EECS 242

Scattering Parameters
Prof. Niknejad University of California, Berkeley

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 1/43

Scattering Matrix
V1+

V1

3 2

V3

V3+

V2

V2+

Voltages and currents are difcult to measure directly at microwave freq. Z matrix requires opens, and its hard to create an ideal open (parasitic capacitance and radiation). Likewise, a Y matrix requires shorts, again ideal shorts are impossible at high frequency due to the nite inductance. Many active devices could oscillate under the open or short termination. S parameters are easier to measure at high frequency. The measurement is direct and only involves measurement of relative quantities (such as the SWR or the location of the rst minima relative to the load). Its important to realize that although we associate S parameters with high frequency and wave propagation, the concept is valid for any frequency.
University of California, Berkeley EECS 242 p. 2/43

Power Flow in an One-Port

The concept of scattering parameters is very closely related to the concept of power ow. For this reason, we begin with the simple observation that the power ow into a one-port circuit can be written in the following form Pin = Pavs Pr

where Pavs is the available power from the source. Unless otherwise stated, let us assume sinusoidal steady-state. If the source has a real resistance of Z0 , this is simply given by Pavs Vs2 = 8Z0

Of course if the one-port is conjugately matched to the source, then it will draw the maximal available power from the source. Otherwise, the power Pin is always less than Pavs , which is reected in our equation. In general, Pr represents the wasted or untapped power that one-port circuit is reecting back to the source due to a mismatch. For passive circuits its clear that each term in the equation is positive and Pin 0.

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 3/43

Power Absorbed by One-Port

The complex power absorbed by the one-port is given by Pin = 1 I1 ) + V1 (V1 I1 2

which allows us to write Pr = Pavs Pin 1 Vs2 I1 ) + V1 (V1 I1 = 4Z0 2

the factor of 4 instead of 8 is used since we are now dealing with complex power. The average power can be obtained by taking one half of the real component of the complex power. If the one-port has an input impedance of Zin , then the power Pin is expanded to Pin 1 = 2
Zin Vs Vs Zin + V Vs s Zin + Z0 (Zin + Z0 ) (Zin + Z0 ) (Zin + Z0 )

which is easily simplied to (where we have assumed Z0 is real) Pin |Vs |2 = 2Z0
Z Z0 Zin + Zin 0 |Zin + Z0 |2

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 4/43

Denition of Reection Coefcient

With the exception of a factor of 2, the premultiplier is simply the source available power, which means that our overall expression for the reected power is given by Vs2 Pr = 4Z0 which can be simplied Zin Z0 2 = Pavs ||2 Pr = Pavs Z + Z 0 in = Zin Z0 Zin + Z0
Z Z0 Zin + Zin 0 12 |Zin + Z0 |2

where we have dened , or the reection coefcient, as

From the denition it is clear that || 1, which is just a re-statement of the conservation of energy implied by our assumption of a passive load.

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 5/43

Scattering Parameter

This constant , also called the scattering parameter of a one-port, plays a very important role. On one hand we see that it is has a one-to-one relationship with Zin . Given we can solve for Zin by inverting the above equation Zin = Z0 1+ 1

which means that all of the information in Zin is also in . Moreover, since || < 1, we see that the space of the semi-innite space of all impedance values with real positive components (the right-half plane) maps into the unit circle. This is a great compression of information which allows us to visualize the entire space of realizable impedance values by simply observing the unit circle. We shall nd wide application for this concept when nding the appropriate load/source impedance for an amplier to meet a given noise or gain specication.

More importantly, expresses very direct and obviously the power ow in the circuit. If = 0, then the one-port is absorbing all the possible power available from the source. If || = 1 then the one-port is not absorbing any power, but rather reecting the power back to the source. Clearly an open circuit, short circuit, or a reactive load cannot absorb net power. For an open and short load, this is obvious from the denition of . For a reactive load,this clear if we substitute q is pretty 2 Zin = jX X 2 + Z0 jX Z0 = q |X | = =1 jX + Z 2 0 X 2 + Z0
University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 6/43

