TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

TOPIC 1

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

1.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to language acquisition and learning. It provides insights to the nature of language, language learning process, and characteristics of the effective language learner. It also makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning.

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to: define the nature of language describe the language learning process in early childhood list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning differentiate between language acquisition and language learning

1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS Language Language Acquisition Acquisition and Learning and Learning Key Concepts Key Concepts and Issues and Issues

Nature of Nature of Language Language

Language Language Learning Learning Process Process

Language Language Learner Learner

Acquisition Acquisition versus versus Learning Learning

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CONTENT SESSION ONE (3 Hours) 1.2 Language Acquisition and Learning Key Concepts and Issues It is important for you to develop an awareness of the properties of language and an understanding L1 language development in children. Your understanding of what language is and how the learner learns will determine to a large extent, your philosophy of education, and how you teach English: your teaching style, your approach, methods and classroom technique. In short, this knowledge of the nature of language and the language learning process would enable you to teach your learners to learn a second language more effectively. 1.2.1 Nature of Language

Exercise 1:

What is your definition of language?

Write down in twenty-five-words-or-less a definition of language. Share your definition with another friend or in a small group. Compare differences and similarities.

What is Language? There are many ways in which we could describe language . Your definition of language (in the above) probably yield something that sounds similar to the following composite definition : A language is considered to be a system of communicating with other people using sounds, symbols and words in expressing a meaning, idea or thought. This language can be used in many forms, primarily through oral and written communications as well as using expressions through body language.

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Language is defined as "a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures or marks having understood meanings." (Webster New International Dictionary of the English Language, 654), and "is a tool for communication" (Emmet, 22). In most common use of language, these signs are the words which we employ in such a way that they may communicate ideas or feelings. There are many possible theoretical positions about the nature of language. Commonly, three different views are explicitly or implicitly reflected in current approaches to language learning. They are: The structural view of language The structural view of language is that language is a system of structurally related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements are usually described as: phonological units (phonemes) grammatical units (phrases, clauses, sentences) grammatical operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming elements) lexical items (function words and structure words) The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of elements of this system. The communicative view of language The communicative view of language is the view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the grammatical characteristics, although these are also included. The target of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and categories of meaning. 3

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The interactional view of language The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for performing social transactions between individuals. The target of language learning in the interactional view is learning to initiate and maintain conversations with other people.

Tutorial Task: Language can be likened to an ocean. Like the ocean, language is never still. It has many moods and shapes. It seems to be endless. It carries people and their goods. Can you suggest another metaphor to describe language? What is your image of language? Make a simple sketch or drawing of your image of language. Then, write down all the ways in which language reflects the image you see. Share your image with a friend. Note features of your images which you have in common. Note significant differences between your images.

Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.

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1.2.2 Language Learning Process Children go through a number of different stages as language develops, from the earliest stage of producing cooing sounds through being able to produce complex, multi-word sentences. Babbling first stage of language development known as the pre-linguistic, babbling or cooing stage period typically lasts from the age of three to nine months babies begin to make vowel sounds such as oooooo and aaaaaaa by five months, infants typically begin to babble and add consonant sounds to their sounds such as ba-ba-ba, ma-ma-ma or da-da-da. Single Words second stage is known as the one-word or holophase stage of language development around the age of 10 to 13 months children will begin to produce their first real words only capable of producing a few, single words at this point, but important to realize that they are able to understand considerably more infants begin to comprehend language about twice as fast as they are able to produce it Two Words third stage begins around the age of 18 months children begin to use two word sentences 5

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sentences usually consist of just nouns and verbs E.g. Where daddy? "Puppy big!"

Multi-word Sentences around the age of two children begin to produce short, multi-word sentences that have a subject and predicate E.g. a child might say "Mommy is nice" or "Want more candy As children age, they continue to learn more new words every day. By the time they enter school around the age of five, children typically have a vocabulary of 10,000 words or more. Developmental Sequences Developmental sequences reflect linguistic elements in childrens cognitive understandings Examples Grammatical Morphemes Negations Questions Grammatical Morphemes Roger Browns longitudinal study (1973) Present progressive ing Plurals s Irregular past forms possessive s Copula 6

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Articles the and a Regular past ed Third person singular simple present s Auxiliary be

Acquisition of Grammatical morphemes e.g., wug test i. Here is a wug. Now there are two of them. There are two ______. Yesterday, he_______. Through the tests, children demonstrate that they know the rules for the formation of plural and simple past in English. By generalizing these patterns to words they have never heard before, they show that their language is not just a list of memorized word pairs such as book/books and nod/nodded. Acquisition of Negation ii. John knows how to bod. Yesterday he did the same thing.

Lois Blooms study (1991) four stages 7

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Stage 1: no e.g., No go. No cookie. Stage 2: subject + no e.g., Daddy no comb hair. Stage 3: auxiliary or modal verbs (do/can) + not (Yet no variations for different persons or tenses) e.g., I cant do it , He dont want it. Stage 4: correct form of auxiliary verbs (did/doesnt/is/are) + not e.g., He didnt go. She doesnt want it. But sometimes double negatives are used e.g., I dont have no more candies. Acquisition of Questions By the age of 4: Most children are able to ask questions, give commands, report real events, and create stories about imaginary ones with correct word order and grammatical markers most of the time. They have mastered the basic structures of the language or languages spoken to them in these early years. They begin to acquire less frequent and more complex linguistic structures such as passives and relative clauses. They begin to develop ability to use language in a widening social environment. The six stages of childrens question-making can be illustrated as follows: Stage 1: using single words or single two- or three-word sentences with rising intonation (Mommy book? Wheres Daddy?) Stage 2: using the word order of the declarative sentence (You like this? Why you catch it?) 8

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Stage 3: fronting - putting a verb at the beginning of a sentence (Is the teddy is tired? Do I can have a cookie?) Stage 4: subject-auxiliary inversion in yes/no questions but not in whquestions (Do you like ice cream? Where I can draw?) Stage 5: subject-auxiliary inversion in wh-questions, but not in negative wh-questions (Why can he go out? Why he cant go out?) Stage 6: overgeneralizing the inverted form in embedded questions (I dont know why cant he go out.)

