a more restrictive definition of basement. regulations) may still
have an outside door,
Note that the NFIP definition of “basement” does not include what is but the door will be be-
typically referred to as a “walkout-on-grade” basement, whose floor low ground level and
would be at or above adjacent grade on at least one side of the building. stairs will be required
Depending on your community’s floodplain management ordinance or for access.
law, the requirement to eliminate the basement in a substantially
damaged or substantially improved house may not apply to a walkout-on-
grade basement. Instead, you may be able to wet floodproof the
basement. However, a wet floodproofed walkout-on-grade basement may
be used only for parking, storage, or building access.

Your local officials can tell you more about these restrictions and others that
may be specified by local building codes and ordinances (see Chapter 4).

Flood Protection Elevation and Risk

When you retrofit your house, one of the most important things you will do is
choose a level of flood protection. In other words, will you protect your house
from the base flood, the 500-year flood, or some other flood? In some
instances, this decision will be entirely yours; in others, it will depend largely
on the regulatory requirements of your community, your state, or both.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 29

CHAPTER 3

As you will see in this chapter, different retrofitting methods protect your
house in different ways. For example, when you elevate your house, you
protect it by raising its lowest floor to a specified elevation. In wet
floodproofing and dry floodproofing, you use flood-resistant materials,
sealants, and shields to protect the part of your house below a specified
elevation. When you protect your house with a levee or floodwall, the top
of the levee or floodwall must be at a specified elevation. In each of these
examples, the specified elevation is referred to as the Flood Protection
Elevation (FPE). If flood waters rise above the FPE, your protection is
either greatly diminished or eliminated.

If your house has been substantially damaged or is being substantially

improved, your community’s floodplain management ordinance or law will
require an FPE that is at least equal to the BFE (the elevation of the 100-
year flood). Communities may require a higher FPE if they wish, or they
may be required to do so by State law. Some states and communities
require a higher FPE by establishing freeboard requirements, as
discussed in the next section. Also, even if substantial damage and
substantial improvement provisions do not apply to your house, your
community may still enforce regulatory requirements that would affect
your choice of an FPE. Your local officials can advise you about this.

Keep in mind that community requirements are usually minimums.

Although you cannot use an FPE lower than that required by your
community, you are probably free to use a higher FPE if you wish to
provide a greater level of flood protection. You may find that your
community’s floodplain management ordinance or law does not apply to
your retrofitting project, in which case you may choose any FPE you wish.
In either situation, your choice will be based largely on cost and risk.

In general you will find that the cost of retrofitting increases as your FPE
increases. For example, protecting your house to the elevation of the 50-
year flood with one of the methods described in this guide will probably
cost you less than protecting it to the BFE with the same method.
Although using a lower FPE may result in a less expensive retrofitting
project, it exposes your house to a greater risk of flood damage. So in
choosing an FPE, you must consider not only how much you are willing to
pay, but also the level of risk you are willing to accept, including the
potential for damage, financial loss, and emotional distress.

One way to see the relationship between FPE and risk is to look at the
probabilities associated with floods of various magnitudes during a period
of 30 years, the length of a standard mortgage (see graph at left). The
percentages shown along the vertical scale of the graph are the

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 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

probabilities that a flood will be equaled or exceeded during a 30-year

period. As you can see, this probability decreases as the magnitude of the
flood increases. So the probability of a flood with an elevation equal to or
greater than the FPE you choose decreases as your FPE increases. For
example, compare the risks associated with the 50-year flood and the
base flood. If you choose an FPE equal to the elevation of the 50-year
flood, the probability that a flood as high or higher than your FPE will
occur during a 30-year period is 45 percent. But if you choose an FPE
equal to the BFE, the probability drops to 26 percent.

Regardless of the FPE you choose or are required to use, you must
realize that a larger flood is always possible and that there will always be
some risk of damage. If you don’t have flood insurance, you should
purchase a policy; if you have flood insurance, you should maintain your
policy, even if you have protected your house to or above the BFE. Once
a house has been retrofitted to meet the NFIP requirements for
substantially improved structures, it will probably be eligible for a
significantly lower flood insurance rate.

Freeboard
Freeboard is an additional amount of height included in the FPE to provide
a factor of safety. If you are protecting your house by elevating it, wet
floodproofing it, dry floodproofing it, or building a levee or floodwall, you
should include a minimum of 1 foot of freeboard in your FPE, even if your
community does not require you to do so. For example, if you are elevating
your house to protect it from the base flood, your FPE should be equal to
the BFE plus 1 foot.

Freeboard is needed because of uncertainties regarding expected flood

elevations. These uncertainties exist for several reasons, but the two
primary reasons are limitations of the analytical methods used in DEFINITION
floodplain studies and potential effects of future watershed development, The watershed of a
such as the construction of buildings and roads. stream is the geo-
graphic area that
FEMA and all other agencies that perform floodplain studies use a variety of contributes surface
standard engineering methodologies to determine flood frequencies and water, from rain or
flood elevations. These methods involve the use of historical data, field melting snow, to that
measurements, and assumptions and judgments, all of which can affect the stream.
accuracy of the results. Some amount of uncertainty regarding the results is
therefore unavoidable, and the potential for flood elevations higher than
those expected should always be accounted for in retrofitting.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 31

 CHAPTER 3

Development in a watershed can increase the size and frequency of

floods in that watershed. In general, watershed development reduces the
amount of open ground available to absorb water from rain and melting
snow and therefore increases the amount of water that makes its way into
streams. As a result, in a developing watershed, an amount of rainfall that
might have caused minor floods in the past may cause larger floods, and
higher elevations, in the future.

FEMA’s floodplain studies are based on the watershed conditions existing at

the time the studies are performed. They do not account for potential
increases in watershed development or any other changes that might affect
the sizes of future floods. The reason for this approach is that one of the
primary purposes of Flood Insurance Studies (FISs) and FIRMs is to provide
the technical basis for an insurance rate structure. Therefore, the flood
hazards must be shown as they are, not as they might be. Also, attempting
to predict the level of future watershed development in every study and
determine the effects not only would be extremely difficult but also would
require additional assumptions and judgments that could increase
uncertainty. In many watersheds, however, some amount of development
is inevitable. So, providing freeboard is a prudent means of protecting
against the increased flood elevations that may result.

DEFINITION Human Intervention

Human intervention Retrofitting methods fall into two general categories: those that depend on
is any action that a per- human intervention, which are referred to as “active” methods, and
son must take to those that do not, which are referred to as “passive” methods. For
enable a flood protec- example, a continuous floodwall around your house does not require
tion measure to func- human intervention. But what if you have to include an opening for your
tion as intended. This car? A floodwall with an opening will protect your house only if you can
action must be taken close the opening before flooding occurs. So your floodwall will have to be
every time flooding fitted with a gate (or some other type of closure mechanism), and every
threatens. time flooding threatens, you will have to be warned far enough in advance
that you can close the gate in time.

The need for adequate warning time and human intervention makes
active methods less reliable than passive methods. So you should try to
avoid active methods when you choose a retrofitting method for your
WARNING house. If your retrofitting project includes active methods, you must have
Some communities a plan that describes what actions you will take to make the measures
may restrict or prohibit work properly and when you will take those actions.
the use of active retro-
fitting methods for
flood protection.

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Other Considerations
Retrofitting methods that are properly designed and applied have several
advantages over other types of damage reduction methods. Individual
homeowners can undertake retrofitting projects on their own – they do
not have to wait for, or depend on, government-sponsored flood control
projects. Retrofitting also may be the best means of protection for a
homeowner whose house is in an area where a large flood control
project, such as a dam, levee, or major waterway improvement, is not
feasible, warranted, or appropriate. But you should keep the following in
mind whenever you consider a retrofitting project:
• Communities participating in the NFIP require permits for all
development within the regulatory floodplain. Under your
community’s floodplain ordinance or law, any manmade changes to
buildings and other structures are considered “development.” These
changes include improvements and repairs of existing buildings and
other structures. Also, communities usually require building permits
for many of the activities associated with the retrofitting methods
described in this guide. In communities that have adopted a
floodplain ordinance or law, health code, and building code, the
permits required by these ordinances, laws, and codes may be
issued separately or as one combined permit. You may need a
permit for the following:
1. Modifying your existing house or building a new house on a
flood-free site. Even if your community does not require a
building permit, it may require something similar, such as a
special permit to regulate floodplain development.
2. Moving a house on public rights-of-way. If you relocate your
house, you will probably need such a permit, not only from
your community but also from your state and from any other
communities and states the house will pass through on its
way to the new site.
3. Demolishing a damaged house and restoring the site after
demolition, including grading, planting vegetative cover,
capping and abandoning utilities, and removing or securing
underground septic and fuel storage tanks.
You may wish to obtain the permits necessary for your retrofitting
project yourself or arrange for your retrofitting contractor or design
professional to obtain them. But remember, you must have the
necessary permits in hand before you begin your project. As
discussed in Chapter 4, your local officials are the best source of
information about State and local permit requirements.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 33

CHAPTER 3

• In addition to meeting the requirements of the NFIP and local codes

and floodplain management ordinances, you must comply with the
requirements of all other applicable codes, ordinances, and
regulations, such as those dealing with building setbacks and
wetlands. Again, your local officials are the best source of
information about these requirements.
• If your retrofitting project will involve financial assistance from a
Federal agency and your property is 50 years old or older, you must
work with that agency to ensure that your project complies with the
National Historic Preservation Act (16 U.S.C. 470). The act requires
that before releasing any Federal assistance, the agency determine
whether the property is eligible for inclusion in the National Register
of Historic Places and if so, whether your project will have any effect
on the property. This requirement may not apply in some emergency
situations or if the agency has made prior arrangements with historic
preservation officials. For more information, contact your State
Historic Preservation Office (Appendix E).
• Most retrofitting measures should be designed and constructed by
experienced professionals such as contractors, engineers, and
architects. Using professionals helps you make sure that the work is
done properly, that code and regulatory requirements are met, and
that once completed, the retrofitting measures will work properly.
• Most retrofitting measures cannot be simply installed and forgotten.
You will need to periodically inspect and maintain them to be sure
that they will continue to work over time, especially if they require
human intervention.
• Even though retrofitting will help protect your house from flooding, you
should never remain in your house during flooding. Stay informed
about flooding conditions by monitoring local radio and television
stations. You must be prepared to evacuate when necessary.
• Elevating your house properly may reduce your flood insurance rate.
Relocating a house to a site outside the regulatory floodplain
eliminates the flood insurance purchase requirement and
significantly reduces the cost of flood insurance for an owner who
wishes to purchase a policy. Buying flood insurance is strongly
recommended, even when it is not required.

Construction Terminology
In the remainder of this guide, you will find many references to common
types of house construction, such as frame or masonry, and common
types of house foundations, such as slab-on-grade or crawlspace. Even if

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 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

you are already familiar with these and other house construction terms,
take a minute to review the following information before you move to the
descriptions of the retrofitting methods.

Construction Type
The most common house construction types are as follows (see Figure 3-1):
frame – walls constructed of wood or light-gage metal studs, with wood,
vinyl, or aluminum siding
masonry veneer – frame walls with a non-structural, decorative, exterior
layer of brick, stone, or concrete block instead of siding
masonry – walls constructed of brick or concrete block
modular home – frame house assembled on-site from separate sections
manufactured elsewhere
manufactured home – prefabricated frame house constructed on a
transportable frame

Some houses consist of combinations of two or more of these

construction types.

Figure 3-1
Typical cross sections
of three common
construction types:
frame, masonry veneer,
and masonry. The
foundation shown here
for all three
construction types
consists of concrete

,,,,,,
,,
blocks and a concrete
,, footing. The same
construction types are
also found on basement

,,,,,
,, ,,
,,,
and slab-on-grade

,,,
,, ,, ,,
foundations (see next
section).

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 35

 CHAPTER 3

Foundation Type
Most houses of the construction types listed above are built on the
following types of foundations (see Figure 3-2):
basement – with masonry or cast-in-place concrete walls
DEFINITION
Concrete poured into crawlspace – with masonry or cast-in-place concrete walls
forms at the construc- slab-on-grade – either (1) a slab with a masonry or concrete foundation
tion site is referred to or (2) a thickened slab (see Figure 5-5 in Chapter 5)
as cast-in-place.
open foundation – usually concrete or masonry piers, but sometimes
wood, concrete, or metal posts, columns, or pilings
Some houses are built on more than one type of foundation. Various
combinations of basement, crawlspace, and slab-on-grade foundations
are common. Manufactured homes are occasionally installed on
basement or crawlspace foundations but are more often supported either
by stacks of concrete blocks or by foundation systems designed
specifically for manufactured homes.

Figure 3-2 House foundation types.

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 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

Retrofitting Methods and Costs

The following sections describe the retrofitting methods, explain how they
work and where they are appropriate, list their advantages and
disadvantages, and provide cost estimates. With this information, you will WARNING
be ready for Chapter 4, Deciding Which Method Is Right for Your House. The cost estimates in
this chapter are pro-
vided only as guide-
lines that can help you
choose a retrofitting
method. They are
based on 1998 national
averages that may
need to be adjusted for
Elevation (Chapter 5 ) local economic condi-
tions. Be sure to get a
Elevating a house to prevent flood waters from reaching living areas is an
complete, written cost
effective retrofitting method. The goal of the elevation process is to raise
estimate from your con-
the lowest floor to or above the FPE. You can do this by elevating the
tractor and design
entire house, including the floor, or by leaving the house in its existing
professional before you
position and constructing a new, elevated floor within the house. The
begin any retrofitting
method used depends largely on construction type, foundation type, and
project (see Chapter 4).
flooding conditions.

During the elevation process, most houses (including manufactured

homes) are separated from their foundations, raised on hydraulic jacks,
and held by temporary supports while a new or extended foundation is
constructed below. This method works well for houses originally built on
basement, crawlspace, and open foundations. As explained later in this
section, the new or extended foundation can consist of either continuous
walls or separate piers, posts, columns, or pilings.

A variation of this method is used for houses on slab-on-grade foundations.

In these houses, the slab forms both the foundation and the floor of the
house. Elevating these houses is easier if the house is left attached to the
slab foundation and both are lifted together. After the house and slab are
NOTE
lifted, a new foundation is constructed below the slab.
FEMA has produced a
Alternative techniques are available for masonry houses on slab-on-grade videotape entitled Best
foundations. As described later in this section, these techniques do not Build 3: Protecting a
require the lifting of the house. Instead, they involve raising the floor within Flood-Prone Home ,
the house or moving the living space to an upper story. which illustrates the
retrofitting methods de-
Although elevating a house can help protect it from flood waters, you scribed in this guide
need to consider other hazards before choosing this method. The walls (see Appendix A).

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 37

 CHAPTER 3

and roof of an elevated house may be more susceptible to wind forces

because they are higher and more exposed. Elevating the house also
causes it to become “top heavy” and therefore more susceptible to the
overturning forces of earthquakes. In addition, both continuous wall
foundations and open foundations can fail as a result of damage caused
by erosion and the impact of debris carried by flood waters. If portions of
the original foundation, such as the footings, are used to support new
DEFINITION walls or other foundation members, or a new second story, they must be
A footing is the base capable of safely carrying the additional loads imposed by the new
of a foundation. Foot- construction and the expected flood, wind, and earthquake forces.
ings are usually made
of concrete and may Elevating on Continuous Foundation Walls
be reinforced with steel
This method is normally used in flood hazard areas where the risks of
bars. Foundation walls
wave action and high-velocity flow are low. After the house is raised, the
are supported on con-
existing foundation is often saved and the existing foundation walls are
tinuous footings;
extended. The new portions of the walls are usually made of masonry
separate foundation
block or cast-in-place concrete. Although it may seem to be the easiest
members, such as
way to elevate a house, this method may involve some complications.
piers, are supported on
individual footings.
Depending on the size of your house, the amount of elevation, and the
magnitude of the potential environmental loads (such as those from
floods, wind, earthquakes, and snow), your contractor may have to modify
or reinforce the footings and foundation walls to ensure the structural
stability of the house. The original footings may have to be replaced with
larger footings. It may also be necessary to reinforce both the footings and
the foundation walls with steel bars.

As explained in Chapter 2, unequalized hydrostatic pressure exerted by

flood waters can collapse walls regardless of the construction materials
used. If flood waters are expected to be more than about a foot deep,
openings must be installed in the foundation walls so that water can flow
into and out of any enclosed area below the newly elevated house. When
the water levels on both sides of the foundation walls are the same, the
hydrostatic pressure is equalized. If you are elevating your house in
connection with repairs of substantial damage or as part of a substantial
improvement, your community’s floodplain management ordinance or law
will require that you install openings in all areas below the BFE.

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 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

WARNING
If you elevate a house
that has been substan-
tially damaged or is
being substantially im-
proved, your com-
munity’s floodplain
management ordinance
or law will not allow you
to have a basement, as
defined under the NFIP.
The NFIP regulations
define a basement as
Figure 3-3 “any area of the build-
Typical cross-section of house elevated on continuous foundation walls. ing having its floor
subgrade on all sides.”
If your house has such
a basement, you will be
required to fill it in as part
of any elevation project.
Note that the NFIP defi-
nition of basement does
not include what is typi-
cally referred to as a
“walkout-on-grade ”
basement, whose floor
would be at or above
the adjacent grade on
at least one side.

Figure 3-4
Retrofitted house elevated on extended continuous foundation walls.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 39

CHAPTER 3

Elevating on Open Foundations

Unlike continuous foundations, open foundations consist of individual
vertical structural members that support the house only at key points.
Because they present less of an obstacle to flood flows than continuous
walls, open foundations can be used where the risks of wave action and
high-velocity flood flow are greater. Most open foundations consist of
piers, posts, columns, or pilings.

House elevated on piers.

Piers. The most common type of

open foundation is a pier
foundation. Piers are built with
masonry block or are made of
cast-in-place concrete. The
bottom of each pier sits on a
concrete footing. Pier foundations are used in conventional construction;
they are not just a means of elevating a floodprone house. In conventional
use, they are designed primarily for vertical loading – to hold the weight of
the house. They are not normally designed to resist large horizontal forces
– such as those associated with moving flood water, waves, impacts from
floodborne debris, wind, and earthquakes. As a result, pier foundations are
generally used where the risks of wave action and high-velocity flow are low
to moderate and the potential for earthquakes is low.

If you decide to elevate your house on a pier foundation, you should expect
your contractor to reinforce the piers and footings with steel rods and to tie
the piers to the footings so they will not separate under flood or other forces.
Adequate connections between the piers and the house are also necessary
so that the house and foundation will resist lateral loads from flood, wind,
and earthquake and uplift from buoyancy.

House elevated on posts or

columns.

Posts or columns. Posts (also

referred to as columns) are
usually made of wood or steel.
They are generally square but
may also be round. Posts and
columns are set in holes, and

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 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

their ends are encased in concrete, or supported on concrete pads (as in

the figure). After posts or columns are set, the holes are filled with concrete,
dirt, gravel, or crushed stone. Unlike piers, which are designed to act as
independent supports, posts and columns usually must be connected to
each other with bracing. The bracing may consist of wood, steel rods, or
guy wires. The type you choose is usually determined by cost, flood
conditions, expected loads, the availability of materials, and local
construction practice. Like piers, posts and columns are generally used
where the risks of wave action and high-velocity flow are low to moderate.

House elevated on pilings. DEFINITION

Concrete materials
such as posts, beams,
and blocks that are
Pilings. Pilings are usually brought to the con-
made of wood, but steel and struction site in fin-
precast concrete are also ished form are referred
common in some areas. Pilings to as pre-cast.
are similar to posts, but instead
of being set in holes, they are
driven into the ground or jetted in with high-pressure streams of water.
Also, pilings are embedded deeper in the ground than either piers or
posts. As a result, piling foundations are less susceptible to the effects of
high-velocity flow, waves, debris impact, erosion, and scour than the other
types of open foundations. Pilings differ from piers and posts also in that
DEFINITION
they do not rest on footings. Instead they are driven until they rest on a Jetting is a process in
solid support layer, such as bedrock, or until they are embedded deep which the hole for the
enough that the friction between the ground and the pilings will enable installation of a piling is
them to resist the loads that are expected to act on them. made by a high-pres-
sure stream water from
Because driving and jetting pilings requires bulky, heavy construction a nozzle attached to
machinery, an existing house must normally be moved off its existing the bottom of the piling.
foundation and set on cribbing until the operation is complete. As a
result, elevating a house by placing it on a piling foundation will usually
require more space and cost more than elevating with another type of
foundation. Piling foundations are used primarily in areas where other
elevation methods are not feasible, such as where flood waters are deep
and the risks of wave action and high-velocity flow are great. For DEFINITION
example, piling foundations are used extensively in oceanfront areas Cribbing usually con-
exposed to high-velocity flow, waves, and high winds. sists of a framework of
criss-crossed timbers
that provides tempo-
rary structural support.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 41

 CHAPTER 3

Figure 3-5
This coastal house in
Florida was elevated
on pilings so that it
would be less
vulnerable to damage
from coastal flooding.

Elevating by Extending the Walls of the House or Moving the

Living Space to an Upper Floor
For masonry houses on slab-on-grade foundations, two alternative elevation
methods are available. One is to remove the roof, extend the walls of the
house upward, replace the roof, and build a new, elevated floor at the FPE.
This technique works best where the floor needs to be raised less than 4 feet
to reach the FPE. The elevated floor can be either a new slab or a new wood-
framed floor. For a new slab, fill dirt is placed on top of the old slab and the
new slab is built on top. If a new wood-framed floor is built, the area between
it and the old slab is left open and becomes a crawlspace.

The second technique is to abandon the entire lower floor, or lower

enclosed area, of the house and move the living space to an existing or
newly constructed upper story. This technique works best for multi-story
houses where the FPE is more than 4 feet above the level of the lower
floor. The abandoned lower floor or enclosed area is then used only for
parking, storage, or building access.

These techniques, like the others, have their limitations. The portions of
the house below the FPE will be exposed to flooding and must therefore
be made of flood-resistant materials. That is why this method is generally
applicable only to masonry houses. A frame house would be much more
easily damaged by flooding. The area below the FPE cannot be used for
living space; it may be used only for parking, storage, or building access.
In addition, all appliances and utilities must be moved to the upper floor.
Also, openings must be cut into the walls of the lower floor to allow water
to enter during flooding so that the hydrostatic pressure on the walls will
be equalized. In essence, the lower floor is wet floodproofed (see the next
section for a discussion of wet floodproofing).

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Figure 3-6
The owner of this
floodprone house in
south Florida decided to
build a new frame
second story on top of
his masonry first story.
The new second story is
well above the BFE.

Table 3.1

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 43

 CHAPTER 3

Adding a new second story to a single-story house may require that the
foundation be strengthened so that it can support the additional load. You
must consult an engineer if you plan to use this method. The second story
NOTE can be frame or masonry (to match the lower floor). The method you
As discussed under Fi- choose will depend on the advice of your engineer, cost, appearance, the
nancial Assistance for availability of materials and experienced contractors, and the risks of other
Retrofitting in Chapter 2, natural hazards such as hurricanes and earthquakes.
the cost of elevating a
substantially damaged Approximate Costs
house may be an eligible The costs shown in Table 3.2 are for elevating frame and masonry houses
flood insurance claim a total of 2 feet. The costs for extending utilities and adding or extending
under Increased Cost staircases are included. The costs shown for elevating frame and masonry
of Compliance (ICC) houses on existing slab-on-grade foundations are based on the assumption
coverage. that the house is raised with the existing slab attached.

Table 3.2

DEFINITION
The footprint of a
house is the land area
it covers (see figure).
This area is equal to
the length of the house
multiplied by its width.
Note that the footprint
is not equal to the total
square footage of all
the floors in the house.
You can estimate the cost of elevating more than 2 feet by adding $0.75
per square foot of house footprint for each additional foot of elevation up
to 8 feet. For elevations greater than 8 feet, add $1.00 per square foot for
each additional foot of elevation.

Occasionally, slab-on-grade houses are raised without the slab. Although

this method can be less expensive than raising the house with the slab, it
involves detaching the house from the slab and requires extensive

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 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

alterations to interior and exterior walls. As a result, raising the house

without the slab is usually done only when the house has been severely
damaged by a flood, fire, or other catastrophe.
NOTE
The cost of abandoning an existing lower level will depend on whether the See Chapter 6 for a
house already has an upper level that can be used for living space. If an discussion of flood-
upper level is available, abandoning the lower floor would involve primarily resistant materials.
elevating or relocating utilities, adding openings in the lower-level walls,
and ensuring that all construction materials are flood-resistant. The cost
would be approximately $5 - $10 per square foot of building footprint. This
method is well-suited to a house with a walkout-on-grade basement,
which can be wet floodproofed and used for parking, storage, or building
access. Adding a new frame upper level and raising the roof to
accommodate the new level would cost approximately $40 - $50 per
square foot depending upon the amount of interior finishing.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 45

 CHAPTER 3

WARNING Wet Floodproofing (Chapter 6)

If your house has been Wet floodproofing a house is modifying the uninhabited portions of the
substantially damaged house (such as a crawlspace or an unfinished basement) so that flood
or is being substantially waters will enter but not cause significant damage to either the house or
improved, your com- its contents. The purpose of allowing water into portions of the house is to
munity’s floodplain ensure that the interior and exterior hydrostatic pressures will be equal.
management ordinance Allowing these pressures to equalize greatly reduces the likelihood of wall
or law will restrict your failures and structural damage. Wet floodproofing is often used when all
use of wet floodproofing other retrofitting methods are either too costly or are not feasible. But it is
to attached garages and practical in only a limited number of situations.
enclosed areas below
the BFE that are used Because wet floodproofing allows flood waters to enter the house, all
solely for parking, stor- construction and finishing materials below the FPE must be resistant to
age, or building access. flood damage. For this reason, wet floodproofing is practical only for
For more information, portions of a house that are not used for living space, such as a basement
consult your local offi- as defined by the NFIP regulations, a walkout-on-grade basement,
cials or refer to FEMA’s crawlspace, or attached garage. It would not be practical for most slab-on-
Technical Bulletin 7-93, grade houses, in which the living space is at or very near the ground level.
Wet Floodproofing Whether or not wet floodproofing is appropriate for your house will depend
Requirements for Struc- on the flood conditions, the FPE you have selected, the design and
tures Located in Special construction of your house, and whether your house has been
Flood Hazard Areas. substantially damaged or is being substantially improved.