Relation between Z and

The transformation between impedance and is a well known mathematical transform (see Bilinear Transform). It is a conformal mapping (meaning that it preserves angles) which maps vertical and horizontal lines in the impedance plane into circles. We have already seen that the jX axis is mapped onto the unit circle. Since ||2 represents power ow, we may imagine that should represent the ow of voltage, current, or some linear combination thereof. Consider taking the square root of the basic equation we have derived p p Pr = Pavs b1 = a1 where a and b have the units of square root of power and represent signal ow in the network. How are a and b related to currents and voltage?

where we have retained the positive root. We may write the above equation as

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 7/43

Denition of a and b

Let a1 = and b1 = V1 Z0 I1 2 Z0 V1 + Z0 I1 2 Z0

It is now easy to show that for the one-port circuit, these relations indeed represent the available and reected power:
I + V I V1 Z0 |I1 |2 |V1 |2 1 1 1 + + |a1 | = 4Z0 4 4 2

Now substitute V1 = Zin Vs /(Zin + Z0 ) and I1 = Vs /(Zin + Z0 ) we have

Z +Z Z |Zin |2 Z0 |Vs |2 |Vs |2 Zin |Vs |2 0 in 0 + + |a1 | = 4Z0 |Zin + Z0 |2 4|Zin + Z0 |2 4Z0 |Zin + Z0 |2 2

or |Vs |2 2 |a1 | = 4Z0

2 + Z Z + Z Z |Zin |2 + Z0 in 0 in 0 |Zin + Z0 |2
University of California, Berkeley

|Vs |2 = 4Z0

|Zin + Z0 |2 |Zin + Z0 |2

= Pavs

EECS 242 p. 8/43

Relationship betwen a/b and Power Flow

In a like manner, the square of b is given by many similar terms |Vs |2 2 |b1 | = 4Z0
2 Z Z Z Z |Zin |2 + Z0 in 0 in 0 |Zin + Z0 |2

= |a1 |2 ||2

|Zin Z0 2 2 = Pavs Z + Z = Pavs || 0 in

as expected. We can now see that the expression b = a is analogous to the expression V = Z I or I = Y V and so it can be generalized to an N -port circuit. In fact, since a and b are linear combinations of v and i, there is a one-to-one relationship between the two. Taking the sum and difference of a and b we arrive at V1 2V1 = a1 + b1 = 2 Z0 Z0 which is related to the port voltage and p 2Z0 I1 = Z0 I1 a1 b1 = 2 Z0 which is related to the port current.

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 9/43

Incident and Scattering Waves

Lets dene the vector v + as the incident forward waves on each transmission line connected to the N port. Dene the reference plane as the point where the transmission line terminates onto the N port. The vector v is then the reected or scattered waveform at the location of the port. 0 1 0 +1 V1 V1 BV C BV + C B 2 C B 2 C + C B C + v =B v = BV C C BV3 3 A @ A @ . . . . . .

Because the N port is linear, we expect that scattered eld to be a linear function of the incident eld v = Sv + S is the scattering matrix 0 S11 B B S = BS21 @ . . .
University of California, Berkeley

S12 .. .

1 C C C A
EECS 242 p. 10/43

Relation to Voltages

The fact that the S matrix exists can be easily proved if we recall that the voltage and current on each transmission line termination can be written as Vi = Vi+ + Vi
+ Ii = Y0 (Ii Ii )

Inverting these equations Vi + Z0 Ii = Vi+ + Vi + Vi+ Vi = 2Vi+ Vi Z0 Ii = Vi+ + Vi Vi+ + Vi = 2Vi

Thus v + ,v are simply linear combinations of the port voltages and currents. By the uniqueness theorem, then, v = Sv + .

