JAYAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

FLUID MECHANICS & MACHINERY ME1202

KEY NOTES

UNIT-2

Fluid Flow Characteristics:

Flow characteristics deals with the methods of determining velocity and
acceleration. The fluid flow is classified as given below:

a) Steady and Unsteady Flows:

• Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid characteristics
like velocity, pressure, density, etc. at a point do not change with time.
• Unsteady flow is that type of flow, in which the velocity, pressure of density
at a point changes with respect to time.

b) Uniform and Non-uniform Flows:

• Uniform flow is defined as that type of flow in which the velocity at any given
time does not change with respect to space (i.e., length of direction of the
flow).
• Non-uniform flow is that type of flow in which the velocity at any given time
changes with respect to space.
b) Laminar and Turbulent Flows:
• Laminar flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid particles move
along well-defined paths or stream lines and all the stream-lines are straight and
parallel. Thus the particles move in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the
adjacent layer. This type of flow is also called stream-line flow or viscous flow.
• Turbulent flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in zig-zag
way. Due to the movement of fluid particles in a zig-zag way, the eddies formation
takes place which the responsible for high energy loss. For a pipe flow, the type of
flow is determined by a non-dimensional number VD/v called the Reynolds number,
where D = Diameter of pipe; V = Mean velocity of flow in pipe; and v = Kinematic
viscosity of fluid.
• If the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is called laminar. If the
Reynolds number is more than 4000, it is called turbulent flow. If the
Reynolds number lies between 2000 an 4000, the flow may be laminar or
turbulent.
d) Compressible and Incompressible Flows:
• Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid change
from point to point or in other words the density ( ) is not constant for the
fluid flow.
• Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid does
not change from point to point or in other words the density ( ) is constant
for the fluid flow.

e) Rotational and Irrotational Flows:

• Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing
along stream-lines also rotate about their own axis.
• If the fluid particles while flowing along stream-lines, do not rotate about their
own axis, that type of flow is called irrotational flow.
f) One, Two and Three Dimensional Flows:

One-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the flow parameter such as
velocity is a function of time and one space co-ordinate only, say x. For a steady
one dimensional flow, the velocity is a function of one-space-co-ordinate only. The
variation of velocities in other two mutually perpendicular directions is assumed
negligible.

Two-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the velocity is a function of

time and two rectangular space co-ordinates say x and y. For a steady two-
dimensional flow the velocity is a function of two space co-ordinates only. The
variation of velocity in the third direction is negligible.

Three-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the velocity is a function of

time and three mutually perpendicular directions. But for a steady three-dimensional
flow the fluid parameters are functions of three space co-ordinates (x y and z) only.

Rate of Flow or Discharge (Q):

It is defined as the quantity of a fluid flowing per second through a section of a pipe
or a channel. For an incompressible fluid (or liquid) the rate of flow or discharge is
expressed as the volume of fluid flowing across the section per second. For
compressible fluids, the rate of flow is usually expressed as the weight of fluid
following across the section. Thus For liquids the units of Q are m3/sec of litres/sec
For gases and units of Q is kgf/sec or Newton/sec Consider a liquid flowing through
a pipe in which A=Cross-sectional area of pipe. V=Average velocity of fluid across
the section.
Then discharge Q = A x V

Continuity Equation:
Let us make the mass balance for a fluid element as shown below-an open-faced
cube):
Mass balance:
Accumulation rate of mass in the system = all mass flow rates in - all mass flow
rates out --------------------- (1)
The mass in the system at any instant is x y z. The flow into the system
through face 1 is
m1 = 1 v x1 y z.
And the flow out of the system through face 2 is
m2 = 2 v x2 y z.
Similarly for the faces 3, 4, 5, and 6 are written as follows:
m3 = 3 v x3 x z.
m4 = 4 v x4 x z.

Substituting these quantities in equn.1, we get

Dividing the above equation by x y z:

Now we let x, y and z each approach zero simultaneously, so that the cube
shrinks to a point. Taking the limit of the three ratios on the right-hand side of this
equation, we get the partial derivatives.

This is the continuity equation for every point in a fluid flow whether steady or
unsteady, compressible or incompressible.
For steady, incompressible flow, the density is constant and the equation
simplifies to

For two-dimensional incompressible flow this will simplify still further to

Streamlines:
 • A streamline in a fluid is a line tangent to which at any point is in the
direction of
• velocity at that point at that instant. Since the component of velocity normal
to a streamline is zero, there can be no flow across a streamline.