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Reflect on your own language learning experience First 3 years Pre-school years School years

T hen, your share thoughts

with a friend.

Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.

1.2.3 Language Learner A lot of research has been carried out into what makes a good language learner. Here is a brief summary of the latest theories:

The good language learner thinks about how she is learning. She tries to find out what works for her and what doesn't. If she doesn't understand the purpose of a particular exercise, she asks the teacher.

The good language learner is willing to experiment and take risks. For example, she will try out different ways of learning vocabulary until she finds the way that suits her best. She is also not afraid of making mistakes, because she knows that these will help her.

The good language learner is realistic. She knows that it will take time and effort to become proficient in English, and that there will periods where she does not seem to be making much progress.

The good language learner is independent. She does not expect to learn English just by sitting in the classroom, and does not rely on the teacher to totally direct her learning.

The good language learner is organized and active. She uses her time to learn English sensibly, and is always looking for opportunities to develop her language both inside and outside of the classroom.

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The good language learner has a balanced concern for communication and accuracy. Some students are experts at communicating their thoughts but do not care that they make many mistakes in doing so. The good language learner, on the other hand, is concerned with both communicating and doing so as accurately as possible.

Although these are the qualities that have been found in the most efficient language learners, there are still many other factors that influence how quickly a child will learn English. Source: Copyright Paul Shoebottom (1996-2011) The Good Language Learner. Retrieved 8 December 2011, from http://esl.fis.edu Factors affecting language learning There are various factors that affect successful language learning. They could stem from the learners own mind (internal factors) or from the environment he lives in (external factors). Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or her to the particular learning situation, for example, age of the learner, personality, motivation, experiences, cognition abilities and his native language. External factors are those that characterize the particular language learning situation,some of which include the curriculum in use, mode of instruction, and the opportunity to interact with native speakers both within and outside of the classroom.

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Exercise 2

The following are some factors that are known to affect second language acquisition and learning. Determine whether each factor is related mainly to the student, to the family or to the environment of the second culture. Use the following code: S = factors primarily in the student F = factors primarily in the family E = factors primarily in the environment of the second culture 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Age Socioeconomic status Classroom culture Cognitive development in L1 Family support Whether environment provides adequate L2 input 12 _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______

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7. 9. 11. 15. 17. 19. 20. 24. 25.

Literacy level Opportunities for language use in school Motivation Proficiency in the home language Role models in the community Personality Whether student has enough opportunities to use English Teachers expectations Preferred learning styles

_______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______

Adapted from Maitland, K. (1997). Adding English: Helping ESL Learners Succeed. Good Apple. ISBN 1-56417-903-6.

Now check your answers below. Answers: 1S, 2F, 3E, 4S, 5S, 6E, 7F, 8E, 9S, 10S, 11E, 12S, 13E, 14E, 15S

Tutorial Task:

In your experience, as an English learner: i. ii. Iii, Are there personal characteristics that make you more successful than another learner? Which characteristics seem to you most likely to be associated with success in L2 acquisition? Share your opinion with your group members. Find three most important and three least important learner characteristics. Individual Differences Research findings reveal that every person has a learning style; therefore, there is no particular teaching or learning method that can suit the needs of all learners. Learning styles are also value-neutral; that is, no one style is better 13

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than others. Learning styles exist on wide continuums, although they are often described as opposites. situations. Age is only one of the characteristics which affects the learners L2 learning. The opportunities for learning (i.e., context - both inside and outside the classroom), the motivation to learn, and individual differences in intelligence , aptitude , personality , and learning styles have also been found to be important determining factors in both rate of learning and eventual success in learning. Learners should therefore be encouraged to stretch their learning styles so that they will be more empowered in a variety of learning

1.2.4 Acquisition versus Learning It is sometimes thought that acquisition and learning refer to the same processes. According to linguists there is an important distinction between language acquisition and language learning. Language Acquisition Acquisition occurs passively and unconsciously through implicit learning. Experts suggest there is an innate capacity in every human being to acquire language. Language acquisition in children just seems to happen. Children do not need explicit instruction to learn their first languages but rather seem to just pick up language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl and walk. Language acquisition, therefore, is the process whereby children acquire their first language. As you may well have noticed, children acquire their mother tongue through interaction with their parents and the environment that surrounds them. Their need to communicate paves the way for language acquisition to take place. rather seem to just pick up language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl and walk.

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Language Learning As opposed to acquisition, learning occurs actively and consciously through explicit instruction and education. Language learning is the process whereby humans past the critical period learn second languages. In other words, older children and adults need explicit teaching to learn their second languages. It is the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. In language learning, students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that knowledge. However, studies have shown that knowing grammar rules does not necessarily result in good speaking or writing. We should not ignore the differences between language acquisition and language learning. While all children before the critical period can innately acquire their first languages, most older children and adults past the critical period must learn second languages through explicit education and instruction. L1 and L2 acquisition are quite complicated processes. To understand these processes will enable the language teacher to be more sensitive to the factors involved. While L1 and L2 acquisition reveal some similarities, they also show differences. Similarities in First and Second Language Acquisition theories are of great interest to teachers and learners as they can be utilized to improve language teaching and learning methods. Nature vs Nurture Much debate has taken place concerning the importance of nature (what is innate) and nurture (environmental factors) in the acquisition of language. Is language acquisition and development innate or taught? The debate about nature versus nurture in language acquisition has drawn heated testimony from both sides. The following chart compares nature and nurture in language acquisition.

