In This Section: Electrical Safety

$ Definitions $ Hazards $ Protection and Precautions $ Knowledge of Principles, Hazards and Precautions $ Standard Practices $ Protective Equipment $ Cautions and Common Sense

Safety Information on the Web

$ OSU Department of Chemistry $ Video Presentation on Electrical Safety $ Electrical Safety Foundation International $ Home Safety $ Workplace Safety $ School Safety $ Electrical Contractors Network $ What's Wrong With This Picture? (Forum) $ ElecSafe (Canadian) $ Home Safety $ Worker Safety $ Play Safely $ Underwriters Laboratory

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Electrical Safety for Laboratory Workers

Dr. Dale H. Karweik Department of Chemistry Chemistry Instrumentation Support Group 1130 Newman-Wolfram Laboratory 292-4502 Laboratory safety no longer involves just being aware of which chemicals should not be mixed together. No one will leave this University without using electricity. The modern laboratory contains electrical equipment, instruments and devices which pose a distinct class of hazards when not used safely. The goal of this presentation is to educate you to the importance of electrical safety so that none of you will lose time, data or your life to an unsafe encounter with electricity. The presentation broken into two parts - first, a discussion of the hazards involved with electricity and, second, the precautions and rules to follow to avoid becoming a victim of those hazards.

I. Definitions
Electric current is generated by applying a force onto the electrons in a conductor. The energy of the electrons is measured as the potential or voltage and the flow is measured as Amperes or amps. If the voltage is constant, the flow of electrons (current) is continuous and is called direct current (dc). If the voltage changes periodically in a sinusoidal manner, the electricity is alternating current (ac). Commercially produced power has an alternating voltage with a frequency of 60 cycles per second or 60 Hz. Electrical current flow is limited by the resistance of the path the current is following. Energy dissipated by the current as it passes through the conductor generates heat in proportion to the conductor=s resistance and the voltage across it. Materials that are so resistive that current does not flow are termed insulators. Insulators will break down and become conductors when the voltage becomes high enough.

II. Hazards
The hazards of electricity either result from direct contact that results in current flow through an inappropriate conductor, e.g. the human body, or from excessive heating by current flow through a conductor with a greater resistance than is expected. In more concise terms, the principle hazards are shock or electrocution and fire. Voltage causes current flow, but it is current flow that causes electrical hazards. A. Shock and Electrocution Direct encounters with electricity can cause electric shocks that can result in death by electrocution. The human body is 70% salt water, a good conductor, encased in an envelope of skin with about 500 Kohms resistance when dry and intact. The muscles and nerves of the human body are electrically stimulated. Current flowing through the body will cause the muscle to attempt to contract at the same frequency as the current or to clamp if that is not possible. Nerves will overload and fail to work when more than nano (10-9) amp currents flow through them.

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When you grip a live current source: $ The stronger set of muscles is closing the hand and you can not release your grip. Therefore, you can not separate yourself from the current source and the current will continue to flow through your body. $ The muscle of the diaphragm will clamp and you will stop breathing. $ The muscle of the heart will go into fibrillation and stop beating effectively, will tire and may stop beating entirely. Unless someone separates you from the current source and performs CPR, you will probably die. How much current is necessary to kill you? The Hewlett-Packard Company has examined many records and has summarized the available data as follows for a 1 second or longer exposure to 120 VAC, 60 Hz power source. Current Level 1 mA 5 mA 10 - 20 mA 50 mA Result Threshold of Perception AAccepted Harmless Current Threshold@ Small Shock ALet-Go@ Current Upper Limit Threshold of Pain Possible Fainting, Mechanical and Neural Injury. Heart and Respiratory Function Continues. Ventricular Fibrillation Starts Respiratory Center Remains Intact. Diaphragm may Clamp. Sustained Myocardial Contraction Followed by Normal Heart Rhythms on Release. Temporary Respiratory Paralysis on Release. Burns Depending on Current Localization.

