NAVEDTRA 12966

Naval Education and July 1991 Training Manual

Training Command 0502-LP-213-4100 (TRAMAN)

Naval Orientation

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NAVAL ORIENTATION

NAVEDTRA 12966

1991 Edition Prepared by

LT William L. Brackin, USN
 PREFACE

Naval Orientation, NAVEDTRA 12966, and the nonresident training

course (NRTC), NAVEDTRA 82966, form a self-study training package that
has been prepared mainly for use in officer training programs. However, it
is a source of useful information for every member of the Department of the
Navy. The text provides valuable background information for all hands and
introduces personnel to the rules, customs, and traditions that govern Navy life.
The NRTC consists of 12 assignments that have been designed for use with
this text.
You may order the self-study training package (NRTC and this text) by
NRTC NAVEDTRA number (NAVEDTRA 82966) on ADP Form
1510/1(4-85) from the Naval Education and Training Program Management
Support Activity (NETPMSA), Code 0742, Pensacola, FL 32559-5000.
NETPMSA will administer the NRTC. Upon completion of this course, you
may retain this self-study training package (NRTC and text).
You may order additional copies of this text by stock number on a
DD Form 1348 from Naval Publications and Forms Center (NPFC),
Philadelphia.
This text was prepared by the Naval Education and Training Program
Management Support Activity, Pensacola, Florida, for the Chief of Naval
Education and Training. Technical review was provided by the United States
Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland; the Naval Military Personnel
Command, Washington, D.C.; the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations,
Washington, D.C.; the Naval Sea Systems Command, Washington, D.C.;
the Naval Supply Systems Command, Washington, D.C.; the Naval Tele-
communications Command, Washington, D.C.; the Naval Intelligence
Command, Washington, D.C.; the Marine Corps Institute, Arlington,
Virginia; and the Naval Reserve Personnel Center, New Orleans, Louisiana.
Suggestions, comments, and criticisms are invited. Address them to
NETPMSA, Code 0318, Pensacola, FL 32509-5000.

Revised 1991

Stock Ordering No.

0502-LP-213-4100

Published by
NAVAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING
PROGRAM MANAGEMENT SUPPORT ACTIVITY

UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D.C.: 1991

i
 THE UNITED STATES NAVY
GUARDIAN OF OUR COUNTRY

The United States Navy is responsible for maintaining control of the

sea and is a ready force on watch at home and overseas, capable of
strong action to preserve the peace or of instant offensive action to
win in war.

It is upon the maintenance of this control that our country’s glorious

future depends; the United States Navy exists to make it so.

WE SERVE WITH HONOR

Tradition, valor, and victory are the Navy’s heritage from the past. To
these may be added dedication, discipline, and vigilance as the
watchwords of the present and the future.

At home or on distant stations we serve with pride, confident in the

respect of our country, our shipmates and our families.

Our responsibilities sober us; our adversities strengthen us.

Service to God and Country is our special privilege. We serve with

honor.

THE FUTURE OF THE NAVY

The Navy will always employ new weapons, new techniques, and
greater power to protect and defend the United States on the sea,
under the sea, and in the air.

Now and in the future, control of the sea gives the United States her
greatest advantage for the maintenance of peace and for victory in
war.

Mobility, surprise, dispersal, and offensive power are the keynotes of

the new Navy. The roots of the Navy lie in a strong belief in the
future, in continued dedication to our tasks, and in reflection on our
heritage from the past.

Never have our opportunities and our responsibilities been greater.

ii
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER Page

1. Naval Sea Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

2. Makers of Naval Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

3. The Naval Officer’s Career. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

4. Military Duties of the Naval Officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

5. Discipline and Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

6. Governing Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

7. Military Courtesy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

8. Honors and Ceremonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

9. Uniforms, Insignia, and Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1

10. Naval Educational Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

11. The Armed Forces of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

12. Components of the Navy.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1

13. Supporting Elements of the Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1

14. United States Marine Corps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1

15. The Naval Reserve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1

16. Shipboard Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1

17. Ship Design and Engineering.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1

18. External Equipment of Ships.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1

19. Vessel Types and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1

20. Naval Weapons Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1

APPENDIX

I. Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AI-1

II. Naval Terms and Customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AII-1

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INDEX-1

iii
 CHAPTER 1

NAVAL SEA POWER

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter. These learning
objectives serve as a preview of the information you are expected to learn
in the chapter. By successfully completing the nonresident
training course (NRTC), you indicate you have met the objectives and have
learned the information. The learning objectives for chapter 1 are listed below.

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Define sea power. 9. Identify the mission of the U.S. Navy.

2. Define the establishment of the Continental
10. State the four mission areas in which the Navy
navy.
carries out its function.
3. Portray naval operations of the Civil War.
11. Analyze the Soviet military threat.
4. Describe naval operations of World War I.
5. Identify naval operations of World War II. 12. Analyze the Soviet political threat.
6. Describe naval operations of the Korean 13. Describe Soviet naval capabilities.
conflict and the Vietnam conflict.
7. Describe naval operations in the Persian Gulf. 14. Outline the Soviet naval personnel structure.
8. State the reasons why a strong Navy is needed 15. Identify treaties and pacts of which the United
to support our national objectives. States is a member.

Sea power as a concept means more than The first use of the term sea power was by
military power at sea. The Navy’s definition of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, USN, in his
sea power is explained in the following paragraph: principal work, The Influence of Sea Power Upon
History, 1660-1783, published in 1890. Mahan
Sea power is the sum of a nation’s explained six conditions required for a nation to
capabilities to implement its interests in the have sea power: (1) an advantageous geographical
ocean, by using the ocean areas for position; (2) serviceable coastlines, abundant
political, economic, and military activities natural resources, and a favorable climate;
in peace or war in order to attain national (3) extent of territory; (4) a population large
objectives—with principal components of enough to defend its territory; (5) a society with
sea power being naval power, ocean an aptitude for the sea and commercial enterprise;
science, ocean industry, and ocean com- and (6) a government with the influence to
merce. dominate the sea.

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 Geographical position was described as the HISTORY OF SEA POWER
most significant condition in the rise of English
sea power to world dominance. England was Sea power as an important influence in history
ideally situated astride the major sea lanes of dates back to 2000 B.C. The ancient Cretans are
European trade. Therefore, in times of peace credited with being the first nation to possess a
England would prosper commercially and in times navy and a merchant marine. Because of their
of war would deny the use of these vital sea lanes strong naval forces, the Cretans dominated the
to its enemies. In addition, England’s insular people on the shores of the Aegean Sea. This land
position protected it from invasion by enemies and area became known as Greece and Turkey.
prevented the necessity of a large army. The age of exploration and colonization was
Although geographical position is important, the age of sea power in its broadest application.
Mahan observed that other conditions are also Nations employing sea power during this age
important for a nation to become a strong sea became rich and powerful. They prospered from
power. An advantageous geographical position is the goods brought in by their ships, and the world
of little benefit to a nation that lacks a suitable prospered from the goods sent forth by their
coast line for harbors, natural resources, and a ships.
favorable climate. A nation that possesses such Inevitably, power struggles erupted between
benefits will seldom look seaward. England, the maritime rivals, and many wars were fought
lacking these natural advantages, was compelled between opposing sea powers. When sea powers
to turn to the sea. clashed, the one with the soundest knowledge of
Mahan’s third and fourth conditions, extent the sea and the most effective use of its ships
of territory and a population large enough to determined the victor.
defend its territory, are interdependent. A nation’s Spain, Portugal, and France, the three great
coastlines and harbors are not only commercial maritime powers, made great and enduring
outlets, but also a means of penetration by its contributions to discovery, exploration, and
enemies. colonization. Portugal, a country with only
A nation must have a strong navy and engage 1 million inhabitants at the time, discovered and
explored almost two-thirds of the unknown world.
in profitable trade with other nations to become
Eventually the sea power of these countries
a sea power. Therefore, as Mahan states in the
fifth requirement, the society of that nation must dwindled because their knowledge of the sea was
have an aptitude for the sea and commercial either lacking or inferior to that of their
enterprise. opponents.
In one of the most decisive battles of maritime
Finally, the government of a nation must have
history, the battle of Diu in 1509, the Portuguese
enough influence over other nations to dominate
fleet crushed the Egyptian-Gujerati fleet. This
the sea.
victory turned Portugal into a major sea power
In the decades immediately following the Civil with an empire stretching from Brazil to China.
War, the primary role of the U.S. Navy was as It also marked the beginning of four centuries of
coastal defender and commerce raider. The undisputed European sea supremacy in the Indian
United States did not exercise the concept of sea Ocean. This battle was the first proof of the
power, but believed in the concept of national importance of artillery mounted aboard ships to
isolation. In effect, the nation stressed naval destroy enemy vessels.
expansion within its own country. By 1890, In 1511 the Portuguese fleet moved northward
however, the nation began naval expansion to China and then eastward through the heart of
toward other countries, and its concept of national the Spice Islands to Malacca. This voyage
isolation began to ebb. established one of the first routes to Europe’s
Those groups in the Navy and in the govern- commercial-colonial empires, which were main-
ment who believed in the concept of sea power tained by superiority of firearms and sea power.
endorsed Mahan’s doctrine. They based their In the Indian ocean, the Portuguese navy was
endorsement on the belief that history provides the first to understand the concept of sea power
clues to achieving maritime supremacy. Mahan’s and to develop a naval strategy to suit its
concept, therefore, became the intellectual force individual needs. Countries later achieving naval
behind the United States’ development of its Navy power used the same strategy introduced by the
into a sea power. Portuguese.

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 The decline of the Portuguese empire as a decline of Spain’s world dominance, while
strong sea power began in 1580 when it united England went on to become mistress of the sea.
with Spain in disputes with other European While not achieving any great destruction of
countries. the enemy, the English demonstrated the
superiority of tactics over an abundance of
weapons. From that time on, the use of gunnery
DEFEAT OF THE SPANISH ARMADA that could be fired from a distance gradually
replaced the shock action of close-range battles
From 1492 to 1588 Spain stood in the at sea. The cries of “boarders away” and “stand
forefront of sea power among the nations of by to repel boarders” gradually became less
Europe. But Spain was a classic example of sea frequent.
power based on quantity rather than quality, as
evidenced by the defeat of the Spanish Armada
by the English in 1588. At this time, the king of THE CONTINENTAL NAVY
Spain, Philip II, determined to end successful
English raids on Spanish ships and ports. To SIGNIFICANT DATES
accomplish this, he launched an attack of over-
powering military force against England. 13 Oct. 1775 Second Continental Congress
The Spanish Grand Invincible Armada, made establishes the Continental
up of 124 ships, manned by 8,000 sailors, and navy.
carrying 19,000 soldiers, entered the English
Channel. To oppose it, the English had only 90 4 Apr. 1776 Brig Lexington takes first enemy
ships, plus a mosquito fleet that had never seen warship.
action. However, they also had the know-how of
Sir Francis Drake and his men. Drake, a master 4 May 1780 Navy adopts its first official
mariner, knew how to use the wind and tide as seal.
allies.
As a general rule, most naval battles were 19 Apr. 1783 General George Washington
virtually infantry fights on floating platforms. If proclaims American Revolution
ramming did not sink an enemy ship, soldiers ended. At the end of the war,
swarmed over its side to engage in hand-to-hand British naval strength included
combat. The British, however, used the same 469 vessels, with 174 of them
tactics the Portuguese had used at the battle of mounting 60 to 150 guns. The
Diu. Instead of engaging in close-range battle, American naval strength during
English ships maneuvered to the windward side the war reached a peak of 27
of the Spaniards and pounded them with artillery ships averaging 20 guns.
from a distance. The big, lumbering Spanish
ships, with their towering upper works, were easy Navies are born out of a spirit of independence
targets. and under the threat of war. They are nurtured
Ignoring a chance to attack the English off into maturity by the urgent demands of defense
Plymouth, the Spanish sailed on up the Channel and sharpened by the encounters of conflict. The
while the English pecked away at them. Although Continental navy, which was the first American
these attacks did little damage, they induced the navy, was born for such reasons during the
Spaniards to fire all their heavy shot with no American Revolution.
telling effects on the English. When the Spaniards Before the American Revolution, the
anchored in Calais, the English forced them out American Colonies were heavily dependent on the
by floating several burning hulks down on them sea for their livelihood. Harbors and shipbuilding
during the night. The next day the combined docks all along the coast offered livelihood to
English and Dutch fleets attacked the Armada and many colonists and provided income to thousands
might have crushed it had they possessed ample more. These ports also harbored the tiny, hastily
powder and shot. After this upsetting blow, the organized American naval forces that were sent
demoralized Spaniards fled north and rounded the to harass the mightiest sea power in the world.
British Isles to the Atlantic. There, storms nearly Therefore, when the conflict between the
succeeded in finishing what the English had Americans and the British began, these ports were
started. The defeat of the Armada ushered in the naturally the first ports the British struck.

1-3
 The navy of the American Revolution was THE CIVIL WAR
fragmented into many parts, each often acting
SIGNIFICANT DATES
independently of the others. For instance, several
naval engagements between the Americans and the 27 Apr. 1861 President Lincoln orders block-
British actually occurred before the Continental ade of entire Confederate coast.
Congress authorized a navy. Congress finally
3 Aug. 1861 Navy ends daily rum rations for
authorized a naval committee and ordered the
enlisted.
purchase and fitting out of a number of ships in
October 1775. Thus, the American navy had 17 Feb. 1864 Steam sloop Housatonic torpe-
officially begun; but some time would elapse doed and sunk by first sub-
before it would have any great effect on the marine, Confederate submarine
mighty British navy. Hunley.
22 Jun. 1865 Confederate raider Shenandoah
The first warships of the Continental navy,
fires last shot of Civil War while
built during the revolutionary war and into the
in Bering Sea.
19th century, were classified into three types of
naval vessels: During the Civil War, control of the sea was
overwhelmingly in the hands of the North. For
4 years the Union navy was constantly occupied
Ships-of-the-line —The battleships of
with the task of blockading more than 3,000 miles
the sailing days, these ships were the largest
of coastline. It was also kept busy running down
of all sailing warships. These battleships
Southern commerce raiders and opening the
carried 64 to over 100 guns of various sizes.
Mississippi and other waterways leading into the
While the British maintained several of
South. In addition, it worked in cooperation with
these ships during the revolutionary war,
the army in capturing coastal strongholds.
America did not build any until long after
The South countered with commerce raiders,
the war’s end.
but the strangling effect of the Union blockade
eventually took its toll. It crippled the finances
Frigates —These vessels were the of the Confederacy, shut out foodstuffs and
cruisers of the 18th century. They were munitions, and proved to be a major influence
smaller and usually faster than the average in the outcome of the war. The country learned
ships-of-the-line and carried 28 to 44 guns. from this war that a navy could not be quickly
and readily improvised in an emergency. Even
then, the days were past when merchant vessels
Sloops-of-war—These were small, sail-
could be converted rapidly into efficient men-of-
ing warships that carried 10 to 20 guns.
War.
Both Union and Confederate navies were
In addition, the Continental Congress and engaged in frantic shipbuilding programs, which
individual states commissioned independent fleets brought the era of ironclads into full swing. In
of privateers to capture enemy merchant ships as 1862 the Union launched the New Ironsides.
prizes of war. Equipped with the finest armor of any American
ship in history, this powerful ironclad once
A typical vessel of the fleet of privateers was survived 50 hits.
the schooner. The schooner was a small, fast, The Civil War also gave us two new types of
maneuverable ship that carried smoothbore ironclads, the famed Merrimack, renamed the
cannons. The size and flexibility of such ships Virginia by the Confederacy, and the Union’s
proved to be an advantage that eventually helped Monitor (which sported a turret). Although the
the colonists break the British stronghold on New ungainly Monitor was called a “cheese box on a
England harbors. Being small and maneuverable, raft, ” it and its Confederate counterpart began
these ships allowed the colonists to slip past the a new era of ironclads. When the two engaged
Royal Navy’s men-of-war by hiding in inlets. They in battle, the outcome was indecisive, with both
also allowed the colonists to deliver small but sides claiming victory.
effective blows to the large British ships by out- The period also introduced the use of river-
maneuvering them instead of meeting them head boats, rams, and gunboats. More changes and
on. advances were made in ship designs during the

1-4
Civil War (1861 to 1865) than during any other period 1 Jul. 1897 First use of International Rules
since our Navy began in 1775. of the Road.

SEA POWER IN MODERN TIMES 16 Dec. 1907 The Great White Fleet, the
first fleet of warships to circle
SIGNIFICANT DATES globe, leaves Hampton Roads, Virginia.

28 Dec. 1867 United States claims Midway 15 Apr. 1912 Navy dispatches USS Chester
Islands, first territory annexed from President Roads, Massachusetts,
outside continental limits. to aid survivors of SS Titanic sunk by
collision with iceberg in North Atlantic.
31 Jul. 1874 USS Intrepid, first warship
equipped with torpedoes, is The span of years between the Civil War and World
commissioned. War I brought many changes to the U.S. Navy. The
ironclads from the Civil War inspired vast
9 Nov. 1880 USS Ticonderoga, first steam- improvements to shipbuilding technology. These
powered ship to circle globe, technological advances led to the develop-ment of an
ends cruise begun on 7 Dec. 1878. all-steel Navy. Rear Admiral John A. Dahlgren (fig. 1-
1), the father of modern
5 Aug. 1882 Congress authorizes first steel
warship.

134.14
Figure 1-1.—Rear Admiral Dahlgren, standing next to one of the guns he designed, was the
leading pioneer in modern naval ordnance and gunnery. The Dahlgren Gun was the forerunner of
today’s modern naval gun.

1-5
ordnance and gunnery, was instrumental in WORLD WAR II
equipping the all-steel Navy with improved
weapons systems. Against strong protests from SIGNIFICANT DATES
the Navy, Dahlgren demanded improved weap-
ons. He designed a new, reinforced gun breech; 1 Sep. 1939 World War II begins as German
advocated the first real sights; and urged the troops invade Poland.
rifling of cannons.
31 Oct. 1941 USS Reuben James is torpedoed
One of the reasons the Navy expanded during and sunk by German submarine
this period was President Theodore Roosevelt’s off Iceland; about 100 sailors
enthusiasm for a strong Navy. A large Navy gave killed. This is the first U.S.
Roosevelt the opportunity to carry out his policy naval vessel to be lost by enemy
of “speak softly and carry a big stick.” action in World War II.

7 Dec. 1941 Japanese attack Pearl Harbor;

WORLD WAR I President orders mobilization of
U.S. forces.
SIGNIFICANT DATES
8 Dec. 1941 United States declares war on
1 May 1915 SS Gulfight torpedoed by Ger- Japan.
man submarine. First American
merchantman sunk by sub- 4 May 1942 Battle of Coral Sea takes place;
marine in World War 1. this is the first carrier-versus-
carrier engagement and the first
battle in modern history in
6 Apr. 1917 United States declares war
which opposing ships do not
against Germany. Navy strength
exchange shots; all damage is
at 4,376 officer and 69,680
inflicted by aircraft.
enlisted. United States seizes
and interns German ships in
4 Jun. 1942 Battle of Midway (4-6 June)
American ports.
begins; this battle is turning
point of war.
11 Nov. 1918 World War I ends.
6 Jun. 1944 Allied Expeditionary Force
World War I involved a struggle between the invades Western Europe. Land-
predominance of land power versus naval power. ings are made on the beaches of
Germany’s leaders should have recognized that Normandy.
the British navy, rather than the French army, was
Germany’s principal barrier to success. A correct 23 Oct. 1944 Battle of Leyte Gulf takes place.
appraisal of this situation as early as 1905, when
Germany began an earnest buildup of naval 9 May 1945 V-E Day occurs as Germany
strength, might have resulted in a reallocation of surrenders unconditionally to
Germany’s war-making resources. Such action Western Allies and the Soviet
could have provided Germany with a navy strong Union.
enough to defeat the British navy. As it was,
Germany’s leaders believed in land power. 6 Aug. 1945 First atomic bomb is dropped
Therefore, the Imperial army was the favored on Hiroshima, Japan.
service—a fact that caused Admiral von Tirpitz
to lament, “We Germans do not understand the 2 Sep. 1945 World War II ends.
sea!” Too late, Germany recognized the U-boat
force, a powerful flotilla of submarines, as its During World War II the Germans once again
deadliest offensive weapon. Although the demonstrated shortsightedness and the incapacity
measures taken by von Trpitz to expand the naval to make the best use of their resources in sea
arm of the German navy were extensive, his power. Again, they failed to plan for control of
efforts were never quite enough. the sea by building an adequate number of ships.

1-6
Even so, had the Axis power correctly estimated armies. This proved to be true as only a handful
the strategic importance of the Mediterranean of U.S. forces in the Pacific drove steadily toward
early in the war, it could have concentrated all the Japanese home islands. In much of the central
possible naval resources in that area. Then with and western Pacific, the Japanese had a strong
the Italian fleet as the main striking force and with numerical superiority; but a large portion of its
other military forces operating in support, the troops never entered into combat. Without
Mediterranean might well have fallen under Axis adequate shipping and naval air power, the
power. Under such circumstances the Allies’ Japanese legions were helpless against the
African campaign would have faced almost superiority of the few U.S. divisions that opposed
insurmountable difficulties. them.

England held an uncertain tenure in the As demonstrated against Germany and Japan
Mediterranean while U.S. forces were being during World War II, naval blockades have
assembled. Later, with combined strength, a major impact on the outcome of war. Further
the United States and England conducted the understanding of a blockade’s numbing grip
great amphibious campaigns against North can be gained from figures released in a
Africa, Sicily, Italy, Normandy, and the Med- report from General MacArthur’s headquarters
iterranean coast of France. The success of each in Japan following World War II. (General
of these campaigns was a stepping-stone to final MacArthur was Commander in Chief, Far East
victory. Command.)

In the first years of the war, the United States’ This report showed a peak wartime production
range of operation was limited. As the Americans of approximately 9,600,000 tons of steel ingots
reduced Japan’s navy, the U.S. Navy grew, in the Japanese Empire in 1943. By 1945 Japan’s
especially in the area of naval air superiority. The steel industry was producing at the rate of only
United States was then able to operate more 120,000 tons a year. The report indicated that
freely, to bypass enemy strongholds, and to omit 1,800,000 tons of the annual capacity was
many grueling campaigns. erased by bombing. The remaining 7,680,000-ton
loss in production was the result of naval
Sea power means more than controlling
blockades.
the sea for one’s own use; it also means
denying its use to the enemy. Therefore, the
Another part of this report showed further
United States also used naval blockades to deny
evidence of how naval blockades helped break
Japan the use of the sea and eventually starve its
down Japan’s economy. In 1941 a total of
economy.
4,000,000 tons of iron ore was required by
With local control of the Pacific, Japan had the Japanese steel industry. Of this, some
been able to capture Singapore, the western 3,000,000 tons had to be imported from the
Aleutians, the East Indies, the Solomons, and to Asiatic mainland and from the Philippines.
threaten Australia. When Japan lost this control, As the naval blockade tightened, imports dropped
it was unable to send men, supplies, and ships to off; by 1944 the iron content of imported ore was
the aid of Okinawa, the threshold of its home- less than 30 percent of the tonnage imported in
land. 1941.

Because of the effects of sea power, United In common with those of other nations,
States landings in Leyte and Lingayen were ahead Japan’s sea and air fleets were entirely dependent
of schedule. In addition, the blockades pre- on petroleum for fuel. Japan imported nearly all
vented Japan from exploiting its strength in the of its petroleum supply. When the blockade
Philippines and from satisfactorily reinforcing its applied by American submarines cut this vital
troops at the point of attack. Control of the sea supply line in 1944, Japanese naval and air forces
enabled United States forces to bypass many were doomed to eventual paralysis. The industrial
islands and avoid water controlled by the deterioration induced in Japan by the blockade
enemy. was somewhat slower to take effect, but it was
equally fatal to the nation’s war effort. Industrial
Sea power permits multiple use of the same potential is essential in developing sea power;
force; a small army becomes in effect many therefore, the destruction of an enemy’s industrial

1-7
 134.2
The sun sets in Tokyo Bay on the Allied naval might gathered there on the eve of world peace, 27 August
1945.

potential is equally important in weakening its sea Germany, however, Japan’s armies were
power. intact and undefeated and her air forces
Admiral Ernest J. King, former Chief of Naval only weakened when she surrendered,
Operations, summarized the part sea power but her navy had been destroyed and her
played in World War II: merchant fleet had been fatally crippled.
Dependent upon imported food and raw
In the European war, seapower was materials and relying upon sea transport
an essential factor because of the to supply her armies at home and
necessity of transmitting our entire overseas, Japan lost the war because she
military effort across the Atlantic and lost command of the sea and, in doing so,
supporting it there. Without command of lost—to the United States— the island
the sea, this could not have been done. bases from which her war-making
Nevertheless, the surrender of land, sea, potential could be destroyed by air.
and air forces of the German Reich on 8
May 1945 was the direct result of the KOREAN CONFLICT
application of airpower over land and the
power of the allied ground forces. On 26 June 1950 the United Nations made a
In the Pacific war, the power of our joint decision to give the Republic of Korea air and
ground and strategic air forces, like naval assistance. Three days later, the cruiser
seapower in the Atlantic, was an USS Juneau and the destroyer USS Dehaven fired
essential factor. By contrast with the first bombardment of the conflict.