• A streamline cannot intersect itself nor can any streamline intersect any
other streamline.

• A Stream surface is generated by a large number of closely spaced

streamlines, which pass through an arbitrary curve AB as shown in fig.

Streakline:
• A streakline is the locus of locations, at an instant of time, of all the fluid
particles
that have passed through a fixed point in a flow field.

Pathline
• A Pathline in a fluid flow is the trajectory of a fluid particle, say P1 as it
advances with the passage of time, say from initial time ti to final time t f.
• Tangent at a point on a pathline must be in the direction of velocity at that
point at the time when the particle passes that point.
 • A pathline can, therefore intersect itself at different times. Streamlines and

pathlines coincide.

Stream Function
• The stream function is defined as a scalar function of space and time,
such that its partial derivative with respect to any direction gives the velocity
component at right angles to this direction.
• The stream function for the case of two-dimensional flow only is considered
here.
Mathematically stream function u= f (x, y, t) for unsteady flow and u= f( x, y ) for
steady flow, such that

Where, v & u are velocity components …. 1

Derivation:
Consider two points A and B with coordinates (x, y) and (x + dx, y + dy) respectively,
which are joined by any two arbitrary curves ACB and ADB as shown in figure. Let u
and v be the velocity components at point A in the x and y directions respectively.
Then the flow across the curve ACB in the x-direction is equal to(-udy) and in the y
direction and in the y-direction it is equal to (vdx). in the computation of the flows
across the curve ACB the sign convention that is assumed is that as the observer
views from A to B then the flow from left to right (or in the clockwise direction) is
considered as positive.

Now if d represents the total flow across the curve ACB then

If fluid is homogenous and incompressible, then the flow across ADB or any other
curve
must be same as that across the curve ACB.

The total derivative of may be expressed as

Comparing the equations 2 & 3, we can prove the concept.

Bernoulli’ s Equation

(4)

This is the basic from of Bernoulli equation for steady incompressible inviscid flows.
It may be written for any two points 1 and 2 on the same streamline as

(5)
The constant of Bernoulli equation can be named as total head (ho) has different
values
on different streamlines.

(6)
The total head may be regarded as the sum of the piezometric head h* = p/ g + z
2
and the kinetic head v /2g.

Bernoulli equation is arrived from the following assumptions:

1. Steady flow - common assumptions applicable to many flows.
2. Incompressible flow - acceptable if the flow Mach number is less than 0.3.
3. Frictionless flow - very restrictive; solid walls introduce friction effects.
4. No shaft work - no pump or turbines on the streamline.
5. No transfer of heat - either added or removed.

Range of validity of the Bernoulli Equation:

Bernoulli equation is valid along any streamline in any steady, inviscid,
incompressible
flow. There are no restrictions on the shape of the streamline or on the geometry of
the
overall flow. The equation is valid for flow in one, two or three dimensions.

Modifications on Bernoulli equation:

Bernoulli equation can be corrected and used in the following form for real cases.

Where 'q' is the work done by pump and 'w' is the work done by the fluid and h is the
head loss by friction.
Derivation of Bernoulli equation from Euler's Equation of Motion:
Mass in per unit time = Av = m
For steady flow, mass out per unit time = m
Rate of momentum in = m v
Rate of momentum out = m (v + dv)
Rate of increase of momentum from AB to CD = m (v + dv) - m v = Avdv
Force due to p in the direction of motion = pA
Force due to p + dp opposing the direction of motion = (p + dp)(A + dA)
Force due to pside producing a component in the direction of motion = p side dA
Force due to mg producing a component opposing the direction of motion=
mgcos( )
Resultant force in the direction of motion
= pA - (p + dp)(A + dA) + p side dA - mgcos( )
The value of pside will vary from p at AB to p + dp at CD, and can be taken as p +
kdp
where k is fraction.
Mass of fluid element ABCD = m = g(A + 1/2 dA) ds
And ds = dz/cos( ); since cos(d z/ds)
Substituting in equn.2,
Resultant force in the direction of motion
pA - (p + dp)(A + dA) + p + kdp - g(A + 1/2 dA) dz
= -Adp - dpdA + k pdA - gAdz - 1/2 dAdz
Neglecting products of small quantities,
Resultant force in the direction of motion = -Adp - gAdz
Applying Newton's second law, (i.e., equating equns.1 & 3)
dAv dv = -Adp - gAdz
Dividing by dAds,
or

the relationship between p, v, and elevation z, along a streamline for steady flow.
It can not be integrated until the relationship density and pressure is known. For
incompressible fluid, is constant; therefore the Euler's equation is integrated to
give the following:

This is nothing but the Bernoulli equation.