100 - 300 mA 6A

Fatalities are most likely to occur in the 100 to 300 mA current range. Fibrillation means the heart is beating in a weak, fast or erratic rhythm which does not produce effective pumping. Above 300 mA, neural and respiratory paralysis become more important, the incidence of fibrillation declines and potential for burns increases. The longer the exposure to current flow continues the more likely death will follow. Extended exposures can push the lethal limits down to the 50 to 100 mA range. The amount of current flowing through the body depends primarily on the skin resistance and the applied voltage. Dry skin typically has a resistance of about 500 Kohm, which drop to less than 1 Kohm with perspiration and lower yet if there is penetration into the lower layers. It is not good practice to assume that your skin resistance will ensure that you are an insulator compared to other current paths. You are betting your life. Jewelry, especially rings and watches with metal housings and bands, tends to localize the current density in their vicinity. Higher currents will accentuate burns in those areas and may locally reduce the effective skin resistance. Jewelry and watches should be removed before working on electrical equipment.

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Shock Hazards Some pieces of equipment have a greater shock hazard and a greater lethal potential than the majority of the devices you will encounter. In general, these have either very high voltages or the combination of high voltage and high current. A typical, but not exhaustive, list includes: Arc Lamp Power Supplies Flash Lamp Powers supplies X-Ray Generators Cathode Ray Tubes (Video Displays) and their Power Supplies and Associated Circuitry Ion Pump Power Supplies Ion and Cold Cathode Gauge Power Supplies Photomultiplier Tube Power supplies Laser Trigger, Flash Lamp, and Related Power Supplies Piezo-electric AInch Worm@ Power Supplies and Circuitry Most power supplies and many pieces of equipment have large capacitors. Turning off and even disconnecting electrical equipment from the wall socket will not discharge the capacitors. Always assume that a capacitor is fully charged to its rated voltage. Some capacitor circuits and nearly all CRT displays will recharge over time even if they have been discharged by shorting through a large resistor to ground. B. Electrical Fires An electrical fire does not have to take a life to cause traumatic results. Every day lost from doing research costs you time and money in terms of the wages you are not receiving from the job you will have after graduation. Time will be lost in cleaning up the aftermath, in writing accident reports, in repairing the physical facility, and in waiting for new equipment or the repair of the old equipment. The most common cause of laboratory fires is undersized, worn or damaged power cords. Most power cords are composed of separate smaller strands of copper bundled together until the rated current carrying capability is reached. Stranded wire is more physically flexible than solid core wire and, therefore, is the most common choice for portable cordage. As cords age, it is not uncommon for the insulating rubber sheathing to break down and for individual strands of copper to break. When a sufficient number of conductors are broken, the resistance to current increases in localized areas causing hot spots. An undersized cord will be resistive along its entire length and will heat along that 134

whole length. Damaged or undersized cords can burn or heat objects in contact with them to their flash point. Two wire zip cord affords a particularly bad choice for laboratory use. The insulation is plastic, not rubber, and remains flexible only as long as the plastic contains plasticizer. Because the insulation is not inherently flexible, it does a poor job of cushioning and protecting the inner conductors. Mechanical damage is likely to occur to the wires inside. The conductor size in zip cords is typically 18 gauge which is appropriate for medium sized light bulbs, but not for connections to heaters or similar devices. As the slow heat ages the cord, the plasticizer will evaporate and the plastic will become more brittle. The cord will become a source of either fire or shock. Sparks from improperly selected switches, controllers, or motors can ignite organic fumes and thereby start a fire, even when new and in perfect condition. All ovens, heaters, pumps and refrigerators used with chemicals, especially with volatile chemicals or flammable gases, should be rated appropriately as spark free devices.

III. Protection and Precautions

There are several levels of protection to keep you from having an electrical accident. These include: A. B. C. D. Knowledge of Principles, Hazards and Precautions Standard Practices Protective Equipment Cautions and Common Sense

A. Knowledge of Principles, Hazards and Precautions The main goal of this presentation is to give you a working knowledge of the causes and effects of electrical accidents and ways to avoid having those occur by following standard practices, by using protective equipment and by approaching electricity and electrical devices with caution and care. B. Standard Practices Power Distribution The most commonly found power is supplied commercially and is available from the wall outlets or sockets. Unless the wall outlet is special, it will supply 120 VAC, 15 A single phase service. You may also encounter 208 VAC single and three phase service, hopefully in different sockets. The 120 VAC and 208 VAC services can be fused for 15, 20 or 30 A. The 208 VAC service can be also be fused for 40, 50 or 60 A capacity. In most cases, the power is supplied from the main building transformers in a AY@ or AWye@ configuration as shown below

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Connection of a load between any single phase (A, B or C) and the common neutral provides 120 VAC single phase to the load, connecting phase to phase ( A to B, B to C, or C to A) provides single phase 208 VAC across the load. Three phase 208 VAC connects all three phases to the load and may use the return or neutral. The voltages supplied will have a Arotation@ associated with them depending on the order of the connections. Single phase 120 VAC or 208 VAC can be supplied by two wires, but should always be wired with a third wire to provide the safety or earth ground. Three phase 208 VAC service is commonly supplied in four or five wire configurations depending on the equipments need for the neutral line and safety grounds. Safety or earth ground should never be as a substitute for the neutral or return line or vice versa. Most people will be working only with the most commonly found ac electrical source the three wire wall plug as shown below.