1-8
 When North Korea attacked south of the 38th air wings furnished alnost half of the total tactical
parallel, the U.S. Navy was called on for close effort in Vietnam. They destroyed or heavily
air support to destroy bridges and block enemy damaged hundreds of military targets in North
supply routes. Navy jets flew from carriers for Vietnam. They also successfully suppressed land
the first time in a war situation. Unlike the enemy transport as well as waterborne logistic craft on
in World War II, North Korea didn’t have the rivers and bays and along coastal routes.
capability of striking our carriers; so pilots Sharing importance with attack carrier opera-
launched their Corsairs and Banshees on the first tions were amphibious operations on the coast of
sustained group-support missions in history. the Republic of Vietnam. Two amphibious ready
The helicopter was originally developed during groups with embarked Marine special landing
World War II but came of age during the Korean forces were committed to the Vietnam effort.
conflict. The Navy received four Sikorsky Each group was capable of conducting assaults
helicopters in the earlier years of the conflict. In over the beach by both landing craft and
comparison with today’s helicopter, these were helicopter. More than 50 battalion-size am-
primitive, awkward-looking aircraft. The Navy phibious operations were conducted after the
used these ugly duckling choppers as spotters for initial landings in March 1965. The mobility of
artillery fire, to fly emergency supply runs, and the amphibious groups and their readiness to
in direct combat duties. Later, the helicopter was strike on short notice kept the enemy off balance,
used as a cargo transport between ships during disrupted logistical support, and denied the enemy
underway replenishment, for search and rescue the use of profitable coastal areas.
missions, and in antisubmarine warfare (ASW) The Navy provided gunfire support from May
exercises, 1965 until the end of the United States’ involve-
The Korean conflict also introduced the first ment. Targets destroyed or damaged by the Navy
use of helicopters for medical evacuation. They included storage areas, military areas, missile sites,
were used to transport wounded soldiers from the and railroads. The battleship USS New Jersey was
battlefield to Mobile Army Surgical Hospital recommissioned to provide increased capabilities
(MASH) units and from these units to Navy in naval gunfire support. A heavy cruiser could
hospital ships. In addition to the helicopter, many fire an 8-inch projectile only 14 miles. Any one
other innovations currently used by the Navy were of the New Jersey’s 16-inch guns could hurl a
tested during this conflict. Some of these innova- projectile four times the weight of the cruiser’s
tions included the introduction of Navy jets for projectile a distance of 20 miles. In addition, the
air combat and the first use of air-to-air missiles. projectile could penetrate 30 feet of reinforced
The first surface-to-air Terrier missile was also concrete. After the successful completion of its
tested. In June of 1952 the keel of the world’s first mission, the New Jersey was again decom-
nuclear-powered submarine was laid. missioned. Realizing the peace-keeping effort
One of the most notable events of the Korean these ships contribute to the world, the United
conflict came on 15 September 1950 when U.S. States recommissioned the New Jersey and three
amphibious landings at Inchon began. Besides the other battleships in the 1980s.
protection U.S. Navy ships provided for these The Vietnam conflict exemplified the kind of
landings with massive shore bombardment, the war we can expect in the future—intermingling
battleship Missouri successfully shelled inland of the most primitive guerilla operations with the
supply roads far ashore. This successful operation most advanced weapons. To counter this threat,
cut the enemy’s communications, split its forces, the U.S. Seventh Fleet has provided dramatic
and dissolved resistance in the area. The operation evidence of the Navy’s ability to project the
demonstrated a new concept of sea power—the national policy of the United States wherever
Navy’s ability to intervene successfully in a ground water permits navigation.
operation.
The Korean conflict ended in July 1953.
PERSIAN GULF
VIETNAM CONFLICT
The United States and other nations of the
During the Vietnam conflict, five attack Western world together consume nearly three-
carriers were deployed to the western Pacific fourths of the world’s petroleum products.
(WESTPAC), with three of them constantly on Therefore, the nations of the Western world have
line in the Tonkin Gulf area. Embarked carrier significant economic, geopolitical, and military

1-9
 interests in the countries and waters of the Middle to take offensive action, the United States
East. bombarded an Iranian oil platform being used as
U.S. forces have been visible in this vital, oil- an Iranian Revolutionary Guard command post
rich region since 1949. They frequently operate (fig. 1-2). American fire power also sunk an
in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Iranian mine-laying vessel caught in the act of
Red Sea, Arabian Sea, and western Indian Ocean. laying mines. The American policy of freedom of
However, events in the Persian Gulf in the the high seas was once again preserved in the
mid-1980s brought the United States into new Persian Gulf. As the war ended between Iran and
roles in defending sea power. Iraq in 1989 and tensions subsided, the naval
Iran and Iraq had been at war for 5 years when presence of the United States decreased but never
Iraq began attacking Iranian oil facilities and disappeared.
tankers in the Persian Gulf. Iran countered with
attacks against ships flying flags sympathetic to
Iraq. U.S. Navy ships quickly started protecting IMPORTANCE OF SEA POWER
U.S. flagged tankers from attacks by either
country in what came to be known as the “tanker To fully understand the importance of sea
war.” power, you must consider the geographic makeup
In 1987 the United States took action to keep of the earth. Ocean areas are so extensive that all
oil flowing freely through the Straits of Hormuz. landmasses on earth are open to attack or pressure
As a result, the number of Middle East ships more from the sea. This attests to the broad impact of
than doubled over the summer of 1987 from 5 to sea power.
12. USS Ranger (CV-61) and USS Missouri Today the globe can be spanned by nuclear-
(BB-63) battle groups, mine countermeasure armed missiles in a mere 15 minutes. However,
teams, and special warfare units joined other in war or peace the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
forces already in the area. These combined forces remain wide barriers to international and domestic
became America’s largest deployed naval presence commerce. Any significant amount of manpower,
since the Vietnam era. The British, French, strategic supplies, raw materials, or manufactured
Italians, Belgians, and Dutch eventually joined goods must still cross these barriers in 20-knot
their American counterparts in the Persian Gulf. ships.
Working independently, each navy displayed its Although the United States faces both the
own colors, protected its own shipping, and Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Atlantic has been
helped sweep mines from shipping lanes. of primary interest to this nation since its
Even though the protective forces grew, ships independence. Encompassing 32 million square
traveling in the Persian Gulf were under the miles, the Atlantic is the second largest ocean in
constant threat of attack. Danger existed from the world; but its size is not its most important
fighter aircraft of both sides; Iranian Silkworm feature. More vital is the community of nations
antiship missiles; Iran’s Revolutionary Guard that border the Atlantic. Bordering the north are
suicide boats; and, of course, mines. the industrial centers of our Western civilization.
The missile threat proved costly to the United Bordering the south are the resource-rich, emerg-
States when the USS Stark (FFG-31) was ing nations of Africa and Latin America. The
mistakenly identified by an Iraq attack aircraft. Atlantic is the main highway of commerce binding
Two missiles fired from the jet struck the Stark together the old and new nations that conduct
on 17 May 1987, killing 37 sailors and injuring more than two-thirds of the world’s merchant
many more. shipping. This makes the North Atlantic the most
Mines had not been a serious threat to naval heavily traveled stretch of water in the world.
operations for several years, but the Iranians’ use More than 2,000 merchant vessels are steaming
of mines brought a new awareness of their danger. North Atlantic trade routes every day of the year.
On 14 April 1988 USS Samuel B. Roberts In size, however, the Atlantic Ocean is small
(FFG-58) hit a mine in the Persian Gulf and when compared to the Pacific Ocean. Unequaled
suffered severe damage. Since several tankers had in vastness by any other landmass or sea, the
also hit mines, the Navy had already intensified Pacific Ocean covers 67 million square miles. It
its mine-sweeping efforts. covers a third of the surface of the world,
In the process of defending the sea lanes in equaling the combined areas of the Atlantic,
the Persian Gulf, the presence of the United States Indian, and Arctic Oceans. The Pacific Ocean also
was largely a defensive measure. When forced exceeds in area the total of all the landmasses of

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 134.1
Figure 1-2.—U.S. ships blowing up oil platform in the Persian Gulf.

the world. The north-to-south span of the Pacific is For centuries, the Indian Ocean has been an arena
more than 75,000 miles. The Pacific separates Asia for competing sea powers vying for the riches of south
and North America by only 67 miles at the northern Asian and Middle Eastern shores. Twenty-eight
extremes. These two continents veer sharply away million square miles of the Indian Ocean stretches
from each other at the southern extremes with more from Malaysia to Africa, countries that occupy a third
than 10,500 miles of the Pacific Ocean between them. of the world’s population.
By its very size, the Pacific influences the strategic
thinking and planning of every nation bordering it. Most of the populated land areas of the world are
no more than 500 miles from the sea. In the event of
A third ocean bordering the North American armed conflict, virtually no spot on earth is beyond
continent has achieved strategic importance because the range of attack from the sea. This is the most
of the development of nuclear power. Nuclear profound change in the total history of warfare. Sea
submarines can remain submerged under the polar power can be deployed over three-fourths of the
ice pack for long periods of time. Therefore, their earth’s surface unhampered by international
entry into the Arctic Ocean has made this a 5.5- boundaries. The sea is unowned—but it is jointly
million-square-mile potential battleground. The owned by all sovereign nations.
Arctic Ocean is also important because the Soviet
Union’s longest coastline borders it. Since the Arctic Because the sea is so important in the event of
Ocean has become a naval operating area, the whole armed conflict, the U.S. Navy needs to remain strong.
Eurasian continent, including the Soviet Union, has However, a strong Navy is also important in support
become vulnerable to sea power. The southern of our national objectives for the following reasons:
borders of the Eurasian continent have always been
susceptible to pressure from the sea.
• Two of our states (Hawaii and Alaska) are
located overseas.

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 Ž Four U.S. territories (Puerto Rico, the the destruction of hostile aircraft, surface ships,
Virgin Islands, Guam, and the northern Marianas) and submarines that threaten seaborne forces of
lie overseas. the United States and our allies. This mission is
carried out within the framework of the national
Ž We have formal alliances with 42 nations, strategy, in joint coordination with the other
40 of which lie overseas and two (Canada and services, and in combined planning with U.S.
Mexico) that border the United States. allies.
To fully understand the Navy’s mission, you
• Our principal allies (NATO and Japan) are should be familiar with the following terms:
highly dependent on United States support and
imports, the bulk of which must be transported NATIONAL STRATEGY—National
by sea. strategy is that broad course of action
designed to achieve national objectives in
Ž Ninety-nine percent of United States’ support of national interests. The United
overseas trade is transported by sea lanes of States maintains defense forces to preserve
communication (world trade routes). its physical security and protect its political
independence. The ability of the defense
Ž U.S. industrial output depends on con- forces to satisfy this objective depends on
tinued shipments of raw materials and energy- their capacity to deter aggression and to
producing resources from overseas. prevent coercion. It also depends on their
capacity to exercise a degree of influence
Ž Our ability to control the sea is essential to shape world events in a manner con-
in the deterrence of general war and aggression ducive to U.S. interests.
against any nation or area vital to our interest.
NATIONAL OBJECTIVES—National
objectives are specific goals our nation
SEA POWER IN SUPPORT OF seeks to advance, support, or protect
OUR NATIONAL OBJECTIVES identified national interests. These goals
can be categorized as political or economic
One of the greatest concerns of those in the objectives or as objectives of security.
naval service is the Navy’s mission, function, and
role involving sea power in support of the national NATIONAL INTERESTS—National
objective of the United States. The younger sailor interests are generalized conditions, fre-
often asks questions such as Why are we getting quently of a continuing nature, the pursuit
underway? What is the purpose of this deploy- or protection of which is perceived to be
ment? Why are we operating on the other side of advantageous to the nation. They range
the world? from the ultimate interest, national sur-
To understand the answers to these questions, vival, to specific regional interests that
you need a good understanding of the Navy’s determine the importance of a region to the
mission. You also need to understand the security of the United States.
functions and roles the Navy plays in support of
this mission. NAVAL STRATEGY—Naval strategy
is the use of naval forces (including naval
MISSION OF THE NAVY aviation and Marine forces) to achieve
naval objectives that are determined by
The mission of the U.S. Navy is set forth in national strategy. The overall naval-
Title 10 of the U.S. Code. It states that the U.S. strategy objective is to control the sea and
Navy must be prepared to conduct prompt and deny an enemy’s use of the sea in those
sustained combat operations in support of the areas important to our operations.
national interest. This means the Navy must
assure continued maritime superiority for the FUNCTIONS OF THE NAVY
United States. The U.S. Navy must be able to
totally defeat any threats to the continued free use The primary functions of the Navy and the
of the high seas by the United States. The Navy Marine Corps are to organize, train, and equip
assures continued maritime superiority through Navy and Marine Corps forces to conduct prompt

1-12
and sustained combat operations at sea. Opera- Other Navy achievements include pioneering
tions include sea-based aircraft and land-based new developments in communications, naviga-
naval air components. In effect, these forces seek tion, underwater acoustics, oceanography, and a
out and destroy enemy naval forces and suppress host of other scientific fields. One particular
enemy sea commerce. They gain and maintain achievement is the successful pioneering of the
general naval supremacy, control vital sea areas, route from the Pacific to the Atlantic beneath the
and protect vital sea lines of communications. North Polar ice cap.
They also establish and maintain local superiority The Navy has divided its mission into four
in land and air operations and seize and defend functional areas: (1) strategic deterrence, (2) sea
advanced naval bases. control, (3) projection of power ashore, and (4)
The Navy also provides forces for joint naval presence.
amphibious operations. It is responsible for train-
ing all forces assigned to these operations in Strategic Deterrence
amphibious warfare as directed by Joint Chiefs
of Staff. Other specific responsibilities assigned Strategic deterrence has three objectives. The
to the Navy are naval reconnaissance, antisub- first of these is to deter (prevent or discourage)
marine warfare, protection of shipping, mine- an all-out attack on the United States or its allies.
laying, and controlled minefield operations. In The second objective is to cause any possible
conjunction with the other services, the Navy attacker to face an unacceptable risk in the event
provides forces for the defense of the United of an attack. The final objective is to keep the
States against air attack. United States and its allies politically stable and
Because of the complexity of the Navy’s secure enough to withstand the threat of attack
function, a massive modernization of Navy ships, or blackmail.
aircraft, and weapons has been undertaken. How does the Navy accomplish the objectives
Basically, the modernization has taken three of strategic deterrence? First, the Navy maintains
forms: (1) the speedup of research and develop- an ASSURED SECOND-STRIKE CAPABIL-
ment to develop new weapons; (2) laying up of ITY. This means that if an enemy were to launch
old ships to save operating and overhauling costs, an all-out attack, the United States could deliver
thereby directing this money into new construc- massive retaliation (counterattack) even after the
tion; and (3) the “hi-low balanced mix” concept. attack. The Navy’s fleet ballistic missile sub-
This hi-low concept is a balance in the purchase marines (nuclear) (SSBNs) are the backbone of
of a few highly effective ships and aircraft, such this tactic because of their high probability of
as CVNs, SSBNs, and F/A-18 aircraft, with a surviving a nuclear attack. Second, the tactic of
concurrent development of new classes of low-cost CONTROLLED RESPONSE is used. This means
ships, such as guided-missile frigates. that the Navy will respond to a partial attack only
The Navy has entered a new phase of scientific to the degree required. This is hoped to prevent
warfare—one in which nuclear weapons and a general nuclear war. The SSBN fleet is also the
guided missiles are the primary destructive backbone of this tactic.
weapons. Conventional weapons, of course, are
still maintained and being improved. Such Sea Control
weapons enable the Navy, with its Marine
component, to deploy rapidly and to apply the Our nation’s definition of sea control is
force necessary to contain a limited war. denying the use of the sea to our enemy and
The Navy’s achievements in the development assuring the use of the sea to the United States
of scientific projects continue to lead the world. and its allies. In today’s world, sea control can
These achievements range from earth navigation be exercised only over limited areas of the sea.
and communications satellites to the improvement Although sea control is accomplished by four
of nuclear propulsion. The Navy’s Polaris missile, tactics, many weapons and weapons systems can
operational in nuclear-powered submarines at sea, be used with these tactics. The correct tactic and
was the first intermediate-range ballistic missile weapons systems to be used depends on the situa-
(IRBM) to be equipped with the solid-propellant tion. The four tactics used to accomplish sea
motor. The Poseidon and Trident missiles, which control are as follows:
have extended range and multiple warheads, were
developed following the success of the Polaris 1. SORTIE CONTROL is used to keep an
missile. They have since replaced the Polaris. enemy within ports and bases. As the enemy

1-13
attempts to sortie (go on missions), the enemy It usually involves precision attacks on targets just
units are destroyed. Submarines and mines are ahead of the front-line troops.
often used with this tactic. 4. COUNTER AIR/ANTIAIR WARFARE—
2. CHOKEPOINT CONTROL is used to pre- This tactic is designed to keep the enemy from
vent the enemy from going through geographical using aircraft or missiles to attack our forces or
bottlenecks. The enemy must concentrate forces defend the enemy’s forces. It involves attacks on
when at these points and is, therefore, vulnerable enemy aircraft, missile installations, and air fields.
to attack.
3. OPEN AREA OPERATIONS are used Naval Presence
when the tactics above do not work or if the
enemy is already underway at sea or in the air. Naval presence is the use of naval forces for
Search and surveillance systems are used to locate political objectives without war. Generally, it
and track the enemy before attacks. consists of PREVENTIVE DEPLOYMENTS and
4. LOCAL ENGAGEMENT is the final RESPONSIVE DEPLOYMENTS.
tactic. This tactic involves a concentration of Preventive deployments are a show of force
forces in a limited area. These forces may attack during peacetime to indicate the capability of the
and destroy any enemy when it enters the range Navy’s forces. Responsive deployments are an
of their weapons either before or after an attack. indication of the response of the Navy to a crisis
situation.
Historically, the Navy’s radius of action has In either case, the presence of the Navy is a
been limited to the enemy’s coastline, plus the threat of action. This threat does not have to be
range of the ship’s guns. With the development spoken. Hopefully, the mere presence of the Navy
of high-performance aircraft and ballistic missiles, will be enough to cause the problem to disappear.
the Navy’s range of action now spans continents. United States forces can use these deployments
Ships, because of their mobility, are less to reassure allies and deter possible aggression
accessible targets than shore bases. Furthermore, from potential enemies.
as a partial deterrent to the destructive capabilities All of these tactics are designed to accomplish
of nuclear weapons, the dispersal concept has the mission of the Navy—preparedness to con-
been added to fleet doctrine. duct prompt and sustained combat operations at
sea.
Projection of Power Ashore

This functional area involves the impact of THE SOVIET THREAT

naval forces on land forces. Three types of Before a nation can make any strategic plans
actions are used to project power ashore: for the employment of its forces, it must consider
AMPHIBIOUS ASSAULT, NAVAL BOM- who or what its threat or opponent might be. It
BARDMENT, and TACTICAL AIR PROJEC- can then analyze the opponent or threat and make
TION. plans to counter any opposition that arises. For
Although amphibious assault and naval bom- the United States, the Soviet Union and the
bardment are probably familiar to you, tactical Warsaw Pact nations are considered to be a
air projection may not be. Tactical air projection threat.
is divided into four categories:
SOVIET MILITARY THREAT
1. DEEP INTERDICTION—This tactic in-
volves carrier-based air attacks outside the battle The Communist party of the Soviet Union is
area. These attacks are designed to destroy or concerned with the nature of a possible future
cripple the enemy’s military potential. war. The military doctrine of the Soviet Union
2. BATTLEFIELD INTERDICTION—This is to prepare the country and its armed forces for
tactic involves carrier-based air attacks on military conducting such a war. The Soviets view war as
targets of immediate importance. These attacks an extension of politics and therefore emphasize
are used to slow the enemy’s movement of offensive operations. A Soviet victory in either
supplies and reinforcements. a conventional or nuclear war would neutralize
3. CLOSE AIR SUPPORT—This tactic the influence of NATO on world politics. It would
provides direct support to front-line ground also end the political structure of the United States
troops by specially trained Marine Corps air units. as we know it today.

1-14
 Soviet leadership understands that in addition to equipment. For a comparison of U.S. and Soviet
maintaining strong offensive capabilities, an equally military assets, see figure 1-3.
strong defensive posture is needed. The Soviet Union
maintains a massive arsenal of military weaponry SOVIET POLITICAL THREAT
and a sizable number of military personnel to use
these weapons. The Soviet preparedness is a threat The Soviet political threat lies in the nation’s
that should not be taken lightly. As part of the free political policy of spreading communism to Third
world, we should learn the capabilities of the Soviets World countries. While the Soviets maintain a strong
and stay abreast of the changes in their systems and influence over Warsaw-Pact nations, they exert even
more influence on Third World

PLATFORM UNITED STATES RUSSIA

ICBMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000 1,386

SLBMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 978

STRATEGIC BOMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 888

STRATEGIC DEFENSE INTERCEPTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 2,250

TACTICAL AIRCRAFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,976 5,170

AIRCRAFT CARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 4

PRINCIPAL SURFACE COMBATANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 276

OTHER COMBATANT SHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 408

AUXILIARIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 311

SUBMARINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 308

Figure 1-3.—Comparison of United States and Soviet military assets. Figures are approximate, based
on information available at the time of writing.

1-15
countries. While seeking the promised benefits of Nevertheless, the Communists still prohibit
communism, these countries often fail to realize public debate on certain topics, such as the
the future price they will pay for accepting the primary influence of the party in national life, the
Communist regime. The Soviet Union has spread KGB, and some human rights issues.
its influence all over the world, establishing Whether glasnost will alter the Soviet political
puppet states in such places as North Korea, Viet- threat remains to be seen; however, these changes
nam, Cuba, Nicaragua, and Peru. do bring hope.
In December of 1979 the Soviets invaded
Afghanistan in an unsuccessful attempt to dictate THE SOVIET NAVY
to a sovereign nation through the introduction of
Soviet troops. On 15 February 1989 the last Soviet
troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan. The Today’s Soviet navy is larger, better equipped,
Soviet Union seriously miscalculated the ability and more balanced in structure than ever before.
and determination of Afghan Resistance Forces to It is also far more capable of meeting the
defend their country against communism. requirements of conventional or nuclear war at
In March of 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev assumed almost any level (fig. 1-4). Future Soviet naval
the post of General Secretary of the Communist policy and programs will be directed toward
party. Under his leadership a new policy of broadening the range of military and political
glasnost has been adopted. Although glasnost is options available. These options will span the
interpreted by some in the West to mean open- entire spectrum of conflict, from peacetime
ness, its meaning to the Soviets is publicity or competition to nuclear war.
officially managed perceptions. Under this policy, The Soviets began the 1980s with the introduc-
the Communist party still maintains control over tion of three new classes of surface warships, two
the media. However, the regime selectively allows new classes of attack submarines, and a new class
more complete reporting of “negative” domestic of helicopters. The Kirov entered the Soviet fleet
news and foreign policy issues previously sup- as its first nuclear-powered surface combatant.
pressed by Soviet censors. The regime has also Also entering the fleet was the ASUW-oriented
significantly loosened the restrictions on cultural Sovremennyy-class guided-missile destroyer
expression, tolerating a much wider range of (DDG) and the ASW-oriented Udaloy-class DDG.
themes in literature, film, theater, and art. The Among them, these three classes introduced six
Soviet leadership has continued to crack down on new weapons systems: The Kirov’s SS-N-19
alcohol, drug abuse, and other manifestations of antiship cruise missile (ASCM) and SA-N-6
what Gorbachev calls “social corrosion.” surface-to-air missile (SAM); the Sovremennyy’s
medium-range SS-N-22 ASCM and SA-N-7 SAM

134.3
Figure 1-4.—Soviet warships.

1-16
and new 130-mm dual-purpose, twin-gun mount; coastal defense mission. These vessels
and the Udaloy’s SA-NX-9 SAM. demonstrate marked improvements in submarine
Presently, the Soviet navy includes about 185 quieting. This feature reduces their noise level
surface combatant ships and craft carrying under certain operating conditions, while
surface-to-surface missiles. In addition, nearly 70 improving their effectiveness against opposing
of the navy’s submarines carry subsurface-to- submarines.
surface missiles. The Kirov and Slava cruisers Improvements of existing ASW aircraft evolved
(introduced in 1982) and the Sovremennyy DDG’s into the production of the Helix A and the Helix B
have greatly increased cruise-missile firepower. ship-based helicopter and the long-range Bear F
They carry antiship missiles with performance Mod 4. Similar improvements in ships designed
characteristics that make offensive tactics increas- primarily for ASW have also been observed. Even
ingly difficult. the largest modern Soviet combatants, including
Also entering the fleet during 1980 were two the Kiev-class carriers and the Kirov-class Cans,
general-purpose submarines classes, the Oscar I carry sensor and weapons suites (a group of
(fig. 1-5) and the Kilo. Those in the Oscar I class systems). These suites include powerful low
are nuclear-powered, cruise-missile attack sub- frequency sonorous; ASW rockets, missiles, and
marines (SSGN). They have slightly over three torpedoes; and ASW helicopters.
times the displacement of their functional The Soviets have expended considerable
predecessors, the Charlie II-class SSGNs, and can resources in recent years on developing ASW
carry 24 ASCMs. In wartime, the Oscar I-class platforms and systems, particularly nuclear-
submerged-launch SS-N-19 ASCMs will be powered attack submarines. However, they have
targeted primarily against NATO carrier battle not yet resolved the problem of locating Western
groups. In contrast, the Kilo-class diesel-electric submarines in the open ocean.
attack submarines (SS) are relatively small (about All things considered, the Soviets are a
3,000 metric tons). These submarines rely on formidable naval power. They can be expected to
antisurface or ASW torpedoes and were designed increase their emphasis on making general-
for operations primarily in sea areas near the purpose naval forces more capable. They can also
Soviet Union. be expected to continue challenging the West’s
The Oscar I and Kilo classes of attack sub- traditional dominance of the open oceans.
marines are noteworthy in that they typify recent
Soviet naval construction trends. Specifically, the SOVIET NAVY PERSONNEL
Soviets have continued building naval platforms
capable of operating in the open ocean. They have Soviet navy personnel occupy a respected
built these vessels without sacrificing those position within the Soviet society. Military service
designed to perform the Soviet navy’s traditional in the Soviet Union is regarded as a special form
of service to the state. It is rewarded by

134.4
Figure 1-5.-Soviet OSCAR-I submarine.

1-17
continuous praise and commendation from Soviet Soviet technical training lasts from 4 to 6
public leaders and the press. Even more tantalizing months. Specialists graduate with an apparent
to the average Soviet citizen, for whom foreign understanding of the theoretical complexities of
travel is basically impossible, is the opportunity their own specialty but with little practical train-
navy personnel have to see the world. ing. Consequently, enlisted personnel receive the
more significant and practical training after they
Enlisted men are either 2-year or 3-year arrive on board ship.
draftees; the latter term of service is required if
the draftee is assigned sea duty. The Soviet Union Once aboard, these personnel are assigned to
does not draft women for military service. They the more senior sailors who, along with the
are used in clerical and support positions. Soviet officers and warrant officers in their department,
women are not considered to be an integral part train them as replacements. The new specialists
of the armed services as are the service women then begin their study for a class specialist rating
of the United States. of Master 1, 2, or 3. If a sailor passes the Master
3 specialist test, fulfills certain requirements of
Of approximately 443,000 uniformed person- the Party Youth Organization (Komsomof), and
nel of the Soviet navy, about 169,000 serve afloat has no disciplinary violations, he will be rated
and 70,000 are attached to naval aviation units. “outstanding” by the ship’s captain. The number
In addition to the 18,000-man naval infantry and class of specialists and the number rated
force, another 14,000 are assigned to coastal outstanding are used as a measure in evaluating
defense activities. About 46,000 are engaged in a ship’s performance. Over 90 percent of all
various stages of training, and 126,000 are used seamen are rated Master 3 specialists by the end
to provide shore support. Additionally, a large of their first tour of duty.
number of civilians, perhaps as many as 30,000,
form the crews of the majority of Soviet naval The ability of the Soviet specialist is limited
auxiliary ships. by inadequate school instruction and testing and
the lack of facilities for intensive shipboard on-
the-job training. Because of these shortcomings,
the specialist is only able to perform routine
Enlisted Personnel
maintenance and general operation of a limited
range of equipment. The Soviets have alleviated
The enlisted man of the Soviet navy is a some of these shortcomings by assembling most
draftee with limited training and little career shipboard equipment using standard components
inclination. Draftees are drawn from all the 16 and modules.
republics within the USSR. Often those from
Asian republics speak little Russian. Since draftees
are inducted into the services twice a year, this
Officer Personnel
means that every 6 months about 15 percent
of the naval enlisted strength is replaced by
recruits. The Soviet navy faces a chronic shortage
of senior enlisted personnel. The reenlistment
The new inductees undergo a 9-week basic rate averages under 10 percent, in part be-
training program, after which they are either cause of the national requirement that all
sent to a specialist school or directly to a males must serve on active duty in the Soviet
duty assignment. A small number of recruits armed forces. In an effort to overcome this
that have previously completed a military shortage and to upgrade the status of a career
specialist preparation course are sent directly serviceman, the Soviet navy introduced the
to sea duty from basic training. Those judged rank of warrant officer (michman) in 1971.
physically or intellectually substandard are At completion of compulsory service, the Soviet
assigned to shore duty (as librarians, clerks, sailor, if considered capable, is offered additional
and so on). Approximately 75 percent of the specialist and military training in a 2-year
personnel entering the navy undergo specialist warrant officer school. In return he must reenlist
training, after which they receive their first ship- for a 5-year period, which includes the time spent
board assignment. in schooling.