Venturimeter
• In this meter the fluid is accelerated by its passage through a converging
cone of angle 15-20o.
• The pressure difference between the upstream end if the cone and the throat
are measured and provide the signal for the rate of flow.
• The fluid is then retarded in a cone of smaller angle (5-7o) in which large
proportion of kinetic energy is converted back to pressure energy.
• Because of the gradual reduction in the area there is no vena contracta and
the flow area is a minimum at the throat so that the coefficient of contraction
is unity.
 • The attraction of this meter lies in its high-energy recovery so that it may be
used where only a small pressure head is available, though its construction
is expensive.
• To make the pressure recovery large, the angle of downstream cone is
small, so boundary layer separation is prevented and friction minimized.
• Since separation does not occur in a contracting cross section, the upstream
cone can be made shorter than the downstream cone with but little friction,
and space and material are thereby conserved.
• Although Venturimeter can be applied to the measurement of gas, they are
most commonly used for liquids.

The following treatment is limited to incompressible fluids.

The basic equation for the venturimeter is obtained by writing the Bernoulli equation
for incompressible fluids between the two sections a and b. Friction is neglected, the
meter is assumed to be horizontal.

Orifice Meter
• The Venturi meter described earlier is a reliable flow-measuring device.
Furthermore, it causes little pressure loss.

• For these reasons it is widely used, particularly for large-volume liquid and
gas flows. However this meter is relatively complex to construct and hence
expensive. Especially for small pipelines, its cost seems prohibitive, so
simpler devices such as orifice meters are used.
• The orifice meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a circular hole drilled in it.
There is a pressure tap upstream from the orifice plate and another just
downstream.
• The principle of the orifice meter is identical with that of the venturi meter.
The reduction of the cross section of the flowing stream in passing through
the orifice increases the velocity head at the expense of the pressure head,
and manometer measures the reduction in pressure between the taps.
• Bernoulli's equation provides a basis for correlating the increase in velocity
head with the decrease in pressure head.
Venturi meter - Orifice meter Comparison
In comparing the venturi meter with the orifice meter, both the cost of installation
and the cost of operation must be considered.
1. The orifice plate can easily be changed to accommodate widely different flow
rates, whereas the throat diameter of a venturi is fixed, so that its range of flow rates
is circumscribed by the practical limits of ( p).
2. The orifice meter has a large permanent loss of pressure because of the
presence of eddies on the downstream side of the orifice-plate; the shape of the
venturi meter prevents the formation of these eddies and greatly reduces the
permanent loss.
3. The orifice is cheap and easy to install. The venturi meter is expensive, as it must
be carefully proportioned and fabricated. A home made orifice is often entirely
satisfactory, whereas a venturi meter is practically always purchased from an
instrument dealer.

4. On the other hand, the head lost in the orifice for the same conditions as in the
venturi is many times greater. The power lost is proportionally greater, and, when an
orifice is inserted in a line carrying fluid continuously over long periods of time, the
cost of the power may be out of all proportion to the saving in first cost. Orifices are
therefore best used for testing purposes or other cases where the power lost is not a
factor, as in steam lines.
5. However, in spite of considerations of power loss, orifices are widely used, partly
because of their greater flexibility, because installing a new orifice plate with a
different opening is a simpler matter. The venturi meter can not be so altered.
Venturi meters are used only for permanent installations.
6. It should be noted that for a given pipe diameter and a given diameter of orifice
opening or venturi throat, the reading of the venturi meter for a given velocity is to
the reading of the orifice as (0.61/0.98)2, or 1:2.58.(i.e. orifice meter will show higher
manometer reading for a given velocity than venturi meter).