If you are considering wet floodproofing, keep the following in mind:

• Your house should have space above the FPE in which you can
temporarily store items that could be damaged by flood waters.
• If your furnace, water heater, or other service equipment is below the
FPE, it must be protected as well. You may be able to do this by
moving the equipment to another floor, elevating it, or protecting it in
place. (An example of protection in place is surrounding a furnace
NOTE with an interior floodwall -- see Chapter 8).
See Chapter 6 for a • Any construction and finishing materials below the FPE that are not
discussion of flood- flood-resistant must be removed or replaced with materials that are
resistant materials. flood-resistant.
• If a flood occurs, you will not be able to live in your house as long as
flood waters remain inside.
• Wet floodproofing does nothing to alleviate the threat of damage from
high-velocity flood flow and wave action.

46 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

WARNING
FIRST FLOOR DOOR If you wet floodproof a
LIVING AREA
house that has been
GROUND FLOOD LEVEL substantially damaged
or is being substantially
improved, your com-
munity’s floodplain
management ordi-
SUBGRADE nance or law will not
BASEMENT
OPENINGS FURNACE AND
PROVIDED TO LET OTHER UTILITIES
allow you to have a
FLOOD WATERS ENTER RELOCATED basement, as defined
under the NFIP. The
Figure 3-7 A house with a wet floodproofed subgrade basement. NFIP regulations define
(If this house were substantially damaged or substantially a basement as “any
improved, the basement would have to be filled in; see the area of the building
Warning at right.) having its floor sub-
grade on all sides.” If
your house has such a
basement, you will be
required to fill it in as
part of any wet flood-
proofing project. Note
that the NFIP definition
of basement does not
include what is typically
referred to as a “walk-
out-on-grade” base-
ment, whose floor
would be at or above
grade on at least one
side.

Figure 3-8 A house with a wet floodproofed walkout-on-grade

basement.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 47

 CHAPTER 3

Table 3.3

WARNING
After flood waters re-
cede from the area
around a house with a
wet floodproofed base-
ment, the homeowner
will usually want to
pump out the water
that filled the basement
during the flood. But if
the soil surrounding
the basement walls
and below the base-
ment floor is still
saturated with water,
removing the water in
the basement too
quickly can be danger-
ous. As the water level
in the basement drops,
the outside pressure
on the basement walls
and floor becomes
greater than the inside
pressure (see figure).
As a result, the walls
can collapse and the
floor can be pushed up
or cracked.

48 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

Wet floodproofing is generally less expensive than the other flood protection
methods described in this guide. Table 3.4 shows approximate costs per
square foot of building footprint for wet floodproofing houses on basement
and crawlspace foundations to heights of 2, 4, and 8 feet. In a house with a
basement, this height is measured from the basement floor (but see
DEFINITION warning on page 47). In a house with a crawlspace, this height is measured
The lowest adjacent from the lowest grade adjacent to the house. The costs shown include
grade (LAG) is the those for adding wall openings for the entry and exit of flood waters,
lowest ground surface installing pumps, rearranging or relocating utility systems, moving large
that touches any of the appliances, and making it easier to clean up after flood waters recede. The
exterior walls of your costs shown for basements in Table 3.4 are valid only for unfinished
house. basements. Wet floodproofing a finished basement would require that all
non-flood-resistant finishing materials be permanently removed or replaced
with flood-resistant materials. As a result, wet floodproofing costs for
finished basements would be higher than those shown below and would
vary depending on the amount of finishing to be removed or replaced.

Table 3.4

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 49

CHAPTER 3

Relocation (Chapter 7)
Moving your house to high ground, outside the flood hazard area, is the
most effective of the retrofitting methods described in this guide.
Retrofitting literature commonly refers to this method as relocation. When
space permits, you may even be able to move your house to another
location on the same piece of property.

Relocating a house usually involves jacking it up and placing it on a

wheeled vehicle, which delivers it to the new site. The original foundation
cannot be moved, so it is demolished and a new foundation is built at the
new site. The house is installed on the new foundation and all utility lines
are connected. Relocation is particularly appropriate in areas where the
flood hazard is severe, such as where flood conditions are characterized
by one or more of the following:
• deep water • high rates of rise and fall
• short warning time • wave action
• high flow velocity • high debris potential
• long duration
Relocation is also appropriate for homeowners who want to be free of
worries about damage from future floods that may exceed a selected FPE.

Although similar to elevation, relocation requires additional steps that

usually make it more expensive. These include moving the house, buying
and preparing a new site (including building the new foundation and
providing the necessary utilities), and restoring the old site (including
demolishing the old foundation and properly capping and abandoning old
utility lines).

Houses of all sizes and types can be relocated, either as a unit or in

segments. One-story frame houses are usually the easiest to move,
particularly if they are built on a crawlspace or basement foundation that
provides easy access to the floor framing. Masonry houses can also be
moved, but usually with more difficulty and at a higher cost.

Professional house movers can advise you about the things you need to
consider in deciding whether to relocate. The structural soundness of your
house will have to be checked. Also, you may need to find a place where
you can store furniture and other belongings temporarily. In most
instances, however, the contents of your home may remain in the house

50 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

while it is being moved. And keep in mind that there must be a clear
route to the new site. Narrow roads, restrictive overpasses, and bridges
with low weight limits may make it impossible for your house to be
moved to the new site. Also, many states and communities have
requirements that govern the transport of houses and other buildings on
public rights-of-way.

Table 3.5

The Table 3.6 shows approximate costs per square foot of house footprint
for relocating houses of different types. The costs include those for moving
the house, building a new foundation at the new site, installing the house on
the new foundation, and hooking up all utilities. The costs shown are based
on the assumption that the house will be moved less than 5 miles and
installed on the same type of foundation as it originally had.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 51

 CHAPTER 3

Table 3.6

WARNING
The relocation costs
shown here are for a
1,000-square-foot
house. Because relo-
cation costs do not
increase proportionally
with the size of a house,
the cost per square foot
of moving a larger
house may be less than The costs shown in Table 3.6 do not include the cost of restoring the old
that shown here. site, which would be approximately $12 per square foot of building
footprint regardless of construction type or foundation type. Also not
included is the cost of any new property that must be purchased.

NOTE
As discussed in Finan-
cial Assistance for
Retrofitting in Chapter
2, the cost of relocat-
ing a substantially
damaged house may
be an eligible flood in-
surance claim under
ICC coverage.

52 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

Dry Floodproofing (Chapter 7) WARNING

In some situations, a house can be made watertight below the FPE, so Dry floodproofing may
that flood waters cannot enter. This method is called “dry floodproofing.” not be used to bring a
Making the house watertight requires sealing the walls with waterproof substantially damaged
coatings, impermeable membranes, or supplemental layers of masonry or or substantially im-
concrete. Also, doors, windows, and other openings below the FPE must proved house into
be equipped with permanent or removable shields, and backflow valves compliance with your
must be installed in sewer lines and drains. The flood characteristics that community’s floodplain
affect the success of dry floodproofing are flood depth, flood duration, flow management ordi-
velocity, and the potential for wave action and floodborne debris. nance or law.

Flood depth is important because of the hydrostatic pressure that flood

waters exert on walls and floors. Because water is prevented from
entering a dry floodproofed house, the exterior pressure on walls and
floors is not counteracted as it is in a wet floodproofed house (see the
discussion on pages 12 and 13). The ability of house walls to withstand
the pressure exerted by flood waters depends partly on how the walls are
constructed. Typical masonry and masonry veneer walls, without
reinforcement, can usually withstand the pressure exerted by water up to
about 3 feet deep. When flood depths exceed 3 feet, unreinforced
masonry and masonry veneer walls are much more likely to crack or
collapse. An advantage of masonry and masonry veneer walls is that their
exterior surfaces are resistant to damage by moisture and can be made
watertight relatively easily with sealants. In contrast, typical frame walls
are likely to fail at lower flood depths, are more difficult to make watertight,
and are more vulnerable to damage from moisture. As a result, wet
floodproofing is not recommended for houses with frame walls.

Figure 3-9
A typical dry
floodproofed house.

yy
,,
,,
yy

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 53

 CHAPTER 3

Table 3.7

WARNING
Because dry flood-
proofing requires
human intervention,
you must be willing and
able to install all flood
shields and carry out
all other activities
required for the suc-
cessful operation of the
dry floodproofing sys-
tem. As a result, not
only must you be
physically capable of
carrying out these ac-
tivities, you must be
home or able to go
home in time to do so
before flood waters ar-
rive.

54 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

Even if masonry or masonry veneer walls are reinforced to withstand the

pressure of deeper water, the effects of buoyancy must be considered. The
buoyancy force exerted by water greater than 3 feet deep is often great enough
to crack a slab floor or push it up. For this reason, dry floodproofing usually is WARNING
not appropriate method of protecting a house from flooding over 3 feet deep. Even concrete block
and brick walls should
Duration of flooding is critical because most sealing systems will begin to
not be dry floodproofed
allow some amount of seepage after prolonged periods of exposure to
above a height of 3
water. If your house is in an area where flood waters remain high for days,
feet, unless an engi-
you should use a different retrofitting method. Areas with a risk of high-
neering analysis has
velocity flood flow, wave action, or both are not appropriate locations for
been performed which
dry floodproofing. Either condition may render dry floodproofing totally
shows that the walls
ineffective and cause severe damage.
will withstand the
Dry floodproofing is not recommended for houses with basements. Saturated expected hydrostatic
soils pressing against basement walls can damage them or cause them to and hydrodynamic
fail. The buoyancy force exerted by saturated soils below the basement can loads and debris im-
cause the basement floor to fail or even push the entire house up. pact forces. The effects
of buoyancy on slab
Sealant systems, especially those that rely on membranes and coatings, floors must also be
can be punctured by ice and other types of debris. If your house is in an considered.
area where flood waters are known to carry debris, you should select a
different retrofitting method.

The Table 3.8 shows approximate costs for individual components that
make up a dry floodproofing system.

Table 3.8

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 55

CHAPTER 3

As you can see from the table, the total cost for dry floodproofing a house
will depend largely on the size of the house, FPE, types of sealant and
shield materials used, number of plumbing lines that have to be protected
by check valves, and number of openings that have to be covered by
shields.

56 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

Levees and Floodwalls (Chapter 7) WARNING

Levees and floodwalls are types of flood protection barriers. A levee is Levees and floodwalls
typically a compacted earthen structure; a floodwall is an engineered may not be used to
structure usually built of concrete, masonry, or a combination of both. When bring a substantially
these barriers are built to protect a house, they are usually referred to as damaged or substan-
“residential,” “individual,” or “on-site” levees and floodwalls. The practical tially improved house
heights of these levees and floodwalls are usually limited to 6 feet and 4 into compliance with
feet, respectively. These limits are the result of the following considerations: your community’s
floodplain manage-
• As the height of a levee or floodwall increases, so does the depth of ment ordinance or law.
water that can build up behind it. Greater depths result in greater
water pressures, so taller levees and floodwalls must be designed
and constructed to withstand the increased pressures. Meeting this
need for additional strength greatly increases the cost of the levee or
floodwall, usually beyond what an individual homeowner can afford.
• Because taller levees and floodwalls must be stronger, they must also
be more massive, so they usually require more space than is likely to
be available on an individual lot. This is especially true of levees.
Figure 3-10
House protected by
levee (left) and
floodwall (right).

,,,
yyy
,y ,,,
,yyyy
,,,
yyy
NOTE
Both levees and floodwalls should provide at least 1 foot of freeboard. Freeboard is explained
For example, if you are building a levee to protect your house from the on page 31.
base flood, the top of the levee should be 1 foot above the BFE.

For a levee to be effective over time, it must be constructed of soils that

cannot be easily penetrated by flood waters, it must have proper side
slopes for stability, and it must be periodically inspected and maintained.
In areas where high flow velocities could erode the surface of a levee, the
side of the levee exposed to flood water is usually protected with a

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 57

 CHAPTER 3

covering of rock, referred to as riprap, or with other erosion-resistant

material. Levees can surround a house, or they may be built only across
low areas and tied into existing high ground.

Figure 3-11
House protected by
levee, which holds
back the flood waters
shown in the lower half
of the photograph. Note
that the levee ties in to
high ground created by
the road embankment.

A floodwall can surround a house, or, depending on flood depths, site

topography, and design preferences, it can protect isolated openings such
as doors, windows, and basement entrances, including entry doors and
WARNING garage doors in walkout-on-grade basements. When built with decorative
Special design consid- bricks or blocks or as part of garden areas, floodwalls can become
erations are necessary attractive architectural or landscaping features. But they can also be built
when levees or flood- solely for utility, usually at a much lower cost.
walls are built to protect
a house with a base- Because a floodwall is made of concrete or masonry rather than
ment. Even though the compacted earth, it is more resistant to erosion than a levee and generally
surface water is kept requires less space than a levee that provides the same level of
from coming into con- protection. But floodwalls are usually more expensive. As a result,
tact with the house, the floodwalls are normally considered only for sites where there is not
soil below the levee or enough room for a levee or where high flow velocities may erode a levee.
floodwall and around Also, some homeowners prefer floodwalls because they can be more
the house can become aesthetically pleasing and allow for the preservation of existing site
saturated, especially features, such as trees.
during floods of long
duration. The resulting As shown in Figure 3-10, an interior drainage system, including a sump
pressure on basement pump, must be installed in the area protected by a levee or floodwall. The
walls and floors can purpose of the system is to remove rainwater trapped inside the protected
cause them to crack area and, during flooding, to remove water that enters through seepage or
buckle, or even col- infiltration. It also may be necessary to include an opening in a levee or
lapse (see page 133). floodwall that will provide access for a car or other vehicle. All openings
must be equipped with closures similar to those used in dry floodproofing.

58 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

Table 3.9

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 59

 CHAPTER 3

Figure 3-12
House protected by a
floodwall designed as
a landscaping feature.

The following tables show approximate costs for levees and floodwalls of
various heights and for additional levee and floodwall components that
may be needed.

Table 3.10

Table 3.11

60 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

NOTE
The costs for levee
construction can vary
greatly depending on
the distance between
the construction site
and the source of the
fill dirt used to build the
levee. The greater the
distance that fill dirt
must be hauled, the
greater the cost.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 61

CHAPTER 3

Demolition (Chapter 7)
Demolition, as a retrofitting method, is tearing down a damaged house
and either rebuilding properly somewhere on the same property or moving
to a house on other property, outside the regulatory floodplain. This
retrofitting method may be the most practical of all those described in this
guide when a house has sustained extensive damage, especially severe
structural damage.

Whether you rebuild or move, you must tear down your damaged house
and then restore the site. Site restoration usually involves filling in a
basement, grading, and landscaping. As a result, you will probably need
the services of a demolition contractor. The contractor will disconnect and
cap all utility lines at the site and then raze the house with a bulldozer or
other heavy equipment. If you decide to rebuild on the old site or
somewhere else on the same property, your construction contractor may
be able to do the demolition and site restoration work as part of the house
construction.

Remember, all demolition, construction, and site restoration work must be

done according to the regulatory requirements of your community. Permits
may be required for all or part of this work. If you decide to rebuild on the
site of your old house, you must rebuild properly, which means ensuring
that the lowest floor of your new house is at or above the FPE. You can do
this by elevating your new house on an extended foundation as described
in the Elevation section in this chapter or on compacted fill dirt. If your
property includes an alternative building site outside the regulatory
floodplain, a better approach is to build on that site, where you can use
standard construction practices, including the construction of a basement.
Remember, if you rebuild on the existing site, within the regulatory
floodplain, your community’s floodplain management ordinance or law will
not allow your new house to have a basement (as defined by the NFIP
regulations).

The advantages and disadvantages of demolition vary depending on

which of the following three options you choose:
1. rebuilding on the existing site
2. rebuilding on an alternative, flood-free site elsewhere on your
existing property
3. moving to a house on other property, outside the regulatory
floodplain

62 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OVERVIEW OF THE RETROFITTING METHODS CHAPTER 3

The advantages and disadvantages of option 1 are same as those listed

in Table 3.1 for the elevation method (see page 43). The advantages and
disadvantages of options 2 and 3 are the same as those listed in Table 3.5
for the relocation method (see page 51), with the following exceptions: If NOTE
you choose option 2, you will avoid the need to buy new property and As discussed in Finan-
dispose of your existing property. cial Assistance for
Retrofitting in Chapter
If you decide to demolish your damaged house and rebuild somewhere 2, the cost of demolish-
on your existing property (option 1 or 2 above), your costs will be those for ing a substantially
tearing down the damaged house, building the new house, reconnecting damaged house may
utility lines, and restoring the site around the new house. If you decide to be an eligible flood in-
move to a house outside the regulatory floodplain (option 3), your costs surance claim under
will be those for tearing down the damaged house, buying or building a ICC coverage.
house elsewhere, capping and abandoning the old utility lines, and
restoring the old site.

The cost of tearing a house down, which is not a complex or difficult job,
will be almost entirely for the disposal of the resulting debris. This cost can
vary widely depending on the amount of debris, whether it can be buried
at the demolition site or must be hauled to a licensed disposal site, and
whether a dumping fee is required at the disposal site. The major costs
associated with the demolition method will be for building or buying a
house and will therefore depend on how and where you build or on the
type of house you buy. Be sure to get a complete cost estimate before
you begin a demolition project.

Summary
To protect your house from flooding, you may be able to use one or more
of the retrofitting methods described in this chapter. However, as noted in
this chapter, some retrofitting methods are probably inappropriate for your
house, and some may not be allowed by your state or community. Also, if
the substantial damage and substantial improvement requirements do not
apply to your house, you may be faced with decisions about the level of
protection you are willing to pay for and the level of risk you are willing to
accept.

Chapter 4 will help you decide on a method. Then, depending on your

decision, you can move on to Chapter 5, 6, or 7 for a detailed look at your
preferred method.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 63

 CHAPTER 4

Deciding Which
Method Is Right for
Your House
Introduction
With the information from Chapters 2 and 3, you are ready to decide
which retrofitting method is right for your house. Your decision will be
based primarily on legal requirements, the technical limitations of the
methods, and cost. Other considerations might include such things as the
appearance of the house after retrofitting and any inconvenience resulting
from retrofitting. Making a decision involves four steps:

The four steps are described in the next section. At the end of this chapter
you will find a retrofitting checklist that will help you work with local officials,
design professionals, and retrofitting contractors. The checklist includes
places where you can record the results of Steps 1 and 2, important
questions you should ask, and decision making matrixes that will help you
choose a retrofitting method. Before you go any further, you may want to
make a copy of the checklist (see pages 76 through 82) so that you can
begin filling it out.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 65

 CHAPTER 4

Making Your Decision

Step 1 – Determine the Hazards to Your House
NOTE If you are using this guide, it is probably because your house has been
damaged by flooding or because you know that your house is in a flood
The results of Steps 1
hazard area. Information about flooding in your area is available from local
and 2 will help your lo-
officials, as discussed later in Step 3. But if your house has been flooded,
cal official advise you
review what you already know. Look at the section of the checklist for
and will also be useful
Step 1. Answer as many of the questions as you can. Local officials,
when you consult a de-
design professionals, and contractors can use the information you
sign professional or
provide, along with the flood hazard information developed by the Federal
retrofitting contractor.
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and other agencies and
organizations, to advise you about your retrofitting options.

You also need to be aware of other hazards, such as high winds (see
Figure 4-1), earthquakes (see Figure 4-2), fires, landslides, and
tsunamis. If your house is in an area subject to one or more of these
hazards, your retrofitting project should take the additional hazards into
account. For example, as discussed in Chapter 3, elevating a house may
DEFINITION make it more susceptible to high winds and earthquakes. As a result, the
foundation may need to be reinforced and the connections between the
A tsunami is a great
foundation, walls, and roof may need to be strengthened as part of the
sea wave produced by
retrofitting project. Depending on the nature of the hazards and your
an earth movement or
choice of retrofitting methods, State and local regulations may require that
volcanic eruption.
additional changes be made to your house, beyond those necessary for
flood protection. Your local officials can tell you if such requirements apply
and can give you more information.

66 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 DECIDING WHICH METHOD IS RIGHT FOR YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 4

,,
,,
,, ,,,,
Figure 4-1

,,
,,,, ,,
,,,, Peak gust wind speeds

,,
,, , ,,
,,,,,, ,,
,,
in the United States.

,,
,, ,,,,
,, ,,
,,
,,
,, ,,
,, ,,
,,
,, , ,,
,,,,,, ,,
,,
,,
,, ,,
,, ,,, ,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,

,,
,,
Figure 4-2
Earthquake hazards in
the United States.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 67

 CHAPTER 4

Step 2 – Inspect Your House

The discussion in Chapter 3 may have prompted you to begin thinking
about your house, specifically how it is constructed and the type of
foundation it has. Before you check with your local officials or consult a
design professional and contractor, you should inspect your house and fill
out the section of the checklist for Step 2. Four characteristics of your house
that are particularly important in retrofitting are construction type, foundation
type, lowest floor elevation, and condition. (When you fill out the portion of
the checklist concerning construction and foundation type, you may want to
refer to the descriptions that begin on page 35, in Chapter 3.)

WARNING Construction Type

If you are retrofitting a As explained in Chapter 3, the construction type for most houses will be
house that has been frame, masonry veneer, masonry, modular home, manufactured home, or
substantially damaged a combination of two or more of these types. The following
or is being substan- generalizations can be made about the effect of construction type on
tially improved, your retrofitting:
community’s floodplain
management ordi- • The most appropriate elevation technique for frame houses,
nance or law will not and manufactured homes usually is to elevate on extended
allow you to have a foundation walls or open foundations.
basement, as defined
• The most commonly used elevation technique for masonry
under the National
houses usually is either (1) to extend the walls of the house up-
Flood Insurance Pro-
ward and raise the lower floor or (2) abandon the lowest floor
gram (NFIP). The NFIP
and move the living area to an upper floor.
regulations define a
basement as “any area • Frame houses, masonry veneer houses, and manufactured
of the building having homes are easier to relocate than masonry homes.
its floor subgrade on all • Masonry and masonry veneer houses are usually easier to dry
sides.” If your house floodproof than other types of houses, because masonry is a
has such a basement, more flood-resistant material than the materials used in other
you will be required to types of houses.
fill it in as part of any
elevation project. Note Foundation Type
that the NFIP definition As explained in Chapter 3, most houses of the construction types listed
of basement does not above are built on a basement, crawlspace, slab-on-grade, or open
include what is typically foundation or on a combination of two or more of these types. The
referred to as a “walk- following generalizations can be made about the effect of foundation type
out-on-grade” base- on retrofitting:
ment, whose floor would
be at or above adjacent • Slab-on-grade houses are more difficult to elevate than
grade on at least one houses on basement or crawlspace foundations.
side.

68 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 DECIDING WHICH METHOD IS RIGHT FOR YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 4

• Elevating houses on basement foundations nomally involves

elevating or relocating utility system components usually
found in basements, such as furnaces and hot water heaters.
• Houses on basement foundations should not be dry flood-
proofed or protected by levees or floodwalls unless an
engineering evaluation conducted by a design professional
shows that it is safe to do so. This precaution is necessary be-
cause neither dry floodproofing nor the construction of levees or
floodwalls prevents saturated soils from pressing on basement
walls. This pressure, which is unequalized because water is not
allowed to enter the basement, can damage basement walls or
even cause them to fail.
• For some houses on basement foundations, the same type of
engineering evaluation is a necessary part of a wet floodproof-
ing project. If the house is in an area where saturated soils
begin to press on basement walls before water enters the base-
ment, the unequalized pressure may damage walls or cause
them to fail. If wet floodproofing is to be used in this situation,
the engineering evaluation must show that the basement walls
can resist the expected pressure.
Lowest Floor Elevation
As noted in Chapter 3, the “lowest floor” of your house, as defined by your
community’s floodplain management ordinance or law, is not necessarily
the first or finished floor. For example, the lowest floor could be the floor of
a basement or the floor of an attached garage. As shown in Figure 4-3,
the location of your lowest floor can vary with foundation type. For houses
that are to be elevated, wet floodproofed, or dry floodproofed, the
difference between the elevation of the lowest floor and the Flood
Protection Elevation (FPE) determines how high the house must be
elevated or how high the wet or dry floodproofing protection must reach.
In general, as the difference between the lowest floor elevation and the
FPE increases, so does the cost of elevating, wet floodproofing, or dry
floodproofing. This difference is particularly significant for dry
floodproofing. As noted in Chapter 3, even masonry walls should not be
dry floodproofed higher than 3 feet unless a structural evaluation by a
design professional shows that it is safe to do so.