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 11/43

Measure Sij
1 V1+ V1 V2 Z0 2 5 Z0 4 Z0

V3 Z0 3 6 Z0

The term Sij can be computed directly by the following formula Vi Vj+ + V =0 k=j
k

Sij =

In other words, to measure Sij , drive port j with a wave amplitude of Vj+ and terminate all other ports with the characteristic impedance of the lines (so that + Vk = 0 for k = j ). Then observe the wave amplitude coming out of the port i

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 12/43

S Matrix for a 1-Port Capacitor

Z0

Lets calculate the S parameter for a capacitor

V1 + V1

S11 =

This is of course just the reection coefcient for a capacitor ZC Z0 = = L = ZC + Z0 1 jCZ0 1 + jCZ0
1 jC 1 jC

S11

Z0 + Z0

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 13/43

S Matrix for a 1-Port Capacitor (Direct Route)

Z0

Lets calculate the S parameter for a capacitor directly from the denition of S parameters S11 =
V1 + V1

Substituting for the current in a capacitor

= V IZ0 = V jCV = V (1 jCZ0 ) V1 + = V + IZ0 = V + jCV = V (1 + jCZ0 ) V1

We arrive at the same answer as expected = 1 jCZ0 1 + jCZ0

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 14/43

S Matrix for a 2-Port Shunt Element

Consider a shunt impedance connected at the junction of two transmission lines. The voltage at the junction is of course continuous. The currents, though, differ V1 = V2 I1 + I2 = YL V2

Z0

ZL

Z0

+ = 0 by terminating the line. Thus we can be re-write To compute S11 , enforce V2 the above equations + = V2 + V1 V1 + = (YL + Y0 )V2 + YL V2 ) = Y0 V2 V1 Y0 (V1

We can now solve the above eq. for the reected and transmitted wave
+ = V1 = V2 V1

Y0 + + ) V1 V1 (V1 YL + Y0

+ V1 (YL + Y0 + Y0 ) = (Y0 (Y0 + YL ))V1

S11 =

V1 + V1

Y 0 (Y 0 + Y L ) Z0 ||ZL Z0 = Y0 + (YL + Y0 ) Z0 ||ZL + Z0

EECS 242 p. 15/43

University of California, Berkeley

Shunt Element (cont)

The above eq. can be written by inspection since Z0 ||ZL is the effective load seen at the junction of port 1. Thus for port 2 we can write S22 = Z0 ||ZL Z0 Z0 ||ZL + Z0

Likewise, we can solve for the transmitted wave, or the wave scattered into port 2
V2 + V1

S21 =
+ Since V2 = V1 + V1 , we have

S21 = 1 + S11 =

2Z0 ||ZL Z0 ||ZL + Z0

By symmetry, we can deduce S12 as S12 = 2Z0 ||ZL Z0 ||ZL + Z0

EECS 242 p. 16/43

University of California, Berkeley

Conversion Formula

Since V + and V are related to V and I , its easy to nd a formula to convert for Z or Y to S Vi = Vi+ + Vi v = v + + v Zi0 Ii = Vi+ Vi Z0 i = v + v

Now starting with v = Zi, we have

1 + (v v ) v + + v = ZZ0

Note that Z0 is the scalar port impedance

1 1 v (I + ZZ0 ) = (ZZ0 I )v + 1 1 1 I )v + = Sv + ) (ZZ0 v = (I + ZZ0

We now have a formula relating the Z matrix to the S matrix

1 1 I ) = (Z + Z0 I )1 (Z Z0 I ) + I )1 (ZZ0 S = (ZZ0

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 17/43

Conversion (cont)

Recall that the reection coefcient for a load is given by the same equation! = Z/Z0 1 Z/Z0 + 1

To solve for Z in terms of S , simply invert the relation

1 1 ZI ZS + IS = Z0 Z0 1 Z (I S ) = S + I Z0

Z = Z0 (I + S )(I S )1

As expected, these equations degenerate into the correct form for a 1 1 system Z11 = Z0 1 + S11 1 S11

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 18/43

Reciprocal Networks

We have found that the Z and Y matrix are symmetric. Now lets see what we can infer about the S matrix. 1 v + = (v + Z0 i) 2 v = 1 (v Z0 i) 2

Substitute v = Zi in the above equations v+ = 1 1 (Zi + Z0 i) = (Z + Z0 )i 2 2 1 1 (Zi Z0 i) = (Z Z0 )i 2 2

v =

Since i = i, the above eq. must result in consistent values of i. Or 2(Z + Z0 )1 v + = 2(Z Z0 )1 v Thus S = (Z Z0 )(Z + Z0 )1

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 19/43

Reciprocal Networks (cont)