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Nature
Informal
Parents & Society Experiences

Nurture
Formal
Teachers Syllabus

Environment Exposure Acquisition

Classroom Systematic Learning

Tutorial Task: Comparing First and Second Language Acquisition Activity 1: There are similarities and differences in first and second language acquisition. It is clear that a child or adult learning a second language is different from a baby acquiring a first language in terms of personal characteristics and conditions for learning. Language teachers must have theoretical knowledge of how languages are acquired. How is learning a second language like learning a first? How is it different? How will this knowledge help you plan classroom experiences? Write a paper (4-6 pages) citing at least four research articles to support text reading.

Activity 2: 16

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As teachers, it is our duty to make sure that our students acquire rather than learn the language. Discuss.

TOPIC 2

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

2.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 2 provides you with an overview of four influential learning theories that underlie the instruction of a teachers classroom practice. More specifically, it examines in detail the key principles of Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Social Constructivism and Humanistic orientations to language learning.

2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this Topic, you will be able to: define terms relevant to some theories of language learning explain the main principles of each language learning theory distinguish the application of behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist and humanist principles in the classroom 17

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2.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

CONTENT SESSION ONE (3 Hours) 2.2 Theories of Language Learning The main goal of any teaching is to bring about learning. Generally, we have not been able to say with certainty how people learn languages although a great deal of research has been done into this subject. Various theories have emerged over the years to study the process of language acquisition. The four main schools of thought which provide theoretical paradigms in guiding the course of language acquisition are: behaviourism, cognitivism, social constructivism and humanism.

2.2.1 Behaviourism The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be traced to the philosophic traditions of Aristotle, Descartes and Locke. The founders and proponents include John B. Watson in the early 20 th century, Ivan Pavlov, B.F.Skinner, E.L. Thorndike, Bandura and others. They argued that behavior 18

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can be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, by manipulating and giving a certain stimulus, a certain response can be produced. Motivation to learn was assumed to be driven by drives such as hunger, rewards and punish. General perception is that there is no difference between the way one learns a language and the way one learns to do anything else. According to the psychologist Skinner, language is a conditioned behaviour: the stimulus response process (Stimulus Response Feedback Reinforcement). The popular view is that children start out as clean slates and language learning is the process of getting linguistic habits printed on these slates through positive and negative reinforcement or punishment. Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior will happen again. On the other hand, punishment decreases the likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen again. Learners are essentially viewed as passive and learn language step by step, i.e. Imitation - Repetition - Memorization - Controlled drilling Reinforcement. They learn to speak by imitating the utterances heard around them and strengthen their responses by the repetitions, corrections, and other reactions that adults provide. Therefore, language is practice based. The main focus is on inducing the child to behave with the help of mechanical drills and exercises. Learning is controlled by the conditions under which it takes place and that, as long as individuals are subjected on the same condition, they will learn in the same condition. In summary, the behaviourist is not concerned with how or why knowledge is obtained, but rather if the correct response is given. Learning is defined as nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour. The following is a list of behaviourist principles quite often applied in teaching and learning in the classroom: Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning. 19

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Provide immediate and frequent feedback for complex and difficult concepts Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts Break down complex task into smaller and manageable subskills Sequence material from simple to more difficult to enhance understanding Model the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations when necessary Reinforce when students demonstrate the modeled behaviour State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and students Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what rewards will be given

Critics of behavioural methods point to two basic problems that may arise in the classroom. Some teachers fear that rewarding students for all learning will cause students to lose interest in learning for its own sake. Using a reward system or giving one student increased attention may have a detrimental effect on other students in the classroom. Also, another problem with this view of learning includes the fact that imitation does not help the learner in real-life situations. Learners are continually required to form sentences they have never previously seen. A finite number of pre-practiced sentences are not enough to carry on a conversation.

Exercise 1 Which of the behaviourist principles listed in the above do you think are widely practised in the classrooms? Give specific examples.

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Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.

2.2.2 Cognitivism In the 1950s there was a realization that behaviourism did not fully explain human learning. Although behaviourism emphasized learning that was observable and measurable, they did not account for what goes on in the minds of the learner when he or she is learning or thinking. Cognitivists felt that it was necessary to investigate how learners make sense of what they learn even though such mental events are difficult to observe and measure objectively. The term cognitivism refers to a group of psychological theories which draw heavily on the work in linguistics of Noam Chomsky. It replaced behaviourism in 1960s as a dominant paradigm. Cognitive theories of learning, based on empirical evidence, indicate that learning is a multi-faceted, complex and dynamic process. Cognitivism focus on the mind or black box and attempt to show how information is received, assimilated, stored and recalled. According to the cognitivists, people are not programmed animals that merely respond to environmental stimuli. People are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking. Changes in behaviour are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learners head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain outcomes. Cognitivists view learning is as a process of relating new information to previously learned information, In other words, learning is defined as a change in the learners schemata. Learning is most likely to occur when an individual can 21