The elevation of your lowest floor can be established by a survey, which

may be necessary as part of your retrofitting project. But even if you do
not know your lowest floor elevation, you can estimate the difference
between it and the FPE. If you haven’t yet decided on an FPE, don’t
worry. Your conversations with your local officials, contractors, and design
professionals will help you determine the level of flood protection you

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 CHAPTER 4

should provide. Remember, if your house has been substantially

damaged or is being substantially improved according to your
community’s floodplain management ordinance or law, your FPE must be
at least equal to the Base Flood Elevation (BFE). As explained in Step 3,
your local officials can tell you about this requirement.

Figure 4-3
Difference between
flood level and lowest
floor in houses on
crawlspace and
basement foundations.

Condition
Your design professional or contractor should conduct a detailed in-
spection of your house before beginning any retrofitting work. You can
help by first conducting your own assessment of the condition of your
house and recording any information you have about past or current dam-
age. This information may also be helpful to community officials who
advise you about floodplain management and building code requirements
and appropriate retrofitting methods.
If your house has been damaged by a flood, hurricane or other high-
wind event, earthquake, fire, or other disaster, make a note of the extent
of the damage, when it occurred, and whether it was repaired. If repairs
were made, make a note of who made them and describe what was

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 DECIDING WHICH METHOD IS RIGHT FOR YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 4

done. Any structural damage and repairs to walls, floors, foundations, and
roofs is particularly important. You should also describe any damage re-
sulting from other causes, such as foundation settlement, dry rot, and
termite damage. Your goal is to give your design professional and con- NOTE
tractor as much information as possible so that they can determine how Professional termite
the condition of your house will affect your choice of a retrofitting method. exterminators will often
perform free or low-
Other Considerations cost inspections for
In addition to construction type, foundation type, and lowest floor termite damage.
elevation, you should make note of interior and exterior service equipment
that must be protected as part of your retrofitting project. Interior service
equipment must be protected if you wet floodproof your house. This
equipment includes furnaces, heating and air conditioning ductwork, hot
water heaters, large appliances, and electrical system components such
as service panels, outlets, and switches. Exterior service equipment must
be protected if you elevate, wet floodproof, or dry floodproof and, in some
situations, if you build a levee or floodwall. This equipment includes air
conditioning and heat pump compressors and electric and gas meters.

In a house that is dry floodproofed, all openings below the FPE must be
sealed, including not only doors and windows but also the openings for
water pipes, gas and electric lines, dryer vents, and sump pump discharge
pipes. In a house that is dry floodproofed, wet floodproofed, or protected by
a levee or floodwall, backflow valves must be installed on all water and
sewer lines with openings below the FPE. These valves prevent flood
waters and wastewater from backing up into your house. Chapter 8
describes how to protect interior and exterior service equipment.

Step 3 – Check with Your Local Officials

This is a particularly important step. Your local officials will have copies of
the Flood insurance Study (FIS) and Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM)
published for your community by FEMA. Your officials will be able to tell
you whether your house is in your community’s regulatory floodplain and,
if so, the BFE at the location of your house. They may also have
information about flood conditions near your house, including flow velocity,
the potential for wave action and debris flow, rates of rise and fall, warning
time, and duration of inundation.

Local officials will inform you of Federal, State, and local regulations, codes,
and other requirements that can determine what retrofitting methods you
will be allowed to use and how changes can be made to your house. They
can also tell you about Federal, State, and local programs that provide
financial assistance for homeowner retrofitting projects, and they can help

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 71

 CHAPTER 4

you determine whether you are eligible for such assistance. With the
information you recorded in Steps 1 and 2, local officials may also be able to
advise you about the most appropriate retrofitting method for your house. The
NOTE officials you need to talk to will depend on how your community has assigned
Be sure to ask local responsibilities for floodplain management and construction permitting. If you
officials about State or do not know who has these responsibilities in your community, you should
local freeboard re- begin with an official such as a city clerk, mayor, or county administrator.
quirements that may
apply to your retrofit- Remember to contact your State Historic Preservation Office (see
ting project. Appendix E) if your property is 50 or more years old and you are receiving
Federal financial assistance for your retrofitting project. Your local officials
may not be aware of this requirement if they do not normally deal with
federally assisted projects.

When you talk to your local officials, be sure to do the following:

• Bring this guide with you.

• Bring your completed retrofitting checklist.
• Discuss what you already know about your house and the haz-
ards that affect it.
• Work through the points listed in the section of the checklist for
Step 3.
• Ask any other questions you may have.
• Work through the decision making matrix with the official. Use
the matrix that applies to your situation: Substantial Damage/
Substantial Improvement or No Substantial Damage/No Sub-
stantial Improvement.
• Take notes about everything you discuss.
Remember that your goal is to find out what you can legally do to retrofit
your house, identify the requirements you must comply with throughout
the retrofitting process, and eliminate retrofitting methods that do not meet
your needs. You may find that the restrictions and requirements of
Federal, State, and local regulations will eliminate some retrofitting
methods from consideration. Ultimately, your decision will be based on
technical limitations of the methods, cost, and other considerations, such
as the effect that retrofitting will have on the appearance of your house.
The decision making matrix will help guide you through this process.

Your next step, whether you have chosen one method or are considering
two or more, is to consult a properly licensed, bonded, and insured design
professional and retrofitting contractor.

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Step 4 – Consult a Design Professional and Contractor

To complete this step, you will need to know what types of services are
required for your retrofitting project and how to evaluate and select
contractors and design professionals. WARNING
Areas recovering from
You will probably need the services of a contractor regardless of the floods are often prime
retrofitting method you select. The type of contractor you hire will depend targets for less-than-
on the method. You will probably also need to consult a design honest business activi-
professional, such as a structural engineer. Alternatively, you can hire a ties. Here are some
general contractor who will arrange for all the necessary services, pointers that can help
including those of a design professional. Table 4.1 shows the types of you avoid problems:
contractors and design professionals that may be required for each of the
retrofitting methods. Beware of “special
deals” offered after a
Knowing the types of services required for your retrofitting project is disaster by contractors
important, but so is making sure that your design professional and you don’t know.
contractor are reputable and competent.
Beware of unknown
If you have used a licensed design professional and a licensed contractor contractors who want
in the past and were satisfied with the work, use them again. Even if they to use your house as a
do not provide the types of services you now need, they may be able to “model home” for their
recommend someone who can. Otherwise, you can check the Yellow work.
Pages or call or write to the professional association that represents the
types of specialists you are looking for. Appendix F contains a list of the Do not sign any con-
addresses and telephone numbers of several of these associations. They tract under pressure by
can usually give you a list of members in your area who specialize in the a salesperson. Federal
type of work you need. Before you hire a design professional or a law requires a 3-day
contractor, you should check with your local Better Business Bureau, cooling-off period for
consumer protection agency, or licensing authorities. These organizations unsolicited door-to-
can tell you whether there have been any complaints about the quality of door sales of more
the design professional’s or contractor’s past work , including whether the than $25.
work was completed on time.
Beware if you are
asked to pay cash on
Next, you will need to meet with the contractor and design professional to
the spot instead of with
discuss your project. At the meeting, be sure you do the following:
a check made out to
the name of a busi-
• Provide the information you collected in Steps 1, 2, and 3.
ness.
• Ask the questions listed on the checklist at the end of this chap-
ter, as well as any others you may have.
• Verify that the contractor is licensed, bonded, and insured as re-
quired by State and local laws.
• Verify that the design professional is licensed and registered in
the state where the work will be done.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 73

 CHAPTER 4

Table 4.1

WARNING
Never sign a blank
contract or one with
blank spaces. You may
want to have your at-
torney check the
contract if a large
amount of money is in-
volved.

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 DECIDING WHICH METHOD IS RIGHT FOR YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 4

• Ask for proof of insurance. If the contractor or design profes-

sional does not have disability and worker’s compensation
insurance, you may be liable for accidents that occur on your
property. WARNING
• Ask for references. Reputable contractors and design profes- Areas recovering from
sionals should be willing to give you the names of previous floods are often prime
customers. Call some of them and ask how well they were sat- targets for less-than-
isfied with the work. Ask if they would hire the contractor or honest business activi-
design professional again. ties. Here are some
• If you are trying to decide between two or more retrofitting pointers that can help
methods, discuss your preferences and ask for more informa- you avoid problems:
tion.
Check with your local
Any contractor or design professional you hire will need to conduct a Better Business Bureau,
site visit to inspect your house and determine how the work should be car- consumer protection
ried out. During the site visit, you should expect your contractor or design agency, or licensing au-
professional to check the structural condition of your house and determine thorities before you hire
what changes will be required by the retrofitting method you choose. If a contractor.
you agree on a method and decide to proceed with the project, be sure to
do the following: Ask contractors for ref-
erences. A reputable
• Get a written, signed, and dated estimate. It should cover ev- contractor should be
erything you expect to be done. (Some contractors and design able to give you a list
professionals will charge a fee for this service.) of past clients in your
• Decide whether you, the contractor, or the design professional area who can com-
will obtain the necessary permits. ment on the quality of
the contractor’s work.
• Ask for a warranty or guarantee. Any warranty or guarantee
from the contractor or design professional should be written
into the contract. The contract should clearly state the terms of
the warranty or guarantee, who is responsible for honoring it
(such as a manufacturer or the contractor), and how long it will
remain valid.
• Get a written contract. It should be complete and clearly state
all work to be done, the estimated cost, the payment sched-
ule, and the expected start and completion dates for the work.

WARNING
Do not sign completion
papers or make the final
payment until all work is
completed to your satis-
faction.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 75

 CHAPTER 4

RETROFITTING CHECKLIST
Use this checklist when you follow the four steps described in this chapter. The information you record
here will help you work with local officials, contractors, and design professionals; use the decision
making maxtrixes that follow this checklist; and decide which retrofitting method is right for your house.
Step 1 – Determine the Hazards to Your House
1. How long have you lived in your house? ___ years
2. Was your house ever flooded during that time? ___ yes ___ no
(If your answer is yes, go to question 3; if your answer is no, go to question 14.)
3. How many times has your house been flooded? ________
4. What were the dates of flooding?
Flood #1 _______________
Flood #2 _______________
Flood #3 _______________
Flood #4 _______________
Flood #5 _______________

For each flood, answer questions 5 through 13 as best you can.

5. To your knowledge, were frequencies assigned to any of the floods (for example, 50-year flood,
100-year flood)? If so, what were they?
Flood #1 _______________
Flood #2 _______________
Flood #3 _______________
Flood #4 _______________
Flood #5 _______________

6. How high did the flood water rise in your house? (If you can, state the height of the water above
the lowest floor, including the basement floor.)
Flood #1 _________________________________________________
Flood #2 _________________________________________________
Flood #3 _________________________________________________
Flood #4 _________________________________________________
Flood #5 _________________________________________________

7. About how long did your house remain flooded? (You can give your answer in days, weeks, or
months, as appropriate.)
Flood #1 _______________
Flood #2 _______________
Flood #3 _______________
Flood #4 _______________
Flood #5 _______________

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 DECIDING WHICH METHOD IS RIGHT FOR YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 4

8. Did you have any warning before your house was flooded? If so, how much warning?
(You can give your answer in days or hours as appropriate.)
Flood #1 ___ No Warning ___ Warning _______ Days / Hours
Flood #2 ___ No Warning ___ Warning _______ Days / Hours
Flood #3 ___ No Warning ___ Warning _______ Days / Hours
Flood #4 ___ No Warning ___ Warning _______ Days / Hours
Flood #5 ___ No Warning ___ Warning _______ Days / Hours

9. Did the flood waters cause scour and/or erosion around your house or elsewhere on your lot?
If so, describe the effects.
Flood #1 ___ No Erosion/Scour Occurred ___ Erosion/Scour Occurred
Description ________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Flood #2 ___ No Erosion/Scour Occurred ___ Erosion/Scour Occurred

Description ________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Flood #3 ___ No Erosion/Scour Occurred ___ Erosion/Scour Occurred

Description ________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Flood #4 ___ No Erosion/Scour Occurred ___ Erosion/Scour Occurred

Description ________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Flood #5 ___ No Erosion/Scour Occurred ___ Erosion/Scour Occurred

Description ________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

10. Was your house damaged by wave action or the impact of ice or other floodborne debris?
If so, describe the damage.
Flood #1 ___ No Waves or Debris ___ Waves ___ Debris
Description of Damage ______________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Flood #2 ___ No Waves or Debris ___ Waves ___ Debris

Description of Damage ______________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Flood #3 ___ No Waves or Debris ___ Waves ___ Debris

Description of Damage ______________________________________
_________________________________________________________

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 CHAPTER 4

Flood #4 ___ No Waves or Debris ___ Waves ___ Debris

Description of Damage ______________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Flood #5 ___ No Waves or Debris ___ Waves ___ Debris

Description of Damage ______________________________________
_________________________________________________________

11. How difficult and/or expensive was cleaning up after the flood waters receded? (If you can,
describe what you had to do to clean up both inside your house and around your lot, how long
the cleanup took, and how much you spent on cleanup.)
Flood #1 Cleanup Description _________________________________
__________________________________________________________
___________________________ Cost $_______ Time ___________

Flood #2 Cleanup Description _________________________________

__________________________________________________________
___________________________ Cost $_______ Time ___________

Flood #3 Cleanup Description _________________________________

__________________________________________________________
___________________________ Cost $_______ Time ___________

Flood #4 Cleanup Description _________________________________

__________________________________________________________
___________________________ Cost $_______ Time ___________

Flood #5 Cleanup Description _________________________________

__________________________________________________________
___________________________ Cost $_______ Time ___________

12. What was the total cost to repair all flood damage, not including the cleanup costs listed above?
Flood #1 $________ Flood #4 $________
Flood #2 $________ Flood #5 $________
Flood #3 $________

13. What was the total value of all house contents (furnishings, belongings, etc.) damaged by
flooding?
Flood #1 $________ Flood #4 $________
Flood #2 $________ Flood #5 $________
Flood #3 $________

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 DECIDING WHICH METHOD IS RIGHT FOR YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 4

14. Is your house either in or near one of the shaded areas on the wind hazard map in Figure 4-1?
___ yes ____ no

15. Has your house ever been damaged by a hurricane or other high-wind event?
___ yes ___ no. If your answer is yes, note how many times and describe both the damage
and the repairs made.

16. Is your house either in or near one of the shaded areas on the earthquake hazard map in
Figure 4-2? ___ yes ___ no

17. Has your house ever been damaged by an earthquake? ___ yes ___ no. If your answer is yes,
note how many times and describe both the damage and the repairs made.

18. Has your house ever been damaged by other hazard events, such as fires or landslides?
___ yes ___ no. If your answer is yes, note how many times and describe both the damage
and the repairs made.

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 CHAPTER 4

Step 2 – Inspect Your House

Provide as much of the following information as you can about your house.

1. When was your house built? ___

2. Construction type (see page 35.) Check as many as apply: ___ frame ___ masonry veneer
___ masonry ___ manufactured home

3. Foundation type (see page 36.) Check as many as apply: ___ basement (subgrade on all sides)
___ walkout-on-grade basement ___ crawlspace ___ slab-on-grade
___ piers ___ posts/columns ___ pilings

4. Describe any other damage and repairs to your house other than those you described in Step
1. Other damages would include foundation settlement, dry rot, and termite damage.

To answer questions 5 through 9, you will need to have at least a rough idea of the FPE for
your retrofitting project. If you don’t have enough information to answer these questions now,
go to Step 3 and determine your FPE when you talk with your local official(s).

5. Approximate difference between elevation of lowest floor (including basement) and Flood
Protection Elevation (FPE) (see Figure 4-3): ___ feet

6. Interior utilities below the FPE (check as many as apply): ___ furnace ___ ductwork
___ hot water heater ___ electrical panel ___ electrical outlets ___ electrical switches
___ baseboard heaters ___ sump pumps
other _____________________________________________________

7. Exterior utilities below the FPE (check as many as apply): ___ air conditioning /heat pump
compressor ___ electric meter ___ fuel tank ___ septic tank ___ well ___ gas meter
other_____________________________________________________

8. Major appliances below the FPE (check as many as apply): ___ washer ___ dryer
___ refrigerator ___ freezer
other _____________________________________________________

9. How many drains (such as sink, tub, and floor drains) and toilets are below the FPE?

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 DECIDING WHICH METHOD IS RIGHT FOR YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 4

Step 3 – Check with Local Officials

When you meet with your local official(s), be sure to discuss the issues below. Also, make note of
the information you receive. (You may find that you will need to talk with more than one person to
get all the information you need.)

1. Explain your retrofitting needs, go over the information you recorded in Steps 1 and 2, and discuss
any preferences you may have regarding the retrofitting methods described in Chapter 3.
2. Provide the official with photographs of your house and a copy of a plat map that shows the
dimensions of your lot and the location of your house. If you do not have a plat map, ask how
you can get one.
3. Ask whether your house is in the regulatory floodplain. If the answer is yes, ask what the BFE
is at your house and whether your house is in the floodway or Coastal High hazard Area
(V zone). Ask whether any restudies or revisions are underway that might provide updated
flood hazard information for the area where your house is located. Also, ask for additional flood
hazard information concerning characteristics such as flow velocity, the potential for wave
action and debris flow, rates of rise and fall, warning time, and duration of inundation. This
additional information may be useful to your design professional.
4. Ask whether your community’s regulatory requirements concerning substantially damaged and
substantially improved structures apply to your house. (See the definitions of substantial
damage and substantial improvement on page 20 and the discussion on page 28.)
5. Ask whether your house is subject to high-winds, earthquakes, and other hazards, such as
wildfires. Refer to the maps in Figures 4-1 and 4-2.
6. Ask whether your state and/or community enforces building codes or other regulations that
could affect your retrofitting decision, including any floodplain management regulations more
stringent than those required by the NFIP. For example, ask whether the state or community
requires freeboard for flood protection measures.
7. In your discussion of building codes, ask whether retrofitting will require that you upgrade other
components of your house (such as electrical and plumbing systems) to meet current code
requirements.
8. Ask about the types of permits and fees that may be required in connection with any retrofitting
methods you are considering.
9. Ask whether the official is aware of any Federal, State, or local historic preservation regulations
affecting your property. Follow-up by contacting your State Historic Preservation Office (see
Appendix E) to be sure that your retrofitting project is in compliance with all preservation laws.
10. Ask about Federal, State, and local programs that provide financial assistance for homeowner
flood protection retrofitting projects. Ask whether you are eligible for assistance.
11. Go through the appropriate decision making matrix (see pages 83-86) with the official and
discuss any questions you may have about the advantages and disadvantages of the
alternative retrofitting methods.
12. Ask for any guidance that local officials can provide to help you find a good contractor or design
professional.

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 CHAPTER 4

Step 4 – Consult a Design Professional and Retrofitting Contractor

Initial Meeting
1. Explain your retrofitting needs; go over the information you recorded in Steps 1 and 2; discuss
the results of your meeting with your local official(s), including the decision making matrix; and
discuss any preferences you may have regarding retrofitting methods.

2. Verify that the contractor is licensed, bonded, and insured as required by State and local laws.

3. Verify that the design professional is licensed and registered in the state where the work will be
done.

4. Ask for references and proof of proper bonds and insurance, including disability and workers’
compensation.

5. Decide whether you, the design professional, or the contractor will be responsible for obtaining
and managing the work of subcontractors and for obtaining all permits required by State and
local agencies.

6. Schedule a site visit.

Site Visit
1. Ask the contractor or design professional to tell you about any characteristics of your house or
lot that would affect your selection of a retrofitting method.

2. Once you decide on a retrofitting method, ask for a written estimate of the project cost and
schedule.
Contract
1. If you are satisfied with the cost estimate and schedule, get a written, signed, and dated
contract that describes the work to be done and states the estimated cost, the payment
schedule, and the start and completion dates of the work.

2. Ask whether the contractor will provide a warranty or guarantee for the work performed. Any
warranty or guarantee should be written into the contract. The contract should state the terms of
the warranty or guarantee, who is responsible for honoring it, and how long it will remain valid.
Notes

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 DECIDING WHICH METHOD IS RIGHT FOR YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 4

Decision Making Matrix

Condition: Substantial Damage / Substantial Improvement
This matrix can help you decide which retrofitting method best meets your needs. You may need guidance when using
the matrix, so take it with you when you meet with local officials and contractors/design professionals.

Because your house either has been substantially damaged or is being substantially improved, the National Flood
Insurance Program regulations limit your choice of retrofitting methods to elevation, relocation, wet floodproofing, or
demolition. Regulations, ordinances, or laws established by other agencies and organizations may further limit your
choice. Also, you may have already decided that one or more methods will not meet your needs. The first step in using
the matrix is to identify any methods eliminated by regulations or by your own needs. Mark each eliminated method by
placing an “X” in the box directly below the name of the method (on the line labeled “Prohibited by Federal, State, or
Local Regulations or Eliminated by Law”). An “X” in this row means that the method will not be considered in your
decision.

The next step is to evaluate the remaining methods (those without an “X” under their names). Your evaluation will
be based on the factors listed on the left hand side of the matrix. (The factors are explained on the back of this
page.) For each evaluation factor under each method, discuss your concerns with your local official, design
professional, and contractor. If your concerns cannot be resolved, place an “X” in the appropriate box. For example,
if you decide that you would not be satisfied with the appearance of your house if it were elevated on extended
foundation walls, you would place an “X” in the box on the Appearance line under the heading Elevation on
Extended Foundation Walls. After you have worked through the entire matrix, add the number of “X’s” under each
method and show the sum on the Total “X’s” line. The method with the lowest total is the one that best meets your
requirements.

1
Wet floodproofing is allowed only if the part of your house below the BFE is used solely for parking, storage, or building access.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 83

 CHAPTER 4

EVALUATION FACTORS
Federal, State, and Local Restrictions – Federal, State, and local regulations may restrict a
homeowner’s choice of retrofitting measures. Such regulations may include State and local building codes,
floodplain management ordinances or laws, zoning ordinances, Federal regulations concerning the alteration of
buildings classified as historic structures, deed restrictions, and the covenants of homeowners associations. The
homeowner and the homeowner’s contractor or design professional should check with community officials to
determine whether such regulations apply.

Appearance – The final appearance of a house and property after retrofitting will depend largely on the
retrofitting method used and the Flood Protection Elevation (FPE). For example, elevating a house several feet
will change its appearance much more than elevating only 1 or 2 feet, and a house elevated on an open
foundation will not look the same as a house elevated on extended foundation walls. However, a change in
appearance will not necessarily be a change for the worse. The homeowner should discuss the potential effects
of each method with local officials and with the contractor or design professional.

Cost – The cost of retrofitting will depend largely on the retrofitting method used and the FPE. For some
methods, the construction type (frame, masonry, etc.) and foundation type (crawlspace, slab, etc.) will also affect
the cost. In general, costs will increase as the FPE increases, but there may be tradeoffs between alternative
methods. For example, elevating may be less expensive than relocation when a house is raised only 1 or 2 feet,
but may become more expensive at greater heights.

Accessibility – Accessibility refers to how easy or difficult it is to routinely reach and enter the house after
the retrofitting project is completed. The retrofitting methods described in this guide affect accessibility in
different ways. For example, elevating a house will usually require the addition of stairs, which may be
unacceptable to some homeowners. Wet floodproofing will have little if any affect on accessibility. The effect of
relocation on accessibility will depend on the location and configuration of the new site.

Code-Required Upgrades – State and local regulations may require that a retrofitted house be
upgraded to meet current code requirements that were not in effect when the house was built. Portions of the
electrical, plumbing, and heating/ventilation/air conditioning systems could be affected. For example, the
electrical panel might have to be upgraded from fuses to circuit breakers. These changes are required for the
safety of the homeowner. Other code-required upgrades include those necessary for increased energy
efficiency. Any required upgrade can add to the scope and cost of the retrofitting project. The homeowner and
the homeowner’s contractor or design professional should check with community officials to determine whether
such regulations apply.

Human Intervention – For retrofitting methods that require human intervention, homeowners must be
willing, able, and prepared to take the necessary action, such as operating a closure mechanism in a floodwall or
placing flood barriers across the doors of a dry floodproofed house. Also, the homeowner must always have
adequate warning of a coming flood and must be at home or near enough to reach the house and take the
necessary action before flood waters arrive. If these conditions cannot be met, retrofitting methods that require
human intervention should be eliminated from consideration.

Other – Homeowners may need to consider other factors, such as the availability of Federal, State, and local
financial assistance; the current value of the house vs. the inconvenience and cost of retrofitting; the amount of
time required to complete the retrofitting project; and the need to move out of the house during construction
(including the availability and cost of alternative housing).

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 DECIDING WHICH METHOD IS RIGHT FOR YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 4

Decision Making Matrix

Condition: NO Substantial Damage / NO Substantial Improvement
This matrix can help you decide which retrofitting method best meets your needs. You may need guidance when using
the matrix, so take it with you when you meet with local officials and contractors/design professionals.

Because your house has NOT been substantially damaged and is NOT being substantially improved, the National Flood
Insurance Program regulations do not prohibit your use of any of the methods described in this guide. However,
regulations, ordinances, or laws established by other agencies and organizations may. Also, you may have already
decided that one or more methods will not meet your needs. The first step in using the matrix is to identify any methods
eliminated by regulations or by your own needs. Mark each eliminated method by placing an “X” in the box directly below
the name of the method (on the line labeled “Prohibited by Federal, State, or Local Regulations or Eliminated by Law”).
An “X” in this row means that the method will not be considered in your decision.