Consider the transpose of the S matrix t ` S t = (Z + Z0 )1 (Z Z0 )t S t = (Z t + Z0 )1 (Z t Z0 )

Recall that Z0 is a diagonal matrix

If Z t = Z (reciprocal network), then we have S t = (Z + Z0 )1 (Z Z0 )

Previously we found that S = (Z + Z0 )1 (Z Z0 )

So that we see that the S matrix is also symmetric (under reciprocity) St = S

University of California, Berkeley EECS 242 p. 20/43

Another Proof

Note that in effect we have shown that (Z + I )1 (Z I ) = (Z I )(Z + I )1

This is easy to demonstrate if we note that Z 2 I = Z 2 I 2 = (Z + I )(Z I ) = (Z I )(Z + I )

In general matrix multiplication does not commute, but here it does (Z I ) = (Z + I )(Z I )(Z + I )1 (Z + I )1 (Z I ) = (Z I )(Z + I )1

Thus we see that S t = S .

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 21/43

Scattering Parameters of a Lossless Network

Consider the total power dissipated by a network (must sum to zero) Pav = 1 ` t v i =0 2

Expanding in terms of the wave amplitudes 1 + t 1 + = (v + v ) Z0 (v v ) 2

Where we assume that Z0 are real numbers and equal. The notation is about to get ugly 1 t t + +t +t + = v v +v v v v v v 2Z0 Notice that the middle terms sum to a purely imaginary number. Let x = v + and y = v
y t x xt y = y1 x 1 + y2 x2 + x1 y1 + x2 y2 + = a a

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 22/43

Lossless (cont)

We have shown that 1 B @ 2Z0 0 1

Pav =

total incident power

v+ v+ | {z }

total reected power

v v | {z }

C A=0

This is a rather obvious result. It simply says that the incident power is equal to the reected power (because the N port is lossless). Since v = Sv + v + v + = (Sv + )t (Sv + ) = v + S t S v +
t t

This can only be true if S is a unitary matrix StS = I S = (S t )1

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 23/43

Orthogonal Properties of S

Expanding out the matrix product ij = X

k

(S

)ik Skj

X
k

Ski Skj

For i = j we have X
k =1 Ski Ski

For i = j we have X
k =0 Ski Skj

The dot product of any column of S with the conjugate of that column is unity while the dot product of any column with the conjugate of a different column is zero. If the network is reciprocal, then S t = S and the same applies to the rows of S . Note also that |Sij | 1.

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 24/43

Shift in Reference Planes

Note that if we move the reference planes, we can easily recalculate the S parameters. Well derive a new matrix S related to S . Lets call the waves at the new reference v = Sv + = S+

Since the waves on the lossless transmission lines only experience a phase shift, we have a phase shift of i = i i
= v eji i + i = v + eji

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 25/43

Reference Plane (cont)

Or we have 2 j1 e 6 0 6 6 6 0 4 . . . 0 ej2 0 ej3 3 ej1 6 0 6 =S6 6 0 4 . . . 2 0 ej2 0 3

7 7 7 7 5

ej3

7 7 + 7 7 5

So we see that the new S matrix is simply ej1 6 0 6 S = 6 6 0 4 . . . 2 0 ej2 0 ej1 7 6 0 7 6 7 6 7 S 6 0 5 4 . . . 3 2 0 ej2 0 3

ej3

ej3

7 7 7 7 5

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 26/43

Normalized S-Parameters
a1 b1 b2

[S]

a2

Lets introduce normalized voltage waves v + (x) a(x) = Z0 v (x) b(x) = Z0

So now |a|2 and |b|2 represent the power of the forward and reverse wave. Dene the scattering matrix as before b = Sa

For a 2 2 system, this is simply " # " S11 b1 = S21 b2 #" # S12 a1 S22 a2

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 27/43

Generalized Scattering Parameters

We can use different impedances Z0,n at each port and so we have the generalized incident and reected waves
+ vn an = p Z0,n vn bn = p Z0,n