In a properly installed outlet the larger straight socket should be attached to the neutral line and the shorter straight socket to the hot line. Both of these wires carry current and, therefore, have a potential associated with them that will be above ground. The hot lead should be 110 to 120 VAC above ground. The neutral may be millivolts to volts above ground and the level is neither predictable or reproducible. As long as all equipment is properly wired there will be negligible or no current in the safety ground which is provided at the small circular or inverted AU@ connection on the plug. Most modern pieces of equipment use the safety ground also as a ground reference. Only one of the wire colors shown is absolutely defined in the electrical and fire codes. Safety ground should always be wired with green or yellow striped green wiring. The commonly accepted color codes are given below. 136

Circuit Hot Neutral Ground 2nd Phase Hot 3rd Phase Hot

US Standard Black White Green Green/ Yellow Stripe Red or Blue Blue or Red

European Brown Blue Green / Yellow Stripe

Equipment wired for sale in Europe usually is wired for 220 VAC, 50 Hz and will not work without modifications on US power. Equipment made outside of the US by European or Asian manufacturers for sale in the US may use the Euro color scheme, but will usually be compatible with US power. Always check first. The use of black - white - green wire does not ensure that the correct voltage or configuration is present. Always check new or previously unused sockets before plugging in an expensive piece of equipment. There are many other plug and socket styles, each with its own specific voltage, current and configuration rating. These should be specified and connected only by trained individuals. Permanent wiring should always be installed by a competent professional electrician and should always be tested before being connected to an expensive laboratory device. Do not assume that the type of socket mounted on the wall really indicates the power configuration or the voltage and current capacities of the circuit to which it is connected. The use of extension cords to avoid the installation of permanent outlets is a fire and safety violation and is not permitted in the University. Multi-outlet strips can be used to provide coordinated disconnects when they have their own switch and fuse built into the strip. Multiple outlet strips that are not hard wired into a circuit breaker or which do not have both a switch and a fuse are considered extension cords and are not to be used. Daisy chaining coordinated disconnects will compromise the quality of the power and the integrity of the safety ground. It is not uncommon for computers and other laboratory devices which use the safety ground to behave erratically when plugged into a daisy chained outlet. Portable Cordage Portable cordage is used to connect electrical devices when a fixed installation is not desirable. The primary considerations in the selection of portable cordage are the current carrying capacity of the cord and the protective, insulating jacket material. Unless specified by the manufacturer and approved by the Department Safety Officer, all wiring should be installed with a separate neutral and safety ground. The safety ground should always be used when present. Generally, SO or SJO neoprene outer covers with rubber insulation on the conductors is the best choice for laboratory installation. The outer sheaths are resistant to most oils and chemicals and the rubber conductor insulation will cushion and protect the conductors.

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The size of the conductor is determined from the current rating tables for electronic cables. The conductor sizes are available only in whole even number sizes and are shown along the lower edge of the table. Current is shown on the other axis. The current can be obtained from the manufacturer, by measurement or from a maximum power calculation. This value is located on the AY@ or vertical axis and the intercept on the 10oC Temp. Rise line and then finding the AX@ or horizontal axis intercept. If this value falls in between two even values choose the next lower number. Conductor diameter, and the current carrying capacity, increases as the AWG, American Wire Gauge, number decreases.