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associate new learning with previous knowledge. Unlike in behaviourism, learners are not passive receivers of environmental conditions. Rather, they are actively involved in the learning process and can have control over their own learning. Errors are also accepted as part of the learning process. In contrast to behaviourism, the cognitivst perspective focus more on the learner as an active participant in the teaching-learning process. It believes that teachers can be more effective if they know what prior knowledge the student already possesses and how information is processed and structured in the learners mind. Therefore, it is important that teachers provide effective instruction to help the learner acquire knowledge more effectively by teaching students how to learn, remember, think and motivate themselves. The following is a list of cognitivist principles quite often applied in teaching and learning in the classroom: Present information in an organized manner Show a logical sequence to concepts Go from simple to complex when presenting new material

Bring to mind relevant prior learning Provide for review and repetition of learning Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information, e.g. inquiry-oriented projects Help students process information in meaningful ways so that they can become independent learners (Staged scaffolding) Like Behaviourism, Cognitivism is also not without its critiques. It has

been criticized for not accounting enough for individuality and for giving little emphasis on the affective characteristics of the learners. The following table sums up very briefly what we have discussed so far: 22

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Behaviourist vs. Cognitivist Focus View about the mind Teacher plans and sets S-T Roles goals for learning. One best way of teaching. Motivation Curriculum Content Teacher assess. Assessment Product is important. Reward is motivation. Students are taught what. Learning is a motivator. Students are taught what and how Students are involved in peer and self-assessment. Product and process are important Bahaviourist A blank slate. Basically alike Cognitivist An active organizer. Varied, with multiple intelligences and learning styles. Students participate in planning and goal-setting. Teacher teaches with variety.

Source: Diaz-Rico, L.(2008). Strategies for Teaching English Learners, (2nd edn.) Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

Exercise 2

Which of the cognitivist principles listed in the above do you think are being practiced in the classrooms? Give specific examples.

CONTENT SESSION TWO (3 Hours) 23

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2.2.3 Social Constructivism Just as Cognitive Learning Psychology began replacing the predominant Behavioural Psychology in the 1970s, Constructivist Learning Psychology has been challenging the cognitive approach from the 1990s. A reaction to didactic approaches, constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Constructivism is a perspective of learning that has its origins in the works of Bruner, Piaget and Vygoysky. It is Vygotskys social development which is one of the foundations for constructivism. Constructivists emphasize that learning is a social activity. They believe that often it is social experiences rather than what is taught in schools which accounts for much of the variation in student learning. Cooperative, collaborative and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas, beliefs and values with their peers and teachers. They also argued that the responsibility of learning resides with the learner. Learners interpret what they hear, read and see based on their previous learning, habits and experiences. Students who do not have appropriate background knowledge will be unable to to accurately hear or see what is before them. Unlike previous educational viewpoints where the responsibility rested with the teacher to teach and where the learner played a passive role, social constructivism emphasizes the importance of the learner being actively involved in the learning process with the teacher playing the role as facilitator. Learning is enhanced when students learn how to learn, engage in serious discussion, and have shared responsibility for applying what they know to new situations. What does this mean for classroom learning? As active learners exploring and going beyond the information given, thus students should be provided with authentic and challenging projects that encourage them to work together with one another. Authentic settings would provide learners with opportunities to see 24

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a problem from different perspectives as well as negotiate and generate solutions through sharing and exchange of ideas. In an authentic environment, learners assume responsibilities for their own learning. The aim is to create a situation more closely related to collaborative practice in the real world. The following is a list of constructivist principles quite often applied in teaching and learning in the classroom: Encourage student autonomy and initiative Students take responsibility for their own learning Respect students ideas and encourage independent thinking

Promote higher order thinking amongst students Ask questions that will influence student response Challenge students to analyze, justify and defend their ideas

Engage students in meaningful learning Provide students opportunity to express their ideas Involve students in real-world situations

The main critique of Social Constructivism is that it is often seen as being less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction.

Exercise 3 Discuss some problems related to implementing constructivist principles in the classroom. Describe with specific examples.

Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic. 25

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2.2.4 Humanism Humanism refers to a movement in psychology which emerged in the 1960s and 1970s. Humanism has its roots in counseling psychology and focuses its attention on how individuals acquire emotions, attitudes, values and interpersonal skills. Perhaps the most well-known applications of humanism in ELT are those of Gattegno (1972) and Curran (1976). Humanistic psychologists believe that how a person feels about learning is as important as how the person thinks or even behaves. They describe behaviour not from the viewpoint of the teacher as do behaviourists but rather from the vantage point of the student who is performing the activity. Humanists, led by such famous authors as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, are especially concerned with the idea of self-actualization, the growth of a person to achieve whatever degree of individual satisfaction they are capable of achieving. Learning is not an end in itself: it is the means to progress towards self-development. A student learns because he or she is inwardly driven (selfmotivation), and derives his or her reward from the sense of achievement that having learned something affords. Hence, much of a humanist teachers effort would be put into developing a students self-esteem. This form of education, known as student-centred, is typified by the student taking responsibility and owning their learning. The humanist teacher is a facilitator and not a disseminator of knowledge. He or she creates an educational environment that fosters self-development, cooperation, positive communications, and personalization of information. In particular, the humanist teacher needs to have a thorough grasp of both how 26

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students learn and what motivates them to learn. Participatory and discovery methods would be favoured instead of traditional didacticism. As well as the students academic needs the humanist teacher is also concerned with the students affective or emotional needs. Feeling and thinking are very much interlinked. Humanists believe that feeling positive about oneself facilitates learning. The following are some principles in the classroom based on humanistic principles: Establish a warm, democratic, positive and non-threatening environment for the students to work in. Provide learning experiences that will lead to the development of habits and attitudes that teachers want to foster. Teachers should be role models and set good examples for students to emulate. Students are given choices (with limitations) and freedom (with responsibilities) to plan and carry out activities. Teacher facilitates the learning process and share ideas with students. Learning is based on life experiences, discovery, exploring and experimenting. Respect students feelings and aspirations. Provide opportunity for success. De-emphasize rigorous, performance-oriented, test-dominated approaches. Students are allowed to set their own goals and follow their own pace Experiential learning is encouraged.