1-18
 The warrant officer serves as the principal able to do virtually everything their subordinates
interface between officer and enlisted personnel. can do. In addition the navy expects its officers
In this capacity the warrant officer has more to instruct subordinates in their duties and to
responsibilities than a senior petty officer. As a take care of their “ideological well being.”
result of more extensive training and experience, Because of the general low level of technical com-
the warrant officer can relieve the officers of some petence of enlisted personnel, the Soviet
of the more technical duties the enlisted officer tends “to do everything,” even the most
person is not qualified to perform. Benefits in- routine maintenance. Loyal party members give
crease considerably because pay, privileges, and junior officers quite a heavy work load.
leave offered to the warrant officer approach Complaints are frequent; yet, in spite of the
those of an officer. In addition, the warrant complaints, the typical Soviet officer appears to
officer has the opportunity to achieve promotion fulfill these duties adequately.
to an officer rank after a number of years in
service. Several major deficiencies may be clearly
discerned about the education and experience of
The regular sea-going Soviet naval officer is Soviet naval officers. They spend the first part
a career volunteer who has been carefully selected of their career as a specialist in a very narrow field,
and is well trained and highly specialized. More restricted to one department in one class of ship.
often than not, the Soviet naval officer is a relative As a result, junior officers lack the needed broad
of a party official or another naval officer. experience and versatility to function outside
their specific field. Often only upon selection
A majority of regular naval officers are now as executive officer do they begin to develop
drawn from specialized naval schools. A small the broader experience necessary for more
number begin as reservists after graduation senior posts. The Soviet navy places strong
from civilian universities, and a few others are emphasis on collective thinking and party-
promoted from the warrant officer ranks. A youth enforced discipline. Because of this emphasis,
normally starts a naval career after a vigorous Soviet junior officers often lack personal
selection program as a cadet at one of 11 higher initiative, independent ideas, and the willingness
naval schools. The course of study is intense and to take responsibility—leadership characteristics
lasts 5 years, with the graduates receiving a that are necessary for command. However, by
national engineering diploma and the rank of virtue of their varied positions, education,
lieutenant. and training from midcareer onward, officers
finally selected for flag rank are both educated
Some Soviet officers begin their naval careers and experienced.
at about the age of 15 upon entering the
Nakhimov naval school system. They then go into The base pay for Soviet officers initially
a higher naval educational institution upon appears nominal. Taken in combination with the
graduation from the Nakhimov school. Upon total allowances and benefits that a Soviet military
graduation, regular officers are assigned to a ship officer accrues, the real income is substantial. For
for duty in the department that corresponds to example, naval officers are given significant
their specialties (navigation, engineering, ASW, additional pay for service in northern areas, for
and so on). New officers usually spend the first service in submarines and aircraft, for sea duty,
3 to 6 years of their career in the same depart- and for command. The prestigious and privileged
ment aboard the same ship, or at least in the same class of Soviet military officers receive extensive
class of ship. During this period new officers earn benefits, according to rank, well beyond those of
a classification as a specialist in a technical the average citizen.
pursuit. They must pass examinations to perform
in various capacities as they progress through
positions equivalent to assistant division officers,
assistant department heads, and department
INTERNATIONAL TIES
heads.

Soviet naval officers are managers as well as The United States and the Soviet Union are
technical specialists. The navy expects them to be without doubt the major sea powers of the world

1-19
today. Even so, direct conflict between these two against one or more of them in Europe or North
nations may not be necessary to start world America shall be considered an attack against
conflict. Either nation’s involvement in a major them all, and . . . each of them . . . will assist the
conflict may depend on its international ties with other by taking, in concert with the other parties,
other less powerful nations. such action as it deems necessary including the
use of armed forces.”
The United States has over a period of many
years established pacts and treaties with several A corresponding agreement similar to NATO
nations. During and after World War II, the called the ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand,
United States became part of an elaborate alliance and United States) Treaty was established
system, committed to the defense of half the land in 1952.
areas of the world (fig. 1-6).
The earlier Rio Treaty (1947) had already com-
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization mitted the United States and the 20 independent
(NATO), established in 1949, is the best known Latin American nations to mutual defense. In
of several treaties drawn up in the interest of addition, America made bilateral treaties with the
mutual security. The terms of the treaty specify Philippines, Nationalist China, South Korea, and
that “the parties agree that an armed attack Japan. By 1960 the United States was committed

Figure 1-6.-Treaties and pacts of which the United States is a member.

1-20
to the defense of some 45 sovereign nations The wartime mission of the Navy has two
besides its own territories. Even this total does not basic functions: first, the Navy must be able to
completely reflect the magnitude of the total perform in a hostile environment; and second, it
defense problem for the United States armed must exercise sea control and power projection.
forces.
The Soviet navy’s policy is based on a Soviet
Although NATO is still our number one drive to extend its national influence through the
alliance, our national strategy no longer focuses use of maritime activities. To support the Soviet
on the central front of Europe to the exclusion objectives, the USSR has significantly improved
of other areas. Our strategy now recognizes with its warship, aircraft, and weapons capabilities.
greater clarity the importance of the Norwegian The Soviets have made their presence felt through
northern flank. Likewise, it appreciates the show-the-flag operations that include large in-
importance of the Greek and Turkish southern creases in at-sea and distant deployment opera-
flanks. It recognizes the importance of the Indian tions. They have committed themselves to
Ocean to our interests and the interests of developing and maintaining a navy “second to
our friends and allies around the globe. none.”
Finally, our new national strategy has begun to
appreciate how critical the Far East is to our well- This chapter has presented an interesting
being. parallel between the life of Soviet sailors as
compared to that of the American sailors. It has
Equally worthy of our concern is the
also presented some of the differences of the
long-term security of seaborne trade in the
military efforts and forces of the United States
western Pacific. United States trade with Asian
and the USSR.
countries approximates its trade with Western
Europe and is expected to continue to expand. The
The Soviets have achieved significant advan-
Asia-Pacific region has become an important
tages in strategic, nuclear, and conventional
strategic center, equaling that of Western
capabilities. This achievement is a result of two
Europe.
decades of steadily increasing Soviet military
The United States and its allies, not the expenditures, coupled with a long period of
Soviets, are the nations who must exercise sea Western restraint. These advantages have led
control in any conflict. We must also control the directly to increased risks to free-world security.
North Atlantic and beyond the Greenland- Strong U.S. leadership and the sustained support
Iceland-United Kingdom Gap into the Norwegian of U.S. defense programs and coalition measures
Sea. The Soviets must never rest comforted in the are essential for the United States to meet the
belief that their northern bases and forces are challenges ahead.
invulnerable to attack from the sea. They are
vulnerable, and we must keep them so. International ties between the United States
and its allies have resulted in the United States
being committed to the defense of many sovereign
nations throughout the world. The purpose of
SUMMARY these elaborate alliance systems is to pre-
vent armed aggression against allied nations.
The two major navies in the world today are An armed attack against one or more of these
those of the United States and the USSR. The allied nations shall be considered an attack against
mission of our Navy is to be prepared to conduct them all.
prompt, sustained combat operations at sea in
support of the national interests of the United
States.
REFERENCES
The peacetime mission of the U.S. Navy is to
deter the outbreak of armed conflict in which our Basic Military Requirements, NAVEDTRA 12043,
nation could become involved. The Navy deters Naval Education and Training Program
such conflict through strategic nuclear deterrence Management Support Activity, Pensacola,
and naval presence. Fla., 1992.

1-21
Military Requirements for Chief Petty Officer, SUGGESTED READING
NAVEDTRA 12047, Naval Education and Training
Program Management Support Activity, Pensacola, Mack, W.P., and T.D. Paulsen, The Naval Officer’s
Fla., 1992. Guide, 9th ed., Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Md.,
1983.
Navy Fact File, 8th ed., Office of Information,
Washington, D.C., 1988. Miller, N., The U.S. Navy: An Illustrated History,
Bonanza Books, New York, N.Y., 1977.
U.S. Department of Defense, Soviet Military Power:
An Assessment of the Threat 1988, Washington, D.C., Polmar, N., Guide to the Soviet Navy, Fourth Edition,
1988. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Md., 1986.

SHOW A LEG

MANY OF OUR NAVY’S COLORFUL EXPRESSIONS ORIGINATED AS PRACTICAL MEANS OF

COMMUNICATING VITAL INFORMATION. ONE SUCH EXPRESSION IS “SHOW A LEG.”

IN THE BRITISH NAVY OF KING GEORGE III AND EARLIER, MANY SAILORS’ WIVES ACCOMPANIED
THEM ON LONG VOYAGES. THIS PRACTICE CAUSED A MULTITUDE OF PROBLEMS BUT SOME
INGENIOUS BOSUN SOLVED ONE THAT TENDED TO MAKE REVEILLE A HAZARDOUS EVENT:
THAT OF DISTINGUISHING WHICH BUNKS HELD MALES AND WHICH HELD FEMALES.

TO AVOID DRAGGING THE WRONG “MATES” OUT OF THE RACK, THE BOSUN ASKED ALL TO “SHOW
A LEG.” IF THE LEG SHOWN WAS ADORNED WITH SILK, THE OWNER WAS ALLOWED TO CONTINUE
SLEEPING. IF THE LEG WAS HAIRY AND TATTOOED, THE OWNER WAS FORCED TO “TURN TO.”

IN TODAY’S NAVY, SHOWING A LEG IS A SIGNAL TO THE REVEILLE PETTY OFFICER THAT YOU
HAVE HEARD HIS CALL AND ARE AWAKE.

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 CHAPTER 2

MAKERS OF NAVAL TRADITION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe the importance of the Navy’s first 6. Describe the use of convoys in combating
submarine. German submarines.

2. Describe the events leading to the quasi-war 7. Identify the makers of naval tradition in
with France. World War II.

8. Identify the makers of naval tradition in the

3. Identify the effect of the Union blockade in Korean conflict.
the Civil War.
9. Identify the makers of naval tradition during
4. Recognize the importance of ironclad ships in the Vietnam conflict.
the development of the naval warship.
10. Describe the operations of the Persian Gulf.
5. Recognize the events of the Spanish-American
War. - 11. Trace the role of women in the Navy.

MAKERS OF NAVAL TRADITION AMERICAN REVOLUTION

A visitor to the Naval Academy at Annapolis SIGNIFICANT DATES

is impressed by the innumerable reminders of our
naval heritage. Here is found the memorial to 13 Oct. 1775 American navy is formed.
John Paul Jones, which keeps alive his memory
so that those who follow may go on with lasting 5 Nov. 1779 John Paul Jones takes command
inspiration. In Bancroft Hall hangs Oliver Hazard of B o n h o m m e R i c h a r d i n
Perry’s flag of blue, bearing in rough, white France.
muslin letters James Lawrence’s famous slogan,
“Don’t give up the ship.” On all sides appear 4 Feb. 1779 Congress appoints Esek Hopkins
monuments and buildings commemorating the as commander-in-chief of the
names and deeds of great American naval heroes. fleet.
The wide brick walk, called Decatur Walk, leads
to the Tripoli Monument. The gymnasium is 18 Jul. 1792 The “Father of the American
known as MacDonough Hall, and the massive navy,” John Paul Jones, dies in
armory is named Dahlgren Hall. Other buildings Paris, France.
bear names such as Lute Hall, Mahan Hall,
Maury Hall, and Sampson Hall. All those for The revolutionary war was the only period in
whom these monuments and buildings were our history in which the United States lacked
named were makers of naval tradition. imported strategic materials. However, the

2-1
resourcefulness of the small American navy and small navy was officially authorized, it was
other Yankee mariners enabled General handicapped from the beginning. Converted
Washington to makeup for this lack. The Royal merchantmen made up two-thirds of the ships of
Navy’s low state of efficiency at that time this makeshift force. The crews were drawn from
contributed to the Americans’ ability to merchant vessels, fishing craft, and even from the
compensate. army. The country also had state navies, but they
France, sympathetic with the rebellious were made up of small vessels designed for river
colonies, entered the war on our side in 1778. and harbor defense. Swarms of American
Spain and Holland soon followed. The powerful privateers (privately owned craft outfitted for war)
French forces attacked British possessions in every also engaged in the fight against the British.
part of the world. As a result, Britain’s internal The multiple forces involved made coordinating
struggle against its colonies transformed into a fleet and squadron maneuvers difficult. The
world war that involved all the great maritime men leading these forces helped to overcome
powers. The West Indies became the chief theater great obstacles. Some of these men and their
of naval activity, where British interests clashed accomplishments are described in the following
with those of its enemies—France, Spain, and paragraphs.
Holland.
The Continental navy that fought America’s DAVID BUSHNELL
war for independence was small and weak
compared with the hundreds of ships of the Royal For almost 4 years, a young American named
Navy. Since fighting had already begun before the David Bushnell worked on the design of a

Figure 2-1.-The first submarine.

2-2
subsurface craft before finally completing it in 1775. volunteer from the Connecticut militia, maneuvered
Bushnell, a Yale medical student, hoped the craft the Turtle by using hand-operated screw propellers.
would help drive the British away from American The plan was for Sergeant Lee to use screws to attach
shores for good. a time-fuse charge of gunpowder to a ship’s hull. The
Bushnell described this first warfare submarine mission was aborted when the auger could not
(fig. 2-l), named the Turtle, as having “some penetrate the copper sheathing on the hull of Admiral
resemblance to two upper tortoise shells of equal size, Howe’s flagship, the HMS Eagle.
joined together. . . . ” It was 7.5 feet deep and, under Bushnell made a couple of more attempts to use
ideal conditions, had a maximum speed of 3 knots. A the Turtle against the British in the Delaware River.
single operator could stay submerged in the craft for These times he tried attaching mines to the Turtle
30 minutes. and floating them against the enemy ships. These
The Turtle was armed with an oak casing filled attempts failed, and the British finally sunk the
with 150 pounds of explosives. This charge could be submarine in New York harbor (the first recorded
attached to the bottom of an enemy ship where it instance of an antisubmarine attack).
would remain until detonated by a simple clockwork
mechanism. JOHN PAUL JONES
After completing the submarine, Bushnell took it
for several dives to prove its seaworthiness. Finally, Emerging from the revolutionary war was one of
on 6 September 1776, he was ready to use it against the Navy’s greatest heroes and tradition makers,
the British in New York harbor. Sergeant Ezra Lee, a John Paul Jones (fig. 2-2). Jones

134.4
Figure 2-2.-John Paul Jones, father of our highest naval traditions, represents the seaman,
leader, officer, and gentleman at their best.

2-3
portrayed many of the traits a nation commonly yet begun to fight.” These fighting words inspired
attributes to a great leader. his men with the determination to win.

This sailor of fortune was born in Scotland After fighting for nearly 4 hours, the British
in 1747. As a youth he served several years surrendered; since no one else dared venture on
as a midshipman in the Royal Navy and studied deck, Captain Pearson himself hauled down the
both seamanship and English by the forecastle colors on his battered ship. The spirit of the
lamp. His concept of what an American naval offensive and the will to gain victory were never
officer should be is evident in his statement, better demonstrated than by John Paul Jones. His
“None other than a gentleman as well as a immortal words “I have not yet begun to fight”
seaman both in theory and practice is qualified inspire Americans today as they did over 200 years
to support the character of a commissioned officer ago.
in the Navy nor is any man fit to command a ship
of war who is not also capable of communicating Jones’ victories were not accidents. In
his ideas on paper, in language that becomes moments of stress, he mingled with his crew,
his rank.” His attitude on peace and war cheering them on. A shipmate once said of Jones,
appears frequently in his writings: “In time “He was in everybody’s watch and everybody’s
of peace it is necessary to prepare, and be mess [deck] all the time. In fact, I may say that
always prepared, for war at sea.” He added, any ship John Paul Jones commanded was full
however, “I have always regarded war as of himself all of the time.”
the scourge of the human race.”
After losing the Serapis, Captain Pearson
Of Jones’ many contributions to the Navy’s at his court-martial made an amazing and
great traditions, none stands out more than illuminating statement about Jones:
his refusal to acknowledge defeat. After the
classic action between Jones’ ship, the Bonhomme Although more than half the crew were
Richard, and the British frigate, Serapis, Jones French—at any rate not Americans–
reported he faced an enemy of greatly superior long before the close of the action it
force. Bonhomme Richard was an old, converted became apparent that the American ship
merchant hull mounting about 40 guns, of was dominated by a commanding will
which only 6 were 18 pounders. James Fenimore of the most unalterable resolution, and
Cooper, in his History of the Navy of the there could be no doubt that the intention
United States of America, compared the ship’s of her commander was, if he could
gun capacity to that of a 32-gun frigate. The not conquer, to sink alongside. And
Serapis, rated as a 44-gun frigate, mounted 50 this desperate resolve was fully shared
guns and was new and superior in maneuverability and fiercely seconded by every one of
to the Bonhomme Richard. his ship’s company. And if the Honorable
Court may be pleased to enter an ex-
When the first broadside was fired, two pression of opinion, I will venture to
of Jones’ 18 pounders burst, causing the crew say that if French seamen can ever be
to abandon the rest of these guns. The battle induced by their own officers to fight in
then became a contest between a battery of their own ships as Captain Jones induced
12 pounders and a battery of 18 pounders. them to fight in his American one, the
Several more broadsides, delivered at close future burdens of His Majesty’s Navy
range, soon reduced B o n h o m m e R i c h a r d will be heavier than they have heretofore
to a critical state. The ship’s hold was flooded been.
with 3 feet of water, the heavy guns were out
of commission, and half the crew had been Lord Sandwich, first Lord of the British
killed or wounded. In addition, the rudder Admiralty, wrote to one of his commanders,
and rigging had been shot away and fires “For God’s sake get to sea immediately. If
were fast approaching the magazine. At that point you take Paul Jones, you will be as high in
Captain Richard Pearson of the Serapis called to the estimation of the public as if you had beat
Jones, asking whether he had struck his colors. the combined fleets.” Such was the British evalua-
Though barely able to keep afloat, Jones tion of the American navy’s greatest combat
thundered back his famous answer, “I have not leader.

2-4
 WAR WITH FRANCE JOSHUA HUMPHREYS

SIGNIFICANT DATES President Washington appointed Joshua

Humphreys, a Philadelphia Quaker, to design the
14 Jul. 1813 LT John M. Gamble, USMC, first six frigates of the new U.S. Navy. He thus
becomes first Marine officer to became our first naval constructor. A technical
command a ship in battle. genius, Humphreys was also a farseeing student of
naval history who exerted a tremendous influence
10 Sep. 1813 Oliver Hazard Perry, in Battle of upon the U.S. Navy. He believed our “vessels
Lake Erie, defeats a British naval should combine such qualities of strength,
squadron for the first time in durability, and swiftness of sailing, and force as to
history. render them superior to any frigate belonging to
the European Powers.” Departing from
8 Jan. 1815 United States wins Battle of New conventional standards, he designed the best
Orleans. frigates that sailed the seas—frigates that could
run or fight at will and fight on their own terms.
22 Mar. 1820 Commodores Stephen Decatur His chief innovations provided for heavier
and James Barron duel near batteries; thicker timber; finer lines; and longer,
Washington, D.C., resulting in stouter spars than those of frigates of other
Decatur’s death. Dueling in the powers. Several years later the Royal Navy paid a
Navy is outlawed following that compliment to Humphreys’ skill by constructing
incident. frigates according to his designs. Humphreys drew
up plans for the six famous frigates, the United
16 Dec. 1835 Greatest fire in history of New States, Constitution (fig. 2-3),
York City occurs; firemen are
aided by the Navy and Marines.

14 Feb. 1840 Several officers and mascot dog

from USS Vincennes relax on
floating ice after arriving in
Antarctic regions; they are first
Americans to enter that region.

After the revolutionary war, the fortunes of the

navy declined, and by 1785 its last ship had been
sold. Little remained except fighting traditions.
When the U.S. Constitution went into effect in
1789, the War Department was charged with
directing both the army and the navy. At that time
these forces consisted of only a few hundred
soldiers and no ships or marines.
This absence of naval strength soon proved
disastrous because Barbary pirates began cap-
turing our merchant ships and imprisoning their
crews. In 1794 public sentiment moved Congress
to authorize the building of six frigates to protect
our interests. Thus, the United States Navy was
permanently established under the Constitution.
The makers of naval tradition during this
period were responsible for some vast improve-
ments in our conventional Navy. These improve- 134.5
ments, which helped to make the Navy more Figure 2-3.-The new and radical USS
powerful, included more advanced ship designs Constitution, built for speed and firepower,
and better leadership. helped to rid the Mediterranean of the
Barbary pirates.

2-5
Constellation, President, Chesapeake, and Captain Truxtun (fig. 2-4), an expert seaman
Congress. Two of these ships, the Constitution and a strict disciplinarian, devised this simple
and the Constellation, are still afloat! In building philosophy for attaining victory over an enemy.
them, Humphreys broke sharply with current The fame of this outstanding officer is derived
naval ideas. He displayed virtues of great value principally from his defeat of the French ships
to any nation—a friendliness to innovation and Insurgence and Vengeance. However, he is best
a willingness to experiment. remembered for his basic philosophy about the
relationship between officers and their men, as
shown by the example he set.
OPENING HOSTILITIES
Enlisted men, looked upon during this time
as fighting mechanisms rather than as human
Enemies other than the Barbary pirates soon
beings, were often punished savagely and without
harassed the defenseless United States. Both
justice. Captain Truxtun began to change that
France and England, then engaged in a war, began
image. He insisted his officers treat their men
to plunder American merchantmen. While a treaty
courteously but firmly and that the men respect
with Great Britain relieved the conflict with that
and obey their officers. Concerned officers and
country, our relations grew worse with France,
respectful enlisted personnel in today’s Navy still
who charged us with treaty violations. The capture
follow Captain Truxtun’s example.
of men and ships continued as French privateers
In language that could not be misunderstood,
began operating near American harbors.
Captain Truxtun wrote the following to his
The actions of the French privateers aroused
officers:
Congress to take immediate and vigorous action.
In 1798 Congress established the Navy Depart-
It is not to be expected that the
ment and appointed Benjamin Stoddert of
Lieutenants of Ships are to remain idle and
Georgetown, Maryland, as the first Secretary of
indifferent spectators of what is going on,
the Navy. Again, as had happened during the
but on the contrary it is absolutely
revolutionary war, a fleet had to be created with
necessary that they overlook the duty of
war already in progress. Our small Navy,
every department on board.
therefore, was immediately expanded as numerous
naval officers were appointed for active duty.
An officer in carrying on his duty
Recruiting officers in the main ports along the
should be civil and polite to everyone, for
Atlantic coast began a drive to enlist seamen.
civility does not interfere with discipline.
Although no official war was declared,
Congress authorized the Navy to retaliate. The
An officer is never to lose sight of the
Navy was ordered to seize any armed French
humanity and care that is due to those who
vessels within the jurisdictional limits of the
may really be sick or otherwise stand in
United States or on the high seas. The quasi-war
need of his assistance.
with France had begun.
This naval war, waged mainly in the
Truxtun’s attitude toward his men resulted
Caribbean, was so costly to France that the French
from his experience during the revolutionary war
Directory was ready to sue for peace by 1801.
as a successful privateer captain working closely
Thomas Truxtun, another naval leader who
with the Navy. He could not help noticing and
endowed the Navy with great traditions, was
regretting that many naval officers, slack and
largely responsible for this American victory.
indolent, cared too little about a taut ship. As a
captain of the Constellation during the war with
THOMAS TRUXTUN France in 1799, he found an opportunity to
instill his own miliary spirit in his crews.
A dramatic act of bravery during Captain
Care for your men; see that each Truxtun’s command of the Constellation showed
understands his duties; exact instant the respect and loyalty he had earned from his
obedience; superintend everything; practice men. The battle against the Vengeance began at
daily with the guns. 2000 and lasted until 0100. During that battle, a
teenaged midshipman lived up to what the Navy
—Thomas Truxtun calls “the highest traditions of the naval service.”
When a sailor told Midshipman James Jarvis that

2-6
 commerce, the Bashaw of Tripoli declared war on
the United States in 1801.

