Chapter 2
Basic Elements of Fortran Programming
Character set (Table 2-1)
26: 26: 10: 1: 5: 17: UPPER CASE lower case Digits Underscore Arithmetic symbols Other symbols AZ az 09 _ + - * / ** ().=,$: !%&;<>? and blank
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Case insensitive
Example:
Apple apple ApPLe ApplE
Example:
read (*,*) Name write (*,*) name
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Fortran Statements
Executable statements:
Actions taken by program
Examples: Read (*,*) x, y Z=x+y Write (*,*) The result = , z
Nonexecutable statements
information for proper operation of program
Examples: Program name ! This is a comment End program
Fortran Statements
Each line is 132 characters long If it does not fit, use & to split a statement
Example: Output = input1 + input2 Output = input1 & + input2 Output = input1 & & + input2
A statement can be split up to 40 lines
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Fortran Statements
Statements can be named using a label Example: program counter 10 integer :: count = 5 20 write (*,*) count = , count end program A label should be unique It does not indicate line numbers It can be used more than once It does not indicate the program sequence/order Not used in modern Fortran 90/95
Fortran Statements
Comments: Ignored by Fortran compiler can appear any where in a line start with ! to the end of the line Examples: ! This is a counting program a = b + 1 ! This statement adds one ! Can I put a comment here? a = b + 1
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Fortran Program Structure
Declaration section
Programs name Types of variables and constants
Execution section
Actions to be performed by program
Termination section
Stopping (ending) program execution
Fortran Program Structure
Program name
Declaration statements
.
Executable statements
.. END Program name
Fortran Program Structure
Example: program first_program ! This is my first program integer, parameter :: x = 3, y=4 integer :: z z=x+y write (*,*) x + y = , z end program
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Options for Program Termination
end program name end program end stop ! to be used in special cases
Rules of NAMES
Any name (program/variable/constant) can be used only once
program counter integer :: counter = 5 write (*,*) counter = , counter end program
Names <= 31 characters
this_is_a_very_long_variable_name
Spaces not allowed Alphabets + digits + _ Must start with alphabet
The following is not acceptable: Program 1st_user
Exercise: Whats wrong with this name:
A$
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Program styles
A programmer should use a consistent style:
Example 1: PROGRAM example1
REAL :: x, y, z WRITE (*,*) Enter x, y WRITE (*,*) READ (*,*) x, y, z z=x+y WRITE (*,*) x + y = , z
END PROGRAM
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Program styles
Another programmer can use a different style:
Example 2: program example1
real :: x, y, z write (*,*) Enter x, y write (*,*) read (*,*) x, y, z z=x+y write (*,*) x + y = , z
end program
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Program styles
This style is not acceptable (but it works!):
Example 3: program example1
real :: x, y, z WRITE (*,*) Enter x, y write (*,*) READ (*,*) x, y, z z=x+y write (*,*) x + y = , z
end PROGRAM
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Variable vs. Constant
Constant:
Once declared, cannot be changed during execution If you try to change it, you get an error Example:
REAL, PARAMETER :: GRADE = 88 GRADE = GRADE / 100
Variable:
Can change value during execution Example
REAL :: GRADE = 88 GRADE = GRADE / 100
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Data dictionary
In the header of the program Example: program converter ! This program converts US Dollars to Omani Rials. ! We use the variables: ! USD: US Dollars ! OR: Omani Rials end program
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More about data types
3 Numeric:
INTEGER REAL COMPLEX (not covered)
1 Strings of Characters:
CHARACTER
1 Logical:
LOGICAL
Others:
Chapter 12: derived data types (not covered in this course)
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More about data types
INTEGER:
Either constant or variable +ve, -ve, zero 1,000,000 (error: commas not allowed) -100. (error: decimal point not allowed)
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More about data types
REAL:
Constants must have a decimal points ( 300.) 10,000,000. (error: commas not allowed) 105 (error: decimal point missing) 123E5 (error: decimal point missing in mantissa) -34E2.5 (error: decimal point not allowed in exponents)
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More about data types
CHARACTER: Example1
Character :: name name = Ramadhan Write (*,*) name
Example2
Character (len=8) :: name name = Ramadhan Write (*,*) name
Example3
Character (len=14) :: word1 Character (len=6) :: word2 word1 = Ramadhan Word2 = kareem Write (*,*) word1, word2
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More about data types
CHARACTER:
Using single/double quotes Example1:
Name = Abdullah Name = Abdullah Name = Abdullah Name = Abdullah Write (*,*) I read quran daily Write (*,*) I read quran daily Write (*,*) I read quran daily
Each one surrounds the other:
Solar energy is a clean source of energy Hes wasting time watching useless TV programs
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Implicit none
It checks that variables types are declared Without it:
Any undeclared variable starting with I, J, K, L, M, N are integers (default typing) Other variables are real (default typing)
Examples:
Program checking read (*,*) monthly_income annual_income = monthly_income * 12 write (*,*) Annual income = , annual_income End program
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Initializing Variables
Three ways to initialize
Initialize at declaration section Using assignment statement at execution section Using READ to initialize from input device
Non-initialized variables might or might not produce an error. Program might work in some machines and fail in others or at the same machine might work some times and fail other times depending on the values stored at the memory location.
Rule: All variables must be initialized before using them.