The scattering parameters are now given by bi Sij = aj a =0

k=j

Sij =

Vi Vj+

Consider the current and voltage in terms of a and b p = Z0,n (an + bn ) 1 Z0,n

p Z0,j p Z0,i

+ Vk =0 =j

Vn =

+ vn

vn

In =

The power owing into this port is given by Pn =

` 1 (a n b n ) vn vn = p Z0,n

1 1 ` a ) ) = | a n | 2 | b n | 2 + (b n a b (Vn In n n n 2 2

Observe that the last term is purely imaginary so we have Pn = 1` |an |2 | bn |2 2

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 28/43

Scattering Transfer Parameters

b2 a1 b1 a3

[T]
a2 b3

[T]

b4 a4

Up to now we found it convenient to represent the scattered waves in terms of the incident waves. But what if we wish to cascade two ports as shown?
Since b2 ows into a 1 , and likewise b1 ows into a2 , would it not be convenient if we dened the a relationship between a1 ,b1 and b2 ,a2 ?

In other words we have " # " T11 a1 = T21 b1 T12 T22 #" b2 a2 #

Notice carefully the order of waves (a,b) in reference to the gure above. This allows us to cascade matrices " b2 a1 = T1 a2 b1 # " # " # " # b4 a3 = T1 T2 = T1 a4 b3
EECS 242 p. 29/43

University of California, Berkeley

Representation of Source
ZS IS + VS Vi

Vi = Vs Is Zs

The voltage source can be represented directly for s-parameter analysis as follows. First note that Vi+ + Vi = Vs + Vi+ Z0 Vi Z0 ! Zs

Solve these equations for Vi , the power owing away from the source Vi = Vi+ Z0 Zs Z0 Vs + Zs + Z0 Z0 + Zs

Dividing each term by

Z0 , we have

Vi Vi+ Z0 = s + Vs Z0 + Zs Z0 Z0

bi = ai s + bs

p bs = Vs Z0 /(Z0 + Zs )
EECS 242 p. 30/43

University of California, Berkeley

Available Power from Source

A useful quantity is the available power from a source under conjugate matched conditions. Since Pavs = |bi |2 |ai |2 If we let L = S , then using ai = L bi , we have bi = bs + ai S = bs + S bi S

Solving for bi we have bi = bs 1 |S |2

So the Pavs is given by Pavs = |bi |2 |ai |2 = |bs |2 1 |S |2 (1 |S |2 )2

|bs |2 = 1 |S |2

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 31/43

Signal-Flow Analysis

a1 S11

S21

b2 S22

b1

S12

a2

Each signal a and b in the system is represented by a node. Branches connect nodes with strength given by the scattering parameter. For example, a general two-port is represented above. Using three simple rules, we can simplify signal ow graphs to the point that detailed calculations are done by inspection. Of course we can always do the math using algebra, so pick the technique that you like best.

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 32/43

Series and Parallel Rules

SA SB SA SB

a1

a2

a3

a1

a3

Rule 1: (series rule) By inspection, we have the cascade.

SA SA + SB

a1 SB

a2

a1

a2

Rule 2: (parallel rule) Clear by inspection.

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 33/43

Self-Loop Rule
SB

SA a1 a2

SC a3 SA 1 SB a1 a2 SC a3

Rule 3: (self-loop rule) We can remove a self-loop by multiplying branches feeding the node by 1/(1 SB ) since a 2 = SA a 1 + SB a 2 a2 (1 SB ) = SA a1 a2 = SA a1 1 SB

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 34/43

Splitting Rule

a2 a1 SA SC

SB a3

a1

SA

a2 SB a3

SA a4 a 2

SC

a4

We can duplicate node a2 by splitting the signals at an earlier phase

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 35/43

Signal Flow Analysis Example

S22 L a1 S11 S21 b2 S22 L a1 S11 S21 b2 L

b1

S12

a2

b1

S12

a2

Using the above rules, we can calculate the input reection coefcient of a two-port terminated by L = b1 /a1 using a couple of steps. First we notice that there is a self-loop around b2 .
S21 1 S22 L b2 S11 L

a1

b1

S12

a2

Next we remove the self loop and from here its clear that the in = S21 S12 L b1 = S11 + a1 1 S22 L
EECS 242 p. 36/43