In answer to this challenge, Commodore

Edward Preble, in his flagship, the Constitution,
was sent to the Mediterranean in command of a
squadron. One of the men under his command was
a young lieutenant named Stephen Decatur who,
inspired by Preble, helped to establish a different
type of naval tradition.

STEPHEN DECATUR

During the United States’ war with the pirates

in the Mediterranean, a dramatic incident in-
fluenced the molding of our Navy traditions. The
frigate Philadelphia had fallen into the hands of
Tripolitans and become an important addition to
their harbor defenses. A young lieutenant named
Stephen Decatur, who was under the command of
Commodore Preble, volunteered to destroy this
captive frigate. The Philadelphia had been built in
Decatur’s home city and was originally
commanded by his father.
134.6
Decatur, with 74 comrades, including Charles
Figure 2-4.-“Take care of your men.” Captain
Morris, James Lawrence, and Thomas Mac-
Truxtun insisted on justice and Donough, sneaked into the harbor at night in a
consideration for enlisted men. small ketch. They were guided by Salvadore
Catalano, a Sicilian pilot who knew the harbor of
the mainmast was tottering and that he should Tripoli and could speak Arabic. Within minutes
come down before he was killed, Jarvis replied, “If they captured the ship, the foe having been cut
the mast goes, we go with it. Our post is here.” down or driven into the sea. Combustibles were
passed aboard, and soon the ship was burning
The next roll of the ship sent the mast crashing fiercely. Several minutes later the boarders, with
and splintering over the side, throwing Jarvis far only one man wounded, were back in their ketch.
out into the black water to his death. In tribute to Under fire from shore batteries, they left the
this boy’s courage and discipline, Congress passed illuminated harbor. Three of today’s modern
the following resolution: “The conduct of James warships honor these makers of naval tradition by
Jarvis, a midshipman of the Constellation, who carrying the names USS Morris, Lawrence, and
gloriously preferred certain death to the MacDonough.
abandoning of his post, deserves the highest
praise; and the loss of so promising an officer is a Perhaps no act in the first half of the 19th
subject of national regret.” century thrilled Americans more than the destruc-
tion of the Philadelphia. That spectacular feat
Good leadership produces good followership. made Decatur the most striking figure of the time
The leadership Truxtun displayed through con- and prompted Lord Nelson to call it “the most
cern for his men in turn produced good follower- daring act of the age.” Spectacular exploits were
ship in those under his command. commonplace in Decatur’s career, but they were
not the feats of a reckless warrior. He was a
WAR WITH TRIPOLI thoughtful strategist and an expert tactician. He
was, as well, an adept diplomat and a skilled
The terms of a treaty with Tripoli required the administrator. Like Paul Jones (who could turn an
United States to pay small tributes to that excellent phrase) and Truxtun (who wrote a book
country. Dissatisfied with the amount of tribute on navigation), Decatur was not one-sided.
paid and lured by the unprotected American Versatility, too, is a Navy tradition.

2-7
PREBLE AND “HIS BOYS”
24-hour-a-day efficiency, which have continued to be
Commodore Edward Preble (fig. 2-5) fought as a standards of the U.S. Navy. Preble’s exemplary
lieutenant in the American Revolution and later in leadership was proven in the War of 1812, when his
the war with France. He believed in Truxtun’s ideas “boys” scored 17 of the 18 victories won by the
and expanded them. Having served during the American navy in combat.
Revolution, he also realized the need for justly
administered discipline. Like Truxtun, he was keenly WAR OF 1812
interested in his blue-jackets; their care and fair
treatment absorbed his attention. Preble also shared SIGNIFICANT DATES
responsibility with his officers and encouraged them
to offer new ideas. He was generous in giving his 9 Mar. 1798 George Balfour appointed first
subordinates credit for their achievements in the surgeon in U.S. Navy.
squadron and in urging promotions and honors for
those who had earned them. The mutual regard 18 Mar. 1798 Benjamin Stoddert is appointed
between the commodore and his young officers (all first Secretary of the Navy.
the captains and lieutenants were under 30 years of
age) united the fleet in spirit. The Navy was outnumbered 40 to 1 in the second
war with Great Britain and by 1814 had suffered
Preble taught his subordinates the necessity for severe reverses. Our coast was tightly blockaded; our
absolute obedience, unyielding courage, and ships were driven from the high seas; and our
nation’s capitol had been burned. Nevertheless, the
Navy won a series of frigate and sloop-of-war duels,
which gained it a world reputation. These victories
were the result of naval traditions set by some of our
greatest leaders. We had the best frigates in the
world—the tradition of Humphreys; we had the best
gunnery in the world—the tradition of Truxtun; our
morale was high—the tradition of Preble; and our
Navy had a great fighting spirit—the tradition of
John Paul Jones.

These brilliant frigate victories on the high seas

had little effect on the course of the war itself.
However, the naval leaders responsible for these
victories contributed much to the building of
traditions in our Navy.

ISAAC HULL

Before the turn of the century, Hull had already

made his mark in history by capturing a French
privateer. Although the French ship was larger and
more heavily armed than the ship he commanded,
Lieutenant Hull and his men captured the ship
without the loss of a single man.

134.8 Captain Hull’s greatest role in naval history was

Figure 2-5.-“Take care of your officers.” as the commanding officer of the Constitution in the
Commodore Edward Preble commanded the battle against the Guerriere commanded by Captain
American squadron that smashed the might Dacres. During that battle, Hull quietly moved
of the Barbary pirates in the Mediterranean among his officers and men, addressing them with
during 1803-1804. The training he gave his words of confidence and encouragement such as
young subordinates (who came to be “Men, now do your duty.” And every man stood firm
known as Preble’s boys) at that time paid to his post.
dividends in the War of 1812, when they
achieved 17 out of 18 naval victories.

2-8
Within 45 minutes the Guerriere had been Quickly analyzing the battle situation, Decatur
reduced to a wreck—a feat that astonished both saw that the greater range of his guns would
sides of the Atlantic. In that battle our most enable him to outshoot and cripple the British. He
famous and historic ship, the Constitution, won its cleverly maneuvered his ship and prevented the
nickname “Old Ironsides” as enemy shot bounced enemy from closing in. His gunners fired rapidly
harmlessly off its thick wooden hull. and accurately, and more than a hundred shots
penetrated the Macedonia’s hull. Down came its
mizzenmast. Both the fore and main top-masts
STEPHEN DECATUR were shot off. After 2 hours of fighting, the battle
was over. The victory was a great exhibition
As already pointed out, Decatur (fig. 2-6) of leadership by Decatur, who had an
received his training in Preble’s “school” in the exceptional ability to instill his own spirit
Mediterranean. Now in command of the United into his men. He describes that spirit as follows:
States, he faced the Macedonia, one of the finest “The enthusiasm of every officer, seaman, and
ships of its class in the Royal Navy. Decatur, marine on board this ship, on discovering the
choosing his position well, decided to fight at long enemy, their steady conduct in battle, and
range and gradually wear down his opponent. precision of their fire, could not be surpassed.”

134.9
Figure 2-6.-Praise can be a motivating force. Captain Stephen Decatur substituted praise for
oaths and flogging—and his gunners poured 100 shots at long range into the enemy Macedonia
in the War of 1812.

2-9
 Decatur was popular with his men. He doctor tended the wounded on the wardroom floor,
deplored oaths and flogging—the customary which was nearly level with the surface of the
methods of discipline used at that time. He often water. Unprotected from enemy fire, this hot and
addressed his men directly, explaining the kind of crowded spot served as the operating room and
conduct he expected of them. Decatur won respect hospital in which Parsons and his assistants
not by demanding it, but by deserving it. carried on their work.
When all able men were needed on deck to
OLIVER HAZARD PERRY fight, the doctor carried on single-handed. During
the battle, five cannon balls crashed through the
Many fighting slogans were coined during the wardroom, one of them killing two men lying on
War of 1812. James Lawrence’s dying words, the operating table. In all, Dr. Parson amputated
“Don’t give up the ship,” uttered in the ill-fated six limbs and dressed the wounds of many men
Chesapeake, became the battle cry of the Navy. before he finally transferred with Perry to the
Oliver Hazard Perry carried them to Lake Erie Niagara.
where a flag containing the words “Don’t give up Of the 96 men wounded in the battle, only 3
the ship” was hoisted on his ship. died—a remarkable tribute to the skill of the 25-
During the Battle of Lake Erie, with four-fifths year-old surgeon. In a letter to the Secretary of the
of the crew dead or wounded and his ship, the Navy, Perry wrote, “Of Dr. Parsons, surgeon’s
Lawrence, crippled, Perry faced defeat. He made a mate, I cannot say too much.” Dr. Parsons was
perilous passage in an open boat to another ship, only one of many doctors who made bravery a
the Niagara, under the guns of the enemy. naval tradition. During the quasi-war with France
Exhibiting extraordinary shrewdness and courage and the War of 1812, the names of 34 medical
in a surprise maneuver, he sailed the Niagara (fig. officers were included in a resolution by a grateful
2-7) into battle and defeated the enemy within 15 Congress.
minutes.

DR. USHER PARSONS THOMAS MACDONOUGH

A hero and tradition maker seldom mentioned

in descriptions of the Battle of Lake Erie was Dr. Of perhaps greater importance than Perry’s
Usher Parsons. Dr. Parsons was the only surgeon victory was Thomas MacDonough’s brilliant
aboard the Lawrence during that battle. triumph over the British fleet on Lake Champlain.
Ships of this era were shallow-built with As the enemy ships closed in, “young Mac-
unprotected cockpits. (A cockpit was the junior Donough, who feared his foes not at all, but his
officers quarters, usually located below the God a great deal, knelt for a moment with his
waterline.) During the Battle of Lake Erie, the officers on the quarterdeck.”

134.10
Figure 2-7.-A surprise maneuver turns defeat into victory. Leaving the crippled Lawrence, Perry
boarded the Niagara, sailed through the British lines, and attained victory in 15 minutes.

2-10
 MacDonough (fig. 2-8) was everywhere during
the battle, trying to instill organization and
fighting spirit into his crew. His calm determina-
tion was remarkably contagious. The credit of this
victory against a superior force belongs first and
last to MacDonough himself. In choosing a
position that imposed upon the British an
approach under a raking fire, he won the opening
gambit of the battle. Meantime, he was wise
enough to hold several tactical tricks in reserve.
With these he managed to rally when the enemy
thought him beaten.
MacDonough’s Champlain victory was an
example of the American naval effort in the War of
1812. Pitted against the greatest naval power in
the world, our tiny Navy fought with great valor.
In accomplishing much with little, the Navy began
another tradition—one expressed by the Navy’s
slogan in World War II: “We must all do all that
we can with what we have.”

THE CIVIL WAR

SIGNIFICANT DATES

26 Jun. 1861 Commander James Harmon Ward

killed by musket ball— first Union
naval officer to become casualty in 134.11
Civil War. Figure 2-8.-The greatest naval victory of the
War of 1812, perhaps the most decisive of
16 Jul. 1862 Rank of rear admiral created; all battles fought on land or sea in that
David G. Farragut appointed as conflict, was won by Captain Thomas
first to hold rank. MacDonough, “the hero of Lake
Champlain. ” The action halted a British
11 May 1865 Confederate navy surrenders to invasion of New York that stood little
Captain Edward Simpson. chance of defeat at the hands of the
American army.
25 Jul. 1866 David G. Farragut appointed first
admiral in U.S. Navy. shipping from enemy raiders. The Union navy’s
ability to adjust to new conditions is shown in the
The naval history of the Civil War vividly way it met the complex demands of the Civil War
portrays the use of sea forces against an enemy both afloat and ashore. To complicate matters,
who was economically dependent on shipping. The naval warfare at that time was in a transitional
Confederate States were a combined land power period; that is, a total naval revolution was in
with the advantage of interior lines. The progress. Although steam propulsion was in-
Confederates’ many sea and river ports allowed troduced earlier, armor was just coming into use.
them access to world commerce, which they vitally In the field of ordnance, rifled guns and shell
needed; but an effective Union blockade denied ammunition required new methods of fire control.
them war imports. The Confederates achieved Produced by this rapid transition was one of
their successes with shoestring resources, which the oddest assortments of warships ever
were soon expended. assembled. The Union fleet contained old wooden
The Union navy (U.S. Navy) simultaneously frigates like the Constitution, converted East
assumed three huge strategic tasks, largely River ferryboats, scores of armed steamers, and a
amphibious in nature. It attempted to blockade number of experimental ironclads. The South used
the whole southern coast, force its way into armored vessels, steam commerce raiders,
various southern ports, and cooperate with the electrical mines, and even primitive submarines.
Union army on the Mississippi front. Union naval Under the superior leadership of Secretary of
forces were also called upon to protect northern the Navy Gideon Welles and Assistant Secretary
Gustavus V. Fox, the Union navy used the war as
a testing period for strategies and weaponry.

2-11
The nation’s scientists and inventors contributed
many innovations and, by war’s end, the Navy was
technically the equal of any on the sea.

The most famous naval battle of the war served as

a preview of things to come. This was the battle
between the USS Monitor and CSS Virginia (ex-USS
Merrimac). That naval conflict probably attracted
more attention than any in our history. Fighting the
first action of its kind in history, the ironclads
conclusively demonstrated the superiority of metal
over wood. The battle of the ironclads contrasted with
the easy victories of the Virginia over the unarmored
ships Cumberland and Congress on the previous day.

Leaders in both the Union navy and the

Confederate navy contributed to our naval traditions.
From these valiant leaders we learned the
importance of attention to detail, a progressive
outlook, a sense of humor, and persistence in the face
of adversity.

DAVID G. FARRAGUT

Among the outstanding naval leaders of the Civil

War was David G. Farragut (1801-1870). Like many
others in the early days of the Navy, Farragut (fig. 2-
9) entered the service as a youngster. He was a
midshipman before he was 10 years old. By the time
he was 21, he was experienced at shiphandling and
134.12
leadership.
Figure 2-9.-The statement of David G. Farragut,
When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Farragut, tactician and strategist, that “the best
then aged 60, had already served 49 years in the defense is a well-directed fire from your own
Navy. At this time he was awaiting orders in Norfolk, guns” became a Navy axiom.
where he and his wife had made their home for
almost 17 years. Southern friends, urging him to
espouse the Confederate cause, were left in no doubt almost all hands, had just gone down in that area.
as to his sympathies and convictions. “I would see His response, would echo throughout history as a
every man of you damned before I would raise my slogan for driving leadership—“Damn the torpedoes!
hand against the flag.” With that declaration of Full speed ahead!” As Farragut suspected, most of the
allegiance, he hurried north to serve with the United enemy’s underwater weapons had deteriorated from
States Navy. Farragut’s New Orleans campaign long submersion, so the fleet got through. This
was one of the most brilliant of the war. Where engagement shows another example of Farragut’s
logistics was concerned, Farragut displayed an genius for planning. He had spent 2 days making
impressive knowledge of the art of moving men and sure his ships were prepared for the run. Heavy
supplies. He is credited with being the first American anchor cables were fastened alongside the wooden
officer who fully understood the strategic deploy- sides to serve as “chain armor” for the engines and
ment of a fleet and coordinated the operations of his boilers. The ships were daubed with mud (primitive
vessels accordingly. camouflage), and water buckets were readied for fire
fighting. As a tactician and strategist, Farragut was
Farragut is best remembered for the incident that unexcelled by any of his peers. His statement, “the
occurred at Mobile Bay while he was stationed on the best protection against the enemy’s fire is a well-
Hartford. During the critical phase of battle, mines directed fire from your own guns,” became a principle
(then called torpedoes) were reported ahead. of naval warfare. However, Farragut gave the Navy
Farragut knew that the monitor Tecumseh, with much more than valiant slogans;

2-12
he left us a reminder that major plans are Porter devised and led the famous mortar flotilla
composed of minor details. Even a detail as minute that did much to crack the Delta defenses.
as water buckets received Farragut’s attention.
Shortly after the battle of Mobile Bay, Congress Juniors were eager to serve under the dynamic
created the rank of admiral, thereby making Porter. Besides being a fine seaman and able
Farragut the first U.S. Navy admiral in July of administrator, he possessed many personal traits
1866. that contributed to the spectacular success of his
naval career. He was impulsive, frank, honest,
DAVID D. PORTER and endowed with a creative imagination. He
detested disloyalty and valued performance above
David D. Porter (fig. 2-10) was the son of the protocol. His sense of humor was unquenchable;
famous David Porter who commanded the Essex no matter how desperate a situation became, he
during the War of 1812. David D. Porter saw more could find an opportunity for a jest. He could
continuous fighting than any American naval accurately estimate the potential of his
officer of note during the Civil War—much of it on subordinates and always praised them when they
the Mississippi River. Competent, aggressive, and lived up to his expectations. Above all, he favored
resourceful, Porter rose from the rank of innovation and was open-minded toward anything
lieutenant at the beginning of the conflict to rear that might be better. His progressive outlook kept
admiral at its close. Through Porter’s urging, the him a step ahead of his colleagues.
Navy chose Farragut to lead the New Orleans
expedition. RAPHAEL SEMMES

The distinguished Confederate naval leader

Raphael Semmes (fig. 2-11) conveyed an

134.128
Figure 2-10.-Rear Admiral David D. Porter
was the second admiral in the U.S. Navy, 134.129
preceded only by Farragut. Porter
commanded the Mississippi River flotilla Figure 2-11. -Raphael Semmes, while skipper
in its campaign down the big waterway of the Confederate Alabama, ruthlessly
that climaxed at Vicksburg. Later he burned ship after ship, virtually driving
inflicted a brilliant and crushing defeat merchantmen flying the Stars and Stripes
on the confederates at Fort Fisher in 1865. off the seas.

2-13
impression best described by the term knightly. paper. However, Spain’s ships were poorly
Few warriors of that caliber ever existed outside equipped, its personnel lacked training, and its
the pages of fiction, but Semmes lived the part officers displayed incredibly incompetent
in the best John Paul Jones’ tradition. Captain- leadership.
ing Sumter and Alabama, he left a record that
reads like a saga of valor and daring actions. Like Perhaps the outstanding exploit of the
Jones, he refused to be defeated by adversity. Spanish-American War was Commodore George
Deprived of Sumter at Gibraltar, he wrote, “I Dewey’s seizure of Manila Bay. Knowing Dewey’s
could sweep the whole Mediterranean in from 15 fleet was somewhere in the vicinity of the bay,
to 20 days if I had the means of locomotion.” the Spanish were ready to receive him. However,
Eventually he acquired the means, and his raiding the unsuspecting Spanish were taken by surprise
cruiser Alabama struck the North harder blows by the American’s audacity to steam past their
than any other Confederate vessel. forts to attack during the night (fig. 2-12).

While laying his plans, Dewey tried to figure

out what Farragut would have done when so
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR confronted, for Farragut had been the inspiration
of his life. Farragut’s influence on this great leader
SIGNIFICANT DATES is borne out in Dewey’s statement, “Valuable as
the training of Annapolis was, it was poor
schooling beside that of serving under Farragut
15 Jun. 1898 Fort destroyed and possession
in time of war.” Dewey’s dramatic decision to
of outer bay taken at Guan-
force Manila Bay was inspired by his admiration
tanamo, Cuba, by U.S. ships.
for Farragut.

2 Mar. 1899 George F. Dewey appointed Dewey’s unexpected blow was half the victory.
first and only Admiral of the “We shall enter Manila Bay tonight,” Dewey
Navy. informed his subordinates, “and you will follow
the motions and movements of the flagship, which
24 Jul. 1905 Navy brings body of John Paul will lead.”
Jones to United States.
At 0540 the Spanish were within a 2 1/2-mile
range. Dewey, standing on the bridge of the
6 Apr. 1909 North Pole reached by Com- Olympia, quietly gave the commanding officer of
mander Peary; first U.S. flag his flagship the order to “fire when you are ready,
raised there. Gridley.” By noon, every enemy ship was sunk,
burned, or abandoned. In that one morning,
23 Dec. 1910 LT T. G. Ellyson, the Navy’s Dewey eliminated the Spanish navy’s strength in
first aviator, ordered to flight the Pacific without the loss of one American life.
training. He was qualified on 12 Even though the enemy defense was weak,
April 1911. Dewey’s attack was nonetheless a significant
victory.
1 Jul. 1914 Prohibition proclaimed for
Dewey stressed preparedness. Before leaving
Navy.
the United States, he had obtained all the infor-
mation available on the Spanish fleet. He secured
The Spanish-American War in 1898 was charts and other data about the Philippines and
caused by a long series of incidents arising made a detailed study of international law. Before
partially from unsettled conditions in Caribbean the battle, he discussed with his officers every
countries possessed by Spain. As evidenced from detail of tactics and strategy. Every ship captain
the first, the war would be primarily naval knew each detail of how and when to act. “It was
and would be decided in favor of the nation the ceaseless routine of hard work and prepara-
that established sea control. The naval strength tion in time of peace,” wrote Dewey, “that won
of the two countries was about equal on Manila and Santiago.”

2-14
 134.131
Figure 2-12.-Commodore George Dewey and his squadron sailed past the shore batteries of Manila Bay
on 1 May 1898 to smash the Spanish Pacific squadron of Rear Admiral Montojo, opening the way
for the American occupation of the Philippines.

WORLD WAR I England, with only a month’s grain supply on hand,

must starve or surrender within a few weeks’ time.
SIGNIFICANT DATES Germany was winning the war.

24 Sept. 1918 Lieutenant (JG) David S. Ingalls Germany was building submarines, called U-
becomes Navy’s first flying ace. boats, at the rate of three a week. Sims realized the
(The criterion for becoming an submarine menace had to be reduced drastically if
“ace” is to down five enemy the Allies were to survive. He appealed to the Navy
planes.) Department for immediate dispatch of all available
destroyers and other antisubmarine craft, auxiliaries,
28 Feb. 1919 Destroyer Osmond Ingram, first and merchant-men. Within a month after our entry
Navy ship named for an enlisted into the war, the first American naval forces began to
man, launched. arrive in Britain ready for duty.

27 Feb. 1928 Commander T. G. Ellyson, Navy’s From a naval point of view, World War I was a
first aviator, killed in air crash. conflict of two blockades. The Allies maintained a
long-distance blockade of German ports; the
28 Nov. 1929 First flight over South Pole by Germans, with the submarine, tried to blockade
Lieutenant Commander Richard E. British and French ports by attacking Allied
Byrd, who became the first to fly shipping. The unrestricted sinking of neutral
over both poles. American merchant ships was one reason for our
entry into the war. The cruiser, the destroyer, and
Several days after our declaration of war against the newly constructed submarine chaser performed
Germany in April 1917, Rear Admiral William S. support service in that campaign against German
Sims arrived in London. Admiral Sims, who had been submarines.
serving as President of the Naval War College in
Newport, was sent to confer with British First Sea The Allied victory resulted in part from the Sims-
Lord, Admiral John Jellicoe. Explaining the status of inspired convoy system employed in transporting
the submarine war, Jellicoe revealed that available about 2 million American fighting men to France.
Allied shipping had been depleted by one-fourth and Navy convoys also transported the munitions and
losses were mounting at an appalling rate. April supplies needed to sustain Pershing’s armies and the
losses alone threatened to reach the unprecedented Allies.
figure of 900,000 tons. Sims realized at that rate

2-15
 While these victories cost the lives of many of of saving himself, he deliberately rushed aft to
these American fighting men, many unselfish acts throw the charges overboard. The torpedo found
of bravery by men such as O. K. Ingram and its mark—and the explosion killed Ingram and
Charles L. Ausburne saved the lives of others. temporarily disabled the ship. But this blue-
Those who performed such acts throughout jacket’s sacrifice saved his ship and the lives of the
history gave us one of our most valuable naval officers and men on board. The destroyer Ingram,
traditions—heroism. now decommissioned, bore his name.

O. K. INGRAM CHARLES L. AUSBURNE

In October 1917 the destroyer Cassin was Another incident that occurred in World War I
patrolling off the Irish coast. Gunner’s Mate O. K. contributed to our store of memorable naval
Ingram suddenly sighted a German torpedo racing traditions. The transport Antilles, bound for the
toward the stern of the Cassin. He realized if the United States from Europe in October 1917, was
“fish” struck the vessel where the depth charges sunk by torpedo attack. Radio Electrician
were stowed, the ship would be blown up. Instead Ausburne was at the wireless station frantically

134.132
Figure 2-13.-By his brilliant leadership and skill as a strategist, Admiral Nimitz moved his forces
in the Pacific, from a series of peripheral engagements to strategic encirclement of the enemy,
to cut the enemy’s lines of supply and isolate its land forces.

2-16
sending out distress signals. The ship was sinking tasks ever presented. The Japanese, on 7
rapidly; but Ausburne, disregarding his own December 1941, successfully rendered one of the
safety, stuck to his post to the end, vainly most damaging air raids in history. Of eight
attempting to obtain help. Ausburne’s sacrifice, battleships in Pearl Harbor, Arizona w a s
like Ingram’s, was in keeping with the highest wrecked, Oklahoma capsized, and six were
traditions of naval service. The heroism of such damaged—three of which were resting on the
men reminds us that the bluejackets are worthy bottom. All totaled, 19 American ships were hit.
of the best in leadership. The Japanese practically eliminated the Navy’s
air-striking power by knocking out 150 of 202
planes. The Navy and Marine Corps suffered
2,117 dead plus 779 wounded.
WORLD WAR II
Despite a tragic shortage of ships, aircraft, and
SIGNIFICANT DATES supplies, Admiral Nimitz organized his remaining
forces to carry on defensive warfare. He tried to
16 Oct. 1940 Registration under the Selective delay the enemy’s advance until we could muster
Service and Training Act begins; sufficient strength to put up any real resistance.
16 million register. As rapidly as ships, personnel, and material
became available, however, he shifted to the
7 Dec. 1941 Japanese attack Pearl Harbor. offensive.