PITOT TUBE : It is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a
pipe or a channel. It is based on the on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a
point becomes zero, pressure there is increased due to the conversion of the
kinetic energy into pressure energy.

In its simplest form the pitot tube consist of a glass tube, bent at right angles as
shown as shown in figure.

The lower end, which is bent through 90° is directed in the upstream direction as
shown in Fig. The liquid rises up in the tube due to the conversion of the kinetic
energy into pressure energy. The velocity is determined by measuring the rise of
liquid in the tube.
Pitot tube

consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that point (2) is just
at the inlet of the pitot-tube and point (1) is far away from the tube.

P1 = intensity of pressure at point (1)

V1 = velocity of flow at (1)
P2 = pressure at point (2)
V2 = velocity at point (2), which is zero
H = depth of tube in the liquid.
h = rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface.
Applying Bernoulli’ s equations at points (1) and (2), we get

2 2
P1 g+ V1 / 2g +z1= P2 g+ V2 / 2g +z2

But z1 = z2 as points (1) and (2) are on the same line and v2 = 0.
P1/ g = pressure head at (1) = H

P1 g = pressure head at (2) = (h+H)

Substituting these values, we get

H+ V12/ 2g = (h+H)
h= V12/ 2g
or
V1 = 2gh.

This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is given by

(V1)act= Cv 2gh.

Cv is Coefficient of pitot-tube
Velocity at any point v = Cv 2gh.

Dimensions and Units:

Physical Quantities like length of rod, velocity of a flowing fluid etc are known as
dimensions. All physical units are measured in certain units. The difference between
units
and dimensions is that a physical quantity can have only one dimension but can be
expressed in different units.
Dimensional Analysis:
• Dimensional analysis is a method with which the non dimensional
parameters are formed from the physical quantities occurring in a flow
problem.
• The following are the dimensional symbols mainly used:
L – Dimensional symbol for length.
M – Dimensional symbol for mass.
F – Dimensional symbol for force.
T – Dimensional symbol for time.
• The following table lists the quantities, equations and Dimensions.
Dimensional Homogeneity:
Dimensional homogeneity means the dimensions of each terms in an
equation on both sides equal. Thus if the dimensions of each term of both sides of
an equation are the same the equation is known as dimensionally homogeneous
equation.
The powers of fundamental dimensions (i.e., L, M, T) on both sides of the equation
will be identical for a dimensionally homogeneous equation. Such equations are
independent of the system of units. For example, consider the equation of force,
Force = mass x acceleration.
-2
From the above table, RHS dimension is MLT .
For LHS, Mass x Acceleration, the dimension is M x LT-2 = MLT-2.
Hence, the equation is homogeneous.

Methods of Dimensional Analysis:

Dimensional Analysis can be done by following any one of the three methods:
a) Buckingham method
b) Rayleigh method
c) Bridgeman method.

Buckingham Theorem:
Buckingham Theorem states that “ if there are n variables in a dimensionally
homogeneous equation and if these variables contain ‘ m’ primary dimensions, then
the variables can be grouped into (n-m) non dimensional parameters” . The non-
dimensional groups are called terms.
Let x1,x 2, …..x n be the physical variables in which x1 is the dependent variable and
the rest
are independent variables on which x1 depends. Mathematically,
x1 = f (x 2,x 3, …..x n) ------------------------- (1)
Rearranging the above equation,
f1(x1,x 2, …..x n) = 0 --------------------------(2)
The above equation is dimensionally homogeneous and it can be represented in
terms of dimensionless terms containing n variables and m fundamental
dimensions.
F1=( 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ……. n-m ) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___________ _ (3)
In the above equation,
Each term is dimensionless and is independent of the system.
term will not change by dividing or multiplying it by a constant.
Each term contains m+1 variables and m fundamental dimensions known as
repeating variables.
If x1, x2 and x3 be the repeating variables with m = 3. Then we can represent each
term as

Each one of the above equations is solved by the principle of dimensional

homogeneity.
The values of a1,b1,c 1, etc thus obtained are substituted in the equation 4. All the
values
thus obtained are substituted in equation 3 and finally, any one of the - terms is
expressed as a function of others.