The next step is to evaluate the remaining methods (those without an “X” under their names). Your evaluation will be
based on the factors listed on the left hand side of the matrix. (The factors are explained on the back of this page.) For
each evaluation factor under each method, discuss your concerns with your local official, design professional, and
contractor. If your concerns cannot be resolved, place an “X” in the appropriate box. For example, if you decide that you
would not be satisfied with the appearance of your house if it were elevated on extended foundation walls, you would
place an “X” in the box on the Appearance line under the heading Elevation on Extended Foundation Walls. After you
have worked through the entire matrix, add the number of “X’s” under each method and show the sum on the Total “X’s”
line. The method with the lowest total is probably the one that best meets your requirements.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 85

 CHAPTER 4

EVALUATION FACTORS
Federal, State, and Local Restrictions – Federal, State, and local regulations may restrict the
homeowner’s choice of retrofitting measures. Such regulations may include State and local building codes, flood-
plain management ordinance or laws, zoning ordinances, Federal regulations concerning the alteration of
buildings classified as historic structures, deed restrictions, and the covenants of homeowners associations. The
homeowner and the homeowner’s contractor or design professional should check with community officials to de-
termine whether such regulations apply.

Appearance – The final appearance of a house and property after retrofitting will depend largely on the retro-
fitting method used and the Flood Protection Elevation (FPE). For example, elevating a house several feet will
change its appearance much more than elevating only 1 or 2 feet, and wet floodproofing will change its appear-
ance very little. However, a change in appearance will not necessarily be a change for the worse. The
homeowner should discuss the potential effects of each method with local officials and with the contractor or de-
sign professional.

Cost – The cost of retrofitting will depend largely on the retrofitting method used and the FPE. For some
methods, the construction type (frame, masonry, etc.) and foundation type (crawlspace, slab, etc.) will also af-
fect the cost. In general, costs will increase as the FPE increases, but there may be tradeoffs between
alternative methods. For example, elevating may be less expensive than relocation when a house is raised
only 1 or 2 feet, but may become more expensive at greater heights. Other costs include those for both routine
and long-term maintenance.

Accessibility – Accessibility refers to how easy or difficult it is to routinely reach and enter the house after
the retrofitting project is completed. The retrofitting methods described in this guide affect accessibility in differ-
ent ways. For example, elevating a house will usually require the addition of stairs, which may be unacceptable
to some homeowners. Levees and floodwalls can make access more difficult unless they are equipped with
openings, which require human intervention (see below). Wet floodproofing and dry floodproofing will have little if
any affect on accessibility. The effect of relocation on accessibility will depend on the location and configuration
of the new site.

Code-Required Upgrades – State and local regulations may require that a retrofitted house be up-
graded to meet current code requirements that were not in effect when the house was built. Portions of the
electrical, plumbing, and heating/ventilation/air conditioning systems could be affected. For example, the elec-
trical panel might have to be upgraded from fuses to circuit breakers. These changes are required for the
safety of the homeowner. Other code-required upgrades include those necessary for increased energy effi-
ciency. Any required upgrade can add to the scope and cost of the retrofitting project. The homeowner and the
homeowner’s contractor or design professional should check with community officials to determine whether
such regulations apply.

Human Intervention – For retrofitting methods that require human intervention, homeowners must be
willing, able, and prepared to take the necessary action, such as operating a closure mechanism in a floodwall or
placing flood barriers across the doors of a dry floodproofed house. Also, the homeowner must always have
adequate warning of a coming flood and must be at home or near enough to reach the house and take the
necessary action before flood waters arrive. If these conditions cannot be met, retrofitting methods that require
human intervention should be eliminated from consideration.

Other – Homeowners may need to consider other factors, such as the availability of Federal, State, and local
financial assistance; the current value of the house vs. the inconvenience and cost of retrofitting; the amount of
time required to complete the retrofitting project; and the need to move out of the house during construction
(including the availability and cost of alternative housing).

86 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 CHAPTER 5

Elevating Your House

Introduction
One of the most common retrofitting methods is elevating a house to a
required or desired Flood Protection Elevation (FPE). When a house is
properly elevated, the living area will be above all but the most severe
floods (such as the 500-year flood). Several elevation techniques are
available. In general, they involve (1) lifting the house and building a new,
or extending the existing, foundation below it or (2) leaving the house in
place and either building an elevated floor within the house or adding a
new upper story.

During the elevation process, most frame, masonry veneer, and masonry
houses are separated from their foundations, raised on hydraulic jacks, and
held by temporary supports while a new or extended foundation is
constructed below. The living area is raised and only the foundation remains
exposed to flooding. This technique works well for houses originally built on
basement, crawlspace, and open foundations. When houses are lifted
with this technique, the new or extended foundation can consist of either
continuous walls or separate piers, posts, columns, or pilings. Masonry
houses are more difficult to lift, primarily because of their design, construction,
and weight, but lifting these homes is possible. In fact, numerous contractors
throughout the United States regularly perform this work.

A variation of this technique is used for frame, masonry veneer, and

masonry houses on slab-on-grade foundations. In these houses, the slab
forms both the floor of the house and either all or a major part of the
foundation. Elevating these houses is easier if the house is left attached to
the slab and both are lifted together. After the house and slab are lifted, a
new foundation is constructed below the slab.

For masonry houses on slab-on-grade foundations, some homeowners

find it easier to use one of two alternative elevation techniques, in which
the house is left on its original foundation. One technique is to remove the
roof, extend the walls of the house upward, replace the roof, and then
build a new elevated living area inside. The second is to abandon the

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 87

 CHAPTER 5

existing lower enclosed area (the level with the slab floor) and move the
living space to an existing or newly constructed upper floor. The
abandoned lower enclosed area is then used only for parking, storage,
and access to the house.

In both of these techniques, portions of the original walls will be below the
FPE. This approach is appropriate for masonry construction, which is
naturally flood-resistant, but not for frame construction, which could easily
be damaged by flood waters.

This chapter describes and illustrates the various elevation methods and
discusses the most important considerations regarding elevation.

Considerations
Amount of Elevation
The amount of elevation required is determined by the FPE you have
chosen. For example, if your FPE is equal to the Base Flood Elevation
(BFE), you will need to elevate your house so that the lowest floor is at or
above that elevation (see Figure 5-1). As explained earlier, if your house
has been substantially damaged or is being substantially improved, your
community’s floodplain management ordinance or law will require that
your lowest floor be elevated to or above the BFE.

If substantial damage and substantial improvement do not apply, you may

be able to elevate to any height you wish. But, keep in mind that raising
your house to an elevation below BFE not only provides less protection
but also results in little, if any, decrease in the flood insurance rate.
Regardless of whether your house has been substantially damaged or is

{
y

,
|

being substantially improved, you should

,yy,
Figure 5-1 consider incorporating at least 1 foot of
As shown in the freeboard into your FPE (as shown in

,,
yy
cutaway view, the Figure 5-1).

,y
lowest floor is above
the flood level. When at Elevating a house up to 3 or 4 feet above
the existing ground level usually will not
y
,
,
y
,
y

least 1 foot of freeboard

have a great effect on its appearance and

,,
is provided, only the

,,,,
foundation is exposed will require only minimal landscaping and

,,
to flooding. regrading. If you plan to elevate more than
4 feet above the existing grade, you

,,
should consider elevating your house a full
story, so that you can use the space below
the elevated house for parking, storage, or
building access (see Figure 5-2).

88 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 ELEVATING YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 5

Figure 5-2
This house in Atlanta,
Georgia, was elevated
one full story. The
garage and storage
area are at the house’s
original elevation.

WARNING
If you are elevating a
house that has been
substantially damaged
or is being substantially
WARNING improved, your com-
munity’s floodplain
If your house has been substantially
management ordinance
damaged or is being substantially improved
or law will not allow you
and is in a Coastal High Hazard Area (Zone
to have a basement, as
V, VE, or V1-V30 on the Flood Insurance
defined under the NFIP.
Rate Map (FIRM) for your community), your
The NFIP regulations
community’s floodplain management
define a basement as
ordinance or law will require that the bottom
“any area of the build-
of the lowest horizontal structural member
ing having its floor
(rather than the lowest floor) be elevated to or above the BFE. In many
subgrade on all sides.”
houses, the lowest horizontal structural member is a beam that supports
If your house has such
the framing of the lowest floor. With the exception of Elevating on an
a basement, you will be
Open Foundation, described at the end of this chapter, the elevation
required to fill it in as part
techniques presented in this guide are not appropriate for houses in
of any elevation project.
Coastal High Hazard Areas. If you have any doubt about the type of
Note that the National
flood hazards that may affect your house, check with your local officials.
Flood Insurance Pro-
gram (NFIP) definition
of basement does not
Existing Foundation
include what is typi-
In general, the most economical approach to elevating a house is to use
cally referred to as a
as much of the existing foundation as possible. Although some elevation
“walkout-on-grade” base-
methods do not allow this approach, most do. If you choose one of the
ment, whose floor would
latter, a design professional must evaluate the ability of your existing
be at or above grade on
foundation to support the loads that will be imposed by the elevated house
at least one side.
and, as discussed in the next section, the loads expected to result from

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 89

 CHAPTER 5

flooding and other hazards at the site. If changes must be made to the
foundation to increase its strength and stability, they can be made as part
of your retrofitting project, but they can increase both the cost of the
project and the time required to complete it.

The type of foundation on which your house was originally built

(basement, crawlspace, slab-on-grade, piers, posts, pilings) also can
affect the elevation process. This issue is discussed later in this chapter,
in the section The Elevation Techniques.

Hazards
Because so many elevation techniques are available, elevation is practical for
almost any flood situation, but the flooding conditions and other hazards at
the house site must be examined so that the most suitable technique can be
determined. Regardless of the elevation technique used, the foundation of
the elevated house must be able to withstand, at a minimum, the expected
loads from hydrostatic pressure, hydrodynamic pressure, and debris impact.
It must also be able to resist undermining by any expected erosion and scour.

If you are elevating a house in an area subject to high winds, earthquakes, or

other hazards, a design professional should determine whether the elevated
house, including its foundation, will be able to withstand all of the horizontal
and vertical forces expected to act on it. In making this determination, the
design professional must consider a number of factors, including the structure
and condition of the house, the soil conditions at the site, the proposed
elevation technique, and the hazards at the site. The conclusion may be that
additional modifications must be made during the retrofitting project.

Access
Elevating a house usually requires that new means of access be provided.
WARNING For example, if your entry doors were originally at ground level, new
Placing fill in floodways staircases, elevators, or ramps will have to be built. When an attached
and Coastal High Haz- garage is elevated, providing access for vehicles may require changes to
ard Areas is normally portions of your lot, such as building a new, elevated driveway on earth fill
prohibited. Check with that ties into high ground elsewhere. This solution can be practical when the
your local officials about amount of elevation required is no more than 2 or 3 feet. As noted earlier,
State and local require- when the amount of elevation reaches 4 or more feet, you should consider
ments concerning the elevating your house a full story so that you can use the lower level for
use of fill. parking and avoid the need for an elevated driveway.

The need to provide new means of access is often the main objection that
homeowners have to elevating. But functional and attractive solutions to
this problem can usually be developed, as shown in Figure 2-2 in Chapter 2
and Figure 5-3.

90 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 ELEVATING YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 5

Figure 5-3
With attention to detail
and planning,
homeowners have
created attractive
retrofitted houses.

House Size, Design, and Shape

In general, the larger the house and the more complex its design and
shape, the more difficult it will be to lift on jacks. Multistory houses are
more difficult to stabilize during the lifting process, and as the dimensions
and weight of a house increase, so do the required numbers of jacks and
other pieces of lifting equipment. Exterior wall coverings such as stucco
and brick veneer complicate the lifting process because they must either
be removed or braced so that they will stay in place when the house is
lifted. Houses with simple square or rectangular shapes are easier to lift
than those with attached garages, porches, wings, or additions, which
often must be detached and lifted separately, especially if they are built on
separate foundations.

Before a house is lifted, a design professional should inspect it to verify its

structural soundness. All the structural members and their connections must
be able to withstand the stresses imposed by the lifting process. Lifting an
unsound house can lead to potentially expensive damage.

Service Equipment
Before your house is elevated, all utility lines (water, sewer, gas, electric,
telephone, etc.) must be disconnected. At the end of the project, the lines DEFINITION
will be reconnected and any landscaping that may be necessary will be
Service equipment in-
completed. If you elevate your house on an open foundation, utility lines
cludes utility systems,
that enter the house from below may be exposed to damage from flooding
heating and cooling
and below-freezing temperatures. Protecting utility lines in these situations
systems, and large appli-
usually involves anchoring them securely to vertical foundation members
ances.
and, if necessary, insulating them. All service equipment outside the

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 91

CHAPTER 5

house, such as air conditioning and heat pump compressors and gas and
electric meters, must be elevated to or above the FPE. In houses with
basements, any service equipment originally installed in the basement will
have to be raised above the FPE, which may require relocation to an
upper floor. Chapter 8 discusses the protection of service equipment.

The Elevation Techniques

The elevation techniques and their application to different types of houses
are discussed in the following sections.

Elevating on Extended Foundation Walls

Frame, masonry veneer, and masonry houses can all be elevated on
extended foundation walls. As discussed in the following sections, the
technique used for houses on basement and crawlspace foundations
differs from that used for houses on slab-on-grade foundations.

Houses on Basement Foundations and Crawlspace Foundations

The elevation process is the same for frame, masonry veneer, and
masonry houses on basement and crawlspace foundations. Figures 5-4a
through 5-4d illustrate the process.

First, holes are made at intervals in the foundation wall so that a series of
steel I-beams can be installed at critical points under the floor framing (see
Figure 5-4a). If the foundation walls are made of concrete blocks, the lifting
contractor can remove individual blocks to create the required holes. If the
walls are made of poured concrete, the holes will be cut out. The I-beams
are placed so that they run perpendicular to the floor joists. A second set of
beams is then placed below and perpendicular to the first set (see Figure 5-
4a). The two sets of beams extend the width and length of the house and
form a cradle that supports the house as it is being raised.

In Figure 5-4a, the foundation walls are shown as extending far enough
above the ground surface to provide easy access to the area below the
floor framing. In some houses, however, the foundation walls will not be this
high. To lift such a house, the contractor must first dig trenches at intervals
around the foundation. The I-beams are then lowered into the trenches and
inserted below the floor framing. The contractor may also have to dig holes
for the lifting jacks, as shown in the figure. The number of jacks needed will
depend on the size, shape, and type of house being lifted.

92 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 ELEVATING YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 5

Once the beams and jacks are in place, the elevation process begins. The
jacks will extend only so high; so at intervals during the process, the
house and jacks are supported temporarily on cribbing while the jacks are
raised (see Figure 5-4b). After the house is elevated high enough, it is
again supported on cribbing while the foundation walls are extended to
the desired height with concrete blocks or poured concrete (see Figure 5-
4c). The house is then lowered onto the extended foundation walls, the
I-beams are removed, and the holes where the beams passed through
are filled. An important part of the project is installing openings in the
foundation walls, no higher than 1 foot above the ground, so that flood
waters can enter and equalize the internal and external hydrostatic
pressures. As shown in Figure 5-4c, the contractor can create these
openings by only partially filling the I-beam holes.

Figures 5-4a through

5-4d. Elevating a
basement or
crawlspace foundation
house on extended
foundation walls.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 93

 CHAPTER 5

NOTE
For more information
about openings require-
ments, refer to FEMA
Technical Bulletin 1-93,
Openings in Foundation
Walls for Buildings Lo-
cated in Special Flood
Hazard Areas, and
FEMA 259, Engineering
Principles and Practices
for Retrofitting Flood
Prone Residential
Buildings.

Houses on Slab-On-Grade Foundations

Frame, masonry veneer, and masonry houses on slab-on-grade
foundations are also lifted with hydraulic jacks and a network of steel I-
beams. However, design and construction differences between
slab-on-grade houses and those on other types of foundations present
special difficulties and require a different lifting technique.

The floor of a house on a slab-on-grade foundation, is formed by the slab

rather than the wood joist and beam framing found in houses on
crawlspace and basement foundations. The slab is usually 4 to 6 inches
thick and is often reinforced with wire mesh. As shown in the cross section
view in Figure 5-5, the slab can be supported by foundation walls and
footings or by a thickened edge created when the slab is poured.

94 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 ELEVATING YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 5

Figure 5-5
Slab foundation types.

,
,,,
,,
,
,,,, ,,,
,,,, ,,,,
,,,
,,,
,,,,
,,
,,,,,
,,,, ,,
,,, ,,,,,,,,,
,,,,
,,,,,

Because the slab forms the floor of the house, and occasionally the
foundation as well, elevating the house is easier if the house and slab are
lifted together. But this technique is more difficult than that used for
houses on basement and crawlspace foundations and should be
performed only by a highly skilled contractor with extensive experience in
lifting slab-on-grade houses. The wire mesh in the slab is intended to
prevent shrinkage cracking during the original construction of the slab; it is
not intended to provide structural strength. As a result, the contractor must
take extreme care during the lifting process to avoid breaking the slab and
compromising the structural integrity of the house.

The elevation process (see Figures 5-6a through 5-6d) is similar to that
used for houses on basement and crawlspace foundations, except that
the I-beams must be placed below the slab, which is at ground level. So,
the contractor must dig trenches at intervals around the foundation, and
tunnel under the slab. The I-beams are lowered into the trenches and
moved into place beneath the slab through the tunnels (see Figure 5-6a).

The contractor must also dig holes for the lifting jacks because they have
to be placed below the beams. Once the beams and jacks are in place,
the lifting process begins. As shown in Figures 5-6b and 5-6c, the house
is lifted and a new foundation is constructed below it.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 95

 CHAPTER 5

Figures 5-6a through

5-6d. Elevating a slab-
on-grade house with
the slab attached

NOTE
For more information
about openings require-
ments, refer to FEMA
Technical Bulletin 1-93,
Openings in Foundation
Walls for Buildings Lo-
cated in Special Flood
Hazard Areas, and
FEMA 259, Engineering
Principles and Practices
for Retrofitting Flood
Prone Residential
Buildings.

96 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 ELEVATING YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 5

If the slab was originally supported by foundation walls and footings (see
upper and left-hand illustrations in Figure 5-5), the contractor may be able
to leave them in place and extend the existing walls upward. This
approach will be possible only when a design professional determines
that the original foundation walls and footings are strong enough to
support the elevated house and slab under the expected flood, wind,
earthquake, and other loads. If the slab was originally supported by its
own thickened edge (shown in the lower illustration in Figure 5-5), a
completely new foundation must be constructed.

In both situations, the contractor must construct not only foundation walls
under the perimeter of the slab but also additional vertical foundation
members, such as piers, at several locations under the slab. These
additional foundation members are necessary because slabs are designed
to rest directly on the ground, not to support the weight of the house.

A less frequently used technique for elevating slab-on-grade houses is to

separate the house from the slab, lift the house, and leave the slab on the
ground. Because the slab is not lifted, the I-beams are inserted through
openings cut into the walls of the house above the slab rather than below
it. To enable the beams to lift the house, the contractor attaches horizontal
wood bracing to the interior and exterior walls at the tops of the openings
(see Figure 5-7).

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 97

 CHAPTER 5

Figure 5-7
Elevating a slab-on-
grade house without
the slab.

When the beams are jacked up, they push against the bracing, which
distributes the lifting force equally across the walls. The bracing also
supports the walls, which lack the structural stability that would otherwise
be provided when the walls and floor are left attached. Without bracing, the
walls could twist, bend, or collapse when the house is lifted. If a design
professional determines that the original slab is strong enough to support
the elevated house under the expected flood, wind, earthquake, and other
loads, the slab may be left in place and the new foundation walls built on
top. Otherwise, the slab must be cut back and a completely new foundation
constructed, as shown in Figure 5-8.

Figure 5-8
Building a new
foundation for a slab-
on-grade house

,,
,,
,,,, , ,,,,,
,, ,, ,,
,,
98
,, FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY
 ELEVATING YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 5

When the slab is not lifted with the house, a new, elevated floor must be
constructed. The new floor can be a wood-framed floor like that typically
found in a house on a basement or crawlspace foundation, or it can be a
new, elevated concrete slab. Building a new slab floor involves placing fill
dirt on top of the old slab and pouring a new slab on top of the fill.
Although the old slab is left in place, it is usually broken up so that it will
not be forced up by the buoyant effect of flood waters or saturated soil.

The primary advantage of lifting the house without the slab is that the
house is lighter and therefore easier to lift. This benefit applies mainly to
frame and masonry veneer houses. This method has several
disadvantages, however:

• Cutting holes in the interior and exterior walls of the house and
attaching wood bracing causes extensive damage that must be
repaired before the elevated house is habitable.
• Because of the damage to the habitable parts of the house,
alternative housing may be needed for an extended period.
• The contents of the house must be removed before the
elevation process can begin.
• Masonry veneer is likely to interfere with the installation of
exterior wall bracing and to crack or break off if left in place
during elevation.
Because of these disadvantages, lifting a slab-on-grade house without the
slab is normally done only when the house has been severely damaged
by a flood or other event and would require extensive repairs regardless
of the elevation method used.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 99

CHAPTER 5

Alternative Elevation Techniques for Masonry Houses on

Slab-on-Grade Foundations

Elevating by Extending the Walls of the House

An alternative technique for elevating a masonry house on a slab-on-
grade foundation is to extend the existing walls of the house upward and
then build a new elevated floor above the old slab. This technique is
Illustrated in Figures 5-9a through 5-9c.

First the roof and roof framing are removed so that the tops of the walls
will be accessible. The contractor can then extend the walls upward with
additional courses of either concrete block (as shown in Figure 5-9b) or
brick or with wood or metal framing. The choice of materials is based on
several considerations, including cost, the final appearance of the house,
the strength of the existing foundation, and the design requirements
associated with the identified hazards, including high winds and
earthquakes.

The final height of the extended walls will usually depend on how high the
lowest floor must be elevated. For example if the lowest floor must be
elevated 3 feet to reach the FPE, the height of the walls must be
increased by the same amount if the original ceiling heights in the house
are to be maintained.

The new lowest floor can be either a wood-framed floor system or an

elevated concrete slab similar to the original slab. When a new wood-
framed floor system is installed, the area below the floor becomes a
crawlspace (as in Figure 5-9c) or other enclosed area that may be used
for parking, storage, or building access. So openings must be installed in
the foundation walls to allow external and internal water pressures to
equalize. Additional wall openings may be needed for ventilation.

For a new elevated slab floor, fill dirt is placed on top of the old slab and
compacted as required. Then a new slab is poured on top of the fill. When
this method is used, openings in the foundation walls are not required,
because the entire area under the new slab is completely filled with dirt
and is therefore protected from the pressure of flood waters.

100 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 ELEVATING YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 5

Figures 5-9a through

5-9c. Extending the
walls of a solid
masonry house.

NOTE
For more information
about openings require-
ments, refer to FEMA
Technical Bulletin 1-93,
Openings in Foundation
Walls for Buildings Lo-
cated in Special Flood
Hazard Areas, and
FEMA 259, Engineering
Principles and Practices
for Retrofitting Flood
Prone Residential
Buildings.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 101

CHAPTER 5

Elevating by Abandoning the Lower Enclosed Area

Another alternative for a masonry house on a slab-on-grade foundation
is to abandon the existing lower enclosed area of the house (the area
with the slab floor) and allow it to remain below the FPE. This technique
requires that the living area be restricted to upper floors of the house
and that the lower enclosed area be used only for parking, storage, and
access. Because this technique leaves the original floor and walls below
the FPE exposed to flooding, it is best suited to masonry houses on
slab-on-grade foundations. In these houses both the walls and floor are
made of concrete or masonry, which are not easily damaged by contact
with flood waters.

The amount of work required for this technique depends largely on

whether the house already has an upper floor that can be used for living
space. When an upper floor exists, abandoning the lower enclosed area
involves removing easily damaged interior finishing materials below the
FPE (including interior wall sheathing and insulation) and elevating or
relocating vulnerable appliances (such as furnaces, washing machines,
and freezers) and utility system components (such as electrical wiring and
service boxes). These modifications are the same as those required for
wet floodproofing, as described in Chapter 6. Refer to that chapter for
details.

For one-story houses, abandoning the lower enclosed area requires the
construction of a new second story as shown in Figures 5-10a through
5-10c. The required steps are similar to those described in the previous
section, Elevating by Extending the Walls of the House. The roof and roof
framing are removed, a new second story is built on top of the existing
walls, the roof and roof framing are replaced, and openings are added for
floodwaters. The construction options are the same: frame or masonry.
Again, the choice is based primarily on the considerations of cost, final
appearance, the strength of the existing foundation, and the need to
address other natural hazards, such as high winds and earthquakes.

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 CHAPTER 5

Elevating on an Open Foundation

Frame, masonry veneer, and masonry houses on basement, crawlspace,
and slab-on-grade foundations can also be elevated on open foundations
consisting of piers, posts, columns, or pilings. Houses originally
constructed on open foundations can also be elevated this way.

Piers
Figures 5-11a through 5-11d show how a house on a basement or
crawlspace foundation can be elevated on masonry piers. The lifting
process is the same as that shown in Figure 5-4 for elevating on extended
foundation walls. Once the house is lifted high enough, new masonry
piers are built on the existing foundation, if it is adequate. If the existing
foundation is not adequate to support the elevated house, it will have to
be either modified or removed and replaced by separate footings for the
individual piers.