20 Dec. 1941 Admiral E. J. King assumes His brilliant leadership and outstanding skill
duties as Commander in Chief, as a strategist enabled units under his command
U.S. Fleet. to defeat the enemy in the Coral Sea, off
Midway, and in the Solomons. His strategy also
18 Jun. 1942 First black officer, Bernard W. enabled forces to conduct offensive raids on
Robinson, commissioned in Japanese-held territories, such as the Gilbert and
Naval Reserve. Marshall Islands. The first decisive defeat suffered
by the Japanese navy in 350 years was achieved
Deeds of yesterday furnish the inspiration for by forces under Admiral Nimitz’ command during
today. In warfare the immediate stakes are death the Battle of Midway. It put an end to the long
and life, and the long-term stakes are the survival period of Japanese offensive action and restored
of a way of life and of a civilization. During such the balance of naval power in the Pacific.
crises people must work beyond their strength and
hit harder and faster than their opponents. They Gradually, Admiral Nimitz’ forces fought
must make split-second—and correct—decisions their way across the Pacific to the Japanese
and risk their own lives to let others live. Their mainland. Initiating the final phase in the battle
heroism lives on in traditions that become the for victory, Admiral Nimitz launched an attack
motivating force of future generations: traditions against the Marianas. His forces inflicted a
of courage, hard work, lightning fast and shrewd decisive defeat in the Battle of the Philippine Sea
judgment, and heroic self-sacrifice. The many and captured Guam and Tinian. Continuing
Navy members that responded to such crises onward, his forces isolated enemy-held bastions
during World War II reinforced these valued (the strategy of island hopping) in the Central and
naval traditions. Eastern Carolines. An engagement with Japanese
task forces then resulted in a historic victory in
the Battle of Leyte Gulf. His long-range strategy
CHESTER WILLIAM NIMITZ peaked as his forces launched amphibious assaults
on Iwo Jima and Okinawa.
Admiral Chester William Nimitz hoisted his
flag as Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet Finally, Nimitz placed U.S. Navy forces in the
(CINCPAC), on 31 December 1941 aboard the harbor of Tokyo, which resulted in the surrender
submarine Grayling in a harbor littered with the of the Japanese Imperial government. The formal
wreckage of American warships. Admiral Nimitz surrender document was signed on 2 September
(fig. 2-13) was faced with one of the most difficult 1945 aboard the battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay

2-17
(fig. 2-14). General of the Army Douglas MacArthur sidelight to this title was that King thought the
signed as Supreme Commander for the Allied powers; original abbreviation— CINCUS—was hardly
Fleet Admiral Nimitz signed as representative for the appropriate in view of the successful raid on Pearl
United States. Harbor. Consequently, he changed the acronym to
COMINCH. During World War II, COMINCH was
On 11 December 1944, Congress had authorized changed to the title of Chief of Naval Operations
the establishment of the grades of Fleet Admiral and [CNO].) Congress approved the recommendations,
General of the Army (the highest grades ever). The and Nimitz took his oath of office on 19 December.
establishment of these grades contained the proviso Admiral Halsey, the fourth Navy recipient of the new
that four Navy and four Army officers could be grade, received his promotion the following year.
elevated to those five-star grades. The President
immediately recommended Admirals Nimitz; William Following the surrender of Japan, Fleet Admiral
D. Leahy, Chief of Staff to the President; and Ernest Nimitz took over the top naval post of Chief of Naval
J. King, Commander-in- Chief, U.S. Fleet (CINCUS) Operations (CNO). He relieved Fleet Admiral King of
for the grade of Fleet Admiral. (An interesting his post as CNO on 15 December 1945.

134.3
Figure 2-14.-Day aboard the USS Missouri. Fleet Admiral Nimitz signs the Japanese surrender
document on 2 September 1945.

2-18
 Nimitz received some 15 decorations and awards him the designation of naval aviator at the age of 52,
from foreign governments. After his release from a prerequisite to being assigned a captain of an
active duty, he served for 8 years as Regent for the aircraft carrier.
University of California. He received honorary
degrees from 19 universities and colleges, including During the attack on Pearl Harbor, Halsey was
Notre Dame, Columbia, Northwestern, Syracuse, about 200 miles at sea. He was returning to Pearl
Tulane, Harvard, and Princeton. Harbor in his flagship Enterprise from Wake Island
where he had delivered Marine Fighter Squadron
WILLIAM FREDERICK HALSEY, JR 221. He took no part in the action except to launch
aircraft in a fruitless search for the enemy.
Admiral Nimitz was fortunate to have under his
command many extremely resourceful, intelligent, Early in 1942 Admiral Nimitz chose Halsey to
dedicated, and courageous officers. Among these were conduct the first offensive raid in the central Pacific.
such commanders as Raymond A. Spruance, Thomas Halsey’s forces of 2 carriers, 5 cruisers, and 10
C. Kinkaid, Marc A. Mitscher, John S. McCain, and destroyers made a bold attack beginning 1 February
R. K. Turner. Probably the most famous leader, against the Japanese-held Gilbert and Marshall
however, was Admiral William F. (Bill) Halsey (fig. 2- Islands. They bombed and bombarded enemy bases
15). (Although reporters tagged him with the on nine separate islands. During the action, the
nickname “Bull,” Halsey disliked it because it seemed heavy cruiser Chester took one bomb hit, and the
flamboyant.) His determination to succeed earned flagship Enterprise was grazed on the flight deck by a
suicide pilot; no other ships were damaged during the
entire operation. Among other benefits, the raid
reestablished the offensive spirit within the Navy and
answered a question being asked at home—“Where is
the Navy?”

Four months after the “Day of Infamy” (Pearl

Harbor), Halsey’s forces conducted a unique and
dangerous carrier operation. They transported 16 B-
25 Army bombers across an ocean and launched them
650 miles off enemy shores. The squadron of planes,
led by Lieutenant Colonel James Doolittle, took off
from the Hornet to bomb Tokyo. That attack boosted
American morale, which at that time was very low.

Halsey’s flagship, the Enterprise, was the first

carrier awarded a Presidential Unit Citation in World
War II. The citation was presented for consistently
outstanding performance and distinguished
achievements during repeated action against
Japanese forces. The Enterprise, under Halsey’s
leadership, took part in nearly every major carrier
engagement in the first year of the war. Exclusive of
the damage and destruction of hostile shore
installations throughout the battle area, it sank or
damaged 35 enemy ships and shot down 185 aircraft.
The Enterprise was reported sunk by the Japanese so
many times it became known as “the galloping ghost
134.133 of the Oahu coast. ”
Figure 2-15.-Admiral Halsey was an exceptional
commander. Although he had a flair for On 18 October 1942 Halsey was appointed
doing the spectacular in a dashing way, his Commander of the South Pacific Force and South
valor and audacity were tempered by Pacific area. Starting with the decisive American
tactical discretion. Admiral Nimitz, then victory in November at Guadalcanal, Halsey’s forces
CINPAC, once said of him, "He...can calculate stopped the Japanese advance in the South
to a cat's whisker the risk involved."

2-19
 Pacific. (However, sporadic action on or near After his return to the United States in
Guadalcanal continued into the following October 1945, Halsey served as a goodwill
February.) Halsey conducted brilliantly planned ambassador on a 6-week trip through Central and
and consistently sustained offensives through South America. He was given numerous awards
December 1943. Halsey’s forces secured the South in the form of parades, reviews, gifts, and military
Pacific area by driving the enemy steadily decorations.
northward while occupying strategic positions At his own request, Halsey retired from the
throughout the Solomons. Navy on 1 March 1947.
After Halsey led his forces to victory at
Guadalcanal, President Roosevelt nominated him SEAMAN JOHNNIE HUTCHINS
for the unheard of fourth star. Having more than
four full admirals on active duty in the Navy was In 1943 Seaman Johnnie Hutchins took his
unheard of, and we already had them—King, place among the tradition makers of the United
Nimitz, Stark, and Ingersoll. A grateful Congress States Navy. At that time the LST 473, carrying
approved the nomination anyhow. men, tanks, and supplies, was part of a landing
In June 1944 Halsey assumed command of the force heading for a Japanese position on New
Third Fleet. Beginning in August, his forces left Guinea. The ship met stiff opposition as it
a trail of enemy ruin and destruction. Starting at advanced, with shells dropping in the water close
Palau (a small group of islands north of New aboard. Suddenly a Japanese torpedo plane dived
Guinea) and the south China Sea, they went up low out of the sky and launched its torpedo
through the Philippines, Formosa, and Okinawa. directly at the LST. In the pilothouse the
They inflicted greater loss on the Japanese navy steersman saw the torpedo coming, as did Seaman
than had ever before been suffered by any fleet. Hutchins who stood at his battle station nearby.
In a magnificent sweep into enemy waters between Before the steersman could swing the ship out of
August 1944 and January 1945, the Third Fleet the torpedo’s path, he was killed by a bomb that
destroyed 4,370 enemy aircraft and sank 82 hit the pilot house. Although Hutchins was fatally
combatant ships and 327 auxiliaries. That was a wounded, he summoned enough strength to
sharp contrast to the United States’ loss of 449 stagger to the wheel and turn the ship clear of the
aircraft and the light cruiser Princeton. torpedo. The ship was saved, but Hutchins died
After the Okinawa campaign, Halsey headed a short time later. In the face of death, this man’s
for Tokyo to conduct preinvasion operations. His last thought was not of himself, but of others.
fast carrier task force was the greatest mass of
sea power ever assembled. It included three task GUNNER’S MATE THIRD CLASS
groups, each consisting of five carriers and a PAUL HENRY CARR
battleship-cruiser-destroyer screen. Units of the
British Pacific Fleet joined his forces in July, with On 25 October 1944 USS Samuel B. Roberts
Halsey in overall command. The ships and planes (DE-413) was surrounded on three sides by
of Task Force 38 blasted every industry and Japanese battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. The
resource that enabled Japan to make war. They men aboard the Roberts were unaware the battle
knocked out remnants of the once mighty off Samar had begun. The thin-skinned destroyer
Japanese fleet, found hiding in camouflage nets escort, with its 5-inch guns, was no match for the
throughout the length of the Honshu Island. 18-inch guns of these Japanese heavyweights.
When the “cease-fire” order was flashed on 15 Even so, on it sailed, closing to within 4,000 yards
August 1945, Halsey’s forces had destroyed or of a heavy cruiser and unleashing a spread of
damaged nearly 3,000 aircraft and sunk or torpedoes.
disabled 1,650 combatant and merchant ships. Serving as a gun captain on Robert’s a f t
Halsey’s actions were characteristically 5"/38-caliber gun mount was a farm boy from
audacious and brilliantly planned, exemplifying eastern Oklahoma. Carr, who was only 20 years
his slogan to “Hit hard, hit fast, hit often!” old, had never seen the ocean before he joined
In recognition of his exceptional war record, the Navy in 1943. Now he was in the middle of
Admiral Halsey was nominated for the grade of one of the most important naval battles of World
Fleet Admiral in November 1945. After the Senate War II.
confirmed his nomination, he took the oath as The only son in a family of nine children, Carr
Fleet Admiral on 11 December 1945. He became grew upon a farm in Checotah, Oklahoma. Paul
the fourth, and last, officer to hold that grade. learned responsibility at an early age. He always

2-20
had chores to do, from feeding the livestock USS Carr (FFG-52), honoring a man who gave
and cleaning the hen house to milking the cows his life for his shipmates and his country.
and hauling water from the well. Carr’s work
never seemed to end. His chores controlled
where he went and how long he stayed. Perhaps COMMANDER HOWARD W. GILMORE
this informal education in self-discipline and
responsibility was what later made Carr a leader The unrelaxed vigilance, skill, and daring
among his shipmates. of the submarine service furnished many
tradition makers in World War II. The story of
Paul Carr and his crew fired over 300 rounds Commander Howard W. Gilmore is classic.
during the battle off Samar. They scored at close
range and severely damaged a Japanese heavy Commander Gilmore was in command of the
cruiser, knocking out an 8-inch turret, submarine Growler in the South Pacific. He had
demolishing its bridge, and starting fires just sunk one Japanese freighter and damaged
aft. another when he found himself fighting a surface
engagement with a Japanese gunboat.
His crew had inspired every man on the ship,
a ship that was now in grave danger of sinking. Gunfire had severely wounded Gilmore and
The massive blows by the Japanese had taken their had seriously damaged his submarine. To save
toll. The Roberts was without power, compressed his ship, he calmly gave the order to clear
air, hydraulics, and communications. The crippled the bridge, knowing his own life would be
ship was barely afloat and taking on water sacrificed. Time did not permit even the few
through a gaping hole left by a 14-inch shell fired seconds’ delay needed for him to go below. He
from the Japanese battleship Kongo. did not hesitate as he voiced the order, “Take her
d o w n . ” The well-trained crew, inspired by
Even though the safety device of the gas- Gilmore’s fighting spirit, brought the damaged
ejection system was inoperative, Carr’s close-knit submarine to port.
gun crew loaded, rammed, and fired six charges
by hand. When the crew attempted to fire a
seventh round, the powder charge “cooked off” THE MARINES ON IWO JIMA
before the breech was closed. The charge wrecked
the gun and killed or wounded all but three men Iwo Jima goes down in history as one of the
in the gun house. most costly and frightful battles ever waged. The
Japanese prepared for the battle by hiding in caves
After the order to abandon ship had been and camouflaged blockhouses on the beach armed
given, a petty officer entered the gun mount to with plenty of ammunition. Besides ammunition,
find Carr literally torn open from neck to thigh. the Japanese had plenty of courage because their
Carr, ignoring his injuries, was holding a attack strategy provided them with protection
54-pound projectile, trying, unassisted, to load while the American soldiers would be open
and ram the only shell available. Carr begged the targets.
petty officer to help him get off the last round.
But the man, seeing the gun had been destroyed Meanwhile, 800 invasion ships carrying U.S.
and its breech rendered a mass of twisted steel, Marines anchored offshore and began to deliver
took the projectile from Carr’s hands. troops to the beach. The Japanese, sheltered in
their concrete pillboxes and underground caves,
After helping one of the other wounded men slaughtered battalion after battalion of men as
to the main deck, the petty officer returned to the they landed on the beach and dug forward. The
gun mount. There he found Carr, although grueling battle continued for days before the
horribly wounded, again attempting to place the Americans finally defeated the enemy to make the
projectile on the loading tray of the inoperable first capture of Japanese territory during the
gun. A few minutes later this brave man died. war.
About an hour later USS Samuel B. Roberts sank.
As a symbol of victory, a group of six men—
Paul Henry Carr’s memory will continue to five marines and a Pharmacist’s Mate (Hospital
live. On 27 July 1985 the Navy commissioned the Corpsman)—then raised an American flag atop

2-21
Mount Suribachi (fig. 2-16). The date was 23 the Navy and Marine Corps who gave their lives in
February 1945. These six men were Sergeant Michael that conflict.
Strank of Pennsylvania; Corporal Harlan H. Block of
Texas; Privates First Class Franklin R. Sousley of Representative of these men was Private First
Kentucky, Rene A. Gagnon of New Hampshire, and Class Walter C. Monegan, Jr. When his battalion
Ira H. Hayes of Arizona; and Pharmacist’s Mate encountered six T-34 medium tanks, he destroyed one
Second Class John H. Bradley of Wisconsin. Admiral and halted the advance of the other five tanks with
Chester W. Nimitz singled out these men as his rocket launcher. A few days later, North Korean
representatives of the "uncommon valor" shown by tanks again menaced his battalion. Monegan
the Marines on Iwo Jima at a cost of 5,017 dead and snatched up his rocket launcher and started toward
17,145 wounded. the enemy. He spotted three T-34s. He sent a round
slamming into the nearest tank, piercing its armored
The sacrifices made by these men live on in the hull and spraying the crew with fragments of steel.
minds and hearts of Americans. A monument and Turning quickly, he fired on the second, causing it to
flagstaff were dedicated to those heroes on top of erupt into flames. Caught in the light of this roaring
Mount Suribachi. The United States Marine Corps fire, he raised his weapon and advanced upon the
War Memorial (a bronze statue with 32-foot figures), third vehicle. Just as he was about to pull the trigger,
immortalizing the deed, stands just outside Arlington he was killed by fire from an enemy machine gun.
National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia.

THE VIETNAM CONFLICT

THE KOREAN CONFLICT
Most heroes are very much like the boy next
The Korean conflict had its acts of heroism also. door—nice guys, but not particularly unusual until,
We have innumerable accounts of men of in a time of crisis, they do something extraordinary.

This section describes the actions of five men who

distinguished themselves in combat in Vietnam by
risking their lives above and beyond the call of duty.
All five were awarded the nation’s highest award—
the Medal of Honor; however, only one, James E.
Williams, lived to receive the award personally.

MARVIN G. SHIELDS

Marvin G. Shields, a Construction Mechanic Third

Class, was a Seabee attached to Mobile Construction
Battalion 11 at Dong Xoai. Near midnight on 9 June
1965, the Vietcong (VC) lobbed a mortar shell (or
perhaps it was a rocket) over the compound.
Everyone immediately grabbed weapons and manned
the defenses.

Although the attack was a heavy one and Shields

was wounded early in the action, these obstacles
didn’t seem to slow down his fighting ability. When
ammunition ran low, it was Shields who made
several resupply trips to the ammo trailer, crossing
150 feet of ground exposed to mortar fire. When the
VC came pouring in, the defenders fell back to new
positions. Shields and another man took the time to
134.18 move an officer with broken legs through a hail of
Figure 2-16.-Raising The colors under fire after bullets to the relatively safe headquarters building.
the charge up Mount Suribachi.

2-22
 The attack continued through the night. Corps, led a reconnaissance patrol deep into
Shields, although now wounded three times, heavily controlled enemy territory. Suddenly the
stayed in the action, repeatedly exposing himself patrol came under fire from 50 to 100 VC
to the enemy while tossing grenades. During the insurgents in concealed positions. Reasoner,
morning hours a lieutenant asked for one at the time, was with the advance party and
volunteer to help him knock out a machine gun point. The slashing fury of the VC machine-gun
that was spraying the building with lethal effect. and automatic: weapons fire made moving up
Shields, the boy next door, immediately offered impossible for the main body of the party. To
his services. Although the two men accomplished provide covering fire, Reasoner repeatedly
what they set out to do, both men were hit and exposed himself to the devastating attack.
Shields was killed. Shouting encouragement to his men, he organized
a base of fire for an assault on enemy positions.
JAMES E. WILLIAMS He killed two VC and silenced an automatic
weapons position in an attempt to evacuate a
Boatswain’s Mate First Class James E.
wounded man.
Williams spent much of his tour of duty in Viet-
When his radio operator was hit, Lieutenant
nam as part of the river patrol force. He directed
Reasoner himself tended his wounds. The radio
the operations of a group of four river patrol
operator then tried to reach a covered position
boats (PBRs) along the Mekong River.
but was hit again. In the face of almost certain
On 31 October 1966 two Vietcong sampans
death, Reasoner left cover to help him a second
suddenly fired on Williams’ patrol. The patrol’s
time and was cut down by machine-gun fire.
return fire killed the entire crew of one sampan.
The first Navy ship to be named after a Marine
Pursuing the other, the patrol maneuvered the
Corps Medal of Honor recipient in Vietnam, USS
PBRs through heavy small arms fire from VC
Frank S. Reasoner (FF-1063), was commissioned
forces hidden along the riverbank. Williams’
in 1971.
patrol was then confronted in a nearby inlet by
two junks and eight more sampans. The patrols
DOUGLAS E. DICKEY
immediately came under savage attack supported
by fire from heavy automatic weapons ashore.
PFC Douglas E. Dickey of the U.S. Marine
To make matters worse, when Williams
Corps was a member of a platoon taking part in
deployed his group to await reinforcements in the
Operation Beacon Hill. On 26 March 1967 his
form of armed helicopters, he and his men ran
platoon engaged in fierce battle with the Vietcong
into a much larger force of enemy craft. Since the
at close range in dense jungle foliage. Dickey had
PBRs obviously were not going to be permitted
come forward to replace a wounded radio
the luxury of waiting around for help, Williams
operator. Without warning, an enemy grenade fell
led his group in a counterattack. During the
in the middle of the group of men, which included
ensuing action, he exposed himself to enemy fire
the immobilized radio operator, the corpsman
with complete disregard for his own safety.
treating him, Dickey, and several other marines.
Leading his patrol through intense fire, Williams
Fully realizing he would be killed, Dickey threw
and his men damaged or destroyed 50 sampans
himself on the grenade and absorbed the complete
and 7 junks before the helicopter arrived.
force of the explosion. PFC Dickey’s personal
Williams then directed an attack against the
heroism, extraordinary valor, and selfless courage
remaining craft and the enemy ashore.
saved his comrades from certain injury and
Demonstrating unyielding courage through the
possible death.
3-hour battle, Williams was responsible for the
Another boy from next door had done
loss or destruction of no less than 65 enemy boats
something extraordinary.
and numerous VC casualties.
During Williams’ 8-month tour of duty, the
CHAPLAIN VINCENT R. CAPODANNO
57 men serving on the four boats he directed
earned a total of 131 combat decorations plus 80
At midafternoon on 4 September 1967,
Purple Heart awards.
Company M, 3rd Battalion, 5th Marines, made
contact with forces of the North Vietnamese
FRANK S. REASONER
Army in Quang Tin Province, Republic of Viet-
On 12 July 1965 company commander First nam. The 5th Marines’ Regimental Chaplain,
Lieutenant Frank S. Reasoner, U.S. Marine Vincent R. Capodanno, LT, CHC, USNR, who

2-23
was accompanying this element of his regiment, an inbound missile. The report, however, came
was positioned with the command group. When too late. General Quarters was sounded. The first
word was received that one of the platoons had of two Exocet missiles punched through the port
made contact and was in danger of being over- side of the ship above the waterline in an enlisted
run, Chaplain Capodanno ran directly to the berthing compartment. It failed to detonate but
beleaguered marines. He proceeded to assist the spread hundreds of pounds of burning solid
corpsmen, provide comfort and reassurance to the rocket fuel, creating an immediate inferno. Less
wounded, and administer last rites to the dying. than 15 seconds later, the second missile hit the
In the midst of heavy mortar and automatic- ship slightly forward of the first and detonated
weapons fire, he ministered to his men calmly and about 5 feet inside the hull. The fire that ensued
without faltering. Although wounded, he refused was so hot (in excess of 1800 degrees Fahrenheit)
treatment for himself. When conditions required that the main deck and starboard side of the ship
the use of gas masks, he gave his own to a marine. glowed cherry red. Figure 2-17 shows the extent
At a point of particular heavy attack, he placed of damage to the Stark.
himself directly in the line of fire to save a The extraordinary and heroic damage control
wounded Navy corpsman. By that act he gallantly that followed probably kept the Stark f r o m
gave his life in the service of his fellow man, his sinking. The crew performed in an outstanding
God, and his country. For his selfless courage, manner to control the initial fires and flooding.
Chaplain Capodanno was posthumously awarded Afterwards, personnel from five commands
the Medal of Honor. USS Capodanno (FF-1093) joined in the 16-hour battle to save the ship. Axes
was named in his honor. were used to cut holes in the bulkhead to drain
the fire-fighting water, which was 2 to 3 feet deep
and boiling hot. Fire fighters who knelt down, as
THE PERSIAN GULF trained, found themselves with boots full of
scalding water. The deck was so hot their feet were
As with other wars, conflicts, or areas of
burned through the soles of their boots. In
military aggression where U.S. naval forces were
addition, temporary communications lines melted,
present, the Persian Gulf has had its share of
and some decks collapsed from the heat. Reflash
heroes and tradition makers. The presence of
fires continued for 3 more days.
naval units showing the flag in any hostile
Once conditions stabilized 37 sailors had
environment is a dangerous situation. This danger
perished. Those men who fought the fires are
can become real, as was the case with two U.S.
credited with keeping the ship afloat. President
Navy ships in the late 1980s. The following
Ronald Reagan, during a memorial service,
accounts explain the roles of several heroes from
praised the men who died during the attack on
these ships.
the Stark as “ordinary men who did extraordinary
things. Yes, they were heroes.”
USS STARK
USS SAMUEL B. ROBERTS
The job of USS Stark (FFG-31) in the
Persian Gulf was to remain in international waters The USS Samuel B. Roberts that steamed in
of the gulf. Its mission was to monitor the the Persian Gulf was the third ship named in
movements of ships and aircraft of other nations honor of Coxswain Samuel Booker Roberts, Jr.,
and to show the American flag. U.S. Naval Reserve. He was posthumously
About 2100, 17 May 1987, a U.S. Air Force awarded the Navy Cross for extraordinary
plane reported two Mirage jet fighters had taken heroism during World War II. Roberts was a
off from an Iraqi air base. The Stark was still landing craft boat coxswain, who despite intense
hundreds of miles away conducting engineering enemy fire, rescued stranded marines from
drills. One of the jets climbed to an altitude of Guadalcanal.
5,000 feet and turned toward the Stark at a range Since the USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58)
of about 200 miles. Both Iranian and Iraqi air- had been steaming the Persian Gulf for nearly 3
craft maneuvered in that manner on a regular months, 14 April 1988 seemed pretty routine. The
basis, so no real sense of danger was felt. At 2208 ship’s crew felt the Roberts was the best. Roberts
the Stark issued a warning to the approaching had won the Battle Efficiency award and earned
Mirage to stand off. The jet did not respond to the highest grades any ship had ever attained in
the warning, so a second warning was issued. The damage control training at Guantanamo Bay,
Iraqi pilot did not respond to that warning either. Cuba, before deployment. The ship’s preparedness
Approximately 3 minutes later, a lookout reported would soon pay off.

2-24
 134.2
Figure 2-17.-Damage to the USS Stark.