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Input/output statments
READ (*,*)
Standard input device (keyboard) Free input format (decided by variable type) e.g: (try inputting more values for each statement)
READ i READ i, j READ i, j, x, char (Note: character with specific length will be left justified with all others filled with blank if not entered)
WRITE(*,*)
Standard output device (screen) Free output format E.g:
WRITE(*,*) x WRITE(*,*) Result is: , x WRITE(*,*) Result is: , COS(x) WRITE(*,*) Result is: , x, And cosine will be: , cos(x)
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Arithmetic operators
Assignment:
Variable_name = expression Example:
Days = months * 30
= is called assignment operator
Binary arithmetic operators (e.g. a + b):
+ Addition - Subtraction * Multiplication / Division ** Exponentiation
Unary arithmetic operators (e.g. b)
+ 34 -a
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Rules
No two operators may occur side by side
A*-b A ** -2 A ** (-2)
Implied multiplication is illegal
x(y+z) x*(y+z)
Use parentheses to group terms
2 ** ((8+2)/5)
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Real Arithmetic (const. & var.)
3. / 4. = 0.75 4. / 4. = 1. 5. / 4. = 1.25 6. / 4. = 1.5 7. / 4. = 1.75 8. / 4. = 2. 9. / 4. = 2.25 1. / 3. = 0.3333333
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Integer Arithmetic (const. & var.)
3/4=0 4/4=1 5/4=1 6/4=1 7/4=1 8/4=2 9/4=2 Truncation of fractions
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Be careful..
3. * (1. / 3.) 1. 3. * (0.3333333) = 0.9999999 2. * (1. / 2.) = 1. 2. * (0.5) = 1.
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Evaluating expressions
Example:
Distance = 0.5 * accel * time **2 Distance = (0.5 * accel * time) **2
Rules:
Parentheses first ( innermost) 2*(3+(42)2) Exponentials (right to left) 2 **2 **3 = 2 **8 = 256 Multiplication & Division (left to right) 2*4/6 Additions & Subtractions (left to right) 2 + 6 - 12
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Evaluating expressions
Exercise: Power = (2 6) + ( 2 1 * (5+5) **2 **0) 8 = (2 6) + ( 2 1 * (10) **2 **0) 8 = (2 6) + ( 2 1 * (10) **1) 8 = (2 6) + ( 2 1 * 10) 8 = (2 6) + ( 2 10) 8 = 4 + ( 8) 8 = 488 = 20 Note: parentheses must be balanced.
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Mixed-Mode expressions
1 + 1 /4 = 1 1. + 1 / 4 = 1. 1 + 1. / 4 = 1.25 Rule:
An integer is automatically converted into real in case of mixed arithmetic
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Mixed-Mode expressions
1 + 1 /4 = 1 1. + 1 / 4 = 1. 1 + 1. / 4 = 1.25 Rule:
An integer is automatically converted into real in case of mixed arithmetic Raising a negative number to real power is not possible
2 ** 2 = 4 -2 ** 2 = 4
4 ** 0.5 = 2 -2 ** 0.5 ??
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Data conversion
To convert real to integer, use INT
Anything after the decimal point is truncated Example: INT(3.3) = 3 INT(3.) = 3 INT(0.3) = 0
To convert integer to real, use REAL
A decimal point is added Example: REAL(3) = 3.
Be careful: NINT INT
NINT is used to round to the nearest integer Example: NINT(3.2) = 3 NINT(3.5) = 4 INT(3.5) = 3
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INTRINSIC FUNCTIONS
Functions:
Generic functions (accept more than one type of inputs) Specific functions (accept one data type only)
Examples:
SQRT(X) ABS(X) SIN(X), COS(X), TAN(X) ASIN(X), ACOS(X), ATAN(X) EXP(X) LOG(X), LOG10(X) MAX(A,B), MIN(A,B) MOD (A,B) [X in radian] [result in radian]
More (Table 2-4)
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More Examples
y = SIN (theta) y = SIN(theta*(3.141593/180.) ! theta is in degrees REAL, PARAMETER :: deg_2_rad = 3.141593/180. ! a constant to convert from !degrees to radian y = SIN (theta*deg_2_rad) y =SIN(2.57) y = SIN (x) y = SIN(pi*x) y = SIN(SQRT(x))
Debugging Fortran Program
Errors (bugs) Eliminating error (debugging) Types of errors:
Syntax errors Run-time errors Logical errors
Good practice:
Use IMPLICIT NONE Echo all inputs Initialize all variables Use parentheses properly If statement is very long break it into multiple lines Make sure all function and variables in same units
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Example 2-3 Design a Fortran program that reads an input temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, converts it to an absolute temperature in kelvins, and writes out the result.
Example 2-3 Solution
The relationship between temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (F) and temperature in kelvins (K) can be found in any physics textbook. It is
Example 2-3 Solution
Our program must perform the following steps: 1. Prompt the user to enter an input temperature in F. 2. Read the input temperature. 3. Calculate the temperature in kelvins from previous conversion equation. 4. Write out the result, and stop.
Example 2-3 Program (cont.)
Example 2-4 Background
From simple circuit theory, the rms current /, the real power P, reactive power Q, apparent power S, and power factor PF supplied to the load are given by the equations
Example 2-4
Given the rms voltage of the power source V and the magnitude and angle of the impedance Z, write a program that calculates the rms current I, the real power P, reactive power Q, apparent power S, and power factor PF of the load.
Example 2-4 Solution
Example 2-4 Program
Example 2-4 Program (cont.)