Exercise 4

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To what extent do you think schools give attention to the affective (emotions, feelings) aspects of learning? Discuss by citing specific examples.

Summary. What conclusions can we draw from this discussion of various theories of learning? Instructional learning theories are centred on the major schools of educational psychology. From these so-called schools have evolved modern thinking and practice about how learning occurs and how your instruction in the classroom ultimately affects that learning. Each has its own merits and each has shortcomings that may make them inappropriate in certain learning situations. Your understanding of the basic principles and assumptions of Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Constructivism and Humanism is critical to your approach to classroom teaching. However, looking back over the current practices in our classrooms, it becomes abundantly clear that they are a composite of the many different theories we have learnt.

Tutorial Task Based on what you have read in this unit, compare the four major theoretical perspectives explaining human learning. Then, in your view as a teacher, state your personal beliefs about the teaching-learning process.

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TOPIC 3

SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (I) KRASHENS MONITOR MODEL

3.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 3 provides input on a predominant Second Language Learning Theory called Krashens Monitor Model. There are five components or hypotheses which form the basis of the model. These are Input Hypothesis, Affective Filter Hypothesis, Acquisition Learning Hypothesis, Monitor Hypothesis and Natural Order Hypothesis. The topic also deals with the implications of this model for teaching.

3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this session, you will be able to: 1. demonstrate an understanding of Krashens Monitor Model 2. explain the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model 3. identify the relationship between the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model 4. explain the implications of this model for teaching.

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3.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

CONTENT SESSION THREE (6 Hours) 3.2 Krashens Monitor Model Second language acquisition theory seeks to explain how and by what processes individuals acquire a second language. A predominant theory of second language acquisition was developed by Steven Krashen from the University of Southern California. Krashen is a specialist in language acquisition and development and his influential theory is widely accepted in the language learning community.

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The following are some quotes from Krashen (1982) about language acquisition. "Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill." "Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding." The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production." "In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful." Krashen explains five fundamental components - which he calls hypotheses - as the basis for his language teaching model. Each of the components relates to a different aspect of the language learning process. The five components are as follows: 1. The Input Hypothesis 2. The Affective Filter Hypothesis 3. The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis 4. The Monitor Hypothesis 5. The Natural Order Hypothesis

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3.2.1

Input Hypothesis Krashen believes that the main factor in acquisition is not language use

but language input, in other words what the learner hears and reads. The most useful form of input has to be understandable and it should be just a little beyond the learner's present capacity. If it is too far beyond, the learner will not pay attention to the input, and if it is not far enough, the learner will learn nothing. The learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. If a learner is at a stage 'i', acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'comprehensible input' that belongs to level 'i + 1. Here i refers to the current language level the learners are at. i + 1 means a level higher than the level the students are at or the next level along the natural order. Natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, thus ensuring that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence. Karshen suggests that teachers should give rough-tuned input an d a wide variety of materials, supported by visual cues and realia which gives it a context within which the learner may guess at the content. As such, language teachers must make input comprehensible by contextualizing it. Evidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the following situations: Effectiveness of caretaker speech from an adult to a child/ people speak to children acquiring their first language in special ways. Adults speaking to children modify their language in order to aid comprehension. Adults roughly-tune to childs level of linguistic competence. These include use of baby-talk and short simple sentences. Teacher-talk from a teacher to a language student.

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Teachers simplify their language to make L2 learners understand or go down to L2 learners comprehension. Foreigner-talk from a sympathetic conversation partner to a language learner or acquirer Some of the ways a foreigner talks to a language learner include slower pronunciation, omission of features of connected speech, heavier stress on key words, short responses, use of gestures and demonstrations. L2 learners often go through an initial Silent Period. A learner is silent to build up competencies in 2 nd language via listening. Speaking only emerges after the learner has enough competence in the language. Krashen indicates that the comparative success of younger and older learners reflects provision of comprehensible input. The more comprehensible input the greater the L2 proficiency. The lack of comprehensible input delays language acquisition. As such teaching methods work according to the extent that teachers use comprehensible input. One finds that immersion teaching is successful because it provides comprehensible input. As for bilingual programmes, they succeed to the extent teachers provide comprehensible input 3.2.2 Affective Filter Hypothesis This hypothesis describes external factors that can act as a filter that impedes acquisition. These factors include motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. If a learner has very low motivation, very low self-confidence, and a high level of anxiety, the affective filter falls into place and inhibits the learner from acquiring the new language. On the other hand, learners who are motivated, confident, and relaxed about learning the target language have more success acquiring a second language.

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Barriers to learning can also be found in any negative feelings that a learner has about the language, the method used, the institution or the teacher. These feelings become a kind of filter, which keeps the input out. Hence, the teacher's job is to make language learning free of stress and enjoyable. 3.2.3 Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis Krashen elucidates two systems of language acquisition that are independent but related namely the acquired system and the learned system. The acquired system relates to the unconscious aspect of language acquisition. When people learn their first language by speaking the language naturally in daily interaction with others the acquired system is at work. Here speakers are more concerned with the act of communicating meaning than the structure of their utterances. On the other hand, the learned system relates to formal instruction where students engage in formal study to acquire knowledge about the target language. One example of the learned system is the studying the rules of syntax. The differences between acquisition and learning are depicted in Figure 1 below:

Acquisition implicit, subconscious informal situations uses grammatical 'feel' depends on attitude stable order of acquisition