Enjoying a break from tanker escort duty, the They were shiny and the sun glared off them.
Roberts was headed to the southern part of the QM2 Nicholson thought, Whoa, this is real—big
Persian Gulf for a scheduled replenishment. At time! Over the ship’s general announcing circuit,
1639 Boatswain’s Mate Seaman Bobby F. Gibson, the 1MC, the captain told his crew their ship had
standing the bow watch, saw what he thought entered a minefield. He called all hands to general
were three dolphins off the starboard bow. quarters (GQ) and told them to check that con-
Dolphins had been spotted earlier in the day and dition Zebra was set throughout the ship. Within 3
were commonplace in the gulf. Only this time the minutes the GQ stations were manned and Zebra
“dolphins” weren’t going back under water. He was set.
grabbed his binoculars, spotted the spikes on the Back on the fantail, the chocks and chains were
floating objects, and immediately notified the removed from the ship’s helicopter. Boat-swain’s
bridge. The officer of the deck (OOD), Lt. Robert Mate Second Class Kim T. Sandle prepared to
L. Firehammer, Jr., then called the commanding launch the helo to drop floats, flares, and smoke
officer (CO), Commander Paul X. Rinn, who was near the spotted mines.
on the bridge in a matter of seconds. Rinn ordered Rinn went to the starboard bridge wing,
the ship to “all stop.” looking back at the ship’s wake. He knew if
Normally, mines found in the gulf were old and he kept the ship in the wake, it would be
encrusted with sea growth. Looking through the safe. He ordered the lowering of the
“big eyes,” a powerful set of binoculars, auxiliary propulsion units (APUs), built in
Quartermaster Second Class (Enlisted Surface the forward part of the ship to maneuver
Warfare Specialist [SW]) Dan J. Nicholson’s heart in tight quarters at low speed. Rinn then
sank at his first glimpse of the floating objects.

2-25
 began to back the ship away from the mines. For the explosion ignited and shot up through one of
a time the CO’s attempt to tiptoe backward out the main exhaust stacks, hurling a fireball into
of the minefield looked like it would work. But the air 150 feet above the ship. Fiery debris rained
21 minutes after the first sighting, the ship down on the deck.
bumped into a submerged mine. It struck Robert’s In the main engine room, seawater rushed in
port side aft, near the keel. At 1700 the ship with through the gaping hole. Within 15 seconds water
the motto “No higher honor” was rocked by the was just 2 feet below the upper deck plates. The
exploding force of hundreds of pounds of blast rendered the main shaft inoperative and
explosives, ruptured the shaft seal, which allowed the water
Engineman First Class (SW) Mark T. Dejno from the engine room to completely flood AMR3
had set Zebra at his GQ station in auxiliary in 5 minutes.
machinery room 3 (AMR3). The engineering Below decks, lights flickered and then went
officer of the watch, Chief Petty Officer Alex out. The emergency diesel generators supplying
Perez, had ordered all watch standers on the lower the electrical power stopped. Repair party
levels of the engineering spaces to move to the members searching through the darkness quickly
upper level before the mine hit. Dejno was isolated and repaired a ruptured air line, allowing
standing on the upper level of AMR3 when he the diesels to be restarted.
heard the "BOOM!" and saw a wall of flame and The situation in AMR2 was critical. Everyone
water exploding toward him., Although he was in the space knew if the battered connecting
severely burned on his face and one arm, Dejno bulkhead to the main engine room gave way, the
did not lose consciousness. His first thought was whole crew would be killed. Chief petty officer
to get out of AMR3—he had to make a report. Kevin J. Ford and the others now working in
He climbed through an escape trunk. By the time AMR2 had been through damage control “wet”
he got through the hatch, water was up to the deck trainers to learn plugging and shoring techniques.
plates. However, this damage was worse than anything
Hospital Corpsman First Class James E. they had ever fixed in a drill, and they would have
("Dot") Lambert wasn’t particularly worried no opportunity to try again. Failure would mean
about being in a minefield before Roberts struck the loss of lives and the ship— their lives, their
the mine. He never thought the ship would ship. The thought of failure caused them to work
actually hit a mine. As he said later, “You see harder.
an ice patch—you know it’s dangerous but you After escaping AMR3, EN1 Dejno put a quick
never think you’re the one who is going to fall dressing on his arm. Then he found a friend—
on the ice. It happens to the other guy.” Petty Officer Second Class Larry Welch—who
On the bow BMSN Gibson had turned around was badly injured. He took him into the supply
and saw everyone on the 02 and 03 levels looking office to treat his wounds. Dejno was burned; but
at the mines. He was turning forward when the Welch was much worse, with charred, dead skin
mine exploded. Suddenly he was airborne; looking hanging from his arms, hands, and fingers.
down, all he could see was forecastle and water Dejno tried to trim away Welch’s uniform with
as he came flipping out of his dive. He landed a knife, but it wouldn’t cut through the fuel-
heavily on his neck and shoulders. Head spinn- soaked clothes. Getting a pair of scissors out of
ing, Gibson stumbled aft to help break out a fire a first aid kit, he cut away the clothes and dangling
hose. He was only starting to feel the pain in his burned skin. He carefully wiped the fuel oil from
back. Welch’s face, wrapped him in a sheet, and headed
On the bridge wings, the reaction to the with him to the 02 level triage area.
explosion was disbelief. Some thought at first the Doc Lambert and his assistants grabbed their
helicopter had crashed, but a quick look at the portable medical bags and headed for the mess
bridge monitor showed the spinning rotor blades decks when the blast occurred. The water on the
of the helo on the fantail. deck caused Lambert to slip and fall. He became
The mine Roberts had hit contained 250 that “other guy” who always slips on the ice
pounds of TNT equivalent. It struck at frame 276 patch. The ship had too many wounded sailors
on the port side, 4 feet from the keel. The and not enough room on the mess decks, so a
explosion blew a 15- by 20-foot hole, in the hull, triage area was set up on the 02 level.
knocking the ship’s two main gas turbine engines Leaving the executive officer (XO), Lieutenant
off their mounts (fig. 2-18). The port engine had Commander John Eckelberry, to direct operations
been operating at the time. The fuel released by on the bridge, the CO left to tour the ship. He

2-26
 134.2.1
Figure 2-18.-Damage to the main engine room of the USS Samuel B. Roberts.

entered the main engine room and stepped into the stack, it flowed into the ship. He realized,
ankle-deep water. The CO checked that space and We’re sinking ourselves!
then headed for AMR2, where the key problem From the triage area on the 02 level, Doc had
was the rising water. Seawater was close to moved all his patients aft to the hangar bay for
reaching the fire pumps and was already evacuation. When BMSN Gibson left the bow
splashing on the diesels. Despite the desperate immediately after the explosion, he didn’t get the
situation in the engineering spaces, the CO felt a chance to break out much fire hose. The pain from
tremendous sense of confidence as he watched his his back injury had quickly stopped him in his
men work. Chief Ford’s team was confident too. tracks—now he was pinned to a stretcher.
“We can win this one, captain,” one sailor said. The worst case so far was the EOOW, Chief
“We can do it,” another echoed. As he surveyed the Perez. He had serious injuries to his head and
situation, he made the decision that they were back. Having been trapped under the deck grating
going to save the ship. At the hatchway the in the main engine room after the mine exploded,
captain looked back and said, "I’ll see you again. Perez had a close brush with death. Shipmates
I’ll be back." worked feverishly to rescue him. He escaped by
swimming under oily water for 15 feet through
The captain recalled the lessons learned about mangled equipment to where a crewman was
putting water inside the skin of the ship from the shining a battle lantern into the water to show
Stark incident. As the fire fighters put water down him the way.

2-27
 Back on the bridge Rinn ordered the damage they’d lose everything. They wouldn’t be able to
control party to stop putting water on the fire. pump water out of the ship or fight fires. The ship
The XO asked the CO if he was crazy. Com- wouldn’t be able to communicate, maneuver, or
mander Rinn explained, “No, we don’t have to defend itself.
worry about the fire. In a little while we’re going A daring investigation by the Chief Engineer,
to be underwater and the fire won’t matter Lt. Gordon Van Hook, and BM3 Eduardo
anymore. We’ve got to quit putting water into the Segovia had pinpointed the source of the fire. An
skin of the ship. We’ve got to hold back on that access plate on the 02 level had to be removed to
until we can get control of the flooding.” get to the space where fuel oil had collected. Both
Meanwhile, the bulkheads of the ammunition Rinn and Van Hook watched as crew members
magazine were getting hot—up to 134 degrees. SM1(SW) Charles Dumas, HT1 Gary Gawor, and
The CO immediately gave the crew permission to HT2(SW) Tom Regan, led by Lieutenant Dave
remove the ammunition from the magazine. At Lewellyn, removed the bolts and then pried the
first, they threw the 76-mm ammunition over the cover away with crowbars. Flames roared up in
side. Then they began to move the shells to the their faces, as a column of fire shot 15 feet into
forecastle. Each round weighed about 25 pounds. the air. Van Hook tried to maintain his sense of
They moved 700 rounds in 90 minutes. humor as he turned to the CO and said, “Maybe
From the first moments of the crisis, the this wasn’t such a good idea.” Fully aware that
captain realized the way he presented himself to his men had to react in seconds to control the
his men would never be more important. The crew blaze, Van Hook added, “Maybe we should do
watched every move he made. It was time to earn this tomorrow.” But his men immediately applied
his pay—time to do his job as he’d been training foam to the fire with applicators stuck into the
to do it for years. It was time to lead this brave access. The smoke changed color, from black to
group of men in one of the most dangerous situa- white. That was the first good indication they were
tions any of them would ever face. winning the battle of the fires. By midnight,
In communications to Rear Admiral Anthony conditions were stable aboard Roberts. Shoring
Less, Commander, Joint Task Force Middle East, watches and fire reflash watches were set.
Rinn said, “We are determined to save the ship,
A crack amidships ran all the way across the
period. That is our intention. We can save our
ship, threatening to break it in half. Senior Chief
ship. I intend to stay here and do just that.” Rear
Boatswain’s Mate (SW) George E. Frost came up
Admiral Less informed Commander Rinn that
with an idea to keep the front half of the ship
other units were standing by to assist. However,
attached to the back half. The ship’s Boatswain’s
Rinn explained, “We never saw the mine that hit
Mates began stringing steel cables across the huge
us. Recommend you don’t send other ships. We’ll
cracks in the deck and superstructure, attaching
get out on our own.”
them fore to aft wherever possible. The work was
The captain then spoke to the crew over the
hard, but soon they were showing the bystanders
1MC. He explained the ship’s status, and then said
gathered around how it was done. Under the stars,
again, “I think we can save the ship—there is no
the ingenious sailors lashed their ship together to
doubt in my mind.”
prevent the crack from growing larger.
Captain Rinn had very few good alternatives
to saving the ship. Going into the water meant By 0300 the ship was quiet. Fires were out,
swimming with poisonous sea snakes and hungry leaks were plugged, and flooding was under
sharks. Roberts was at least 80 miles from control. USS Roberts was slowly, carefully sailing
anyone—except maybe the Iranians. Asking for to safety. As Rinn walked the decks, he looked
assistance meant putting another U.S. ship in the at his crew, exhausted, collapsed, some sleeping,
minefield. Therefore, Rinn knew the men of some talking quietly. He reflected on what they
Roberts would have to find their way out of this had done in the last 10 hours. His men fought for
predicament alone. Safe water was anywhere from their lives and their ship—a ship that was burning
4 to 7 hours away. Rinn thought, I hope we make and sinking. They fought and won. He felt a
it till morning; I hope we get to see the dawn. powerful bond with them. They were Samuel B.
On the flight deck, Doc got his last patient Roberts. Their survival made all the tough work
off—10 casualties transported in less than and long, boring drills, exercises, and training
2 1/2 hours. EN1 Dejno was not evacuated; he worthwhile.
volunteered to stay. His expertise was needed to At 0507 QM2 Nicholson made the entry
keep the diesels running. If they lost the diesels, “Observed sunrise” in the ship’s deck log.

2-28
 WOMEN IN THE NAVY 1945 Approximately 86,000 women on active
duty in the naval service, 8,000 officers
SIGNIFICANT DATES and 78,000 enlisted, constituting 18
percent of the total naval personnel
1811 Navy surgeon recommends nurses be assigned to shore establishments in the
included among personnel at Navy continental United States. Accession of
hospitals. women into the Navy discontinued by
17 August.
1862 Civilian nurses serve on board the
1945 On 26 July Captain Joy Bright
Navy’s first hospital ship, USS Red
Hancock, a former World War I
Rover.
yeomanette, becomes director of the
WAVES. The women’s ranks decrease
1908 On 13 May U.S. Navy Nurse Corps to some 8,800 by that time.
established. The first 20 nurses (in
reality, the first women in the Navy) 1947 Army-Navy Nurses Act establishes the
report to Washington, D.C., that Nurse Corps as a permanent staff corps
October. of the Navy. It also authorizes perma-
nent commissioned rank for nurses.
1913 Navy nurses serve aboard the transports
1948 On 12 June President Harry Truman
USS Mayflower and USS Dolphin.
signs Public Law 625, the Women’s
Armed Services Integration Act,
1917 On 19 March the Navy authorizes abolishing the Women’s Auxiliary
enlistment of women as volunteers. Reserve and permitting women to enter
Designated as Yeomen (F), they un- the U.S. Navy in Regular or Reserve
officially became known as yeomen- status.
ettes.
1950 Women in the Naval Reserve recalled
1918 On 11 November when the armistice is along with their male counterparts for
signed, 11,275 yeomenettes are in the duty during the Korean conflict.
naval service, with some 300 marinettes
1952 Navy women accepted for commission
in the U.S. Marine Corps.
in the Medical Service Corps.

1920 Navy nurses serve aboard the first ship 1953 Women in the Hospital Corps begin
built as a floating hospital, USS Relief serving on board hospital ships and
(AH 1). transports carrying dependents.

1942 Naval Reserve Act of 1938 amended 30 1972 Navy nurse Alene Duerk, director of
July to include the Women’s Auxiliary the Navy Nurse Corps since 1968,
Reserve, later known as the WAVES achieves flag rank; she is the first
(women accepted for voluntary emer- woman in Navy history to do so. The
gency service). Wellesley College presi- term WAVES is dropped as an official
dent Mildred McAfee, selected to lead title.
the new Women’s Auxiliary Reserve, is
1973 The Secretary of the Navy announces
sworn in as a lieutenant commander on
3 August. authorization of aviation training for
women.

1943 By 30 July more than 27,000 women 1976 U.S. Naval Academy admits women.
are on active duty in the Navy.
Authorization is passed for a woman 1978 The law prohibiting assignment of
to hold the rank of captain, and women to fill sea duty billets on support
Mildred McAfee is promoted into that and noncombatant ships is amended in
rank. Navy Hospital Corps accepts October, putting into force the Women
women enlistees. in Ships Program.

2-29
1980 U.S. Naval Academy graduates its first Navy Department, in addition to many highly
women officers. important special duties.
Women Yeomen were stationed in Guam, the
1982 By June, 193 women officers are on Panama Canal Zone, and Hawaii, in addition to
board 30 ships, and 2,185 enlisted the United States and France. About 300
women are aboard 37 ships. “marinettes,” as the enlisted women of the
Marine Corps were designated, were on duty
Today More than 7,200 women serve as Navy during the war. Most of them were stationed at
officers (10 percent of the Navy’s Marine Corps Headquarters at the Navy Depart-
officer strength). More than 45,000 ment, although a number were assigned with
enlisted women make up 9 percent of Marine Corps recruiting units.
the Navy’s enlisted ranks. Because of All women Yeomen were released from active
their combat relationship, only two duty by 31 July 1919. Secretary Daniels sent the
officer communities—submarines and following message to the women Yeomen: “It is
special warfare—and 18 of 103 enlisted with deep gratitude for the splendid service
ratings remain closed to women. rendered by the yeomen (F) during our national
emergency that I convey to them the sincere
Although women did not become an official appreciation of the Navy Department for their
part of the Navy until 1948, they made naval patriotic cooperation.”
tradition by serving in the Navy as early as 1811. Twenty-one years after the yeomanette era,
At that time a Navy surgeon recommended women were needed to fill an acute shortage of
women be assigned to hospitals to care for the personnel caused by rapid expansion of the Navy
Navy’s sick and wounded. However, our nation
for World War II. On 30 July 1942 Congress
did not act upon that recommendation until the
authorized establishment of the Women’s
Civil War, when women served aboard the Reserve, with an estimated goal of 10,000
hospital ship USS Red Rover in the Medical
enlisted and 1,000 officers. However, certain
Department. Although an unofficial unit, the first congressional limitations were placed on the new
trained nurses in the Navy were stationed at the
organization. Women could not serve at sea or
Norfolk Naval Hospital to care for the injured
outside the continental United States, and they
during the Spanish-American war in 1898. A could not go beyond lieutenant commander on
decade later (in 1908), the Navy Nurse Corps was
the promotion ladder. On 4 August 1942 Mildred
officially born.
Helen McAfee was sworn in as a lieutenant
In addition to the Navy nurses, some 12,000 commander of the U.S. Naval Reserve to become
women served on active duty as “yeomenettes” Commander of Women’s Reserve.
in WWI. This resulted from a need for more A boot camp for women accepted for
Yeomen and personnel to handle the growing volunteer emergency service (WAVES) was
demands of the services as the nation readied itself established at Hunter College in New York
for World War I. Josephus Daniels, then City—it was promptly dubbed the USS Hunter.
Secretary of the Navy, was responsible for this Basic training lasted from 6 to 8 weeks, and every
turn of events. “Is there any law that says a other week about 1,680 Wave seamen had to be
yeoman must be a man?” Daniels’ legal advisers housed, fed, and uniformed. The Navy took over
answered that there was not, but that up to this 17 apartment buildings near the college to use as
time only men had been enlisted. “Then enroll housing.
women in the Naval Reserve as yeomen,” the At about the same time, three other schools
secretary said. In such jobs, he added, they would were commissioned in the Midwest to train
offer the best “assistance that the country can enlisted women as Yeomen, Storekeepers, and
provide.” Radiomen. In July 1943 the Navy Japanese
Immediately after the United States entered Language School in Boulder, Colorado, opened
World War I, women were taken into the Navy to women.
on a large scale “in order to release enlisted men Navy women came to work the same hours
for active service at sea.” As a result, the Navy as Navy men, standing both day and night
had a total of 11,275 women Yeomen by the time watches. They stayed in uniform at all times
the armistice was signed. They were handling most except in the barracks or when engaged in active
of the immense volume of clerical work at the sports. They were called upon to meet the same

2-30
standards of neatness and good behavior as those
required of men in uniform.

In short, they were fitted into the Navy as an

integral part of the service. They slipped into the
same spot in the chain of command as the men
they replaced and performed the same duties. This
system gave Navy women—or WAVES, as they
were popularly called—the same status,
responsibilities, and restrictions as men.

Use of the term WAVES had begun when

women were given the Reserve classification of W-
V(S), meaning Women-Volunteer (Specialist).
Since the initials WR and the term Women’s
Reserve were official, some women preferred these
terms to the equally official, but less formal, use of
WAVES.

As the Women’s Reserve observed its second

anniversary on 30 July 1944, it could look back
upon a brief but glowing record of expansion and
achievement. During its 2 years of existence, the
Women’s Reserve had freed enough officers and
men to crew a fleet of 10 battleships, 10 aircraft
carriers, 28 cruisers, and 50 destroyers.

In World War II, WAVES were considered 134.215

directly eligible for 34 different ratings and were Figure 2-19.-Rear Admiral Fran McKee is the
performing nearly every conceivable type of duty
first woman unrestricted line officer
at 500 naval shore establishments.
promoted to flag rank in the U.S. Navy.
Since the WAVES had proved their worth
during the war, the Navy was reluctant to give up
At the same time the Regular Navy opened to
its programs for women. A number of Navy
women, the Reserve established a program for
women were retained in service; but by the fourth
women service members. The new laws abolished
anniversary of the program, only 9,800 remained
the Women’s Reserve and authorized the transfer
on active duty.
of all members to appropriate components of the
permanent Naval Reserve.
The Women’s Armed Services Integration Act,
Public Law 625, marked the most significant
SUMMARY
milestone to that date in the history of women
service members. This act, passed by the Senate
and the House and signed by President Truman All of the men, women, ships, and battles you
on 12 June 1948, gave women full partnership on have just studied were of value to our Navy. They
the Navy team. The Women’s Reserve was have all created traditions and set examples for us
abolished and, for the first time, women became a to follow. Although we may never have the chance
part of the Regular Navy. to create history of the magnitude they did, we
still hold fast to the same principles and goals they
In February 1976 the Navy promoted Fran sought. Our Navy is steeped with tradition. Many
McKee (fig. 2-19) to rear admiral. She made her present-day Navy policies have carried over
mark in naval history as the first woman through years of tradition. This chapter is a
unrestricted line officer to be selected for flag tribute to the many great tradition makers who
rank. have served before us.

2-31
 REFERENCES
Morris, Chuck, PHI, “To See the Dawn,’’ All
Basic Military Requirements, NAVEDTRA 12043, Hands 857 (August 1988): 4-10.
Naval Education and Training Program
Management Support Activity, Pensacola, Fla., Sharp, Victoria, “Saving the Samuel B. Roberts,”
1992. Fathom 19 (Spring 1988): 2-7.

DEAD HORSE

BRITISH SEAMEN, APT TO BE ASHORE AND UNEMPLOYED FOR CONSIDERABLE PERIODS BETWEEN
VOYAGES, GENERALLY PREFERRED TO LIVE IN BOARDING HOUSES NEAR THE PIERS WHILE WAITING
FOR SAILING SHIPS TO TAKE ON CREWS. DURING THESE PERIODS OF UNRESTRICTED LIBERTY,
MANY RAN OUT OF MONEY, SO THE INNKEEPERS CARRIED THEM ON CREDIT UNTIL THEY WERE
HIRED FOR ANOTHER VOYAGE.

WHEN A SEAMAN WAS BOOKED ON A SHIP, HE WAS CUSTOMARILY ADVANCED A MONTH’S WAGES.
IF NEEDED. TO PAY OFF HIS BOARDING HOUSE DEBT. THEN, WHILE PAYING
BACK THE SHIP’S MASTER, HE WORKED FOR NOTHING BUT “SALT HORSE” THE FIRST OF SEVERAL
WEEKS ABOARD.

SALT HORSE WAS THE STAPLE DIET OF EARLY SAILORS AND IT WASN’T EXACTLY TASTY CUISINE.
CONSISTING OF A LOW QUALITY BEEF THAT HAD BEEN HEAVILY SALTED, THE SALT HORSE WAS
TOUGH TO CHEW AND EVEN HARDER TO DIGEST.

WHEN THE DEBT HAD BEEN REPAID, THE SALT HORSE WAS SAID TO BE DEAD AND IT WAS TIME
FOR GREAT CELEBRATION AMONG THE CREW. USUALLY, AN EFFIGY OF A HORSE WAS
CONSTRUCTED FROM ODDS AND ENDS, SET AFIRE, AND THEN CAST AFLOAT TO THE CHEERS AND
HILARITY OF THE EX-DEBTERS.

TODAY, JUST AS IN THE DAYS OF SAIL, “DEAD HORSE” REFERS TO A DEBT TO THE GOVERNMENT
FOR ADVANCE PAY. SAILORS TODAY DON’T BURN EFFIGIES WHEN THE DEBT IS PAID, BUT THEY ARE
NO LESS JUBILIANT THAN THEIR COUNTERPARTS OF OLD.

2-32
 CHAPTER 3

THE NAVAL OFFICER’S CAREER

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the procurement sources for commis- 6. Describe the typical development paths for
sioned officers. surface warfare officers, surface warfare
nuclear officers, submarine officers, aviation
2. Describe the sources for commissioning officers, supply officers, and general un-
opportunities of enlisted personnel. restricted line officers.
7. Describe the selection board process for
3. Explain the purpose, use, and content of the promoting officers.
microfiche record.
8. Explain the difference between pay and
allowances.
4. Identify the purpose, use, and content of the
officer’s service record. 9. Explain the various benefits and services
available to military personnel and their
dependents.
5. Explain the purpose, use, and content of the
officer's fitness-report. 10. Identify the three types of retirement,

What motivates a person to become a naval office. That oath leaves little doubt as to what
officer? Different motives make people decide the Navy expects of its people.
they want to become a naval officer, including
That a naval officer must have dedication is
patriotism, dedication, and a desire to serve.
obvious. That a naval officer is a professional in
Rarely is anyone impelled to any action by a single
the truest sense of the word is equally clear.
force. Just as people are complicated, so are the
Dedication will smooth the rough spots that
things that influence them.
invariably lie in the path of any endeavor.
The responsibility accorded a naval officer
Professional knowledge and competence will help
motivates many people to choose a naval career.
resolve the complex problems that a naval officer
Their dedication to that responsibility corresponds
faces.
to their understanding of the authority vested in
them. The President has “special trust and con-
Many newly commissioned officers are not fidence” in the abilities of officers and has granted
certain of the total implications of their new them extensive authority. When officers are
responsibilities. However, career officers are commissioned, they reaffirm the basic oath; but
of necessity aware of their tremendous respon- their commission places an even greater respon-
sibilities. sibility on them. Their commission is a contract
Each person entering the Navy takes an oath with the nation to do all in their power to render
to uphold and defend the Constitution against all themselves fully capable of leading men and
enemies, to bear true faith and allegiance, and to women in war. The terms in the commissioning
faithfully discharge the duties of his or her oath have been previously spelled out. The nation

3-1
will keep its bond to the oath; it expects no less from welfare is ensured. By virtue of their status as
its officers. officers, they are held in respect by their fellow
Our nation never seeks war; but by staying citizens and have an inherent prestige that few other
prepared and vigilant, our enemies know we will professions can equal.
retaliate to any act of aggression. As a result, naval Second, officers will find in their tours of duty a
officers’ responsibilities in the uneasy times in which varied and challenging way of life. Their active duty
we live are impressive. Naval officers are charged often takes them to many parts of the world.
with doing everything in their power to maintain and Regardless of their position as a line or staff officer,
increase national strength. They accomplish that by they will be called upon to perform a great number of
being proficient in professional skills, properly different tasks. Their educational opportunities
training and guiding their subordinates, and enhance their naval career as well as any future
developing improved devices and methods. Our career they might have upon their return to civilian
nation relies on its naval officers to exercise the most life. They serve and become comrades of an almost
exacting and diligent care of the men, women, and infinite variety of men and women. They encounter a
materials placed in their trust. minimum of personal favoritism. That provides a
In considering the demands of the nation, continuing opportunity for them to advance based on
military officers are entitled to ask what benefits they their own merits and abilities. In short, their lives are
will reap from a naval career. First, career officers seldom routine and never dull. They do not live a
may expect the gratitude of their nation. That haphazard existence, despite its intriguing variety.
gratitude is expressed in tangible ways. Their pay Their lifestyle is balanced by their membership in a
and allowances are established and maintained by competently administered, well-organized
law. In the event of sickness or disablement, their professional Navy.