An existing basement would have to be filled in with dirt and graded. An

old basement slab would usually be left in place and covered with fill dirt.
But the slab would be broken up so that it would not be forced up by the
buoyancy effect of flood waters. The house in Figure 5-11d, has been
␣ elevated approximately one full story, and a new concrete slab has been
poured at ground level below it. The open area below the house can be
used for parking, storage, and access.

Piers can be constructed of cast-in-place concrete as well as masonry

block. However, regardless of the construction materials used, piers are
designed primarily for vertical loading imposed by the weight of the house,
including its contents and any exterior loads such as those imposed by
snow. Because the forces associated with flooding, wind, and
earthquakes can impose horizontal loads, piers used in retrofitting must
be adequately reinforced with steel bars. The connections between the
piers and the original foundation and elevated house also must be able to
NOTE resist the expected horizontal and vertical loads on the house.
Elevating on an open
foundation is an appro-
priate retrofitting tech-
nique for houses in
Coastal High Hazard
Areas (Zones V, VE, or
V1-V30 on a FIRM).

104 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 ELEVATING YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 5

Figures 5-11a through

5-11d. Elevating a
basement or
crawlspace foundation
house on piers.

NEW MASONRY PIERS

ARE CONSTRUCTED
AS HOUSE IS RAISED

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 105

CHAPTER 5

Posts or Columns
Posts are usually placed in drilled or excavated holes. Each post or
column is either encased in concrete or anchored to a concrete pad. The
house elevation process is the same as that described for piers; however,
the existing foundation must be removed so that the posts or columns and
their concrete encasements or pads can be installed. Figure 5-12 shows a
house elevated on two types of post or column foundations.

Figure 5-12 House elevated on posts.

106 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 ELEVATING YOUR HOUSE CHAPTER 5

Pilings
Elevating on pilings is a more involved process. Pilings are usually driven
into the ground or jetted in with a high-pressure stream of water. They are
not supported by concrete footings or pads. Unlike the construction of
wall, pier, or post or column foundations, the pile driving operation, which
requires bulky, heavy construction machinery, cannot be carried out under
a house that has been lifted on jacks. Instead, the house is usually lifted
and moved aside until the pilings have been installed. Because the
existing foundation is not used, it must be removed. Figure 5-13 shows a
house elevated on a piling foundation.

Figure 5-13 House elevated on pilings.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 107

 CHAPTER 6

Wet Floodproofing
Introduction WARNING
This guide describes two types of floodproofing: wet and dry. As its If your house has been
name implies, wet floodproofing allows flood waters to enter the substantially damaged
enclosed areas of a house. In contrast, dry floodproofing (Chapter 7) or is being substantially
prevents the entry of flood waters. The benefit of wet floodproofing is that improved, your com-
if flood waters are allowed to enter the enclosed areas of the house and to munity’s floodplain
quickly reach the same level as the flood waters outside, the effects of management ordinance
hydrostatic pressure, including buoyancy, are greatly reduced. As a result, or law will restrict the
the loads imposed on the house during a flood, and therefore the use of wet floodproofing
likelihood of structural damage, may be greatly reduced. Wet to attached garages
floodproofing is generally used to limit damages to enclosures below and enclosed areas be-
elevated buildings, walkout-on-grade basements, below-grade low the Base Flood
basements, crawlspaces, or attached garages. It is not practical for areas Elevation (BFE) that are
that are to be used as living space. used solely for parking,
storage, and access.
Successful wet floodproofing involves the following: For more information,
refer to Federal Emer-
• ensuring that flood waters enter and exit the house gency Management
Agency (FEMA) Techni-
• ensuring that flood waters inside the house rise and fall at the cal Bulletin 7-93, Wet
same rate as flood waters outside
Flood proofing Require-
• protecting the areas of the house that are below the flood level ments for Structures
from damage caused by contact with flood waters Located in the Special
Flood Hazard Area.
• protecting service equipment inside and outside the house
• relocating any materials stored below the Flood Protection
Elevation (FPE)
This chapter describes the modifications that must be made to a house as
part of a wet floodproofing project, and it discusses the most important DEFINITION
considerations regarding wet floodproofing. Protection of service
Service equipment in-
equipment is discussed in Chapter 8.
cludes utility systems,
heating and cooling
systems, and large ap-
pliances.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 109

 CHAPTER 6

Considerations
Flood Protection Elevation
NOTE All construction and finishing materials in the areas of the house that will
be allowed to flood must be resistant to damage caused by direct, and
Flood-resistant materi- possibly prolonged, contact with flood waters. Areas used for living space
als are discussed later contain floor and wall coverings and other finishing materials, furniture,
in this chapter. appliances, and other items that are easily damaged by flood waters and
expensive to clean, repair, or replace. Therefore, wet floodproofing is
practical only for portions of a house that are not used for living space, such
as a basement as defined by the National Flood Insurance Program
(NFIP) regulations, walkout-on-grade basement, crawlspace, or attached
garage. As shown in Figure 6-1, the FPE (including freeboard) should be no
higher than your lowest finished floor.
WARNING
If you are retrofitting a
house that has been
substantially damaged
or is being substantially
improved, your com-
munity’s floodplain
management ordinance
or law will not allow you
to have a basement, as
defined under the NFIP.
The NFIP regulations
define a basement as
“any area of the build-
ing having its floor
subgrade on all sides.”
If your house has such
a basement, you will be
required to fill it in as part
of any wet floodproofing
project. Note that the
NFIP definition of base-
ment does not include
what is typically referred
to as a “walkout-on-
grade” basement, whose
floor would be at or
Figure 6-1
above grade on at least
A typical wet floodproofed house that is compliant with the minimum
one side.
requirements of a community’s floodplain management ordinance or law.

110 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 WET FLOODPROOFING CHAPTER 6

If your FPE is above the elevation of your lowest finished floor, you should
consider one or more of the other retrofitting methods described in this guide,
such as elevation (Chapter 5). If you read Chapter 5, you will note that most
of the elevation methods incorporate the principles of wet floodproofing.
They raise the living space above the flood level and allow flood waters to
enter the areas of the house below the living space.

Hazards
Wet floodproofing protects a house from the effects of hydrostatic
pressure but not from other flood hazards, such as the hydrodynamic
force of flowing water, erosion and scour, the impact of ice and other
floodborne debris, and damage from floodborne contaminants. If you
have seen evidence of these hazards in past floods in your area, or if your
community officials confirm that your house may be affected by these
hazards, you should consider an alternative retrofitting method, such as
relocation (see Chapter 7) or elevation on an open foundation (see
Chapter 5). Wet floodproofing a house does not change its vulnerability to
damage from high winds or earthquakes.

Post-Flood Cleanup
Remember that flood waters are rarely clean. They usually carry sediment,
debris, and even corrosive or hazardous materials such as solvents, oil,
sewage, pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemicals. Allowing areas of a
house to flood exposes those areas to whatever is in the flood waters.
Cleaning up a wet floodproofed house after a flood may therefore involve
not only removing mud but also washing, disinfecting, and decontaminating
walls, floors, and other surfaces. This is another good reason why wet
floodproofing is inappropriate for areas used as living space and, in some NOTE
circumstances, why it may be inappropriate for any part of a house. For more information
about openings require-
ments for wet flood-
Modifications Required for Wet Floodproofing proofing, refer to FEMA
Technical Bulletin 1-93,
Wet floodproofing requires a variety of modifications to your house, including
Openings in Foundation
its walls, construction and finishing materials, and service equipment.
Walls for Buildings Lo-
cated in Special Flood
Installing Openings Hazard Areas , and
The most important part of a wet floodproofing project is installing wall FEMA 259, Engineer-
openings that will allow the entry and exit of flood waters. The openings ing Principles and
must be installed in foundation walls and in garage walls as appropriate, Practices for Retrofitting
below the expected flood level (see Figure 6-1). The goal is not simply to Flood Prone Residential
allow the entry and exit of flood waters but also to ensure that the water Buildings.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 111

 CHAPTER 6

level inside the house rises and falls at roughly the same rate as the water
level outside so that hydrostatic pressures inside and outside are
continually equalized. As shown in Figure 6-2, large differences in the
interior and exterior water levels allow unequalized hydrostatic pressures
and therefore defeat the purpose of wet floodproofing.

Figure 6-2
Wall openings must
allow flood waters not
only to enter the house
but also to rise and fall
at the same rate as
flood waters outside.

,,, ,,,,
,,, ,,,,

,,, ,,,,,
,,, ,,,,,

112 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 WET FLOODPROOFING CHAPTER 6

For equal water levels to be maintained, both the size and number of
openings must be adequate. Otherwise, when flood waters are rising and
falling, water will not be able to flow into or out of the house fast enough.
The number of openings required and their size will depend on the rate of
rise and the rate of fall of the flood waters (see Chapter 2) and on the size
of the area that is being allowed to flood. In general, the faster the rates of
rise and fall and the larger the flooded area within the house, the larger the
number and size of openings required.

If you are wet floodproofing areas below the BFE in a substantially

damaged or substantially improved house, your community’s floodplain
management ordinance or law will require you to install openings in the
exterior walls of all enclosed areas below the BFE. The minimum
requirements are as follows:

• You must provide at least two wall openings for each enclosed
area -- one in each of two different walls. In other words, you
cannot put both openings in the same wall.
• If your house has more than one enclosed area, you must
install openings in the exterior walls of each enclosed area so
that flood waters can enter directly from the outside.
NOTE
• The total area (size) of all openings for each enclosed area must
be equal to at least 1 square inch for every square foot of floor If you cover wall open-
space in the enclosed area. For example, if the enclosed area is ings with louvers or
25 feet by 40 feet (1,000 square feet), the total area of the screens, keep in mind
openings must be at least 1,000 square inches, or roughly 7 that the more restrictive
square feet. In this example, you could meet the size they are the more likely
requirement by providing two 3 1/2-square-foot openings or they are to become
several smaller openings whose total area equals 7 square feet. clogged with debris dur-
ing floods and to
• The bottom of each opening must be no higher than 1 foot prevent the flow of wa-
above the ground directly below the opening. ter. Make sure that any
• Flood waters must be able to flow in and out of enclosed areas screens or louvers you
automatically. If you place louvers, screens, or other types of use will allow the pas-
covers over the openings (which many homeowners do to sage of water that
prevent animals from entering the enclosed areas) they must contains suspended
not block the flow of water. Because the need for human sediment and other
intervention reduces the reliability of wet floodproofing, you may small debris. After flood
not install any type of electrically, mechanically, or manually waters have receded,
operated cover. screens and louvers
must be cleaned of any
FEMA developed these requirements to provide homeowners with a
other debris that may
straightforward means of determining where and how to install wall
have accumulated.
openings without the aid of an engineer or design professional. The

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 113

 CHAPTER 6

requirements provide a margin of safety for wet floodproofed houses

subject to flooding with rates of rise and fall as high as 5 feet per hour. If
you wish to install openings that do not meet one or more of the
requirements listed above, your design must be certified by a registered
engineer or other licensed design professional and approved by your local
officials. See FEMA’s Technical Bulletin 1-93, Openings in Foundation
Walls for Buildings Located in Special Flood Hazard Areas, for more
information about openings requirements.

Using Flood-Resistant Materials

NOTE In the areas below the FPE, any construction and finishing materials that
For more information could be damaged by flood waters must be either removed or replaced
about flood-resistant with flood-resistant materials as required by your community’s floodplain
materials, refer to management ordinance or law. Vulnerable materials include drywall,
FEMA Technical Bulle- blown-in and fiberglass batt insulation, carpeting, and non pressure-
tin 2-93, Flood-Resistant treated wood and plywood. Flood-resistant materials are those that can
Materials Requirements be inundated by flood waters with little or no damage. They include such
for Buildings Located in materials as concrete, stone, masonry block, ceramic and clay tile,
Special Flood Hazard pressure-treated and naturally decay-resistant lumber, epoxy paints, and
Areas. This bulletin in- metal. In addition to resisting damage from flood waters, these materials
cludes a detailed list of are relatively easy to clean after flood waters have receded.
common floor, wall, and
ceiling materials cat-
Protecting Service Equipment
egorized according to
their applicability for use When you wet floodproof a house, you must also protect the service
in areas subject to inun- equipment below the FPE, both inside and outside the house as required
dation by flood waters. by your community’s floodplain management ordinance or law. Service
equipment includes utility lines, heating ventilation and cooling equipment,
ductwork, hot water heaters, and large appliances. Chapter 8 describes a
variety of methods you can use to protect interior and exterior service
equipment.

114 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 CHAPTER 7

Other Methods
Introduction
This chapter describes four alternatives to elevation (Chapter 5) and wet
floodproofing (Chapter 6):

Relocation

Dry Floodproofing

Levees and Floodwalls

Demolition

These methods can be as effective as either elevation or wet

floodproofing, but they are used less often because they are costly and
more complex.

Relocation
Introduction
Relocation – moving your house out of the flood hazard area
– offers the greatest protection from flooding. It also can free NOTE
you from anxiety about future floods and lower or even For information about
eliminate your insurance premiums. However, relocation usually is the most house relocation com-
expensive of the retrofitting methods. panies, contact the
International Associa-
The relocation process involves lifting a house off its foundation, placing it tion of Structural Movers
on a heavy-duty flatbed trailer, hauling it to a new site outside the flood (ISM) at P.O. Box 1213,
hazard area, and lowering it onto a new, conventional foundation. The Elbridge, NY 13060,
process sounds straightforward, but a number of considerations require (315) 689-9498.
careful planning.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 115

 CHAPTER 7

Considerations
Condition of House
For a house to be picked up and moved successfully, it must be
NOTE structurally sound. All the structural members and their connections must
Relocation is sometimes be able to withstand the stresses imposed when the house is lifted and
used as an alternative to moved. Before the house is lifted, the house moving contractor must
demolition (as described inspect it to verify its structural soundness. A house that is in poor
later in this chapter) condition, especially one that has been damaged by flooding, may need
when a house has been so much structural repair and bracing that relocation will not be practical.
damaged. Instead of de-
molishing the house, the House Size, Design, and Shape
owner may be able to In general, the types of houses that are the easiest to elevate (as
sell it for salvage to a discussed in Chapter 5) are also the easiest to relocate: single-story,
contractor, who will then wood-frame houses over a crawlspace or basement foundation,
move the house to an- especially those with a simple rectangular shape. These houses are
other site, renovate it, relatively light, and their foundation design allows the house moving
and sell it. Relocation contractor to install lifting equipment with relative ease. Multistory houses
can also occur after a and solid masonry houses are the most difficult to relocate because their
community acquires a greater size and weight requires additional lifting equipment and makes
floodprone property them more difficult to stabilize during the move. Slab-on-grade
from the owner. Instead foundations complicate the relocation process because they make the
of leaving the house to installation of lifting equipment more difficult.
be demolished, the
owner may decide to The relocation process is also more complicated for houses with brick or
keep the house and stone veneer, which can crack and peel off when disturbed. It may be
move it to property out- cheaper to remove the veneer before the house is moved and replace it
side the flood hazard once the house is on the new foundation at the new site. For the same
area. reason, chimneys may need to be removed before the move and rebuilt
afterwards. If they are to be moved with the house, they must be braced
extensively.

Moving Route Between Old and New Sites

Restrictions along the route to the new site can complicate a relocation
project, especially for large houses. Narrow roads, restrictive load
capacities on roads and bridges, and low clearances under bridges and
power lines can make it necessary to find an alternative route. When no
practical alternatives are available, the house moving contractor may
have to cut the house into sections (as shown in Figure 7-1), move them
separately, and reassemble the house at the new site. Experienced house
movers can make the cuts and reassemble the house in such a way that
it will not appear to have ever been apart.

116 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OTHER METHODS CHAPTER 7

Figure 7-1
When a house is too
large to be moved in one
piece, it must be cut into
sections that can be
moved separately and
then reassembled at the
new site.

Disruption of Occupants
Among all the retrofitting methods, relocation is the most disruptive for the
occupants of the house. Before the house can be lifted, all utility systems
must be disconnected. The house becomes uninhabitable at this point,
and you will not be able to move back in until the house has been
installed at the new site and all utility systems reconnected. In the interim,
you will need temporary lodgings and a place to store your furniture and
other belongings.

The Relocation Process

The relocation process consists of more than lifting and moving the NOTE
house. You must work with your contractor to select a new site for the
See Chapter 4 for infor-
house, and the contractor must plan the moving route, obtain the
mation about working
necessary permits, prepare the new site, and restore the old site.
with local officials re-
Selecting the New Site garding flood hazards
Selecting a new site for your relocated house is similar to selecting a site and permitting require-
on which to build a new house. You need to consider the following: ments in your community.

Natural Hazards – Remember that the goal of relocating is to move your

house to a site that will be safe from flooding and other natural hazards.
Before buying new property, check with local officials about the flood,
wind, and earthquake hazards at any new site you may be considering
(see Chapter 4).

Utilities – Determine how difficult it will be to install new utility systems and
to have utility lines extended to your new site. You need to consider

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 117

 CHAPTER 7

electrical, gas, water and sewer, telephone, and cable TV services. Your
community will probably require that your new utility systems meet current
code requirements. Regardless of these requirements, you should
WARNING consider upgrading one or more of your utility systems to provide more
Regardless of the age energy-efficient service.
of your house, you may
be required by local Accessibility – Your new site must be accessible to the house movers and
regulations to bring it up to the construction crews that will prepare the site and build the new
to current code when foundation for your house. The more difficult it is for contractors to reach
you move it to a new and work at your new site, the more expensive your relocation project is
site. This requirement likely to be. If extensive grading and clearing are necessary for adequate
could affect not only the access, some of the characteristics that made the site attractive to you
house but also its utility may be diminished.
systems. You should
check with your local Another important consideration regarding accessibility the difficulty of
officials about such re- moving the house to the new site. In determining the best route between
quirements before you the old and new sites, the moving contractor must anticipate potential
decide to relocate. problems. For example, the progress of the house may be impeded by
narrow bridges and road cuts, bridges with low weight limits, low-hanging
utility lines and traffic signals, low underpasses, tight turns, and road signs
and fire hydrants.

The moving contractor should be responsible for coordinating any special

services that may be required to deal with obstacles, such as raising traffic
lights, relocating signs, and constructing temporary bridges. Utility lines can
usually be raised temporarily during the move, but utility companies often
charge for this service. Sometimes it may be more practical to avoid
obstacles by choosing an overland (non-road) travel route.

Permitting
You or your moving contractor will have to obtain permits to move the
house on public roads or other rights-of-way. These permits may be
required by local governments, highway departments, and utility
companies, not only in the jurisdiction from which your house is being
moved, but also any jurisdiction the house will pass through. If the moving
route crosses or affects private land, you may need to obtain the approval
of the landowner.

Obtaining the necessary permits and approvals may be a lengthy and

complex process, and you may find that the requirements vary from
jurisdiction to jurisdiction and agency to agency. So it is extremely important
that you, your design professional, and your moving contractor investigate
the need for permits and approvals early in the relocation process.

118 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OTHER METHODS CHAPTER 7

You or your design professional should check with local officials to make
sure that when your house is moved to the new site, it will conform to all
zoning requirements and building codes in effect at the time of the
relocation. The design professional should also determine the local design
NOTE
standards and permitting requirements that govern the development of
your new site. All permits required for construction at the new site, for The timing of the move
moving your house, and for restoring the old site after the house is moved may be critical in areas
should be obtained before the relocation project begins. with heavy traffic during
morning and evening
Preparing the New Site rush hours. In these
Before the house is moved, the new foundation is designed and is usually areas, houses are often
partially constructed. The foundation will be completed after the house is moved late at night or
brought to the site. Clearing, excavation, and grading are necessary to early in the morning .
allow construction to begin and to ensure that the house can be
maneuvered on the site. Also, utility lines must be brought into the site so
that there will be no delay in connecting them to the house and making it
habitable.

Lifting the House NOTE

In general, the steps required in lifting a house off its foundation are the Refer to Chapter 5 for a
same as those described in Chapter 5 for elevating a house on extended description of how
foundation walls. As described in Chapter 5, the steps for houses on houses on various types
basement and crawlspace foundations differ from those for houses on of foundations are lifted
slab-on-grade foundations. off their foundations.

Houses on basement and crawlspace foundations are separated from their

foundations and lifted on steel I-beams that pass through the foundation
walls directly below the floor framing. The lifting is done with hydraulic jacks
placed directly under the I-beams. The process for houses on slab-on-grade
foundations is similar. However, because these houses are lifted with the
concrete floor slab attached, the I-beams are inserted below the slab.

Moving the House

After the house is lifted, the moving contractor performs whatever grading
and excavation are necessary to create a temporary roadway that will
allow the house to be moved to the street. The area beneath the house
must be leveled and compacted so that trailer wheel sets can be placed
under the house (see Figure 7-2). The wheel sets and lifting beams form
the trailer on which the house will be moved.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 119

 CHAPTER 7

Figure 7-2
Trailer wheel sets are
placed beneath the
lifting beams.

After the wheels are attached, a tractor or bulldozer tows the house to the
street. As the house is being moved, workers continually block the wheels
to prevent sudden movement. At the street, the house is stabilized, the
trailer is attached to a truck, and the journey to the new site begins.

Figure 7-3
The journey to the new
site begins.

At the new site, the moving contractor positions the house over the
partially completed foundation and supports the house on cribbing so the
trailer wheels can be removed. As in the house elevation process
described in Chapter 5, the house is lifted on hydraulic jacks to the
desired height and the foundation is completed below it (see Figure 7-4).
The house is then lowered onto the foundation, all utilities are connected,
and any necessary backfilling and landscaping is completed.

120 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OTHER METHODS CHAPTER 7

Figure 7-4
Once the house is
raised, the foundation
is completed.

Restoring the Old Site NOTE

After the house is moved, the old site must be restored according to the Many homeowners have
requirements of local regulations. Restoring the site usually involves sold or deeded aban-
demolishing and removing the old foundation and any pavement, such as doned floodprone
a driveway or patio; backfilling an old basement; removing all abandoned properties to local mu-
utility systems; grading to restore areas disturbed by demolition; and nicipalities for use as
stabilizing the site with new vegetation. Permits are normally required for parkland or open space.
demolition, grading, and vegetative stabilization.

If your old site included a septic tank or fuel storage tank, you may have to
meet the requirements of environmental regulations aimed at preventing
contamination of the groundwater. Depending on the age and condition of
the tank, you may be required to drain and remove it. If it is an
underground tank, you may have to drain it and anchor it to prevent
flotation. You may also be required to test the soil around an underground
tank to determine whether leakage has occurred. As the homeowner, you
will usually be responsible for cleaning contaminated soil if there has been
any leakage from the tank. In this situation, you will need the services of a
qualified geotechnical or environmental engineer.

Local utility companies or regulatory officials can inform you about

requirements concerning capping, abandoning, or removing various utility
system components.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 121

 CHAPTER 7

Dry Floodproofing
Introduction
WARNING
Dry floodproofing is completely sealing the exterior of a
Dry floodproofing cannot building to prevent the entry of flood waters. Unlike wet
be used to bring a sub- floodproofing (Chapter 6), which allows water to enter the
stantially damaged or house through wall openings, dry floodproofing seals all openings below
substantially improved the flood level and relies on the walls of the house to hold water out.
house into compliance Because the walls are exposed to flood waters and the pressures they
with the requirements of exert, dry floodproofing is practical only for houses with walls constructed
your community’s flood-
of flood-resistant materials and only where flood depths are low (no more
plain management or-
than 2 to 3 feet). Successful dry floodproofing involves the following:
dinance or law.
• sealing the exterior walls of the house
• covering openings below the flood level
• protecting the interior of the house from seepage
DEFINITION • protecting service equipment outside the house
Service equipment in- The following sections discuss the most important considerations
cludes utility systems, regarding dry floodproofing and describe the modifications that must be
heating and cooling made to a house as part of a dry floodproofing project. Protection of
systems, and large appli- service equipment is discussed in Chapter 8.
ances.
Considerations
Flood Depth
The primary consideration in dry floodproofing, and the one that imposes
NOTE the greatest limitations on the application of this method, is the effect of
hydrostatic pressure. Because dry floodproofing prevents water from
For additional informa-
entering the house, the external hydrostatic pressure exerted by flood
tion about dry flood-
waters is not countered by an equal force from water inside the house
proofing techniques, re-
(see Chapter 2). This external pressure results in two significant
fer to Federal Emergency
problems: heavy unequalized loads on the walls of the house and
Management Agency
(FEMA) Technical Bulle- buoyancy, or uplift force, which acts on the entire house.
tin 3-93, Non-Residential
Floodproofing – Require- When water builds up against a wall, it pushes laterally against the wall.
ments and Certification As the depth of water increases, so does this force, as indicated by the
for Buildings Located in arrows in Figure 7-5. Tests performed by the U.S. Army Corps of
Special Flood Hazard Engineers1 have shown that, in general, the maximum allowable flood
Areas, and FEMA 259, depth for masonry and masonry veneer walls is approximately 3 feet. In
Principles and Practices these tests, walls exposed to greater depths of water either collapsed or
for Retrofitting Flood suffered serious structural damage.
Prone Residential Build- 1
The test results are documented in the following reports published by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers National Flood
Proofing Committee: Flood Proofing Tests – Tests of Materials and Systems for Flood Proofing Structures, August 1988;
ings. Systems and Materials to Prevent Floodwaters from Entering Buildings, May 1985; Structural Integrity of Brick-Veneer
Buildings, 1978; Tests of Brick-Veneer Walls and Closures for Resistance to Floodwaters, May 1978.