Learning explicit, conscious formal situations uses grammatical rules depends on aptitude simple to complex order of learning

Fig. 1: Differences between acquisition and learning 34

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3.2.4

Monitor Hypothesis The monitor hypothesis seeks to explain how the learned system affects

the acquired system. According to Krashen, the formal rule system acts as the Monitor in the acquired system. When second language learners monitor their speech, they apply their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and initiate their communication. This action can only occur when speakers have ample time to think about the form and structure of their sentences. The Monitor is best used when: we have to be very careful when language is necessarily formal e.g. writing letters of application, speaking to a hierarchical superior in a formal situation. There are three conditions required by the Monitor: Time The learner must have time to use the monitor. Focus on correctness of form The learner must be focused or thinking about the form of language. A learner may find it difficult to focus on meaning and form at the same time. Knowledge of rules The learner must know the rules. This means that the speaker must have had explicit instruction on the language form that he or she is trying to produce. Using the monitor requires the speaker to slow down and focus on the form of language.

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There three types of monitor users over-users, under-users and optimalusers. Monitor over-users try to always use their monitor, and are so concerned with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency. Monitor underusers have not consciously learned or choose not to use their conscious knowledge of the language. Error correction by others has little influence on them, as they can often correct themselves based on a "feel" for correctness. Teachers should aim to produce optimal monitor users, who use the monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with communication. They do not use their conscious knowledge of grammar in normal conversation, but will use it in writing and planned speech. competence Krashen suggests that we should leave the monitor unemployed most of the time, and concentrate upon the meaning that we wish to convey, rather than on the form of our utterances. 3.2.5 Natural Order Hypothesis According to this hypothesis there is a natural order to the way second language learners acquire their target language. Krashen states that there is a natural order in which learners pick up a language and this order is roughly the same for all learners regardless of their linguistic background. Research shows that this natural order seems to go beyond age, the learner's native language, the target language, and the conditions under which the second language is being learned. Mistakes made by learners are a necessary part of language learning. These mistakes are not random, but are very similar to the errors that 36 Optimal monitor users can therefore use their learned competence as a supplement to their acquired

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children make when learning their first language. T he mistakes that students make through time lie in a rough sequence. In addition, the sequence of errors for acquired language is not the same as the sequence of learned grammar items. Some grammatical morphemes which appear simple from the learning point of view are in fact acquired late - the 's' of PTS. Chinese learning English make the same mistakes, and will learn in more or less the same order as the French. According to Krashen, this indicates that there is a natural order in which learners pick up a language. In addition, these mistakes will be made in the same order whether the learners have been taught the grammar or not, and that teaching grammar will not help them change the order. The combined model of acquisition and production is shown in the diagram below. Combined model of acquisition and production

3.2.6 Implications for Teaching Krashens Monitor Model has its implications for ESL/EFL teaching. Input hypothesis focuses on comprehensible input at i + 1 level. To enable learners 37

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to advance in language acquisition, teachers need to expose them to large amounts of authentic language. The language need not be specifically graded in terms grammatical progression, but adapted to the students interests and purposes for learning the language. A wide variety of input, supported by visual cues and realia should be contextualized in a way that the learner can understand a large amount of spoken or written language. According to Krashen comprehension precedes production. As such, L2 learners often go through an initial Silent Period. Teachers should provide time for silent period to allow learners to build up acquired competence in a language before they begin to produce it. In line with the Affective Filter Hypothesis, language acquisition should be done in relaxing and friendly conditions. Affective-humanistic activities such as dialogues, interviews, personal charts and tables are encouraged.

Tutorial Task How does the Krashens Monitor Model help a teacher better to understand how his/her second language students learn? Design materials and tasks suitable for primary school learners in relation to Krashens Monitor Model

Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready. 38

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TOPIC 4

OVERVIEW: APPROACHES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES ELT METHODS

4.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 4 introduces you to the

4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this Session, you will be able to: 4.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

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Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques ELT Methods

ELT Methods
Grammar-Translation Method

Direct Method

Audio-Lingual Method

Silent Way

Suggestopedia

Community Language Learning

Total Physical Response CONTENT SESSION FOUR (6 Hours) 4.2 Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques ELT Methods

4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.2.6

Grammar-Translation Method Direct Method Audio-Lingual Method Silent Way Suggestopedia Community Language Learning 40

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4.2.7

Total Physical Response

Tutorial Task

TOPIC 5
5.0 SYNOPSIS

ELT METHOD: COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

Topic 5 introduces you to the

5.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this Session, you will be able to:

5.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

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ELT Method

Communicative Approach

CONTENT SESSION FIVE (3 Hours) 5.2 ELT Method 5.2.1 Communicative Approach

TOPIC 6

ELT METHODS: LEXICAL AND ECLECTIC APPROACHES

6.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 6 introduces you to

6.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this Session, you will be able to: 1. understand how figurative language is used in communication 42

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2. use figurative and phrasal verbs in spoken and written language 6.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

ELT Methods ELT Methods

Lexical Approach Lexical Approach

Eclectic Approach Eclectic Approach

SESSION SIX (3 Hours) 6.2.1 Lexical Approach 6.2.2 Eclectic Approach

Check your answers with your tutor!