Selecting repeating variables:

a) Selecting dependent variable as a repeating variable should be avoided.
b) Care is to taken in selecting the repeating variables so that variables represent
geometric property, flow property and fluid property one each.
c) The repeating variables selected should not form a dimensionless group.
d) The repeating variables must have the same number of fundamental dimensions.
e) No two repeating variable should have the same dimensions.

Experience shows that suitable non-dimensional groups result when geometric

property (length, diameter, height etc), a fluid property (density, viscosity etc), a flow
property (velocity, acceleration etc) and a thermal property (thermal conductivity,
thermal diffusivity etc) are selected.
4.5.1. SIMILITUDE:
Similitude is the method of predicting the behaviour of the prototype by observing
the model which in every respect is similar to it. The experimental results on models
can be applied to the prototype only if both of them are geometrically, kinematically
and dynamically similar.
a) Geometrical Similarity: If same geometrical ratio exists between the model and
prototype corresponding to the geometrical dimensions in the flow, then model the
prototypes are said to be geometrically similar. For geometrical similarity, the
corresponding areas and volumes are related by square and cub of the scale factor.

b) Kinematic Similarity: If the direction of velocity and acceleration at corresponding

points in the model and the prototype are the same, then it is known as kinematic
similarity.
c) Dynamic Similarity: If the forces at the corresponding points in the flows of a
model and prototype are similar, then the model and the prototype are said to be
dynamically similar. The forces encountered may be inertia, viscous, gravity,
pressure, elastic, surface tension etc. For dynamic similarity, the dimensionless
force ratios must be similar. If Re is the Reynolds number, then for dynamic
similarity,
Force Ratio = (Re)m/( R e)p
In general, Inertia force, Fi = ma = Fg+Fp+Fv+F +Fe
For dynamic similarity,

Dimensionless Parameters and Applications

1) Reynolds Number, Re, is defined as the ratio of inertia force to viscous force.
Re = Inertia Force/Viscous Force = Fi/Fv
Applications: Reynolds number is one of the criterion of dynamic similarity when
viscous
forces dominate, like in flow through pipes, motion of submarine, open channel flow
without long waves and hydraulic jump.
2) Froude Number, Fg, is defined as the ratio of square root of inertia force and
gravitational force.
Fg = (Inertia Force/Gravity Force)1/2

Applications: Froude number is one of the criterion of dynamic similarity when

gravitational force predominates, like flow of liquid jets in orifices, flow over the
spillway of a dam, flow over notches and weirs etc.
3) Mach Number, M, is defined as the ratio of square root of inertia force to elastic
force.
1/2
M = (Inertia Force/Elastic Force)

Applications: Mach number is very significant in high speed flow where the density
variations are considerable, like aerodynamic testing, water hammer problems, flow
of gases exceeding the velocity of sound etc.
4) Weber Number, W, is defined as the ratio of inertia force to the surface tension
force.
W = (Inertia Force/Surface tension Force)

Applications: Weber number is significant when the surface tensile force

predominates as in capillary tube flows, flow of blood in veins, thin sheet flows etc.
5) Euler Number, E, is defined as the ratio of pressure force to inertia force.
2 2 2
E = Pressure Force/Inertia Force; Inertia force L V ; Pressure force L
2
E = p/ V
Applications: When there is significant pressure change in the flow field, then Euler
number assumes significant, as in flow through pipes, flow over submerged bodies
etc.
Model Analysis
For predicting the performance of the hydraulic structures (such as
dams, spill ways etc.) or hydraulic machines (such as turbines, pumps etc.), before
actually constructing or manufacturing, models of the structures or machines are
made and tests are performed on them to obtain the desired information.
The study of models of actual machines is called model analysis.
Model analysis is actually an experimental method of finding solutions of complex
flow problems. The followings are the advantages of the dimensional and model
analysis:
1. The performance of the hydraulic structure or hydraulic machine can be easily
Predicted, in advance, from its model.
2. With the help of dimensional analysis, a relationship between the variables
influencing a flow problem in terms of dimensionless parameters is obtained. This
relationship helps in conducting tests on the model.
3. The merits of alternative designs can be predicted with the help of model testing.
The most economical and safe design may be, finally, adopted.
4. The tests performed on the models can be utilized for obtaining, in advance,
useful information about the performance of the prototypes only if a complete
similarity exists between the model and the prototype.

JAYAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

FLUID MECHANICS & MACHINERY ME1202

QUESTIONS
PART - A
1. What are the methods of describing fluid flow?
2. 2. Explain the term i) Path line ii) streak line iii) stream line
3. Define i) Steady flow ii) Unsteady flow
4. Define i) Uniform flow ii) Non-uniform flow
5. Define i) Laminar flow ii) Turbulent flow
6. Define One, two and three Dimensional flow.
7. define the equation of continuity
8. 8. i) Velocity potential function, and (ii) Stream function.
9. What do you mean by equipotential line and a line of constant stream
function?
10. (a) Describe the use and limitations of the flow nets.
11. Under what conditions can one draw flow net?
12. Name the different forces present in a fluid flow. For the Euler’ s equation of
motion, which forces are taken into consideration.
13. What is Euler’ s equation of motion? How will you obtain Bernoulli’ s
equation from it?
14. Define an orifice-meter
15. Define an pitot tube.
16. Define the terms dimensional analysis and model analysis.
17. What do you mean by fundamental units and derived units? Give examples.
18. Explain the term, ‘ dimensionally homogeneous equation’ ;
19. What are the methods of dimensional analysis?
20. State Buckingham’ -theorem. Why this theorem is considered superior
over the Rayleigh’ s method for dimensional analysis?
21. What do you mean by repeating variables ? How are the repeating variables
selected for dimensional analysis?
22. Define the terms: model, prototype, model analysis, hydraulic similitude.
23. What do you mean by dimensionless numbers? Name any four
dimensionless numbers.
24. What is meant by geometric, kinematic and dynamic similarities
25. Explain the terms distorted models and undistorted models.

PART - B
1. The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are 15 cm and 20cm
respectively Find the discharge through the pipe if velocity of water at
section 1 is 4 m/s. Also determine the velocity at section 2

2. A 40 cm diameter pipe, conveying water, branches into two pipes of

diameters 30 cm and 20cm respectively If the average velocity in the 40
cm diameter pipe is 3 m/s. Find the discharge in this pipe. Also
determine the velocity in 20 cm pipe if the average velocity in 30 cm
diameter pipe is 2 m/s.
3. A 30cm diameter pipe carries oil of sp. gr. 0.8 at a velocity of 2 m/s. At
another section the diameter is 20 cm, find the velocity at this section and
also mass rate of flow of oil.
4. The velocity vector in a fluid flow is given by V= 2x3i - 5x2 yj + 4tk. Find
the velocity and acceleration of a fluid particle at (1, 2, 3) at time, t = 1.
5. The following cases represent the two velocity components, determine
the third component of velocity such that they satisfy the continuity
equation
6. i) u = 4x2, ii) u=4x2 + 3xy w = z3-4xy -2yz
7. Calculate the unknown velocity components so that they satisfy the
following equations:
8. i) u= 2x2 ii)v2xyz, w= ?
9. A fluid flow is given by: V = xy2 i -2yz2j – (zy2 – 2z3/3)k. Prove that it is a
case of possible steady incompressible fluid flow. calculate the velocity
and acceleration at the point [ 1, 2, 3].
10. Find the convective acceleration at the middle of a pipe which converges
uniformly from 0.6 m diameter to 0.3 m diameter over 3 m length. The
rate of flow is 40 lit/s. If the rate of flow changes uniformly from 40 lit/s
to 80 lit/s in 40 seconds, find the total acceleration at the middle of the
pipe at 20th seconds.
11. The velocity potential function, , is given by = x2 – y2. Find the
velocity components in x and y direction. Also show that represents a
possible case of fluid flow.
12. For the velocity potential function, = x2 —y 2 , find the velocity
components at the point (4, 5).
13. A stream function is given by: = 2x-5y. Calculate the velocity
components and also magnitude and direction of the resultant velocity at
any point.
14. If for a two-dimensional potential flow, the velocity potential is given by :
=4x(3y-4), determine the velocity at the point (2, 3). Determine also the
value of stream function at the point (2, 3).
15. The stream function for a two-dimensional flow is given by = 8xy.
Calculate the velocity at the point p(4, 5). Find the velocity potential
function .
16. State Bernoulli’ s theorem for steady flow of an incompressible fluid.
Derive an expression for Bernoulli’ s theorem from first principle and
state the assumptions made for such a derivation.
17. What is a venturimeter? Derive an expression for the discharge through
a venturimeter.
18. Explain the principle of venturimeter with a neat sketch. Derive the
expression for the rate of flow of fluid
19. Discuss the relative merits and demerits of venturimeter with respect to
orifice-meter.
20. Define an orifice-meter. Also derive the discharge through an orifice-
meter
21. What is a pitot-tube? How will you determine the velocity at any point
with the help of pitot-tube?
22. Water flowing through a pipe of 100mm diameter under a pressure of
19.62 N/cm2 (gauge) and with mean velocity of 3.0 m/s. Find the total
head of the water at across-section, which is 8m above the datum line.
23. The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20cm and 15 cm at
sections 1 and 2 respectively. The rate, flow through pipe is 40 litres/s.
The section 1 is 6m above datum line and section 2 is 3m above the
datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 29.43 N/cm2, find the intensity of
pressure at section 2.
24. A pipe line carrying oil of specific gravity 0.8, changes in diameter from
300 mm at a position A to 500 mm diameter to a position B which is 5 m
at a higher level. If the pressures at A and B are 19.62 N/cm2 14.91N/cm2
respectively and
25. the discharge is 150 litres/s, determine the loss of head and direction of
flow.
26. A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 30cm and throat diameter
15 cm is used to measure the flow of oil of sp.gr.0.8. The discharge of oil
through venturimeter is 50 litres/s, find the reading of the oil-mercury
differential manometer. Take Cd = 0.98.
27. An orifice-meter with orifice diameter 15 cm is inserted in a pipe of 30
cm diameter. The pressure gauge fitted upstream and downstream of the
orifice meter give readings of 14.715 N/cm2 and 9.81 N/cm2 respectively.
Find the rate of flow of water through the pipe in litres/s. Take Cd = 0.6.