Figure 3-1.-A number of programs serve as the Navy's source for procuring trained officers.

3-2
 OFFICER PROCUREMENT NAVAL AVIATION CADET

SIGNIFICANT DATES The Naval Aviation Cadet (NAVCAD)

Program provides naval aviation training to
qualified men and women with 2 or more years
22 Dec. 1775 Commissions are approved for
of approved college courses.
first Regular officers of the
When NAVCADs successfully complete
Navy.
aviation training, they are appointed as officers
in the Naval Reserve and designated as Navy
25 Jul. 1777 Subsistence of naval officers pilots.
while in foreign ports is autho- The NAVCAD Program is open to qualified
rized by Congress. civilians and enlisted personnel who have not
previously been disenrolled from any flight
17 Dec. 1810 Future Admiral David G. Far- program.
ragut is appointed to the rank of Eligibility Requirements:
midshipman.
1. Age—At least 19, but not have reached
11 Jul. 1846 First Naval Academy graduate, 25th birthday before reporting to AOCS.
Richmond Aulicks, commis- 2. Citizenship—United States citizen only.
sioned a passed midshipman. 3. Marital Status—Single with no dependents;
must remain single until commissioning.
There are no exceptions to this rule.
26 Jun. 1884 Commissioning of Naval
4. Additionally, they must meet all physical
Academy graduates as ensigns
requirements, including 20/20 uncorrected
authorized by Congress.
vision and height limitations.

2 May 1955 Navy announces the Aviation NAVCAD applicants must complete AOCS
Officer Candidate Program. and attend basic and advanced flight training. The
NAVCAD is obligated for 6 years of active
The current requirement for naval officers on commissioned service after becoming a naval
active duty is about 71,000. Approximately 6,200 aviator.
persons are commissioned as Regular or Reserve
officers and ordered to active duty each year. The CHIEF WARRANT OFFICER
Navy’s active-duty officer programs are aimed at (CWO) PROGRAM
the fulfillment of established goals based on
projected requirements. The Regular officer The mounting sophistication of ships, aircraft,
procurement programs do not provide sufficient and weapons systems requires commissioned
officers to maintain the USN structure. Therefore, officer specialists. These officers must be able to
qualified Reserve officers who apply are selected closely supervise complicated machinery and
for USN status as needed to maintain the career weapons as well as the enlisted technicians who
officer cadre of the Navy. maintain and operate them.
A chief warrant officer, although commis-
Our naval officers are procured from several sioned from the enlisted ranks, bridges the gap
different sources (fig. 3-1). A career as a naval between the enlisted and commissioned structures.
officer is open to civilians through the Naval The CWO structure provides flexibility in two
Academy or a college NROTC program (NROTC separate areas. A chief warrant officer grows in
programs are the largest source). Selected civilian competence during his or her progression through
college graduates who are qualified in appropriate the enlisted and warrant fields, while remaining
specialties may receive a direct appointment. within a specific technical field or job skill. The
Officer Candidate School (OCS) and Aviation CWO can also be assigned repeatedly to similar
Officer Candidate School (AOCS) are open to billets largely irrespective of grade within the
civilians and military personnel who have earned structure.
a degree. For enlisted personnel already serving The CWO Program is open to both men and
in the Navy, other routes are discussed in the women. It provides a path of advancement to
following paragraphs. warrant status for chief petty officers of the

3-3
Regular Navy and Naval Reserve. To qualify for 4. Be at least 22 years of age but not have
the program, they must have demonstrated passed the 31st birthday
outstanding performance in the technical fields 5. Be physically qualified for appointment to
indicated by their enlisted ratings. They must be the unrestricted line
on active duty to be considered by the selection 6. Have no record of conviction by court-
board and, if selected, remain on active duty martial or civil court, other than minor
until their appointments are tendered. Selectees traffic violations
normally receive 6 or 8 weeks of training at 7. Meet high standards of personal conduct,
an officer indoctrination school, followed by character, patriotism, sense of duty, and
technical training as appropriate. (Supply Corps financial responsibility
personnel, however, receive 6 months of training.) 8. Have a cumulative grade-point average
The appointment of each chief and senior (CPA) of not less than 2.3 on the 4.0 scale
chief petty officer will be to the grade of chief for all college-level courses completed
warrant officer, CWO-2. Master chief petty 9. Be recommended by the commanding
officers could also be appointed to CWO-2 but officer
may be recommended for appointment for
CWO-3 if they fulfill the following requirements: While undergoing training at the participating
college/university under the ECP, the ECP officer
1. Must have performed duties equating to candidate will receive full pay and allowances.
those of a chief warrant officer, CWO-2, However, the ECP officer candidate will be
for a minimum of 2 years during their 20th responsible for paying all educational expenses.
to 24th years of service. Service obligation:
2. Must have performed such duties in the
warrant technical specialty for which 1. Six years of active enlisted service will be
application is made. incurred from the date of enrollment in the
ECP.
LIMITED DUTY OFFICER 2. Four years of active commissioned service
(LDO) PROGRAM will be incurred upon commissioning.

The LDO Program is somewhat like the CWO

Program in that it permits officers to continue OFFICER’S RECORD
working in the broad technical fields associated
with their rating. Inputs are limited to selected An officer’s record is maintained for Regular
chief warrant officers and senior enlisted person- Navy and Naval Reserve officers at the Bureau
nel. Each selected commissioned warrant appli- of Naval Personnel (BUPERS). The record
cant will be appointed to the temporary grade is intended to reflect the official history
of lieutenant (junior grade). Selected enlisted of the officer’s career in the Navy. It is the
applicants will be appointed to the temporary property of the government and not of the officer
grade of ensign. concerned. This official record contains any
document that bears or reflects on the character,
ENLISTED COMMISSIONING performance, professional qualifications, and
PROGRAM (ECP) fitness of the officer. This record shall not be used
as a depository for documents of a personal
The Enlisted Commissioning Program (ECP) nature that have no bearing on personnel
provides enlisted personnel with an associate functions. The record is reviewed when any
degree the opportunity to earn a baccalaureate change in status is contemplated, such as assign-
degree and a commission as an unrestricted line ment to duty, promotion, court-martial, or
officer. Candidates are enrolled full time at an disciplinary action by the Chief of Naval Person-
NROTC host university. Upon completion of nel. The record is of particular importance in
ECP, the candidate attends OCS. selection for promotion.
Eligibility requirements:
MICROFICHE
1. Be a U.S. citizen
2. Be serving on active duty All officer personnel records held in BUPERS
3. Have time in service of between 4 and 11 have been converted from paper to microfiche
years files. As shown in figures 3-2 and 3-3, the officer’s

3-4
Figure 3-2.-Officer fiche formats.

Figure 3-3.-Officer fiche formats.

3-5
record may contain up to six categories of concerning the officer (These include
microfiche information and documents. Some of statements of disciplinary action and
the information and documents that may be filed court-martial orders or promulgating
under the six categories are as follows: letters of general court-martial when a
finding of guilty has been found. A trial
1. Fiche No. 1—Fitness and Awards
may result in an acquittal of all charges
• Current photograph
and specifications, or the final review
• Fitness reports of a conviction may result in action
equivalent to an acquittal of all charges
• Medals/awards/citations and specifications. In such cases court-
2. Fiche No. 2—Professional History martial orders or the promulgating
letters of court-martial shall not be
• Education included in the officer’s record. No
• Qualifications entry whatever regarding the acquittal
shall appear in the officer’s official
• Appointments/promotions record, neither the fact that the person
• Reserve status has been tried nor any mention of
the offense. Complete records of pro-
• Service determination, separation, and
ceedings of court-martial inquiries,
retirement
investigations, and so forth, are filed
3. Fiche No. 3—Personal Data in the Office of the Judge Advocate
General.)
Security data
Record of emergency data 6. Fiche No. 6—Enlisted Record

Record changes • The information included in this fiche

shows schools attended, qualifications
Personal background data (citizenship, achieved, awards received, and other
casualty, death, biography) information pertinent to a naval
Miscellaneous information—For ex- officer’s career. This record is prepared
ample, physical examination report for officers who have served as enlisted
members for 2 or more years and
4. Fiche No. 4—Orders whose officer microform record was
• First duty established during the initial conversion
process from paper to microfiche.
• Training duty Enlisted documents for officers who
• Separation completed less than 2 years of enlisted
service are distributed in the ap-
5. Fiche No. 5—Privileged Information propriate subject matter field on fiche
(Prepared only as correspondence 1 through 5.
warrants)
The official officer record presented to selec-
Adverse information (Based on Navy
tion boards contains fiche numbers 1; 2; and, if
Regulations, adverse matter shall not
it exists, 5 for active-duty officers. It contains
be placed in an officer’s record without
fiche numbers 1; 2; 4; and, if it exists, 5 for Naval
the knowledge of the officer. In all
Reserve (inactive and TAR) officers. Fiche
cases, it shall be referred to the officer
numbers 3 and 6 are normally maintained for
on which the matter is being reported
administrative purposes only. However, upon
for such official statement as may be
request, boards may be provided with fiche
desired. If the officer who is being
number 3 to determine an officer’s medical status.
reported chooses to make no statement,
Commendatory correspondence may not be
that intention must be so indicated in
filed in the officer’s official record. The report-
writing. The Chief of Naval Personnel
ing senior should consider any commendatory
interprets what constitutes adverse
correspondence or recognition for performance
matter.)
beyond that normally expected when evaluating
Extracts from the findings and rec- overall performance in preparing the officer’s
ommendations of courts and boards fitness report. If considered appropriate, an entry

3-6
should be made in the remarks section of the Any matter rightfully placed in the official
fitness report reflecting the commendatory record of an officer may not be removed except
material received and any other pertinent related by special authorization of the Secretary of the
facts. Navy (SECNAV). The record is permanent. Once
Access to the record of an officer is normally submitted to BUPERS, a fitness report becomes
limited to the following persons: the property of the Navy Department and is not
subject to change. A report may be amended or
• The officer concerned
supplemented by correspondence forwarded
• An agent or representative of the officer through official channels. In such cases the for-
specifically authorized in writing warding correspondence will be microfilmed and
made a part of the fitness report being amended
• The Chief of Naval Personnel and
or supplemented.
authorized assistants in the conduct of
their official duties
Anonymous communications are not made
• Members of boards convened by the part of an officer’s official record.
Navy
OFFICER SERVICE RECORD
• Members of a courts-martial board
• The clerk of the court of competent An officer service record (fig. 3-4) is main-
jurisdiction in response to a valid order tained for every officer in addition to the officer’s
from that court record in BUPERS. The officer service record is a

Figure 3-4.-Cover for officer service record.

3-7
brown manila file folder containing information degree. Each report should be a frank, accurate,
in a format similar to that in the enlisted service and comprehensive evaluation of the officer’s
record. characteristics and performance.
For the active-duty officer, the service record Because of the importance of these reports,
is maintained by the activity to which the person all officers should become familiar with both the
is attached. form and the instructions concerning its use.
For inactive-duty officers and retired officers, NAVPERS 1611/1 (fig. 3-5) is the optical
the responsibility for maintenance of service character recognition (OCR) form on which
records depends on whether the officers are partic- fitness reports are submitted. Specific instructions
ipating in inactive-duty training. For those not par- for completing the form are issued by BUPERS.
ticipating (that is, not having orders for any type We mentioned earlier that access to an
of inactive-duty training), the records are main- officer’s record in BUPERS may be granted to the
tained by the Commanding Officer, Naval Re- officer concerned or to a representative designated
serve Personnel Center, New Orleans, Louisiana. by the officer. When in Washington, D.C., all
The officer service record is designed to pro- officers should take advantage of the opportunity
vide a ready file of documents that may be used to visit the Records Review Room in BUPERS.
for billet assignment and other administrative pur- They can then review their record to ensure no
poses. It may also be used to establish facts, when fitness reports are missing. If reports are missing,
necessary, regarding an officer’s naval service. officers can request that those fitness reports be
The right side of the record is reserved for submitted before the next selection board. By
documents affecting utilization and assignment reviewing their record, officers can also determine
of the officer concerned. The left side is used for whether, in the opinion of successive reporting
information primarily related to the officer’s seniors, some aspect of their professional ability
present tour of active duty. Accordingly, some or qualifications has declined. Officers may then
items filed on the left side are removed from have the opportunity to take remedial action
the folder when the officer is transferred. (engage in self-improvement).
Miscellaneous documents not pertaining to All superiors exercising command functions
either of the above categories, but establishing are responsible for completing fitness reports on
significant facts relating to the officer’s service, all officers who have reported to them for duty.
are also filed on the left side. This must be done based on orders issued by the
The Naval Military Personnel Command Secretary of the Navy, the Chief of Naval
Manual (MILPERSMAN) gives a list of the Personnel, or others authorized to issue such
documents to be filed on each side and the order orders.
of filing. Reports of fitness on Regular and Reserve
officers on active duty are submitted at least
OFFICER FITNESS REPORTS
annually based on a schedule published by the
Fitness reports form one of the most impor- Chief of Naval Personnel. Reserve officers
tant documents of an officer’s record. They involved in training and administration of
provide a record of the duty performed and the Reserves (TARs) on extended duty, who compete
manner of performance as well as the officer’s among themselves for promotion, have a different
professional qualifications and commendations. submission schedule.
These reports provide a record of censorious Reports of fitness on Reserve officers who
matter, disciplinary action, and any special perform active-duty for training are submitted on
qualifications and personal characteristics of the NAVPERS 1611/1 directly to the Chief of Naval
officer. The fitness report also records an officer’s Personnel. The commanding officer of the ship
general state of health and endurance as it affects or station where the officer performs the active
the officer’s value to the naval service. duty is responsible for submitting the report. The
Fitness reports are the primary instrument by occasion for such reports is “detachment of
which the best qualified officers are promoted. officer.”
They are also the primary instrument by which Most scheduled submission dates are approx-
officers with the particular qualifications required imately 3 months before the usual convening dates
are chosen to fill responsible positions in the of applicable selection boards. This schedule
military establishment. In addition, they are provides each board with the latest performance
used as evidence before courts-martial and in evaluations. The more frequent submission of
connection with disciplinary action of a lesser reports for junior officers is required to speed up

3-8
Figure 3-5.-Report on the Fitness of Officers(NAVPERS 1611/1) (front).

3-9
the collection of information in their records. It Preparation of Fitness Reports
is also needed to help supervise those officers more
closely and to establish a basis on which they may The importance of keeping the records of
be considered for postgraduate schooling and officers continuously complete in all respects
other training. requires prompt submission of the report.
In addition to the foregoing, regular detach- Officers’ fitness report files should contain a
ment reports on all officers are submitted complete and continuous record of all the time
upon their permanent detachment or upon the spent in an active-duty status. The period of the
permanent detachment of their regular reporting report should begin with the day after the terminal
seniors. date of the last report or the date officers were
Submission of fitness reports for brief periods detached from their last duty station. Time
isn’t needed. The intent is for fitness reports to between stations spent in transit, on leave, in the
cover all time in a duty status. Therefore, to help hospital, or on inactive duty should be shown in
administer the reports and avoid their needless the report. The reporting senior’s marks and
submission, the person filing the report may remarks are limited to the period during which
modify the prescribed reporting periods as officers were under the senior’s command.
follows :
Commanding officers frequently require their
A reporting senior may extend a executive officers and department heads to report
periodic report for a maximum of 60 days to them on the performance of officers serving
on either end of the period involved when under their supervision. Commanding officers use
either the officer on which the report is these reports in making reports on the fitness of
being filed or the reporting senior reports officers under their command. They do not for-
for duty before or is detached after the ward these reports to the Chief of Naval
period to be extended. For example, a Personnel.
commander who reports for duty on 12 After a naval action or campaign and after
May 1990 and whose regular reporting service on shore with an expeditionary force or
senior is detached on 21 June 1990 could force of occupation, an entry is made on each
properly receive only one report of fitness participating officer’s next fitness report. The
for the entire period beginning 12 May entry states the kinds of services performed and
1990. A reporting senior who is being gives the dates and names of any engagements in
detached, however, must submit a fitness which the officer took part.
report on every officer who is aboard as Officers in the grades of chief warrant officer
of the day of the reporting senior’s detach- (CWO-2) and ensign through lieutenant must,
ment, regardless of how brief a period may except in unusual circumstances, sign the record
be involved. copy regardless of the report content. The report
When an officer reports on board for must be signed in ink by both the officer being
temporary duty for purposes of brief- evaluated and the reporting senior.
ings, training, indoctrination, or awaiting
further transportation for a period not to Officers in the grades of CWO-3 and CWO-4
exceed 30 days, the period involved and and lieutenant commander through captain may
nature of assigned duties often prevent a be given counseling about the report upon request.
meaningful evaluation. In such instances, However, reports shall not be shown to them as
the temporary duty reporting senior need a matter of routine. When the report has been
not submit a fitness report. However, the discussed but not shown to the officer, the words
temporary duty reporting senior must REPORT DISCUSSED are typed in section 82
ensure that both the officer concerned and of both the OCR form and record copies of the
the ultimate command are advised that no report.
report has been or will be submitted for Reporting seniors will show fitness reports to
such period. Additionally, the ultimate officers in the grades of CWO-2 and ensign
command must be provided all training through lieutenant. This action will be accom-
information to record in the next regular panied by personal counseling. A frank and
report. The ultimate command must cover meaningful discussion and explanation of the
the temporary duty, as well as other report must be conducted so that the officers may
transient time, in the next regular report. fully understand their performance.

3-10
Special Fitness Reports of the Navy Information and Personnel Security
Program Regulation apply.
Special reports of fitness maybe submitted on Officers may, upon request, obtain copies of
officers whenever they conduct themselves in any the five most recent reports in their record. A
of the following manners: written request may be submitted directly to
BUPERS.
1. Distinguish themselves in battle
2. Perform an outstanding act of valor or
devotion to duty PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
3. Display extraordinary courage, ability, or PATH
resource in time of peril or great respon-
sibility In the assignment of officer personnel, the
4. Are guilty of serious misconduct or marked Navy is influenced by the needs of the service, the
inefficiency current composition of the officer corps, and the
professional development of each officer. Every
effort is made to place officers in billets of their
Adverse Reports
choice, while the service needs and the person’s
qualifications are also considered.
Adverse matter is not placed in the records of
A service need is simply the day-to-day re-
officers without their knowledge. A fitness report
quirement of Navy activities for specific grades
containing adverse matter is referred officially in
with certain talents. Professional development has
writing to the officer on which the report is
a dual nature. First, in ordering officers to varied
being submitted. If desired, the officer may then
types of duties and schools, the Navy furthers its
make an official statement in reply. If the officer
own mission of preparing these officers for future
desires to make no statement, that choice must
command responsibilities. Second, the Navy
be stated officially in writing. The statement (or
performs a genuine service for these officers by
nonstatement) is endorsed by the reporting senior
filling out their experience and thus increasing
and forwarded to the Chief of Naval Personnel
their promotional prospects. The desires of the
together with the fitness report. When the adverse
officers are also considered because they have an
report is not returned within a reasonable time,
obvious bearing on morale. Marital and depen-
the reporting senior must prepare an explanation
dent status, geographical and fleet preference,
of the circumstances. A signed duplicate report
school requests, and other personal considerations
is then sent with the explanation to the Chief of
play an important part in the final determination
Naval Personnel. The officer being reported is
of duty assignment.
informed when that is done.
We will limit this discussion of assignments
to rotational patterns of the unrestricted line
Submission of Report (surface, submarine, aviation) and supply. These
patterns, as well as those not mentioned, contain
When the report of fitness is completed, the a common element. They should provide officers
regular reporting senior forwards it directly to the the opportunity to gain the proficiency to handle
Chief of Naval Personnel. the responsibilities and challenges of command.
Any reports concerning the actions or per- Officers can only gain that proficiency through
formance of the officer during a transit period a concentrated and continuing effort to develop
between stations are addressed to the superior to their knowledge and experience. Both the officers
whom the officer is reporting for duty. The and their succession of detailing officers must be
superior normally attaches these reports to the aware of that element. With few exceptions,
next regular report of fitness. When the nature orders involving a permanent change of station
of such reports requires early action by the Chief for officers are originated by the Chief of Naval
of Naval Personnel, they are forwarded to him Personnel. The Naval Military Personnel Manual
immediately. (MILPERSMAN) contains basic policy pertain-
The reports of fitness of officers are con- ing to officer rotation. This policy concerns the
sidered and treated as private and official. The varied types of duty assignments required for
reports are forwarded in double envelopes. If officers to develop their capabilities and to achieve
classified information is mentioned in a fitness a fulfilling career. Deviations from basic policy
report, the instructions issued in the Department are provided as needed to meet problems that

3-11
arise. At the present time, these deviations are a career as a surface warfare officer, you may stay
required because of the increasing size of the shore at sea the first 5 years because of operational re-
establishment and the shortage of career officers. quirements or personal choice or both. During this
In addition to the requirements for rotation, time you will strive to attain qualifications as
assignment patterns reflect the need for the division officer, officer of the deck, department
following considerations: head, and surface warfare officer. Then you may
rotate ashore to staff duty or to attend the Naval
1. Educational opportunities for overall Postgraduate School. Although you did not
career value or for a particular billet follow the development plan exactly, you will have
2. A progression of responsibility obtained the experience and qualifications
3. Assignment to duty with Reserve necessary to make you competitive with your year-
components group peers.
4. Assignment of duty with joint or allied Figure 3-6, C and D, show an example of the
staffs or with the Office of the Secretary professional development patterns for a sub-
of Defense (SECDEF) marine officer and an aviation officer. The typical
5. Use of specialized training professional development paths for supply corps
officers and general unrestricted line (URL)
Officers should realize they are primarily officers are depicted in figure 3-6, E and F.
responsible for planning their own career and The career path for female officers in the
should therefore indicate their assignment restricted line and staff corps parallels that of the
preferences to the Bureau of Naval Personnel. male officers except as constrained by law. The
All commissioned officers complete an Officer career progression for female aviators and
Preference and Personal Information Card surface warfare officers parallels that for their
(NAVPERS 1301/1) on initial appointment and male counterparts but is restricted to the force
upon recall to active duty. Additionally, they support subcommunity.
should submit a new card 12 months before their A relatively new and important role for naval
projected rotation date (PRD) and whenever officers is a joint-duty tour. A joint-duty tour is
significant changes occur. a tour served with other branches of the armed
This card contains a wealth of information forces. It provides the officer with a first-hand
that is very useful to the detailing officer. It is perspective of how the Navy interacts with other
construed as a current reflection of the officer’s branches of the service.
preferences, and its timely and accurate submis- Many billets are available for joint-duty tours
sion is extremely important. in places such as the Office of the Secretary of
Personal letters may be submitted if special Defense, the White House, the U.S. Space
circumstances not appropriate for inclusion on the Command, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Every
preference card arise. The information is made effort possible is made by detailers to send our
a part of the detailing record and is acted upon best performers to a joint-duty tour.
if practicable. These letters to the detailer Increased emphasis is being placed on the
do not become a part of the officers’s permanent importance of such tours. All officers aspiring to
record. flag rank should seek a joint-duty tour. Tours are
Officers desiring special courses of instruction, usually assigned at the lieutenant commander level
changes of duty, clarification of orders, date of or above for a length of 3 years.
release from active duty, extensions, retention in
the Navy, and so forth, should indicate this by
a letter forwarded through the chain of command.
Such letters become a permanent part of an OFFICER PROMOTIONS
officer’s record.
Figure 3-6, A, shows a typical professional The Navy’s officer corps is structured like a
development pattern for a surface warfare officer, pyramid. Starting with a wide base of junior
and figure 3-6, B, shows the pattern for a surface officers at the bottom, it rises to a relatively few
nuclear officer. Officers do not normally perform flag officers near the pinnacle and ends with one
the types of duties in the exact sequence shown; officer, the Chief of Naval Operations, at the
rather, they should gain experience in the type of top. The officer corps structure consists of 21
tour related to the phase of development through competitive categories, or groups, of officers
which they are passing. For instance, if you select possessing similar skills, education, and training.

3-12
 By law, the Navy’s promotion system is not promoted, by the President of the United
vacancy-driven. Annually, promotion planners on States to the grade of admiral and vice admiral.
the CNO’s staff develop plans to determine the Selection boards are composed of officers
projected need (or vacancies) for officers in each characterized by their high quality of perform-
grade within each of the competitive categories. ance, maturity, judgment, naval background, and
The development of these plans starts the promo- experience. SECNAV normally assigns the senior
tion system cycle, within which are three major member as president of the board. Each member
elements: promotion opportunity, selection for subscribes to an oath to consider all eligible
promotion, and promotion. officers without partiality and to recommend for
promotion only those officers who are best
PROMOTION OPPORTUNITY qualified.
The board cannot exceed the number of selec-
Obviously, all officers can’t reach the tions provided for in SECNAV’s precept. For
top of the pyramid. However, they all have example, if 100 officers are in zone and SECNAV
the same promotion opportunity as their requires a 70 percent promotion percentage, the
contemporaries in their competitive category. board cannot select more than 70 officers for
Promotion opportunity is the product of three promotion. It may reach “below zone” and
factors: authorized officer strength, promotion choose for early promotion up to 10 percent (or
flow point, and promotion percentage. 15 percent with SECDEF approval) of the total
The Navy’s authorized officer strength is the number of officers selected. If, in the above
total number of officers authorized to be in the example, the board selects 10 officers from below
Navy at the end of each fiscal year. Since the zone, it can select only 60 officers from in zone.
authorized officer strength sets a limit on how (Each officer normally gets two “looks” from
many officers the Navy may have each year, it below zone before entering in zone.) The board
affects the number of promotions that can be also may select “above zone” officers; that is,
made. those who were considered by a promotion board
Promotion flow point is a predetermined in a previous year but weren’t selected.
number of years of commissioned service at
which most officers would be promoted to the
next higher grade. The first step in promotion PROMOTION
opportunity is based on how many vacancies are
expected in each grade in each competitive Once the board concludes its deliberations and
category. This step determines the size of the selec- assembles its promotion list, several events must
tion zone, commonly referred to as “in zone.” occur in the following order before an officer
If the CNO’s promotion planners foresee a need actually gets promoted to the next higher grade:
to fill 300 captain vacancies in the unrestricted line
(URL) and a promotion opportunity of 50 per- • Chief of Naval Personnel, Judge Advocate
cent is desired, then the zone must include 600 General, and Chief of Naval Operations
URL commanders. review the list.