TOPIC 7

SYLLABUS DESIGN MALAYSIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL ENGLISH CURRICULUM

7.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 7 introduces you to

7.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this Session, you will be able to:

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7.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS Syllabus Syllabus Design Design

Role of Role of teacher, teacher, learners, and learners, and resources resources Scheme of Scheme of work work weekly, weekly, semester semester

Principles Principles CONTENT

Techniques Techniques

Strengths/ Strengths/ Limitation Limitation

SESSION SEVEN (3 Hours) 7.2. Syllabus Design - Malaysian Primary School English Curriculum 7.2.1 7.2.2 Principles Techniques

7.2.3 Strengths/Limitation 7.2.4 Role of Teacher, Learners, and Resources 7.2.5 Scheme of Work Weekly, Semester Tutorial Task

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TOPIC 8

SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (II)

8.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 8 introduces you to

8.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this Session, you will be able to:

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8.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

CONTENT SESSION EIGHT (6 Hours)

Universal Grammar Why a Universal Grammar What does a Universal Grammar consist of? Universal Grammar and first language acquisition Universal Grammar and second language acquisition

TOPIC 9

SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN THE CLASSROOM

9.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 9 introduces you to some issues of second language learning pertaining to audiolingualism. It also introduces the PPP procedure in language learning.

9.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this session, you will be able to:

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1. identify some issues of second language learning pertaining to audiolingualism 2. explain the different stages in the PPP procedure 3. devise a teaching plan using the PPP procedure

9.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

CONTENT SESSION NINE (3 Hours) 9.2.1 Issues of Second Language Learning The issues that will be discussed here are related to audiolingualism as it were these issues that resulted in the introduction and use of the PPP Approach or procedure in the Communicative Language Teaching Method. 47

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Exercise 1: 1. 2. 3. 4. What is the language learning theory that audiolingualism is based on? State the principles of audiolingualism. Name three techniques used in audiolingualism. What are some of the shortcomings of audiolingulism?

You would have gone through in detail about audiolingualism or the audiolingual method in Topic 4. What we will discuss here briefly are the issues related to audiolingualism which resulted in the use of PPP Approach. Audiolingualism which is based on Behaviourist Learning Theory relied heavily on drills to form habits in language learning. Emphasis on accuracy of the language through repetition of correct utterances was supported by positive reinforcement. However much of the audio-lingual method of language learning remained at sentence level. There was limited placing of language in real-life context. Hence, there grew a need to place language in clear situational context. This lead to introduction of the PPP Approach. 9.2.2 The PPP Approach The "Three Ps" procedure is a variation of the audiolingual method. PPP stands for presentation, practice and production. It is based on structuralsituational teaching where the focus is to place language in clear situational contexts. It is very important to understand what " Presentation", "Practice" and "Production" really are, and to see how they work in together to create effective communicative language learning.

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Presentation is the beginning or introduction to learning language, with production being the end product of the learning process, whereby a learner becomes a "user" of the language in contrast to a "student" of the language. Practice is the process that helps a learner to progress from the initial stage through to the final one.

This is how it works. At the beginning of a lesson, the teacher introduces a situation which contextualizes the new language to be taught. Then the language or linguistic "model" is presented. With this "model" in mind, the students practise the new language through a variety of "controlled" activities such as coral repetition, individual repetition and cue-response drills. After sufficient practice, the students move into "productive" activity, where a situation calls for the language to be used naturally without correction or control. For example the students can construct their own sentences. occur and flow smoothly from one stage to the next. PRESENTATION This is the first and the most crucial stage of the language learning process. Presentation involves the building of a situation requiring natural and logical use of the new language. When the students recognize and understand the "situation", they will then start building a conceptual understanding of the meaning behind the new language, and why it will be relevant and useful to them. When the situation surrounding the new language and the conceptual meaning of it has been achieved, the new language is introduced through a linguistic "model". It is this linguistic model or language presented that the students will go on to practise and achieve naturally during a productive activity without help. In general, for communicative language learning to be most effective, the three stages need to

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It is important for the teacher to build on whatever English the students have already learned or have some access to when introducing a situation and getting the students to build the concept underlying the new language. At primary levels, using pictures and body language are common ways of presenting new language. Dialogues and text can also be used when the students have progressed. There are a various ways in which new language items or linguistic models can be presented. What is important is that these presentations should have at least some of the following features: meaningful, memorable and realistic examples; have logical connection; contextualized; clear models; sufficient meaningful repetition; are brief and can be recycled PRACTICE: The practice stage is the important middle stage to communicative language teaching. Sometimes this stage is over-done" or used ineffectively. This may be due to a poor or no presentation stage. In some cases it is not used as a natural progression or step towards production. The type of practice activities should be appropriate to the language being learned as well as the level and competence of the students. Practice is done to ensure that the students get the accurate language as well as to get the students to be familiar with the language. Hence an effective practice stage is one where repetition leads to competence and accuracy. Practice activities need to be clear and understandable and should promote a degree of confidence in the students. A well planned practice activity will generate the students' motivation. Practice activities should be challenging, but within the reach of the students.

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Practice activities usually involve moving the students from the individual drills to pair work such as chain pair-work, closed pair-work and open pair-work. It is this communicative practice that leads to final stage of production. PRODUCTION: The production stage is the most important stage of communicative language teaching. A good indicator of a successful production is when students move from being "students" or learners of the language to "users" of the language. The production stage involves creating a situation which requires the students to use the language that was introduced in the presentation stage independently. The situation should allow the students produce more personalized language. A successful production stage depends on an effective practice stage. This is because if the practice stage is not able to build the students confidence in the language then they will naturally be hesitant to independently "use" it in the production stage. One of the most important things you have to remember is that production activities should not "tell" the students what to say. In the practice stage, the students have most or all of the information required, but in the production stage they do not have the information and therefore must think. As such it would be good if real life" situations are given in the production stage. Getting students engaged in productive classroom activities can require a certain level of cognitive ability. Hence, as teachers you should prepare well thought out and planned activities. Some good examples of effective production activities include situational role-plays, debates, discussions, problem-solving, narratives, descriptions, quizzes and games. The following demonstrates the use of the PPP procedure: 51

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PRESENTATION: The teacher shows the students the following picture and elicits some facts about it. The teacher points to the man carrying the Malaysian flag to elicit the sentence He is carrying the Malaysian flag by asking Whats the man doing? The teacher then models the sentence The man is carrying the Malaysian flag. This is repeated with the other people in the picture.