University of California, Berkeley

Masons Rule
bS S

P1

a1

S21

b2 S22

P2
L

S11 b1

S12

a2

Using Masons Rule, you can calculate the transfer function for a signal ow graph by inspection ` ` P P P L(1)(2) + + L(1)(1) + L(2)(1) + P2 1 P1 1 P P P T = 1 L(1) + L(2) L(3) +

Each Pi denes a path, a directed route from the input to the output not containing each node more than once. The value of Pi is the product of the branch coefcients along the path. For instance the path from bs to b1 (T = b1 /bs ) has two paths, P1 = S11 and P2 = S21 L S12

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 37/43

Loop of Order Summation Notation

bS S a1 S21 b2 S22 L

S11 b1

S12

a2

The notation

A rst order loop is dened as product of the branch values in a loop in the graph. For the given example we have s S11 , S22 L , and s S21 L S12 . A second order loop L(2) is the product of two non-touching rst-order loops. For instance, since loops S11 s and S22 L do not touch, their product is a second order loop. A third order loop L(3) is likewise the product of three non-touching rst order loops. P The notation L(1)(p) is the sum of all rst-order loops that do not touch the path p. P P For path P1 , we have L(1)(1) = L S22 but for path P2 we have L(1)(2) = 0.
University of California, Berkeley EECS 242 p. 38/43

L(1) is the sum over all rst order loops.

Example: Input Reection of Two-Port

a1 S11 S21 b2 S22 L

b1

S12

a2

Using Masons rule, you can quickly identify the relevant paths for a in = b1 /a1 . There are two paths P1 = S11 and P2 = S21 L S12 P There is only one rst-order loop: L(1) = S22 L and so naturally there are no higher order loops. P Note that the loop does not touch path P1 , so L(1)(1) = S22 L . Now lets apply Masons general formula in = S11 (1 S22 L ) + S21 L S12 S21 L S12 = S11 + 1 S22 L 1 S22 L

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 39/43

Example: Transducer Power Gain

bS S a1 S21 b2 S22 L

S11 b1

S12

a2

By denition, the transducer power gain is given by GT = PL PAV S = |b2 |2 (1 |L |2 )

|bs |2 1|S |2

By Masons Rule, there is only one path P1 = S21 from bS to b2 so we have X X L(1) = S S11 + S22 L + S S21 L S12 X L(1)(1) = 0
EECS 242 p. 40/43

2 b2 2 2 = b (1 |L | )(1 |S | ) S

L(2) = S S11 L S22

University of California, Berkeley

Transducer Gain (cont)

The gain expression is thus given by b2 S21 (1 0) = bS 1 S S11 S22 L S S21 L S12 + S S11 L S22

The denominator is in the form of 1 x y + xy which allows us to write GT |S21 |2 (1 |S |2 )(1 |L |2 ) = |(1 S11 S )(1 S22 L ) S21 S12 L S |2

Recall that in = S11 + S21 S12 L /(1 S22 L ). Factoring out 1 S22 L from the denominator we have S21 S12 L den = 1 S11 S S (1 S22 L ) 1 S22 L den = 1 S S21 S12 L S11 + 1 S22 L (1 S22 L )

= (1 S in )(1 S22 L )

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 41/43

Transducer Gain Expression

This simplications allows us to write the transducer gain in the following convenient form 2 1 |S |2 2 1 |L | |S21 | GT = |1 in S |2 |1 S22 L |2 Which can be viewed as a product of the action of the input match gain", the intrinsic two-port gain |S21 |2 , and the output match gain". Since the general two-port is not unilateral, the input match is a function of the load. Likewise, by symmetry we can also factor the expression to obtain GT 1 |S |2 1 |L |2 2 = |S21 | |1 S11 S |2 |1 out L |2

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 42/43

Refs

S Parameter Design, Hewlett-Packard Application Note 154, April 1972. Microwave Transistor Ampliers, Analysis and Design, Guillermo Gonzalez, Prentice Hall 1984. Microwave Engineering, David Pozer, Third Edition, Wiley 2005. Microwave Circuit Design Using Linear and Nonlinear Techniques, by George Vendelin, Anthony M. Pavio, & Ulrich L. Rohde, Wiley 1995.

University of California, Berkeley

EECS 242 p. 43/43