122 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OTHER METHODS CHAPTER 7

Figure 7-5
The hydrostatic pressure exerted by
flood water (including buoyancy)
increases with depth. WARNING
The flood depth limits dis-

,,, ,,,
cussed here are

,,,
provided as general
No definitive testing has been guidelines only. Before
carried out for conventional frame you attempt to dry
walls without masonry veneer. However, it is generally accepted that they floodproof your house, a
are difficult to seal, weaker than masonry and masonry veneer walls, and design professional,
likely to fail at lower depths. such as a structural en-
gineer, must inspect it to
Hydrostatic pressure is exerted not only by flood water but also by soils determine whether it is
saturated by floodwaters. As a result, basement walls can be subjected to structurally sound.
pressures much greater than that from 3 feet of water alone (see Figure
7-6). These pressures can easily cause basement walls to buckle inward
or collapse (see Figure 2-8 in Chapter 2). For this reason, your
community’s floodplain management ordinance or law does not allow
basements in substantially damaged or substantially improved houses to
be dry floodproofed. In fact, these basements must be filled in.

,, ,,,,, ,,

Figure 7-6
The lateral pressure resulting from the same depth of flooding is much less on the house without a
basement (a) than on the house with a basement (b). The pressure on basement walls is caused by
water and by saturated soils.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 123

CHAPTER 7

As shown in Figure 7-6, water and saturated soils also push up from
below the house. This buoyancy force causes additional problems and
creates a potential for damage that underscores the need to restrict dry
floodproofing to areas where flood depths are low and to prohibit dry
floodproofed basements. The buoyancy force resulting from flood
depths of over 3 feet can separate a dry floodproofed house from its
foundation and buckle concrete slab floors in dry floodproofed slab-on-
grade houses. It may be difficult to imagine, but it is possible for a house
with a dry floodproofed basement to be pushed out of the ground during
large floods.

The degree of danger posed by buoyancy depends on the flood depth,

the type of soil at the house site, how saturated the soil is, the duration of
the flood, whether the house has a drainage collection and disposal
system, and how well that system works.

Flow Velocity, Erosion and Scour, Debris Impact, and Wave Action
Dry floodproofing does not protect a house from the hydrodynamic force of
flowing water, erosion and scour, the impact of ice and other floodborne
debris, or wave action. If your house is in an area subject to any of these
hazards you should consider an alternative retrofitting method, such as
elevation on an open foundation (see Chapter 5), relocation (this chapter),
or demolition (this chapter). Dry floodproofing a house does not normally
change its vulnerability to damage from high winds or earthquakes.

Flood Duration
Flood duration is an important consideration because the potential for
seepage through and deterioration of the materials used to seal the house
increases with the length of time that the house is exposed to flooding.
Also, the longer the duration, the greater the likelihood that the soil
beneath and adjacent to the house will become fully saturated and add to
the loads on the walls and floor (see Figure 7-6). If your house is in an
area where flood waters remain high for days, weeks, or even months at
a time, you should consider an alternative retrofitting method, such as
elevation or relocation.

Human Intervention
Dry floodproofing systems almost always include components that have
to be installed or activated each time flooding threatens. One example is
a flood shield placed across a doorway. For this reason, dry
floodproofing is not an appropriate retrofitting method in areas where
there is little or no flood warning or where, for any other reason, the
homeowner will not be able or willing to install shields or other
components before flood waters arrive.

124 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OTHER METHODS CHAPTER 7

Post-Flood Cleanup
Remember that flood waters are rarely clean. They usually carry sediment,
debris, and even corrosive or hazardous materials such as solvents, oil,
sewage, pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemicals. The walls of a dry
floodproofed house will be exposed to whatever is in the flood waters.
Cleaning up a dry floodproofed house after a flood may therefore involve
not only removing mud and debris from around the house but also
decontaminating or disinfecting walls and other exterior surfaces.

Modifications Required for Dry Floodproofing

Dry floodproofing involves the use of sealants and shields, installation of a
drainage system, and protection of service equipment.

Sealants
Except for some types of high-quality concrete, most wall materials are not
impervious to water. Therefore, sealants must be applied to the walls of a dry
floodproofed house to prevent leakage. Flexible sealants are compounds
(such as asphalt coatings) or materials (such as polyethylene film) that
are applied directly to the outside surface of the house walls. Sealants
must also be applied to all structural joints, such as the joint between the
walls and a slab floor, and to any other openings below the flood level,
such as those where utility lines enter the house through the walls or floor.

Sealants that can be applied to outside walls include cement- and

asphalt-based coatings and clear coatings such as epoxies and
polyurethanes. Cement- and asphalt-based coatings are often the most
effective, but they can drastically change the appearance of the wall (see
Figure 7-7). For example, the aesthetic advantage of a brick wall is lost
when these coating are used. Clear coatings do not change the
appearance of the wall but are less effective.

Figure 7-7
a 12-inch-high asphalt
coating was added to
this brick wall.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 125

 CHAPTER 7

Figure 7-8, a cross-section view of an exterior wall, shows one method of

sealing masonry walls with an asphalt-based coating that does not detract
from their appearance. In this method, a new masonry veneer is added to
the existing veneer after the coating is applied. In addition to maintaining the
look of the wall, the new veneer helps protect the wall against damage from
floodborne debris.

Figure 7-8
New brick veneer
added over asphalt
coating.

,,,,,yyyyy
,,,,,
,,
yy
yy
,, yyyyy
,,,,,
,,
yy yyyyy
,,,,,
An alternative to using coatings is temporarily wrapping the entire lower
part of the house in polyethylene film. This alternative is sometimes
referred to as the “wrapped house” technique. The cross-section view in
Figure 7-9 shows how this technique works.

Polyethylene film is not a strong material – it cannot withstand water pressure

on its own and it can be punctured fairly easily. As a result, the following
requirements must be met when the wrapped house technique is used:
• The installation must be carried out very carefully. Even a small
hole in the film will leak under the pressure of flood waters.
• The film must be applied directly against the walls of the house
so that the walls, rather than the film, provide the resistance to
water pressures.
• Where the film covers doorways and other openings, it must be
backed by framed plywood panels that have been braced to
resist water pressures.

126 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OTHER METHODS CHAPTER 7

• A temporary drainage system must be provided that will collect

and dispose of any water that leaks through holes in the film.
(Drainage systems are discussed later in this section.)
• The duration of flooding should be less than 12 hours and the
flood depth adjacent to the house should not exceed 1 foot.

Figure 7-9
In the “wrapped
house” method, the
lower portion of the
house is protected with
a temporary layer of
polyethylene film. As

yyyyy
,,,,,
shown, a temporary
drainage line is also
required.

,,,, yyyyy
,,,,,
,,,,
yyyy
,,,,
,,,, yyyy
yyyyy
,,,,,
,,,,
yyyy
yyyyy
,,,,,
Because the wrapped house technique is only temporary, it does not
change the normal appearance of your house. However, like any
temporary technique, it requires extensive human intervention. All the
necessary materials must be immediately available, and it will usually take
four to six people several hours to put them into place. Therefore, you
must have adequate warning every time flooding threatens so that you can
install both the film and drainage system.

Commercial versions of the wrapped house technique are available.

Usually, they consist of a system of vinyl-coated nylon wrapping mounted
on rollers, which are contained in boxes permanently installed in the ground
around the perimeter of the house. To protect the house, you open the boxes,
pull the material out, and attach it to hooks or clips mounted on the walls of
the house. The primary advantages of these commercial systems are that
they provide a stronger barrier and allow for a shorter installation time.
However, commercial house wrapping systems do not, by themselves,
strengthen the walls of a house; if depths greater than 3 feet are

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 127

 CHAPTER 7

expected, the walls must be adequately reinforced. Also, these systems

do not eliminate the need for adequate drainage lines and sump pumps.

Shields
Shields are flood barriers placed over wall openings such as doorways
and windows. Shields can be made of any of several materials,
depending on the size of the opening to be covered. When flood depths
are expected to reach the maximum allowable 2 to 3 feet, shields for
openings wider than about 3 feet must be made of strong materials such
as heavy-gage aluminum or steel plate (see Figure 7-10); shields for
lesser depths and smaller openings can be made of lighter materials. For
example, small windows can be protected with shields made of plywood .

Figure 7-10
Heavy-gage metal
shield over sliding
glass door opening.

,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,

z
Because blocking all doors and other openings permanently would be
impractical, shields are usually placed temporarily, after flood warnings
are issued. Smaller, lighter shields can be stored in the house and, when
needed, brought out and bolted in place or secured in permanently
installed brackets or tracks (see Figure 7-11). Larger, heavier shields may
have to be installed permanently on hinges or rollers so that they can be
opened and closed easily.

Companies that specialize in flood protection devices can provide custom-

fitted flood shields. Usually, these commercial shields are made of
heavy-duty materials, and some are equipped with inflatable or other
types of gaskets that help prevent leaks.

128 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OTHER METHODS CHAPTER 7

Figure 7-11
Light-gage metal shield
GASKET held in place by perma-
ALONG
EDGE OF nently installed tracks.
SHIELD
TRACK

SHIELD
TRACK
FLOOD
LEVEL

,,,,,,,,,,,,,
SEALANT

,,,,,,,,,,,,,
SHIELD

,,,,,,,,,,,,,
An alternative to using shields is to seal openings permanently. For
example, a low-level window can be removed or raised and the opening
bricked up or filled with glass block (see Figure 7-12). Placing fill dirt
against the wall and extending the fill to a distance of at least 10 feet from
the wall will provide additional protection from flood waters.

Figure 7-12
Low window raised
approximately 2 feet
and original opening
filled with brick.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 129

 CHAPTER 7

Drainage Systems
Sealants and shields provide the bulk of the protection in dry
floodproofing, but they may allow some leakage, especially during floods
of longer duration and when damaged by debris. They also do not protect
against “underseepage” – water that migrates downward along the sealed
wall and then under the foundation. For these reasons, a dry floodproofed
house must have a drainage system that will remove any water that
enters the house through leaks in sealants and shields and any water that
accumulates at the base of the foundation. Depending on the permeability
of the soils around and under the house, the drainage system may have
to be designed to reduce buoyancy forces also.

An adequate drainage system includes drains along the base of the

foundation and under the floor. The drains consist of perforated pipe
surrounded by crushed stone. The pipes collect water that seeps through
the ground and channel it to a central collection point equipped with a
sump pump. This system is shown in Figure 7-13. The sump pump must
have sufficient capacity to handle the inflow of water and must have an
emergency power source, such as a portable generator, so that it will
continue to operate if conventional electric service is disrupted.

Figure 7-13
Drainage system for a
dry floodproofed house.

,,,
,,,y,y,y,y,y,y, y,y,y,y,y,y, y,y,,,
,yy
,y,y
,y,y
,y,
y
,y,,
y ,
y ,
y ,
y ,
y
Protecting Service Equipment
Dry floodproofing a house will not protect service equipment outside the
house. Examples of service equipment normally found outside the house
are utility lines, air conditioning compressors, heat pumps, and fuel
storage tanks. Chapter 8 discusses the protection of service equipment.

130 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OTHER METHODS CHAPTER 7

Levees and Floodwalls

Introduction
Levees and floodwalls are both barriers that hold back WARNING
flood waters, but they differ in their design and construction,
Levees and floodwalls
appearance, and application. Levees are embankments of
cannot be used to bring
compacted soil. They usually have rounded outlines and can be blended
a substantially dam-
into the natural landscape of the house site. Floodwalls are structures built
aged or substantially
of manmade materials, such as concrete and masonry. Although they
improved house into
cannot be made to look like a natural landscape feature, they can be
compliance with the re-
designed and constructed in such a way that they complement the
quirements of your
appearance of the house and its site.
community’s floodplain
management ordinance
A levee requires more land area than a floodwall of comparable height;
or law.
therefore, levees are less practical than floodwalls for small lots.
Floodwalls, because of their design, construction, and more efficient
use of space, not only can be built on smaller lots but also can be used
selectively in conjunction with other retrofitting methods. For example,
you can build a small exterior floodwall to protect an individual window
or door in the wall of a dry floodproofed house. You can protect a
walkout-on-grade basement by building a floodwall that ties into the
ground where the grade rises above the flood elevation on the sides of
the house. This approach is illustrated in Chapter 3, in the sample cost
estimate for levees and floodwalls. You can also build an interior
floodwall to protect service equipment in the basement of a wet
floodproofed house (see Chapter 8).
WARNING
Considerations Your community’s flood-
Levee or Floodwall Height plain management
The height of your levee or floodwall will be determined partly by the ordinance or law may
Flood Protection Elevation (FPE) you have chosen. However (as prohibit the construction
explained in Chapter 3) height limitations imposed by design complexity, of levees and floodwalls
construction cost, and property space requirements, coupled with the in the regulatory flood-
need to provide at least 1 foot of freeboard, usually restrict the use of plain and floodway. If
residential levees and floodwalls to areas where flood depths are no you are unsure about
greater than 5 feet and 3 feet, respectively. If the flood depths at your your community’s re-
house are greater, you should consider an alternative retrofitting quirements or the
method, such as elevation (Chapter 5), relocation (this chapter), or location of your property
demolition (this chapter). in relation to the flood-
plain and floodway,
Remember that no matter what the height of a levee or floodwall, it can check with your local of-
always be overtopped by a flood higher than expected. Overtopping ficials. See Chapter 2 for
allows water into the protected area, and the resulting damage to your information about the
house will probably be just as great as if it were not protected at all. floodway.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 131

 CHAPTER 7

Overtopping is a bigger problem for a levee than a floodwall. Even a small

amount of overtopping can erode the top of a levee and cause the levee
to fail. When this occurs, large amounts of water may be released at once
WARNING and cause even greater damage to your house. When flood waters
Because levees and threaten to overtop a levee, you may be able to raise the top of the levee
floodwalls can increase temporarily with sandbags, but increasing the height of a levee increases
flood hazards for other the pressure of flood waters on it and may cause the levee to fail.
properties, you may find
that local zoning regu- An important consideration for both levees and floodwalls is that they can
lations prohibit or restrict give the homeowner a false sense of security. Every flood is different, and
their use. Special per- one that exceeds the height of your levee or floodwall can happen at any
mits may be required. time. For this reason, you must not occupy your house during a flood.

Effect on Other Properties

A particularly important design consideration is the effect that a levee or
floodwall can have on other properties. These barriers can divert flood
waters away from your house and onto other properties. They can also
impede or block flood flows. As a result, they can cause water to back up
into previously flood-free areas or prevent natural surface drainage from
other properties.

Levee and Floodwall Size

Levees are earthen structures that rely on their mass to resist the pressures
of flood waters. To provide structural stability and resist erosion and scour, the
sides of a levee are sloped – the width of the levee at its base is usually 6
to 8 times its height (see Figure 7-14a). As a result, the taller a levee is, the
more space it requires. Most floodwalls do not rely solely on their mass for
resistance to flood pressures. Therefore a floodwall will require less space
than a levee of the same height, as shown in Figure 7-14b.

,yy,y,y,
,,,,
,,,, ,,,,
y,y, ,,,,
Figure 7-14 Cross sections of a typical 3-foot-high levee, 6-foot-high levee, and 4-foot-high
floodwall. A 4-foot-high floodwall (b) requires much less property space than a 3-foot-high levee (a).

132 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OTHER METHODS CHAPTER 7

Soils
Most types of soils may be suitable for constructing residential levees. The
exceptions are very wet, fine-grained, or highly organic soils. These soils
are usually highly permeable. The best soils are those that have a high clay
content, which makes them highly impervious. Using impervious soils for the DEFINITION
levee and its foundation minimizes the seepage of water through or under the Permeable soils are
levee. Excessive seepage can weaken the levee and cause it to fail. If a those that water can eas-
sufficient amount of adequate soil is not available at the site of your house, ily penetrate and flow
the soil will have to be brought to the site or the levee design will become through. Impervious
more complex. In either situation, the levee will be more expensive to build. soils are the opposite.
They resist penetration
Soil type is an important consideration in floodwall construction as well. by water.
The soil under the floodwall, like that under a levee, must resist seepage.
If the soils under a floodwall become saturated, the floodwall will no longer
be adequately supported. As a result, the pressure of flood waters can
cause it to lean or overturn.
NOTE
Hydrostatic Pressure
Levees and floodwalls are designed to resist flood forces, but they may You can usually get in-
not be able to protect a house from hydrostatic pressure. The migration of formation about soil
moisture through the ground below a levee or floodwall, as a result of types from local officials,
seepage or the natural capillary action of the soil, can cause the soil in the the agricultural exten-
protected area to become saturated (see Figure 7-15). If this saturated sion services of state
soil is in contact with the foundation of the house, the resulting hydrostatic universities, and re-
pressure can buckle slab floors, push houses up, and cause basement gional offices of the
walls to bulge inward or collapse. If you plan to protect your house with a U. S. Natural Resources
levee or floodwall, especially if you have a basement, your design Conservation Service.
professional should determine the potential hazard from hydrostatic
pressure and take whatever steps may be necessary to protect against it.

Figure 7-15 Hydrostatic pressure in saturated soils poses a threat to houses behind levees,
especially houses with basements. The amount of pressure depends largely on the level of the
house in relation to the level of the water on the flooded side of the levee. The higher the water level
is above the lowest floor of the house (as shown here by depths H 1 and H2) the greater the pressure.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 133

 CHAPTER 7

Methods of reducing the risk of damage from hydrostatic pressure include

moving the floodwall or levee further away from the house, installing a
foundation drain system (drains and sump pump), and filling in basements
WARNING with dirt.
If your house has been
substantially damaged Flood Conditions
or is being substantially Levees are most effective against floods that have low flow velocities and
improved, your com- durations of no more than 3 to 4 days. High-velocity flows can scour or
munity’s floodplain erode the sides of a levee and possibly cause it to collapse. Levees can
management ordinance be protected from erosion and scour in several ways. The sides of all
or law will not allow you levees should be stabilized with grass, which helps hold the soil in place.
to have a basement, as The sides of levees that will be subjected to higher-velocity flows can be
defined under the Na- armored with concrete or broken rock. Aligning a levee so that it is parallel
tional Flood Insurance to the flow of water will also help protect it from erosion and scour, and
Program (NFIP). The reducing the angle of the side slopes will make the sides more resistant to
NFIP regulations define scour. Where the duration of flooding is expected to exceed 3 to 4 days, a
a basement as “any levee may not be the most appropriate retrofitting measure. When levees
area of a building hav- are exposed to flood waters for prolonged periods, seepage and the
ing its floor subgrade on problems associated with it are more likely to occur.
all sides.” If your house
Access and Closures
has such a basement,
As barriers, levees and floodwalls can block access to your house. If you
you will be required to fill
build a levee or floodwall, you will usually need to provide openings or
it in as part of any retro-
other means of access for driveways, sidewalks, and other entrances, but
fitting project. Note that
any opening in a floodwall or levee must be closed when flooding
the NFIP definition of
threatens. A variety of closure mechanisms are available. For floodwalls
basement does not in-
these include shields similar to those used in dry floodproofing (as
clude what is typically
described earlier in this
referred to as a “walkout-
chapter) that are hinged
on-grade” basement,
to the wall or designed to
whose floor would be at
slide into place.
or above grade on at
Prefabricated panels
least one side.
stored elsewhere when
not in use are also
acceptable (see Figure
7-16). Acceptable
closures for levees
include permanently
mounted, hinged or
sliding flood gates and
prefabricated stop logs
or panels.
Figure 7-16
Slide-in closure panel.

134 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OTHER METHODS CHAPTER 7

An alternative to incorporating openings is to provide a means of crossing

over the top of a levee or floodwall. If a levee is low enough, a ramp can
be created with additional fill material. Similarly, a stairway can be built
over a low floodwall, as shown in Figure 7-17.

Figure 7-17
An access staircase
over a low floodwall.

,,
yy
,,
yy
WARNING

,,,,,,
yyyyyy
Closure mechanisms

,, ,
y,,,,
,,
yy
require human interven-
tion. Your levee or

,,,,,,
yyyyyy
floodwall will not protect

yyyy
,,
yy
your house from flood-
ing unless you are
willing and able to op-
erate all closure
mechanisms before
flood waters arrive.

Interior Drainage
Building a levee or floodwall around a house keeps flood water out of the
protected area, but it can also keep water in – water that collects from rain or
snow and from seepage during floods or, in the worst case, water that
overtops the levee or floodwall. Two methods of removing this water should
be used for all levees and floodwalls: drains and sump pumps. Drains
installed at the base of a levee or floodwall allow collected water to flow out of
the protected area. The outlets of the drains must be equipped with flap
valves that close automatically during flooding to prevent flood water from
backing up through the drains into the protected area.

An electric sump pump should be installed at the lowest point inside the
protected area. The pump must have an adequate capacity – it must be
able to remove water from the protected area faster than water enters. An
emergency power source, such as a gasoline-powered generator, should
be provided so that the pump will continue to operate during interruptions
in electrical service, a common event during a flood. Whenever possible,

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 135

CHAPTER 7

the downspouts from the roof of the house should be directed over the
levee or floodwall so that they will not contribute to the collection of water
in the protected area.

Inspection and Maintenance

After a levee or floodwall is constructed, you must inspect it periodically and
make whatever repairs are necessary. Otherwise, small problems, such as
settlement, cracking, loss of vegetation, and minor amounts of erosion and
scour, can quickly become major problems during a flood. At a minimum,
you should perform these inspections each spring and fall, before each
impending flood if you have adequate warning, and after each flood.

Protecting Service Equipment

Protecting a house with a levee or floodwall also protects any service
equipment inside the house. Also, when levees and floodwalls protect not
only the house but an area around it as well, service equipment mounted
on exterior walls, such as an electric meter, and equipment installed near
the house, such as an air conditioning compressor, will be protected. But
any equipment outside the protected area must be relocated, elevated, or
anchored. Chapter 8 discusses the protection of service equipment.

Levee Construction
The design professional must conduct an analysis of the soil at the site to
determine whether it is adequate for use in the levee and to anticipate any
foundation and seepage problems. When you construct a levee, you
should try to take advantage of the natural terrain around your home.
Depending on the topography of your lot, the levee may not have to
completely encircle your house. You may be able to build the levee on
lower ground and tie the ends into higher ground. An advantage of this
technique is that the levee can often be made to look like part of the
natural topography of your lot.

In preparation for construction, all ground vegetation and topsoil should

be removed from the levee site. Sod should be set aside so that it can be
used on the surface of the levee after construction. The levee should be
built up in 6-inch layers, each of which must be compacted.

If there is a shortage of impervious soils in the area, the levee can be built
with an impervious core and the available permeable soils can be used for
the outer part of the levee, as shown in Figure 7-18. The core can be made
of impervious soils or another type of water-resistant barrier. The core will
minimize seepage through the levee; however, the use of permeable soils
on the outside of the levee will require that the angle of the side slopes be
reduced so that scour and erosion are minimized. This is an important

136 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OTHER METHODS CHAPTER 7

consideration when property space is limited, because reducing the angle

of the side slopes will increase the width of the levee base.

Figure 7-18
Levees are constructed
with compacted layers
of soil. When an
adequate amount of
impervious soil is not

,,,
available, the levee can

,,, ,,, ,,,,,

be constructed of

,,,, ,,, ,,,,,

permeable outer soils

,,,,
and an impervious core.

If the soil underlying the levee is highly permeable, an impervious barrier

may have to be constructed below the levee to control foundation
seepage. Several types of barrier designs are available, but they are
normally used for major levee projects and would usually be too
expensive for a homeowner. The analysis of the soil at the site will reveal
such problems.

As noted earlier, the height of the levee will depend on the FPE and the need
for at least 1 foot of freeboard. Also, the levee should be built at least 5
percent higher than the desired elevation. This additional height will
compensate for settlement of the soil that occurs naturally after construction.

Floodwall Construction
The design professional must perform a soils analysis similar to that
performed for levee construction. The purpose is to determine whether NOTE
the soils will support the floodwall and whether seepage or migration or A reinforced cast-in-
water through the soil will be a problem. place wall with a
foundation at the proper
Construction, which begins with excavation for the foundation, varies depth provides an ex-
according to the type of wall. The two main types of floodwalls are gravity
cellent barrier to
walls and cantilever walls (see Figure 7-19). Both types resist overturning,
seepage because it is
which is the most common cause of floodwall failure, and displacement,
constructed of a single,
but they do so in different ways.
solid, water-resistant
material. The reinforce-
The gravity floodwall relies on its weight and mass, particularly the mass
ment not only gives the
at its base, for stability. The shear weight of the materials used in its
wall strength but helps
construction (usually solid concrete, alone or in combination with
it resist cracking.
masonry) make it too heavy to be overturned or displaced by flood forces.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 137

 ,,,,
CHAPTER 7

,,,
Figure 7-19

,,,,
Gravity and cantilever
floodwalls

,,,
,,,,,,,, ,,,,
,,,
,, ,,,,
,,,,,, ,,,
,,,
,,, ,,,
WARNING
,,,,
Gravity floodwalls are relatively easy to design and construct. However,
Occasionally, flood- the size of the wall increases significantly with height, so as flood depths
walls are built with a increase, a cantilever floodwall becomes more practical.
core of concrete block
and a facing of brick. A cantilever floodwall consists of a wall and footing constructed of cast-in-
Even though the blocks place concrete (similar to a foundation wall and footing for a house). The
are grouted, reinforced, cantilever floodwall relies partly on the weight of the flood water and soil
and filled with concrete, for stability. As shown in Figure 7-19, the “heel” of the wall (the portion of
experience has shown the footing on the flooded side) extends further than the “toe” (the portion
that this type of wall is of the footing on the protected side). Through leverage, the pressure of
neither as strong nor as water and soil on the heel helps counteract the overturning force of the
resistant to leakage as flood water. Reinforcement of a cantilever wall consists of steel bars
cast-in-place concrete embedded in the concrete.
walls.
Both masonry and cast-in-place cantilevered floodwalls can be faced with
brick or stone or receive other decorative treatments that match or
complement the exterior walls of a house (see Figure 7-20).