28. In the above problem, instead of water, oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is flowing
through the orifice meter in which the pressure difference is measured
by a mercury oil differential manometer on the two sides of the
orificemeter , find the rate of flow of oil when the reading of manometer
is 40 cm.
29. The pressure difference measured by the two tappings of a pitotstatic
tube, one tapping pointing upstream and other perpendicular to the
flow, placed in the centre of a pipe line of diameter 40cm is 10cm of
water. The mean velocity in the pipe is 0.75 times the central velocity.
Find the discharge through the pipe. Take pitot-tubeas0.98.
30. Find the velocity of flow of oil through a pipe, when the difference of
mercury level in a differential U tube manometer connected to the two
tappings of the pitot-tube is 15 cm. Take sp. gr. of oil = 0.8. the
coefficient of pitot-tube as 0.98.
31. Define and explain Reynold’ s number, Froude’ s number and Mach’ s
number. Derive expressions for above numbers. .
32. Define the following non-dimensional numbers: Reynold’ s number,
Froude’ s number and Mach’ s number. What are their significances for
fluid flow problems?
33. State Buckingham’ -theorem.. What do you mean by repeating
variables? How are the repeating variables selected in dimensional
analysis?
34. The variables controlling the motion of a floating vessel through water
are the drag force F, the speed V , the length L, the density and
dynamic viscosity µ of water and acceleration due to gravity g. Derive
the expression for F by dimensional analysis.
35. The resistance R, to the motion of a completely sub-merged body
depends upon the length of the body L, velocity of flow V, mass density
of fluid and kinematic viscosity of fluid . By dimension at analysis
prove that R= V2L2 (VL/ )
36. A model of a sub-marine of scale 1/40 is tested in a wind tunnel. Find the
speed of air in Wind tunnel if the speed of the sub-marine in sea-water is
15 m/s. Also find the ratio of the resistance between the model and its
prototype. Take the values of kinematic viscosities for sea-water and air
as 0.012 stokes and 0.016 stokes respectively. The density of sea-water
and of air is given as 1030 kg/m3 and 1.24 kg/m3 respectively.
37. In 1: 30 model of a spillway, the velocity and discharge are 1.5 m/s and
2.0 m3 /sec find the corresponding velocity and discharge in the
prototype.
38. A ship-model of scale 1/60 is towed through sea-water at a speed of 0.5
m/s. A force of 1.50 N is required to tow the model. Determine the speed
of the ship and propulsive force on the ship, if proto type is subjected to
wave resistance only.