PRACTICE: The teacher gets the students to repeat the sentences in chorus. The teacher picks individual students to repeat the sentences. The teacher gives a cue (woman in yellow) and gets the students to respond. PRODUCTION: The teacher asks students to construct their own sentences e.g. think about what their family members are doing at the moment.

Tutorial Task Devise a teaching plan to show your understanding of the PPP procedure. 52

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Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.

TOPIC 10

SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN THE CLASSROOM

10.0 SYNOPSIS

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Topic 10 provides you with input on alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and Production. It also deals with the teaching implications of these alternatives in the primary ELT classroom.

10.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this session, you will be able to: 1. name the alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and Production 2. explain the alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and Production 3. explain the teaching implications of the alternatives in the primary ELT classroom

10.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS

CONTENT SESSION TEN (3 Hours) 54

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10.2.1 Alternatives to Presentation, Practice and Production The PPP Approach or procedure in the Communicative Language Teaching Method which was introduced in the mid 1960s came under criticism in the 1990s.

Exercise 1: 1. 2. 3. Do you use the PPP procedure in your classroom? Why? What are the strengths of the PPP procedure? What are the shortcomings of the PPP procedure?

One of the main criticisms of the PPP procedure is that it is teachercentred. This is in contrast with the humanistic and learner-centred approach that was prevalent in the 1990s. The fact is that the PPP procedure assumes learners learn in straight lines, that is, starting from no knowledge, through very structured sentence-based patterns straight to instantaneous production was not favourable to many. According to Woodward (1993) language cannot be broken down into small bits and pieces to learn as it is full of interlocking variables and systems. Lewis (1993) was not in favour of the PPP approach as he felt that it did not reflect neither the nature of language nor the nature of learning. It could also be a waste of time and demotivating especially if you might be teaching what the students already know. One of the first people to suggest an alternative to the PPP procedure was Keith Johnson in 1982. His suggestion called the deep-end strategy was a variation of the PPP procedure. He encouraged students into immediate production, in other words throwing them in the deep end. The teacher can see if and where the students have difficulties in the language in the production stage.

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The teacher goes back to either the presentation or practice stage after the production stage if deemed necessary. Byrne (1986) had similar views as Johnson. However, he joined the three stages of presentation, practice and production into a circle. Here teachers and students can decide at which stage to begin the procedure. Figure 1 below shows Byrnes alternative approach.

Figure 1: Byrnes Alternative Approach Harmer (2007) suggested ESA: Engage, Study and Activate as an alternative to the PPP procedure. E is for engage. learning. S stands for study. Getting the students emotionally engaged with what is going on is important to ensure effective Here the focus of the teaching and learning process is on how something is constructed. The study may focus on forms of the language such as relative clauses, specific intonation patterns, developing a paragraph etc. The teacher can draw the attention of students to the form of the language during a communicative task or the students themselves may notice the form of the language. A stands for activate. At this stage students are encouraged to use all or any of the language they know. Teachers can plan communicative activities to activate students knowledge. Reading for pleasure or interest also helps students activate their language knowledge. There are three basic lesson procedures in ESA. The first is the Straight Arrows lesson procedure. This procedure is sequential in nature. The teacher 56

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engages the students via the presentation of situations, pictures or other means. The study stage involves the explanation of meanings and forms of the language by the teacher. The teacher models the forms of the language and the students repeat and practise them. Activation of the new language is done when students use the language to form their own sentences. The second basic lesson procedure is called the Boomerang procedure. The order here is EAS. First the teacher gets the students emotionally engaged with the lesson. Then the teacher gets the students to do a task for example a written task, a simulation activity or a communicative game. After the activity, the students study some aspects of the language that were incorrectly used by them or what they lack. The final procedure is known as the Patchwork lesson procedure. Here the teacher may follow various sequences. The teacher may get the students engaged first, followed by activating their knowledge before studying some language forms before moving on to other activation activities. These may be followed by re-engaging the students and ending with more study on language forms.

Figures 1 to 3 depicts the different lesson procedures of ESA.

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Exercise 2: 1. 2. 3. List the alternatives to PPP procedure. Explain the ESA procedure. Discuss the similarities and differences between the three lesson procedures of ESA. 10.2.2 Teaching Implications of the Alternatives in the Primary School Classroom The various frameworks suggested as alternatives for the PPP procedure such as Johnsons deep-end strategy, Byrnes alternative approach and Harmers ESA imply that teachers should shift from a sequential, teachercentred approach to a more humanistic and leaner-centred approach. Teachers should bear in mind that getting students emotionally engaged is vital for effective learning. As such, teachers should minimize their criticism and encourage their young learners to be engaged in what is going on in the classroom. Students should have positive feelings about what and how they are learning. 58

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The teacher should be well-versed in the forms of the language. There would be teachable moments where the teacher needs to focus on the forms of the language. This is something that the teacher must be prepared for. In other words preparing for eventualities for the study phase. The teacher should be creative to design communicative tasks that will activate students language knowledge. Activities prepared should encourage students to use of much knowledge of the language that they have. activities should develop a desire for the students to communicate. These

Tutorial Task Devise a teaching plan using any of the alternative frameworks discussed above. What are the possible challenges you might face in carrying out the teaching plan?

Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.

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