138 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OTHER METHODS CHAPTER 7

yy
,,
yy
,,
yy
,,
Figure 7-20
Typical brick-faced
concrete floodwall.
Detail shows cross

yy
,,
section through wall.

Demolition
Introduction
If a floodprone house has been severely damaged,
because of flooding or any other cause, demolition can be a
practical and effective retrofitting method. Demolition may
also be practical for an undamaged house that, because of deterioration
over time or for other reasons, is not worth retrofitting with any of the other
methods described in this guide. If you choose the demolition method,
you will tear down your damaged house and either rebuild properly on the
same property or move elsewhere, outside the floodplain. Depending on
your choice of a site for your new house, this method can lower or even
eliminate your flood insurance premiums.

The demolition process involves disconnecting and capping utility lines at

the damaged house, tearing the house down, removing debris and
otherwise restoring the old site, and building or buying a new house. The
most important considerations involve how badly your house has been
damaged and your options for building or buying a new house.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 139

 CHAPTER 7

Considerations
Amount of Damage
As a retrofitting method, demolition is more practical for severely
NOTE damaged houses than for those with little or no damage. If a flood, fire,
As discussed under Fi- earthquake, hurricane, or other disaster has caused extensive damage
nancial Assistance for to the interior and exterior of your house or left it structurally unsound,
Retrofitting, in Chapter you will probably find that tearing the house down and starting over is
2, the cost of demolish- easier than making all of the necessary repairs. Also, remember that a
ing a substantially severely damaged house in the regulatory floodplain will almost surely
damaged house may be considered substantially damaged under your community’s floodplain
be an eligible flood in- management ordinance or law. Salvaging such a house would require
surance claim under not only repairing the damage but also elevating (including filling in a
Increased Cost of Com- basement); wet floodproofing areas used only for parking, storage, or
pliance (ICC) coverage. access; or relocating the house as described elsewhere in this guide.

Rebuilding or Buying Another House

Tearing down a house is the easy part of the demolition process. You
must also buy or build another house elsewhere or rebuild somewhere
on your existing property. Regardless of your decision, your goal is to
greatly reduce or eliminate the potential for damage from floods,
earthquakes, high winds, and other hazards. If you buy or build a house
elsewhere, you’ll want to find a site that is outside the regulatory
floodplain, ideally one that is well above the BFE. You should also
consider the other hazards mentioned above. Check with your local
officials about hazards in your community before you make your final
decision.

When you buy or build a house elsewhere, you need to think about what
you should do with your old property. Property that is entirely within the
regulatory floodplain may be difficult to sell because of restrictions on its
use. As explained in Chapter 2, some Federal programs provide grants
to states and communities that they can use to buy floodprone houses
and properties. State and local programs may also provide financial
assistance. Check with your local officials about this.

When buying or building a house elsewhere is prohibitively expensive,

you may be able to rebuild on your existing property, either on the site of
your old house or, preferably, on a portion of your property that is
outside the regulatory floodplain. If you rebuild on the site of your old
house, your community’s floodplain management ordinance or law will
require that the lowest floor of your new house be at or above the Base
Flood Elevation (BFE). You can meet this requirement by building the
new house on extended foundation walls or an open foundation (as

140 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 OTHER METHODS CHAPTER 7

described in Chapter 5) or, in some situations, on compacted fill dirt. A

important disadvantage of this approach is that you may not have access to
your house during floods.
WARNING
If your existing property includes a large enough area outside the If you rebuild on the site
regulatory floodplain, a better choice is to rebuild there. Building outside of your old house, your
the floodplain gives you greater freedom to build the type of house you community’s floodplain
want. Also, because both the house and property are outside the management ordinance
floodplain, restricted access during flooding is less likely to be a problem. of law will not allow you
to have a basement.
Disruption of Occupants
Like relocation, demolition is very disruptive for the occupants of the
house. Unless you decide to buy an existing house elsewhere, you must
find a place to live and to store your furniture and belongings while your
new house is being built.

Permitting
You or your design professional or contractor must check with local
officials regarding permitting requirements for the necessary work. All
permits for demolition, including disconnecting and capping utilities and
disposing of debris; new construction; and restoration of the old site
should be obtained before the demolition process begins.

The Demolition Process

Tearing Down the Old House
Your utility companies must first turn off all services to the house. Your
demolition contractor will then disconnect the utility lines. If you do not
plan to rebuild on the same site, the contractor will cap the lines
permanently or remove them according to the requirements of the utility
companies. Before demolition begins, environmental hazards, such as
asbestos, must be abated in accordance with Federal, State, and local
requirements. Usually, a demolition contractor will push the house down
with a bulldozer and then dispose of the resulting debris as required by
Federal, State, and local regulations.

Restoring the Old Site

If you are not rebuilding on the old site, it must be restored according to
the requirements of local regulations. Site restoration usually involves
demolishing and removing not only the house, but also any pavement,
such as a driveway or patio; grading to restore areas disturbed by the
demolition; and stabilizing the site with grass.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 141

CHAPTER 7

If your old site included a septic tank or fuel storage tank, you may have to
meet the requirements of environmental regulations aimed at preventing
contamination of the groundwater. You may be required to drain and
remove aboveground and underground tanks, or you may have to anchor
them to resist flotation. You may also be required to test the soil around an
underground tank to determine whether leakage has occurred. As the
homeowner, you will usually be responsible for cleaning contaminated soil
if there has been any leakage from the tank. In this situation, you will need
the services of a qualified geotechnical or environmental engineering firm.

Local utility companies or regulatory officials can inform you about

requirements concerning capping, abandoning, or removing various utility
system components.

Rebuilding
Your construction contractor will prepare the site and build your new house
according to the local building code and zoning requirements. If you are
rebuilding on the original site, you must meet additional requirements of your
community’s floodplain management ordinance or law. Therefore, as noted
previously, the lowest floor of your new house must be at or above the BFE,
and you will not be allowed to build a house with a basement.

Depending on where you decide to rebuild, local utility companies may

have to extend new lines into the site of your new house. Usually this is
done before construction is completed. Your contractor will hook up the
utility lines as part of construction. You may need the services of a design
professional if specialized utility systems are required because of the
location of your site, the type of house you decide to build, or the nature of
the hazards at the site.

142 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 CHAPTER 8

Protecting Service
Equipment
Introduction
Houses are typically provided with a variety of building support service
equipment, including the following:
• electrical systems (wiring, switches, outlets, fixtures, fuse and
circuit breaker panels, meters)
• telephone and cable TV lines
• water and sewer lines and drains
• natural gas lines
• septic tanks
• heating, ventilating, and cooling (HVAC) equipment (air
conditioning compressors, heat pumps, furnaces, ductwork, hot
water heaters, fuel storage tanks)
• appliances (washing machines, dryers, freezers, refrigerators)

Some of this equipment is normally found inside the house, such as

furnaces, ductwork, hot water heaters, and appliances; some is found
outside, such as propane tanks, air conditioning and heat pump
compressors, heat pumps, and septic tanks; and some includes
components found in both locations, such as electrical systems; plumbing,
gas, telephone, and cable TV lines; and oil storage tanks.

The original placement of service equipment in and around your house was
probably based on standard construction practice and the economic
concerns of the builder. As a result, in floodprone houses, service equipment
is often installed in areas where it will be exposed to flood waters, such as in a
basement or crawlspace or at ground level outside the house.

Elevation, wet floodproofing, and dry floodproofing protect the structure of

your house from damage by flood waters. But these methods, unlike
relocation and the construction of levees or floodwalls, do not prevent
flood waters from reaching the house. For this reason, protecting service
equipment below the expected flood level is an essential part of a
retrofitting project.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 143

 CHAPTER 8

Methods of Protection
You can protect interior and exterior service equipment in several ways:
by elevating it, relocating it, or protecting it in place.
NOTE
For more information
about elevating electri- Elevation
cal systems and Service equipment installed outside your house can often be elevated
heating, ventilating and above the flood level. Equipment mounted on an exterior wall, such as an
cooling equipment, refer electric meter and incoming electric, telephone, and cable TV lines,
to the following Federal usually can be mounted higher up on the same wall. Equipment normally
Emergency Manage- placed on the ground, such as heat pumps and air conditioning
ment Agency (FEMA) compressors, can be raised above the flood elevation on pedestals or
Hazard Mitigation Fact platforms (see Figures 8-1 and 8-2).
Sheets: Raise Electrical
System Components When you elevate service equipment, you should always consider
and Raise or Floodproof incorporating at least 1 foot of freeboard into your Flood Protection
HVAC Equipment. Elevation (FPE), just as you should when you protect your house with one
of the methods described in this guide. Elevating service equipment an
additional 1 or 2 feet often will not increase your retrofitting costs
significantly.

The feasibility of elevating equipment inside a basement or garage will

depend largely on the flood level. If the flood level is only 1 to 2 feet above
the floor, large pieces of equipment such as furnaces, hot water heaters,
and appliances can be elevated on platforms constructed of concrete or
masonry block. As the height of the flood level above the floor increases,

Figure 8-1
An air conditioning/
heat pump compressor
mounted on a brick
pedestal outside an
elevated house.

144 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 PROTECTING SERVICE EQUIPMENT CHAPTER 8

Figure 8-2
Air conditioning/ heat
pump compressor
mounted on a
cantilevered platform
attached to a house
elevated on an open
foundation.

the amount of space available above the flood level diminishes and
elevation will be feasible only for smaller pieces of equipment such as
electrical system components, ventilation ductwork, or specialized
equipment such as furnaces designed to be suspended from the ceiling. If
the flood level is at or near the ceiling, elevation in lower areas will not be
possible. Instead equipment will have to be relocated or protected in place
as described in the following sections.

Keep in mind that most service equipment must remain accessible for
routine maintenance. For example, your fuel company must be able to
reach your fuel tank to fill or empty it. Before elevating any service
equipment, your contractor should check with the utility company to find
out whether it has any requirements that would prohibit elevation or
restrict elevation height.

Also, remember that any large equipment elevated on platforms or

pedestals, both inside and outside your house, may be more vulnerable to
wind and earthquake damage. Before these elevation methods are used,
a design professional must determine the expected wind and earthquake
forces at the site and account for them in the design of the elevation
method. This precaution is especially important for elevated fuel storage
tanks, which could rupture if they were dislodged or toppled by wind and
earthquake forces. In earthquake-prone areas, fuel storage tanks are
sometimes equipped with cutoff valves that can help prevent leaks when
supply lines are ruptured. Your utility service provider can give you more
information about cutoff valves and other ways to protect fuel storage
tanks from natural hazards.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 145

 CHAPTER 8

Relocation
When space permits, you can move service equipment from a basement
or other area below the flood level to an upper floor of the house or even
NOTE
an attic. Relocation will usually require more extensive changes to both
The fact sheet referred your house and the equipment being moved, but it often provides a
to above, Raise or greater level of flood protection because the relocated equipment will be
Floodproof HVAC farther above the flood level. In some situations, you may also be able to
Equipment , also dis- relocate outside equipment to higher ground, but only when the slope of
cusses the relocation of your lot and other site conditions permit.
HVAC equipment to an
upper floor. Another relocation option is to build a new, elevated utility room as an
addition to your house. The addition could be built on an open foundation
or extended foundation walls.

Protection in Place
When elevation and relocation are infeasible or impractical, you can protect
service equipment in place with low floodwalls and shields and with anchors
and tiedowns that prevent flotation. Plumbing systems can be protected
with valves that prevent wastewater from backing up into the house.

Floodwalls and Shields

Floodwalls and shields are normally components of dry floodproofing
systems (Chapter 7) used to protect entire buildings. However, in wet
floodproofing, they can be used for the protection of small areas within a
NOTE building that contain service equipment that is not elevated or relocated.
For more information For example, a you can build a concrete floodwall that surrounds one or
about floodwalls and more pieces of service equipment, such as a furnace and hot water
shields, see Chapter 7. heater (see Figure 8-3).

If the expected depth of flooding is less than about 8 inches, the floodwall
would be low enough that you could step over it to reach the protected
equipment. A higher floodwall can include an opening equipped with a
removable shield, as shown in Figure 8-3. The opening permits easy
access to the protected equipment. In this example, the shield does not
interfere with the normal operation of the equipment, so it should be left in
place and removed only when necessary. Leaving the shield in place
allows the barrier to function without human intervention.

In general, barriers and shields of the type shown in Figure 8-3 are
practical only when flood depths are less than about 3 feet. The greater
hydrostatic pressure exerted by deeper water requires barriers and
shields that are more massive, have more complex designs, and are
therefore more expensive. As discussed in Chapter 7, all floodwalls should
provide at least 1 foot of freeboard above the expected flood elevation.

146 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 PROTECTING SERVICE EQUIPMENT CHAPTER 8

Figure 8-3
Hot water heater and
furnace protected by a
concrete floodwall
with opening and
shield.

yy
,,
,,,,
yyyy ,
y
yyyyyy
,,,,,,
,,,,yy
yyyy ,
y,,
yy
yyy
,,,
,,
yy
,,
yy
,,
Regardless of the height of the barrier, the area it protects should be
equipped with a sump pump that will remove any water that accumulates
through seepage.

Anchors and Tiedowns

Anchors and tiedowns are used primarily for aboveground fuel storage
tanks that are not elevated above the flood level and for belowground
tanks. Both types are extremely vulnerable to flotation. Flood waters act
directly on aboveground tanks; belowground tanks can be forced out of
the ground by the buoyancy force of saturated soils. When either type of
tank is displaced, its connections can be severed and the escaping fuel
can cause hazardous conditions.

Aboveground tanks can be anchored with metal straps or cables that cross
over the tank and connect to ground anchors. The length and type of
ground anchor you need will depend largely on the type of soil at the site. A NOTE
design professional can advise you about anchors. Another way to anchor an For more information
aboveground tank is to embed its legs in a concrete slab (see Figure 8-4). about anchoring fuel
storage tanks, refer to
Ground anchors can also be used for belowground tanks. This method the FEMA Mitigation
involves excavating the soil above the tank, placing steel I-beams across Fact Sheet Anchor Fuel
it, and connecting them to ground anchors. Again, check with a design Tanks.
professional concerning the required size and type of anchor.
Belowground tanks can also be anchored with a concrete slab similar to
the one shown in Figure 8-4. Installing the slab, involves excavating
around the tank and removing it temporarily while the slab is poured.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 147

 CHAPTER 8

Figure 8-4
Anchoring a fuel
storage tank with a
concrete slab.

,,
yy




,,,,


zzz
yyyy
{{{{
||| y,y,|yy
yyyyyy
,,,,,,

,,

zyyy
,,,
,,
yy
{
,,,,|yy


yyyy
{{{{
||| ,,{
WARNING

,,
yy
Be especially careful
when anchoring stor-
age tanks or other
service equipment in
floodways, V zones,
and other high-risk ar- Another alternative is to excavate down to the tank and pour a concrete
eas. You must consider slab on top, making sure not to cover access openings.
the effects of high flow
velocities, wave action, On all tanks below the flood level, both aboveground and belowground, flexible
fast moving floodborne connections must be used between the tank and the supply line. Also, the
debris, and extensive vent and filler tubes must extend above the FPE (see Figure 8-4). If you
erosion and scour have adequate warning of an impending flood, top off the tank. A full tank
wherever these haz- will be less susceptible to corrosion from accumulated moisture and will be
ards are likely to occur. heavier and better able to resist buoyancy.

Although anchoring is particularly important for storage tanks, remember

that the levels of future floods can exceed your FPE and inundate service
equipment that you have elevated, relocated, or protected in place. For this
reason, service equipment should be anchored whenever possible so that it
will remain in place when acted on by flood forces.

Backflow Valves
Flooding can often inundate and overload sanitary sewer systems and
combined sanitary/storm sewer systems. As a result, water can flow
backward through sewer lines and out through toilets or drains. The best
solution to this problem is usually to install a backflow valve. These valves
include check valves, gate valves, and dual backflow valves.

148 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 PROTECTING SERVICE EQUIPMENT CHAPTER 8

Check valves operate without human intervention. Under normal

conditions, they allow waste water to flow from the house to the main
sewer line. When flooding causes the flow to reverse, a flap or other
check mechanism in the valve prevents water from flowing back into the NOTE
house. A disadvantage of check valves is that they can become blocked The installation of
open by debris and fail to operate. For this reason, check valves must be backflow valves and
inspected regularly and cleaned as necessary. other plumbing modifi-
cations is usually
Gate valves are manually operated, provide a better seal, and are unlikely regulated by State and
to be blocked open. However, they are more expensive than check valves local building codes. A
and require human intervention. plumber or contractor li-
censed to work in your
The third alternative, dual backflow valves, combine the benefits of the
area will know about the
check valve and the gate valve. As the most expensive of the three types,
code requirements that
the dual backflow valve should be considered primarily for use in houses
apply to your retrofitting
subject to repeated backflow flooding. Gate valves and dual backflow
project.
valves are usually installed outside the house in a valve pit (see Figure 8-5).

Figure 8-5
Dual backflow valve
installed in exterior
valve pit.

,, ,,
,,

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 149

 APPENDIX A

Appendix A
Bibliography and Sources of Information

FEMA and other organizations have produced many documents

about floodproofing and flood hazard mitigation. Those listed below pro-
vide information that may be useful to a homeowner who is thinking about
undertaking a retrofitting project.

American Society of Civil Engineers, Minimum Design Loads for

Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-95, 1996

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Protecting Your Home from Flood Damage, Mitigation Ideas for
Reducing Flood Loss, 2nd Edition, revised 1996

Engineering Principles and Practices for Retrofitting Flood Prone

Residential Buildings, FEMA 259, January 1995

Mitigation of Flood and Erosion Damage to Residential Buildings in

Coastal Areas, FEMA 257, October 1994

Answers to Questions About Substantially Damaged Buildings,

FEMA-213, May 1991

Floodproofing Non-Residential Structures, FEMA 102, May 1986

Coastal Construction Manual, FEMA 55, February 1986

Elevated Residential Structures, FEMA 54, March 1984

Federal Emergency Management Agency and the American Red

Cross, Repairing Your Flooded Home, FEMA 234 and ARC 4477,
August 1992

Federal Emergency Management Agency and the National

Association of Home Builders, Best Build 3: Protecting a Flood-Prone
Home (30-minute video)

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 151

APPENDIX A

Florida Department of Community Affairs, Division of Emergency

Management, Bureau of Recovery and Mitigation, State Assistance Office
for the NFIP, Retrofitting and Flood Mitigation in Florida, January 1995

Illinois Department of Transportation, Division of Water Resources

Flooded Basements: A Homeowner’s Guide, August Edition, 1992

Flood Hazard Mitigation, May 1988

Protect Your Home from Flood Damage, January 1985

Elevating or Relocating a House to Reduce Flood Damage, Local

Assistance Series 3C, revised 1986

Illinois Department of Transportation, Division of Water Resources,

and University of Illinois, Small Homes Council – Building Research
Council, Elevating Flood-Prone Buildings: A Contractor’s Guide, Local
Assistance Series 3D, undated

Nebraska Natural Resources Commission, Flood Plain Management

Section, Flood Preparedness and Response Handbook, March 1984

University of Chicago, Center for Urban Studies, Introduction to Flood

Proofing – An Outline of Principles and Methods, April 1967

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Flood-Proofing Regulations, EP 1165-2-314, December 15, 1995

A Flood Proofing Success Story Along Dry Creek at Goodlettsville,

Tennessee, April 1995

Local Flood Proofing Programs, June 1994

Flood Proofing – How to Evaluate Your Options, July 1993

Flood Proofing Techniques, Programs, and References, February 1991

Raising and Moving a Slab-on-Grade House, 1990

Flood Proofing Tests, Tests of Materials and Systems for Flood

Proofing Structures, August 1988

Flood Proofing Systems and Techniques, December 1984

152 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION APPENDIX A

For information about natural hazards and hazard mitigation, visit the
Internet sites listed below:

American Red Cross

http://www.crossnet.org/

Applied Technology Council

http://www.atcouncil.org/

Association of State Floodplain Managers

http://www.floods.org

Disaster Research Center, University of Delaware

http://www.udel.edu/DRC/

Earthquake Hazards Mitigation Information Network

http://www.eqnet.org/index.html

Federal Emergency Management Agency

http://www.fema.gov

Hazard Reduction and Recovery Center (HRRC), Texas A&M

http://chud.tamu.edu/hrrc/hrrc-home.html

National Geophysical Data Center / WDC-A for Solid Earth

Geophysics, Boulder, Colorado
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/hazard/hazards.html

National Information Service for Earthquake Engineering, University

of California at Berkeley
http://nisee.ce.berkeley.edu/

U. S. Geological Survey – Earthquake Hazards and Preparedness

http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/hazprep

Natural Hazards Center at the University of Colorado, Boulder,

Colorado
http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/

U. S. Natural Resources Conservation Service

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/

Wind Engineering Research Center, Texas Tech University

http:// www.ce.ttu.edu/wind/main.html

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 153

 APPENDIX B

Appendix B
Glossary
Many of the terms defined here are also defined in the margins of pages
on which they first appear or explained in the body of the text.

Active retrofitting method – Method that will not function as intended

without human intervention. See “Passive retrofitting method.”

Adjacent grade – See “Lowest Adjacent Grade (LAG).”

Alluvial fan flooding – Flooding that occurs on the surface of an alluvial

fan (or similar landform) that originates at the apex of the fan and is
characterized by high-velocity flows; active processes of erosion,
sediment transport, and deposition; and unpredictable flow paths.

Armor – To protect fill slopes, such as the sides of a levee, by covering

them with erosion-resistant materials such as rock or concrete.

Backfill – To fill in a hole with the soil removed from it or with other
material, such as soil, gravel, or stone.

Backflow valve – see Check valve.

Base Flood – Flood that has a 1-percent probability of being equaled or

exceeded in any given year. Also known as the 100-year flood.

Base Flood Elevation (BFE) – Elevation of the 100-year flood. This

elevation is the basis of the insurance and floodplain management
requirements of the National Flood Insurance Program.

Basement – As defined by the NFIP regulations, any area of a building

having its floor subgrade on all sides.

Cast-in-place concrete – Concrete poured and formed at the

construction site.

Check valve – Valve that allows water to flow in one direction but
automatically closes when the direction of flow is reversed.

Closure – Shield made of strong material, such as metal or wood, used

to temporarily close openings in levees, floodwalls, and dry floodproofed
buildings.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 155

APPENDIX B

Coastal High Hazard Area – Area of special flood hazard (designated

Zone V, VE, or V1 - V30 on a FIRM) that extends from offshore to the
inland limit of a primary frontal dune along an open coast, and any other
area subject to high-velocity wave action from storms or seismic sources.

Compaction – In construction, the process by which the density of earth

fill is increased so that it will provide a sound base for a building or other
structure.

Crawlspace – Type of foundation in which the lowest floor of a house is

suspended above the ground on continuous foundation walls.

Cribbing – Temporary supports usually consisting of layers of heavy timber

Datum plane – See “Elevation datum plane.”

Debris – Materials carried by floodwaters, including objects of various

sizes and suspended soils.

Design capacity – Volume of water that a channel, pipe, or other

drainage line is designed to convey.

Dry floodproofing – Protecting a building by sealing its exterior walls to

prevent the entry of flood waters.

Elevation – In retrofitting, the process of raising a house or other building

so that it is above the height of a given flood.

Elevation datum plane – Arbitrary surface that serves as a common

reference for the elevations of points above or below it. Elevations are
expressed in terms of feet, meters, or other units of measure and are
identified as negative or positive depending on whether they are above or
below the datum plane.

Erosion – Process by which flood waters lower the ground surface in an

area by removing upper layers of soil.

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) – Independent

agency created in 1978 to provide a single point of accountability for all
Federal activities related to disaster mitigation and emergency
preparedness, response, and recovery. FEMA administers the NFIP.

Federal Insurance Administration (FIA) – Component of FEMA directly

responsible for administering the flood insurance aspects of the NFIP.

156 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 GLOSSARY APPENDIX B

Fill – Material such as soil, gravel, or stone which is dumped in an area

and to increase the ground elevation. Fill is usually placed in layers and
each layer compacted (see “Compaction”).

Flap valve – see “Check valve.”

Flash flood – Flood that rises very quickly and usually is characterized
by high flow velocities. Flash floods often result from intense rainfall over a
small area, usually in areas of steep terrain.

Flood – Under the NFIP, a partial or complete inundation of normally dry

land areas from 1) the overland flow of a lake, river, stream, ditch, etc., 2)
the unusual and rapid accumulation or runoff of surface waters; and 3)
mudflows or the sudden collapse of shoreline land.

Flood depth – Height of flood waters above the surface of the ground at
a given point.

Flood duration – Amount of time between the initial rise of flood,

including freeboard, waters and their recession.

Flood elevation – Height of flood waters above an elevation datum plane.

Flood frequency – Probability, expressed as a percentage, that a flood

of a given size will be equaled or exceeded in any given year. The flood
that has a 1-percent probability (1 in 100) of being equaled or exceeded
in any given year is often referred to as the 100-year flood. Similarly, the
floods that have a 2-percent probability (1 in 50) and a 0.2-percent (1 in
500) of being equaled or exceeded in any year are referred to as the 50-
year flood and the 500-year flood, respectively.