The 35oC line is used to calculate worst cases only and should not be used to specify new or replacement portable cordage installations. The table also emphasizes the limit on 18 AWG zip cord. The safe limit for 18 AWG is 5 A and the worst case limit is 8 A. Zip cords used with 10 A or 12 A variable transformers (variacs) are well beyond the worst case limit. C. Protective Equipment There are several devices that are used to provide a safety margin to the use of electricity. These include fuses, circuit breakers and ground fault interrupters (GFI=s). Each of these devices provides a specific and complimentary form of protection. What is protected, how the protection is provided and the time required before the protection goes into effect (trip time) is different for each device. 1. Fuses Fusible links or fuses are short pieces or coils of wire in a glass or ceramic housing. The inner wire (fusible link) is sized to melt and produce an open circuit when the power dissipated across it exceeds the specified rating. Fast blow fuses respond to surges and other events with short durations. Slow blow fuses have a time constant built in that requires the overload to last a specified time before the fuse will melt through or blow. Slow blow fuses are used in equipment which normally experiences 138

large current spikes during operation. Examples include capacitive and inductive loads such heaters or large motors. A large fast blow fuse is not a replacement for a small slow blow fuse. When the power density increases beyond 800 VA, the body of the fuse usually will be ceramic rather than glass. Glass fuses should not be used in variacs (variable transformers) rated at 8, 10 or 12 A. Large fuses above 40 A rating may have replaceable fusible links.

Fuses are designed to protect equipment. Trip times are generally less than a second and can be in the sub-millisecond range for specialized fuses. Replacement of a smaller fuse by a larger one usually will ensure that significant damage to the Aprotected@ piece of equipment will occur before the fuse blows. Fuses are one time devices and can not be reused after failure. 2. Circuit Breakers Circuit breakers are mechanical devices that lock in the AON@ position until a current level above the threshold is reached. This causes the device to release and open the circuit. There are two type of circuit breakers, electromagnetic and thermal. The electromagnetic type have a coil and an iron slug. When the current through the coil reaches the specified value it will pull the slug over and release the catch. This will open the circuit contacts. The thermal breaker uses a bimetallic strip which pulls up when heated and releases the catch. Electromagnetic breakers can be constructed with shorter trip times and are analogous to fast blow fuses. Thermal breakers require longer times to heat up the bimetallic strip and will not reset until the strip has cooled. Thermal breakers have trip times that are usually slower than slow blow fuses, Both styles of circuit breakers can be reset once the over-current problem is remedied. Electromagnetic circuit breakers are used to protect equipment and may be used both as circuit protection and the power switch. Thermal circuit breakers are used predominantly to protect wiring. Circuit breakers can be purchased in single amp to hundreds of amps capacities.

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Circuit Breakers in (a) normal and (b) tripped condition.

3. Ground Fault Interrupters Ground fault interrupters (GFI) are transformer based devices which compare the current levels in the hot and neutral wires. When the current going to the protected circuit on the hot wire is not the same as the current returning on the neutral, the GFI senses that there is a path or fault to ground and will open the circuit. GFI=s are available in two sizes. The first has a sensitivity level specified for a value between 5 and 50 mA and have trip times less than 500 milliseconds. These devices are used to protect people. GFI=s may be installed in the circuit breaker panel, in the wall socket or on protected portable cordage. This type of protective circuitry can not be used with inductive loads such as large heaters and motors or with Aleaky@ power supplies such as the water cooled supplies used for large magnets and lasers. The second type of GFI has a set point between 100 and 500 A and is used with building power and secondary buss feeds. The sensitivity will be set in the 100 to 500 A range. This type of GFI is used only for the protection of distribution systems and building wiring. Power GFI=s have response times faster than slow blow fuses and thermal circuit breakers and may trip before the local devices unless adjusted to coordinate protection. This can only be done by a specially trained professional electrician and should never be attempted by other personnel.

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D. Cautions and Common Sense Common Sense Is the Leading Cause of Safety. Unfortunately, common sense can neither be taught nor listed as a prerequisite to using lab equipment. So I offer the following cautions that seem to be common sense to me. 1. Accidents cause down-time and expense. Down-time reduces productivity, sometimes permanently. 2. Take the time to do it right the first time, then you only have to have the time to do it once. 3. Take the time and initiative to request electrical repairs and changes that are necessary, because you won=t have lose time when it is really critical later. 4. Don=t try to fix electrical equipment if you don=t thoroughly understand how it was supposed to work before it malfunctioned and if you don=t know what voltage levels should and might be present. 5. Never try to fix anything electrical when you are alone, even if you are familiar with what you are doing. 6. Keep water and electricity separated. 7. Don=t stretch electrical cords across aisles or doorways even in an AEMERGENCY@. 8. Don=t use extension cords as a substitute for wiring additions or changes. 9. THINK -- before you act. 10. Don=t try to go it alone. If you are unsure that something is correct or safe and you do not feel you can resolve it yourself --- GET HELP.

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