Flood Protection Elevation (FPE) – Elevation of the highest flood,

including freeboard, that a retrofitting method is intended to protect against.

Floodplain – Any area susceptible to inundation by water from any

source. See “Regulatory floodplain.”

Floodplain management – Program of corrective and preventive

measures for reducing flood damage, including flood control projects,
floodplain land use regulations, floodproofing or retrofitting of buildings,
and emergency preparedness plans.

Floodproofing – Structural or nonstructural changes or adjustments

included in the design, construction, or alteration of a building that reduce
damage to the building and its contents from flooding and erosion. See
“Dry floodproofing” and “Wet floodproofing.”

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 157

APPENDIX B

Floodwall – Flood barrier constructed of manmade materials, such as

concrete or masonry.

Floodway – Portion of the regulatory floodplain that must be kept free of

development so that flood elevations will not increase beyond a set limit –
a maximum of 1 foot under the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).
The floodway usually consists of the stream channel and land along its
sides.

Flow velocity – Speed at which water moves during a flood. Velocities

usually vary across the floodplain. They are usually greatest near the
channel and lowest near the edges of the floodplain.

Footing – Enlarged base of a foundation wall or independent vertical

member (such as a pier, post, or column) for a house or other structure,
including a floodwall. A footing provides support by spreading the load of a
structure so that the bearing capacity of the soil is not exceeded.

Freeboard – Additional amount of height incorporated into the FPE to

account for uncertainties in the determination of flood elevations.

Frequency – See “Flood frequency.”

Grade beam – In a slab foundation, a support member cast as an integral

part of the slab, as opposed to a separate footing.

Hazard mitigation – Action taken to reduce or eliminate long-term risk to

people and property from hazards such as floods, earthquakes, and fires.

Human intervention – Any action that a person must take to enable a

flood protection measure to function as intended. This action must be
taken every time flooding threatens.

Hydrodynamic force – Force exerted by moving water.

Hydrostatic force – Force exerted by water at rest, including lateral

pressure on walls and uplift (buoyancy) on floors.

Impervious soils – Soils that resist penetration by water.

Levee – Flood barrier constructed of compacted soil.

Local officials – Community employees who are responsible for

floodplain management, zoning, permitting, building code enforcement,
and building inspection.

158 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 GLOSSARY APPENDIX B

Lowest Adjacent Grade (LAG) – Elevation of the lowest ground surface

that touches any of the exterior walls of a building.

Lowest floor – Floor of the lowest enclosed area within the building,
including the basement.

Masonry veneer – Nonstructural, decorative, exterior layer of brick,

stone, or concrete block added to the walls of a building.

Mean Sea Level (MSL) – Datum plane; the average height of the sea for
all stages of the tide, usually determined from hourly height observations
over a 19-year period on an open coast or in adjacent waters having free
access to the sea.

National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD) – Elevation datum plane

previously used by FEMA for the determination of flood elevations.

North American Vertical Datum Plane – Elevation datum currently used

by FEMA for the determination of flood elevations.

Passive retrofitting method – Method that operates automatically,

without human intervention. See “Active retrofitting method.”

Permeable Soils – Soils that water can easily penetrate and spread through.

Pier – Vertical support member of masonry or cast-in-place concrete that

is designed and constructed to function as an independent structural
element in supporting and transmitting both building loads and
environmental loads to the ground.

Piling – Vertical support member of wood, steel, or precast concrete that

is driven or jetted into the ground and supported primarily by friction
between the pilings and the surrounding earth. Piling often cannot act as
independent support units and therefore are often braced with
connections to other pilings.

Post – Long vertical support member of wood or steel set in holes that are
backfilled with compacted material. Posts often cannot act as independent
support units and therefore are often braced with connections to other posts.

Precast concrete – Concrete structures and structural members brought

to the construction site in completed form.

Rates of rise and fall – How rapidly the elevation of the water rises and
falls during a flood.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 159

APPENDIX B

Regulatory floodplain – Flood hazard area within which a community

regulates development, including new construction, the repair of
substantially damaged buildings, and substantial improvements to existing
buildings. In communities participating in the NFIP, the regulatory floodplain
must include at least the area inundated by the base flood, also referred to
as the Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA). See “Floodplain.”

Reinforcement – Inclusion of steel bars in concrete members and

structures to increase their strength.

Relocation – In retrofitting, the process of moving a house or other

building to a new location outside the flood hazard area.

Retrofitting – Making changes to an existing house or other building to

protect it from flooding or other hazards.

Riprap – Pieces of rock added to the surface of a fill slope, such as the
side of a levee, to prevent erosion.

Saturated soils – Soils that have absorbed, to the maximum extent

possible, water from rainfall or snowmelt.

Scour – Process by which flood waters remove soil around objects that
obstruct flow, such as the foundation walls of a house.

Sealant – In retrofitting, a waterproofing material or substance used to

prevent the infiltration of flood water.

Service equipment – In retrofitting, the utility systems, heating and

cooling systems, and large appliances in a house.

Slab-on-grade – Type of foundation in which the lowest floor of the house

is formed by a concrete slab that sits directly on the ground. The slab may
be supported by independent footings or integral grade beams.

Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA) – Portion of the floodplain subject to

inundation by the base flood, designated Zone A, AE, A1 - A30, AH, AO,
V, VE, V1 - V30, or M on a FIRM.

Storm surge – Rise in the level of the ocean that results from the decrease
in atmospheric pressure associated with hurricanes and other storms.

Subgrade – Below the level of the ground surface.

Substantial damage – Damage of any origin sustained by a structure

whereby the cost of restoring the structure to its before damaged

160 FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 GLOSSARY APPENDIX B

condition would equal or exceed 50 percent of the market value of the

structure before the damage occurred.

Substantial improvement – Any reconstruction, rehabilitation, addition,

or other improvement of a structure, the cost of which equals or exceeds
50 percent of the market value of the structure before the start of
construction of the improvement. This term applies to structures that have
incurred substantial damage, regardless of the actual repair work
performed.

Sump pump – Device used to remove water from seepage or rainfall that
collects in areas protected by a levee, floodwall, or dry floodproofing. In
addition, a sump pump is often part of a standard house drainage system
that removes water that collects below a basement slab floor.

Tsunami – Great sea wave produced by an undersea earth movement or

volcanic eruption.

Veneer – See “Masonry veneer.”

Walkout-on-grade basement – Basement whose floor is at ground level

on at least one side of a house. The term “walkout” is used because most
basements of this type have an outside door at ground level. A walkout-
on-grade basement is not considered a basement under the NFIP. See
“Basement”.

Wet floodproofing – Protecting a building by allowing flood waters to

enter so that internal and external hydrostatic pressures are equalized.
Usually, only enclosed areas used for parking, storage, or building access
are wet floodproofed.

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 161

 APPENDIX C

Appendix C
FEMA Offices
The addresses and telephone numbers of the 10 FEMA Regional Offices are listed below. Staff
members of the Regional Office for your area can give you more information about retrofitting,
hazard mitigation, and the National Flood Insurance Program.
FEMA HEADQUARTERS REGION VII – IA, KS, MO, NE
Office of the Associate Director for Mitigation 2323 Grand Boulevard, Suite 900
500 C Street, SW. Kansas City, MO 64108-2670
Washington, DC 20472 (816) 283-7002
(202) 646-4622
REGION VIII – CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY
REGION I – CT, ME, NH, RI, VT Denver Federal Center, Building 710
J. W. McCormack POCH, Room 462 P.O. Box 25267
Boston, MA 02109-4595 Denver, CO 80255-0267
(617) 223-9561 (303) 235-4830
REGION II – NJ, NY, PR, VI REGION IX – AZ, CA, HI, NV
26 Federal Plaza, Room 1337 Presidio of San Francisco
New York, NY 10278-0002 P.O. Box 29998
(212) 225-7203 San Francisco, CA 94129-1250
(415) 923-7177
REGION III – DE, DC, MD, PA, VA, WV
Liberty Square Building, Second Floor REGION X – AK, ID, OR, WA
105 S. Seventh Street Federal Regional Center
Philadelphia, PA 19106-3316 130 228th Street, SW.
(215) 931-5750 Bothell, WA 98021-9796
(425) 487-4678
REGION IV – AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN
Koger Center – Rutgers Building
3003 Chamblee-Tucker Road
Atlanta, GA 30341
(770) 220-5400
REGION V – IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI
To order copies of Flood Insurance Rate Maps, and for
175 West Jackson Boulevard, Fourth Floor
information about Flood Insurance Study reports, call the
Chicago, IL 60604-2698 FEMA Map Service Center toll-free at 1-800-358-9616, or
(312) 408-5548 mail a Flood Insurance Map Order Form (available from
the Service Center) to the following address:
REGION VI – AR, LA, NM, OK, TX
Federal Regional Center Federal Emergency Management Agency
800 North Loop 288 Mitigation Directorate – Map Service Center
Denton, TX 76201-3698 6730 Santa Barbara Court
(940) 898-5127 Baltimore, MD 20221-5624

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 163

 APPENDIX D

Appendix D
NFIP State Coordinating Agencies
ALABAMA COLORADO
Alabama Emergency Management Agency Colorado Water Conservation Board
The State House, Suite 127 State Centennial Building, Room 721
P.O. Box 301701 1313 Sherman Street
Montgomery, AL 36130-1701 Denver, CO 80203
(334) 353-5716 (303) 866-3441

ALASKA CONNECTICUT
Alaska Department of Community and State Department of Environmental
Regional Affairs Protection
Municipal and Regional Assistance Division 168 Capitol Avenue, Room 207
333 W. 4th Avenue, Suite 220 Hartford, CT 06106
Anchorage, AK 99501-2341 (203) 566-7244
(907) 269-4500
DELAWARE
ARIZONA Department of Natural Resources and
Arizona Department of Water Resources Environmental Control
500 N. Third Street, 2nd Floor Division of Soil and Water Conservation
Phoenix, AZ 85004-3903 99 Kings Highway
(602) 417-2400 P.O. Box 1401
Dover, DE 19903
ARKANSAS (302) 739-4411
Arkansas Soil and Water Conservation
Commission DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
101 E. Capitol, Suite 350 Department of Consumer and Regulatory
Little Rock, AR 72201-3823 Affairs
(501) 682-3969 614 H Street, NW., Suite 500
Washington, DC 20001
CALIFORNIA (202) 727-7577
California Department of Water Resources
Division of Flood Management FLORIDA
1416 9th Street, Room 1623 Department of Community Affairs
Sacramento, CA 95814 William E. Sadowski Building
(916) 653-9902 2555 Shumard Oak Boulevard
Tallahassee, Florida 32399
(904) 413-9960

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 165

 APPENDIX D

GEORGIA IOWA
Department of Natural Resources Iowa Department of Natural Resources
Environmental Protection Division Wallace State Office Building
7 Martin Luther king, Jr., Drive, SW. Des Moines, IA 50319
Atlanta, GA 30334 (515) 281-8942
(404) 656-6382
KANSAS
GUAM (011) 671-477-9841 Kansas Division of Water Resources
Guam Department of Public Works 901 S. Kansas, 2nd Floor
Post Office Box 2877 Topeka, KS 66612-1283
Agana, Guam 96910 (785) 296-2933
(011) 671-477-7567
KENTUCKY
HAWAII Kentucky Department of Natural
Hawaii Board of Land and Natural Resources Resources
P.O. Box 373 Division of Water
Honolulu, HI 96809 Frankfort Office Park
(808) 587-0222 14 Reilly Road
Frankfort, KY 40601
IDAHO (502) 564-3410
Department of Water Resources
State House LOUISIANA
1301 N. Orchard Louisiana Department of Transportation
Boise, ID 83720 and Development
(208) 327-7993 Office of Public Works
Floodplain Management Section
ILLINOIS P.O. Box 94245
Illinois Department of Natural Resources Baton Rouge, LA 70804-9245
Office of Water Resources (504) 379-1432
524 South Second Street
Springfield, IL 62701-1787 MAINE
(217) 782-3862 Maine State Planning Office
38 State House Station
INDIANA 184 State Street
Indiana Department of Natural Resources Augusta, ME 04333-0038
402 W. Washington Street, Room W264 (207) 289-8050
Indianapolis, IN 46204-2743
(317) 232-4178 MARYLAND
Maryland Water Resources Administration
Tawes State Office, Building E-2
580 Taylor Avenue
Annapolis, MD 21401
(301) 974-3825

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 NFIP STATE COORDINATING AGENCIES APPENDIX D

MASSACHUSETTS NEBRASKA
Massachusetts Division of Water Resources Nebraska Natural Resources Commission
Salltonstall Building, Room 1304 301 Centennial Mall South
100 Cambridge Street P.O. Box 94876
Boston, MA 02202 Lincoln, NE 68509
(617) 727-3267 (402) 471-2081

MICHIGAN NEVADA
Michigan Land and Water Management Nevada Division of Water Planning
Division 1550 East College Parkway, Suite 142
Department of Environmental Quality Carson City, NV 89706-7921
P.O. Box 30458 (702) 687-3600
Lansing, MI 48909-7958
(517) 335-3182 NEW HAMPSHIRE
Governor’s Office of Emergency Management
MINNESOTA State Office Park South
Flood Plains/Shoreline Management Section 107 Pleasant Street
Division of Waters Concord, NH 03301
Department of Natural Resources (603) 271-2231
500 LaFayette Road, Box 32
St. Paul, MN 55515-4032 NEW JERSEY
(612) 296-9226 New Jersey Department of Environmental
Protection
MISSISSIPPI Division of Coastal Resources
Mississippi Emergency Management Agency CN 419
1410 Riverside Drive 501 East State Street
P.O. Box 4501 Trenton, NJ 08619
Jackson, MS 39216 (609) 292-2296
(602) 960-9031
NEW MEXICO
MISSOURI New Mexico Emergency Management
Missouri Emergency Management Agency Bureau
P.O. Box 116 P.O. Box 1628
Jefferson City, MO 65102 Santa Fe, NM 87504-1628
(573) 526-9141 (505) 827-9222

MONTANA NEW YORK

Montana Department of Natural Resources New York Department of Environmental
and Conservation Conservation
1520 East 6th Avenue Flood Protection Bureau
Helena, MT 59620-2301 50 Wolf Road, Room 330
(406) 444-6646 Albany, NY 12233-3507
(518) 457-3157

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 APPENDIX D

NORTH CAROLINA PUERTO RICO

North Carolina Department of Crime Control Puerto Rico Planning Board
and Public Safety P.O. Box 41119, Minillas Station
Division of Emergency Management De Diego Avenue, Stop 22
116 West Jones Street San Juan, PR 00940-90985
Raleigh, NC 27603-1335 (809) 727-4444
(919) 733-3427
RHODE ISLAND
NORTH DAKOTA Rhode Island Department of Administration
North Dakota State Water Commission Statewide Planning Program
900 East Boulevard 1 Capitol Hill
Bismark, ND 58505 Providence, RI 02908-5872
(701) 224-2750 (401) 277-6478

OHIO SOUTH CAROLINA

Ohio Department of Natural Resources South Carolina Department of Natural
Division of Water Resources
Flood Plain Management Flood Mitigation Program
1939 Fountain Square, Building E-3 2221 Devine Street, Suite 222
Columbus, OH 43224 Columbia, SC 29205
(614) 265-6750 (803) 734-9103

OKLAHOMA SOUTH DAKOTA

Oklahoma Water Resources Board South Dakota Disaster Assistance Programs
600 N. Harvey Emergency and Disaster Services
Oklahoma City, OK 73101 500 East Capitol
(405) 231-6750 Pierre, SD 57501
(605) 773-3231
OREGON
Department of Land Conservation TENNESSEE
Development Tennessee Department of Economic and
1175 Court Street, NE. Community Development
Salem, OR 97310 Division of Community Development
(503) 378-2332 320 Sixth Avenue, North
Sixth floor
PENNSYLVANIA Nashville, TN 37219-5408
Pennsylvania Department of Community and (615) 741-2211
Economic Development
Forum Building, Room 318
Harrisburg, PA 17120
(717) 787-7402

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 NFIP STATE COORDINATING AGENCIES APPENDIX D

TEXAS WASHINGTON
Texas Natural Resources Conservation Washington Department of Ecology
Commission P.O. Box 47690
Capitol Station Olympia, WA 98504
P.O. Box 13087 (206) 459-6791
Austin, TX 78711-3087
(512) 239-4771 WEST VIRGINIA
West Virginia Office of Emergency Services
UTAH Room EB-80
Utah Department of Public Safety Capitol Building
Division of Comprehensive Emergency Charleston, WV 25305
Management (304) 348-5380
450 N. Main
Salt Lake City, UT 84114 WISCONSIN
(801) 538-3400 Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
Floodplain - Shoreland Management Section
VERMONT P.O. Box 7921
Vermont Division of Water Resources Madison, WI 53707
Agency of Environmental Conservation (608) 266-1926
10 North Building
103 South Main Street WYOMING
Waterbury, VT 05676 Wyoming Emergency Management Agency
(802) 244-6951 P.O. Box 1709
Cheyenne, WY 82003
(307) 777-4900
VIRGIN ISLANDS
Department of Planning and Natural
Resources
Charlotte Amailie – Nisky Center, Suite 231
St. Thomas, VI 00802
(809) 774-3320

VIRGINIA
Virginia Department of Conservation and
Historic Resources
Division of Soil and Water Conservation
203 Governor Street, Suite 206
Richmond, VA 23219
(804) 371-6136

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 APPENDIX E

Appendix E
State Historic Preservation Offices

ALABAMA COLORADO
Alabama Historical Commission Colorado Historical Society
725 Monroe Street 1300 Broadway
Montgomery, AL 36130 Denver, CO 80203
(205) 242-3184 (303) 866-2136

ALASKA CONNECTICUT
Alaska Department of Natural Resources Connecticut Historical Commission
Office of History and Archeology 59 South Prospect Street
Division of Parks Hartford, CT 06106
P.O. Box 107001 (203) 566-3005
Anchorage, AK 99510-7001
(907) 762-2622 DELAWARE
Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs
ARIZONA Hall of Records
Arizona State Parks P.O. Box 1401
800 West Washington Dover, DE 19901
Suite 415 (302) 739-5313
Phoenix, AZ 85007
(602) 542-4009 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs
ARKANSAS District Building
Arkansas Historic Preservation Program 1350 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW.
The Heritage Center Washington, DC 20004
225 East Markham (202) 727-6365
Suite 200
Little Rock, AR 72201 FLORIDA
(501) 324-9346 Division of Historical Resources
Department of State
CALIFORNIA R. A. Gray Building
Office of Historic Preservation 500 South Bronough Street
Department of Parks & Recreation Tallahassee, FL 32399-0250
P.O. Box 942896 (904) 488-1480
Sacramento, CA 94296-9824
(916) 653-6624

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 APPENDIX E

GEORGIA KANSAS
Office of Historical Preservation Kansas State Historical Society
205 Butler Street, SE. 120 West 10th
1456 Floyd Towers East Topeka, KS 66612
Atlanta, GA 30334 (913) 296-3251
(404) 656-2840
KENTUCKY
HAWAII Kentucky Heritage Council
Department of Land and Natural Resources 300 Washington Street
P.O. Box 621 Frankfort, KY 40601
Honolulu, HI 96809 (502) 564-7005
(808) 548-6550
LOUISIANA
IDAHO Office of Cultural Development
Idaho State Historical Society Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism
210 Main Street P.O. Box 44247
Boise, ID 83702 Baton Rouge, LA 70804
(208) 334-2682 (504) 342-8200

ILLINOIS MAINE
Illinois Historic Preservation Agency Maine Historic Preservation Commission
1 Old State Capitol Plaza 55 Capitol Street
Springfield, IL 62701-1512 Station 65
(217) 785-9045 Augusta, ME 04333
(207) 289-2132
INDIANA
Department of Natural Resources MARYLAND
402 West Washington Street Department of Housing and Community
Indiana Government Center South Development
Room C-256 100 Community Place, 3rd Floor
Indianapolis, IN 46204 Crownsville, MD 21401
(317) 232-4020 (410) 514-7662

IOWA MASSACHUSETTS
State Historical Society of Iowa Massachusetts Historical Commission
Capitol Complex 80 Boylston Street
East 6th and Locust Streets Suite 310
Des Moines, IA 50319 Boston, MA 02116
(515) 281-8837 (617) 727-8470

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 STATE HISTORIC PRESERVATION OFFICES APPENDIX E

MICHIGAN NEVADA
Bureau of History Division of Historic Preservation and Archeology
Department of State 123 West Nye Lane
717 West Allegan Street Room 208
Lansing, Michigan 49654 Carson City, NV 89710
(517) 373-0511 (702) 687-5138

MINNESOTA NEW HAMPSHIRE

Minnesota Historical Society Division of Historical Resources
690 Cedar Street and State Historic Preservation Office
St. Paul, MN 55101 P.O. Box 2043
(612) 296-2747 Concord, NH 03301
(603) 271-3483
MISSISSIPPI
Mississippi Department of Archives and History NEW JERSEY
P.O. Box 571 Department of Environmental Protection
Jackson, MS 39205-0571 501 East State Street
(601) 359-6850 CN 402
Trenton, NJ 08625
MISSOURI (609) 292-2885
State Department of Natural Resources
205 Jefferson NEW MEXICO
P.O. Box 176 Historic Preservation Division
Jefferson City, MO 65102 Office of Cultural Affairs
(314) 751-4422 Villa Rivera
228 East Palace Avenue
MONTANA Santa Fe, NM 87503
State Historic Preservation Office (505) 827-6320
Montana Historical Society
225 North Roberts NEW YORK
Helena, MT 59620-9990 Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation
(406) 444-7715 Agency Building 1
Empire State Plaza
NEBRASKA Albany, NY 12238
Nebraska State Historical Society (518) 474-0443
P.O. Box 82554
Lincoln, NE 68501 NORTH CAROLINA
(402) 471-4787 Division of Archives and History
Department of Cultural Resources
109 East Jones Street
Raleigh, NC 27601-2807
(919) 733-7305

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 APPENDIX E

NORTH DAKOTA SOUTH CAROLINA

State Historical Society of North Dakota Department of Archives and History
Heritage Center P.O. Box 11669
612 East Boulevard Avenue Columbia, SC 29211
Bismarck, ND 58505 (803) 734-8592
(701) 224-2667
SOUTH DAKOTA
OHIO South Dakota State Historical Society
Ohio Historical Society Cultural Heritage Center
Historic Preservation Division 900 Governors Drive
1985 Velma Avenue Pierre, SD 57501
Columbus, OH 43211 (605) 773-3458
(614) 297-2470
TENNESSEE
OKLAHOMA Department of Conservation
Oklahoma Historical Society 701 Broadway
2100 North Lincoln Boulevard Nashville, TN 37243-0442
Oklahoma City, OK 73105 (615) 742-6758
(405) 521-2491
TEXAS
OREGON Texas Historical Commission
State Parks and Recreation Department P.O. Box 12276, Capitol Station
525 Trade Street, SE Austin, TX 78711
Salem, OR 97310 (512) 463-6100
(503) 378-5019
UTAH
PENNSYLVANIA Utah State Historical Society
Pennsylvania Historical and Museum 300 Rio Grande
Commission Salt Lake City, UT 84101
P.O. Box 1026 (801) 533-5755
Harrisburg, PA 17108
(717) 787-2891 VERMONT
Agency of Development and Community Affairs
RHODE ISLAND 109 State Street
Rhode Island Historical Preservation Montpelier, VT 05609-0501
Commission (802) 828-3211
Old State House
150 Benefit Street VIRGINIA
Providence, RI 02903 Department of Historic Resources
(401) 277-2678 Commonwealth of Virginia
221 Governor Street
Richmond, VA 23219
(804) 786-3143

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 STATE HISTORIC PRESERVATION OFFICES APPENDIX E

WASHINGTON VIRGIN ISLANDS

Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation Department of Planning and Natural
111 West 21st Street Resources
KL-11 Nisky Center
Olympia, WA 98504 45A Estate Nisky
(206) 753-4011 Suite 231
St. Thomas, VI 00802
WEST VIRGINIA 809-774-3320
West Virginia Division of Culture and History
Historic Preservation Office
Cultural Center
1900 Kanawha Boulevard East
Charleston, WV 25305-0300
(304) 558-0220

WISCONSIN
Historic Preservation Division
State Historical Society of Wisconsin
816 State Street
Madison, WI 53706
(608) 264-6500

WYOMING
Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office
Barrett Building
2301 Central Avenue
4th Floor
Cheyenne, WY 82002
(307) 777-7013

AMERICAN SAMOA
Stan Sorensen, HPO
Department of Parks and Recreation
Government of American Samoa
Pago Pago, American Samoa 96799
011-684-699-9614

PUERTO RICO
Office of Historic Preservation
Box 82, La Fortaleza
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00901
809-721-2676

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 APPENDIX F

Appendix F
Professional Organizations
The organizations listed below can provide information about registered
design professionals and licensed contractors in or near the area where
you live.

American Institute of Architects

1735 New York Avenue, NW.
Washington, DC 20090
(202) 626-7300

American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)

World Headquarters
1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, VA 20191-4400
(703) 295-6300

International Association of Structural Movers (ISM)

P.O. Box 1213
Elbridge, NY 13060
(315) 689-9498

National Association of Home Builders

15th and M Street, NW.
Washington, DC 20090
(202) 822-0200

HOMEOWNER’S GUIDE TO RETROFITTING 177