SELECTION FOR PROMOTION • SECNAV reviews the list.

Annually, SECNAV convenes promotion • SECNAV publishes the list for chief
boards for each competitive category to select warrant officer, lieutenant, lieutenant
active-duty officers and inactive-duty Reserve commander, commander, and captain in
officers for promotion. They are selected for an ALNAV (all Navy) message. The
promotions to the grades of chief warrant ALNAV message lists the names of
officer (CWO-3), chief warrant officer (CWO-4), selectees in alphabetical order and shows
lieutenant, lieutenant commander, commander, an officer’s relative seniority among
captain, rear admiral (lower), and rear admiral selectees within each competitive category.
(upper). Chief warrant officer (CWO-2) and Officers in the same competitive category
ensign are commissioning grades; commanding maintain relative seniority throughout their
officers determine the promotion of officers careers. Changes occur only if an officer
under their command to lieutenant junior grade. is selected for early promotion or fails to
Officers above the grade of captain are appointed, be selected for promotion.

3-13
 Figure 3-6.
3-14
3-15
 Secretary of Defense signs the list. BASIC, SPECIAL, AND
INCENTIVE PAY
President of the United States signs the list.
Basic pay, which accrues for all personnel on
SECNAV publishes the list for rear the basis of paygrade and cumulative years of
admiral (lower) and rear admiral (upper) service, is the major portion of a person’s total
in an ALNAV message. pay. The cumulative years of service may have
been in any branch of the armed services or a
U.S. Senate confirms the list. Lieutenant Reserve component.
(active Reserve), lieutenant commander Special pay is added compensation received
(Reserve), and chief warrant officer for performing special duties. For officers,
selectees do not require Senate confirma- “special duty” is limited to medical and dental
tion. billets and duties involving diving and coming
under hostile fire. Special pay for doctors and
SECNAV authorizes promotions through dentists is prorated on the number of years they
ALNAV messages as vacancies occur. This have been on active duty (although certain medical
event normally occurs at monthly intervals officers serving in critical specialties also receive
in the fiscal year following the fiscal year a special continuation pay). Special pay for hostile
of selection. Assuming officers maintain fire and diving involves flat monthly sums
all qualifications, they will receive the first regardless of grade or years of service. As a matter
paycheck for the next higher grade soon of interest, special pay for hostile fire is not
after their name appears on this ALNAV payable in time of war declared by Congress.
message. Incentive pay, prorated according to grade and
years of service, is additional pay received for
performing hazardous duty. Included in this
category are flight pay for both crew and non-
PAY AND ALLOWANCES crew members; submarine pay; and extra pay
received for parachute, aircraft carrier flight deck,
Two general statements can safely be made explosive demolition, experimental stress, or
about military pay. Few, if any, people become leprosarium duty.
wealthy on the basis of their military pay alone.
On the other hand, if budgeted wisely, military ALLOWANCES
pay provides a comfortable standard of living.
From a career standpoint, you should keep An allowance is a contribution of money, or
certain factors in mind when making dollar-for- its equivalent “in kind,” to help meet expenses
dollar comparisons of military and civilian pay. incurred as the result of membership in the naval
Military pay is guaranteed and predictable. The service. Allowances are not taxable.
current trend in military pay is upward. Periods
of business recession do not adversely affect Basic Allowance for Quarters (BAQ)
military pay. A portion of the total military pay
is not taxable, and provisions are made for The purpose of basic allowance for quarters
additional pay for various forms of special or (BAQ) is to help members pay the cost of obtain-
hazardous duty. ing suitable living quarters when government
Many publications contain descriptions of the quarters are unavailable or not assigned.
entire matter of military pay. Our purpose here BAQ is divided into two categories: BAQ for
is to give an overview and to define and briefly members without dependents and BAQ for
discuss elements that compose the total pay members with dependents. The rates payable vary
structure. according to your grade.
Commissioned officers and warrant officers If you live in government quarters, you forfeit
are assigned by law to paygrades on the basis of your BAQ in lieu of rent.
the grades in which they are serving, whether
under temporary or permanent appointment. Variable Housing Allowance (VHA)
Enlisted personnel, on the other hand, are
assigned to paygrades by the Secretary of the Variable housing allowance (VHA) is paid in
Navy. addition to BAQ to help members defray the cost

3-16
of living in a particular area. VHA is based on MEDICAL AND DENTAL CARE
your grade and geographic location. Surveys are
conducted periodically to determine the amount Medical and dental care are available to all
of VHA for each geographic region of the United members of the armed services on active duty.
States. You forfeit VHA, as well as BAQ, if you Regardless of where members are stationed, they
reside in government quarters. have immediate access to full and complete care
through the facilities of all the armed forces and
the Public Health Service.
Basic Allowance for Subsistence (BAS)
The Navy naturally is vitally concerned with
the health of its members. It establishes physical
Since all officers must pay their own mess bills,
they are entitled to a monthly allowance for qualifications for procurement and ensures the
subsistence without regard to grade or dependency maintenance of these standards throughout
the member’s entire period of active service.
status. All officers, whether on board ship or
Additional physical qualifications are required for
ashore, whether married or single, receive a basic
aviation, submarine duty, and other special
allowance for subsistence (BAS).
programs. The rigors of a career in the Navy can-
not be withstood by a person who is not in good
Family Separation Allowance (FSA) physical condition. Should a person become
injured or ill while on active duty, however,
Members assigned to a deployable unit are restoring the person to health as soon as possible
paid a family separation allowance (FSA) of $2 is obviously in the person’s best interest as well
per day when they have been away from their as the Navy’s.
home port in excess of 30 days. That allowance Regulations governing medical care for retirees
continues until the member’s unit returns to the and dependents are contained in SECNAV
home port. Instruction 6320.8D, which represents a joint
statement by the armed forces, Coast Guard, and
Dislocation Allowance (DLA) Public Health Service. The regulations prescribe
policies and procedures for administering the
Personnel with dependents are entitled to a Uniformed Services Health Benefits Program
dislocation allowance (DLA) upon a permanent (previously known as Medicare) as authorized by
change of station. It is paid to help defray the Title 10, U.S. Code, for all the uniformed services.
abnormal expenses incurred in such a move. The The law provides a uniform level of care,
amount is equal to one month’s basic allowance through either military or civilian facilities, for
for quarters to which the person is entitled. (1) retired personnel, (2) dependents of both
active-duty and retired members, and (3)
dependents of deceased members who died while
Miscellaneous on active duty or retired. Retired persons are
entitled to the same health benefits in uniformed
Additional allowances are paid for things such services facilities as active-duty members, except
as initial uniform allowance, mileage expenses for retirees are subject to space availability and staff
travel under orders, and per diem payments for capabilities. (The Veterans Administration,
temporary additional duty. Their specifications however, is responsible for the hospitalization of
differ, but the basic idea is the same: a temporary persons retired because of a physical disability
payment to help defray expenses of an unusual or of a service-connected disease or injury.)
nature arising from official duty. Exceptions to entitlement of medical care for
dependents, which are few, include dental care,
domiciliary or custodial care, prosthetic devices,
BENEFITS hearing aids, spectacles, and orthopedic footwear.
Medical services at uniformed services facilities
From the time naval officers begin active duty, may be provided to dependents subject to space
they are entitled to many valuable benefits. availability and the capabilities of the professional
Those benefits considered traditional include staff.
commissary privileges, various assistance pro- In general, retirees and all dependents should
grams, and retirement. Benefits are estimated to use uniformed services medical facilities if they
add about 15 percent to a an officer’s pay. are adequate and available. An integral part of

3-17
 the Health Benefits Program, however, is the be purchased by military personnel for their
Civilian Health and Medical Program of the dependents through a group policy called Delta
Uniformed Services (CHAMPUS). This aspect of Dental Plan (DDP). DDP is a voluntary program
medical care is of particular benefit to eligible of preventive services and basic dental care. The
beneficiaries residing in areas where service cost of that insurance is presently under $10 per
medical facilities are unavailable or unable to month and provides coverage for all your
accommodate them. CHAMPUS authorizes a dependents.
wide range of civilian health care services, with
a significant share of the cost being paid by the COMMISSARY AND EXCHANGE
government. PRIVILEGES
Participation in CHAMPUS by sources of
care is entirely voluntary. Beneficiaries desiring One feature of Navy life a service dependent
treatment or hospitalization under CHAMPUS will especially appreciate is the privilege of
must locate a “participating” physician or purchasing food, household goods, and personal
another source of health care willing to provide items at a reasonable cost through commissaries
authorized care to the beneficiary. The source and service exchanges. These government facilities
must be willing, after payment of a stipulated permit service personnel and their dependents to
amount by the beneficiary, to submit a claim to purchase basic commodities at fair prices.
the proper government fiscal agent for payment In overseas branches of those activities,
of the remainder of the fee. The source must also personnel and their families may buy foodstuffs
be willing to accept the amount the government and exchange items that otherwise might not
determines to be allowable for the services. be available. Many commodities ordinarily
Inherent in CHAMPUS is a “reasonable fee” obtainable overseas through other means carry a
concept, meaning the government will pay only much higher price tag. In addition, particularly
those charges it determines to be reasonable. If for foreign goods or unfamiliar brands, exchanges
a fee charged is considered unreasonable, the and commissaries ensure good quality. Their
difference between the fee for treatment and the buyers are experts; most of us are not. Exchanges
amount paid under CHAMPUS will have to be and commissaries base their prices on the same
paid by the beneficiary. The reasonable fee price scale used by their stateside counterparts.
concept can be costly if not understood. Some
beneficiaries erroneously think the government DEPENDENT SCHOOLING
will pay the full charge made by any civilian
source for authorized health care. If treated by Elementary and secondary schooling are
a nonparticipating medical caretaker, the patient available overseas at government expense for
must pay the bill for any extra money charged. eligible minor dependents of Department of
The patient should always ask at the time of the Defense (military and civilian) personnel. To be
initial visit whether the physician or hospital eligible, a dependent must be between the ages of
participates in CHAMPUS and will accept (after 5 and 20; must be authorized by competent
the patient’s contribution) the government fee as authority to be in the overseas area; and must be
payment in full. Claims submitted to the govern- the unmarried child, stepchild, legally adopted
ment by participating parties include an agreement child, or legal ward of the Department of Defense
to accept as full payment the amount authorized (DOD) member stationed overseas.
as payable under the program. Schooling may be provided by DOD schools;
Except for emergency care, hospitals that tuition-fee schools (schools under local govern-
practice discrimination in the admission or ment, private, church, or cooperative administra-
treatment of patients on the basis of race, tion); and correspondence courses. The type of
color, or national origin may not participate in schooling provided depends on the number of
CHAMPUS. In other words, the government eligible dependents in an area and the availability
won’t pay for their services, and beneficiaries of private schools that use English as the language
receiving treatment at those institutions will foot of instruction.
the entire bill. Schools operated by DOD are designed to
Dental care is provided to all military person- meet the special problems created by a change of
nel and in some cases to their dependents as duty station in midyear. Teachers for these schools
well. Most dental care for dependents is not must meet U.S. qualifications, must be U.S.
provided by the military. Dental insurance may citizens, and usually are recruited from the United

3-18
States. Spouses who meet necessary qualifications counseling, base and off-base housing, and finan-
may be hired locally for employment in service- cial assistance. They may provide hospitality kits
operated schools. containing necessary items of household items
Above the high school level, children of naval new arrivals can borrow until their household
personnel are eligible for scholarship assistance goods are delivered.
at a number of colleges and universities in the For the benefit of attached personnel receiving
United States. orders, centers maintain an inventory of brochures
containing information on many overseas and
OFFICERS’ MESS continental United States Navy installations.

A commissioned officers’ mess provides social Legal Assistance

a n d r e c r e a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s , meals, and
refreshments to commissioned and chief warrant Personnel may obtain confidential guidance,
officers. Where facilities permit, privileges of the without cost, from legal assistance officers at most
mess frequently are extended to officers of the duty stations. Advice rendered generally is on
other armed services and Reserve officers, as well legal, personal, and property problems, or the
as to officers’ dependents. At large activities a drafting of legal documents. Assistance does not
mess may consist of dining rooms; snack bars; include representation in civil court.
cocktail lounges; lounge areas; rooms for private
parties; and in some cases swimming pools, golf Casualty Assistance Calls Program
courses, and tennis courts.
If a Navy person dies on active duty, the
ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS family is visited promptly by a casualty assistance
calls officer (CACO). The CACO offers the
To promote and preserve peace of mind for dependents help in obtaining rights, benefits, and
its officers and their dependents, the Navy offers privileges to which they are entitled and advises
a number of special assistance programs, some on funeral arrangements and financial assistance,
of which have substantial cash value. if needed. The visit by the CACO is automatic;
the deceased’s family need not initiate the action.
Family Services Centers
Navy Relief Society
At many Navy shore installations in the United
States, particularly in areas of fleet concentration, Known as the “Navy’s own organization to
Family Services Centers are established to assist take care of its own,” the Navy Relief Society
new arrivals in obtaining personal services they is privately supported, primarily by means
may need. of annual requests for contributions. At the
The centers ensure newcomers to the area service of Navy and Marine personnel and
receive a personal welcome, either by a home call dependents who need emergency help, it limits
or at the center. The new arrival is usually issued itself, generally, to nonrecurring situations of
a brochure that includes information such as the distress involving clothing, medical care, burial,
following: and the like. It cannot underwrite permanent
need. The society may make interest-free loans,
1. A map of the area outright grants, or a combination of the two.
2. A letter of welcome
3. An area directory Navy Mutual Aid Association
4. A base information guide
5. Data on available medical care, Navy The aim of the nonprofit Mutual Aid Associa-
Relief, Red Cross, churches, commissaries tion is to provide life insurance at cost and
and exchanges, educational facilities, base immediate aid to dependents of deceased officers.
facilities, and so on Upon notice of a member’s death, this associa-
tion wires or cables a $2,000 cash payment to the
In addition, centers will refer members and dependents of the deceased member anywhere in
their dependents to the proper facility to obtain the world. The total life insurance coverage is
needed information on, among other things, $400,000 available in $20,000 increments to
passport applications, voting, insurance, career association members. Membership is available to

3-19
active-duty and Reserve officer and enlisted American, Olympic, and other international
personnel under 62 years of age of the Navy, sports competitions.
Marine Corps, Public Health Service, and
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- RETIREMENT
tion. Other services include quick loans, central
depository for documents, and assistance to the Retirement benefits available at the conclusion
family in obtaining all rights and benefits to which of a Navy career are, in many respects, superior
entitled. For further information about the to similar plans in civilian life. On a day-to-
association benefits, you may call 1-800-628-6011 day basis, the most important factor is that
or write to the following address: the persons to whom the benefits accrue pay
nothing toward their accumulation. Personnel are
Navy Mutual Aid Association encouraged to accumulate personal savings or
Arlington Annex, Room G070 investments to supplement their retirement in-
Washington, DC 20370 come. However, if they fail to do so, they may
still look forward to having enough income during
Navy Chaplains their remaining years from retirement pay and
subsidiary benefits for the necessities of life.
In addition to religious duties, the chaplain is The Navy offers three types of retirement:
available for personal, spiritual, and moral voluntary, statutory, and retirement for physical
guidance, and for performance of marriages and disability.
funeral ceremonies.
Voluntary Retirement
RECREATION AND
SPORTS PROGRAMS Regular officers are eligible for voluntary
retirement after completing 20 years of active
Commanding officers make every attempt to service. Reserve officers (inactive duty) are entitled
provide recreation and sports programs designed to retired pay benefits after reaching age 60
to meet varied interests and desires and adapted provided they have completed 20 years of satisfac-
to the needs of personnel and the facilities tory federal service (of which the last 8 years were
available. in a Reserve component).
Application for retirement is normally in-
Recreation stituted by the officer desiring retirement, but
acceptance rests with the Secretary of the Navy.
Most naval stations provide motion picture The full administrative process involved in retire-
entertainment, well-stocked libraries, hobby craft ment is too lengthy for the purposes of this discus-
shops, station newspapers, dances, parties, and sion, but one aspect should be emphasized. A
shows. In larger metropolitan areas, theater, physical examination is a very important part of
concert, and sporting event tickets may be offered the retirement procedure. Discovery of any defects
to service personnel at reduced prices and in many that will alter the retirement status will be acted
cases free of charge. upon. However, once the processing is completed,
that retired status cannot be altered except by
Sports reason of disability incurred as a result of being
called back to active duty.
Sports programs include organized competi-
tions at intramural, intradistrict, intra-area, and Statutory (Involuntary) Retirement
intratype (or intertype) levels. Games and matches
between fleet and shore activities are stressed, and To ensure youth and vigor in responsible
interservice championships are held in many positions and to prevent stagnation in grade, the
instances. All-Navy sports championships are a Navy has laws that require the retirement of
natural outgrowth of the extensive intra- permanent officers and warrant officers at
intermural programs. certain times. They are required to retire after
Outstanding Navy athletes who believe they reaching a certain age, after failing selection for
possess the necessary capability and potential may promotion or continuation, after completion of
apply to the Chief of Naval Personnel for a certain number of years of service, or a
permission to train for and participate in Pan combination of these elements. A compilation of

3-20
statutory requirements for permanent Regular Under the Survivor Benefit Plan, members are
officers may be found in the Naval Military automatically enrolled in the plan with maximum
Personnel Manual, NAVPERS 15560A. Statutory coverage when they retire if they have spouses or
requirements require no application from the dependent children, unless they elect a lesser
officer concerned. coverage or decline participation before becoming
entitled to retired pay. The retiree must elect the
Disability Retirement lesser coverage at least 30 days before the first day
for which he or she can receive retired pay.
Members of the armed services who retire Since the federal government pays a substan-
because of physical disability may receive certain tial part of the SBP cost, retirees give up only a
tax benefits. If an officer retires for other than small part of their retired pay to provide
physical reasons, the entire amount of retired pay maximum coverage for their dependents.
is taxable. If an officer is retired for physical
reasons, however, and elects retired pay on the Miscellaneous Benefits of Retirement
basis of percentage of disability, such pay is tax
exempt. In time of peace retired officers may not be
ordered to active duty without their consent.
RETIREMENT BENEFITS Although they may be ordered to active duty in
time of war or national emergency, they are not
In addition to retirement pay, many other required to hold themselves in readiness for
benefits are offered upon retirement. The follow- active service.
ing section describes some of these added bonuses. Officers may use their military title in
commercial enterprises provided the use of that
Social Security Benefits title does not bring discredit to the Navy Depart-
ment or the Department of Defense. Retirees are
Active-duty military personnel are placed entitled to wear the uniform of the grade held on
under full Social Security coverage immediately the retired list when the wearing of the uniform
upon entering service. Credits based on military is appropriate.
service are not lost regardless of retirement or Retired officers and their dependents are
release from the service. A service person may entitled for life to the same medical and dental
receive retirement pay or any form of compensa- services provided their active-duty counterparts,
tion or pension from the Veterans Administration provided funding, staffing, and facilities are
plus Social Security insurance payments at the age available. They are also entitled for life to the
of 65 (or optionally at age 62), If totally disabled privilege of making purchases in commissaries,
a person may apply for Social Security benefits exchanges, and ship’s service stores.
immediately. Retired, as well as active-duty, personnel
should remember they may have acquired veteran
Survivor Benefit Plan (SBP) status and are thus entitled to many benefits
available from the Veterans Administration (VA)
This program assures financial protection for and from the state in which they reside. These may
survivors of retired uniformed service members. include employment counseling, home and farm
The Survivor Benefit Plan (SBP) provides an loans, unemployment compensation, burial rights,
income of up to 55 percent of a retiree’s pay to and VA benefits for veterans with disabilities.
the retiree’s widow or widower and dependent
children. SURVIVOR’S BENEFITS
In the past, surviving members of a retiree’s
family often found themselves with little or no Younger people usually are so busy living and
income following the retiree’s death. SBP fills that making a living that they put off systematic
gap in the area of service benefits. Until passage planning for their families until they approach
of the SBP law, the retired pay of retired members middle age and maximum earnings. Before that
oft he uniformed services ended with their death, time, in most cases, they cannot afford adequate
unless they had elected voluntarily to participate protection anyhow. If they choose a Navy career,
in the Retired Serviceman’s Family Protection that is one worry they can forget. Provision for
Plan (RSFPP)—known originally as the Con- their dependents begins the moment they enter the
tingency Option Act. naval service and continues into retirement.

3-21
 Financial security for dependents of deceased will find this coverage is extremely inexpensive,
naval officers is guaranteed under the Service- they may reduce or terminate it if requested in
man’s and Veteran’s Survivor Benefits Act, which writing. A life insurance program is an important
places all members of the armed forces under factor for any officer to consider, especially if one
Social Security. has family responsibilities.

The Survivor Benefits Act is a package deal

for long-range security of service families. It SUMMARY
combines full and permanent Social Security
eligibility with increased death and indemnity Navy life is a demanding life. It calls for
benefits paid by the VA to dependents of persons complete loyalty and dedication and for a great
who die as a result of military service. The latter measure of selflessness. It involves pleasant
benefits are separate from Social Security and assignments and those that are not so pleasant;
accrue whether death occurs during peace or war, but every billet you fill can be an opportunity for
as long as it results from a service-connected gain for the Navy, your shipmates, and yourself.
cause. When sums paid by both sources are A person must be mature and observant to always
added, they amount to a monthly income for your see these opportunities, but they are there. At
family that only those in the most fortunate times it can be a dangerous life. Danger is inherent
financial circumstances could provide in civilian in an armed service and particularly a service with
life. That income can be augmented by a retire- worldwide commitments. But for the person with
ment annuity made possible through the Survivor a desire to serve country and oneself in a variety
Benefit Plan. of interesting and challenging ways, it is a
stimulating, satisfying way of life.
In addition to a liberal schedule of death The family of the naval officer is a vital part
gratuities and monthly compensation payments, of the Navy team. Far more so than in civilian
the act provides for a considerable number life, a Navy spouse has the opportunity to
of miscellaneous benefits. These include, for further the officer’s career. The spouse’s patience,
example, shipment of household effects, depen- understanding, and acceptance of additional
dents’ transportation, homestead privileges for family responsibility contribute immeasurably to
establishing a home on government land, federal the officer’s peace of mind. Because of the respon-
employment privileges, commissary and exchange sibilities of officers in the world’s foremost Navy,
privileges, and Medicare. their peace of mind is essential to their best
performance of duty. Therefore, the welfare of
If a naval officer dies while in active service their families, leading to happy home lives, plays
or of service-connected causes within 120 days a major role toward the success of the Navy.
after release, the designated survivor also is The Navy recognizes the importance of the
entitled to the following benefits: role played by the officer’s family. It also realizes
service families can best do their part only when
1. Navy death gratuity equal to one-half of they are taken care of and kept informed of the
a year’s pay. The amount may not be less than Navy’s functions and missions to the fullest
$800. It is paid as promptly as possible and is not possible extent. Families should be encouraged,
taxable. therefore, to learn about the great responsibility
that falls upon naval officers and realize how
2. Payment up to $2,140 toward private much they can contribute toward achieving the
funeral and burial expenses for services not Navy’s goals.
provided by the government or for interment at The very nature of naval officers’ occupations
no expense in any open national cemetery. A gives their family a range of experience un-
headstone for the deceased is furnished in either paralleled by their civilian counterparts in the
case. world today. Inherently this range gives rise
to equally unparalleled social and cultural
In addition to other survivor benefits, all opportunities for entire families. How people
persons on active duty in excess of 30 days are profit from these opportunities is up to them; the
covered by a $50,000 Servicemen’s Group Life doorway is there and it is invitingly open.
Insurance policy at a cost to the service member Because of their mutual importance to the
of only $4 per month. Although service members Navy, officers and their families have every right

3-22
to expect the Navy to work for their benefit SUGGESTED READING
and interest—and the Navy will always do
that. In return the Navy counts on every service Mack, W. P., and T. D. Paulsen, The Naval
family to do its part. A family does its part by Officer’s Guide, 9th ed., Naval Institute Press,
taking advantage of the benefits offered and Annapolis, 1983.
cooperating to contribute toward the betterment
of the naval organization and the fulfillment of Naval Military Personnel Manual (MILPERS-
MAN), NAVPERS 15560A, Naval Military
its mission.
Personnel Command, Washington, D.C.,
1987.

Navy Pay and Personnel Procedures Manual

REFERENCES (PAYPERSMAN), NAVSO P-3050, Navy
Department, Office of the Comptroller, Naval
“Officer Promotions,” All Hands Number 864 Military Personnel Command, Washington,
(March 1989): 43-47. D.C., 1973.

Useful Information for Newly Commissioned U.S. Department of Defense, The Armed Forces
Officers, NAVEDTRA 10802-AL, Naval Officer, DOD Gen-36A, American Forces
Education and Training Program Manage- Information Services, Washington, D.C.,
ment Support Activity, Pensacola, Fla., 1989. 1988.

WARDROOM
ABOARD THE 18TH CENTURY BRITISH SHIPS THERE WAS A COMPARTMENT
CALLED THE WARDROBE, USED FOR STORING BOOTY TAKEN AT SEA. THE
OFFICERS’ MESS AND STATEROOMS WERE SITUATED NEARBY, SO WHEN THE
WARDROBE WAS EMPTY THEY CONGREGATED THERE TO TAKE THEIR MEALS
AND PASS THE TIME .
WHEN THE DAYS OF SWASHBUCKLING AND PIRATING HAD ENDED, THE
WARDROBE WAS USED EXCLUSIVELY AS AN OFFICERS’ MESS AND LOUNGE.
HAVING BEEN ELEVATED FROM A CLOSET TO A ROOM, IT WAS CALLED THE
WARDROOM.

3-23
 CHAPTER 4

MILITARY DUTIES OF THE NAVAL OFFICER

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe the authority of naval officers. 5. Identify the duties and responsibilities of the
command duty officer.
2. Identify the duties and responsibilities of the
officer of the deck underway.
6. Identify the duties and responsibilities of the
officer of the deck in port.
3. Identify the duties and responsibilities of the
combat information center watch officer.
7. Identify the duties and responsibilities of the
4. Identify the duties and responsibilities of the division officer.
engineering officer of the watch.

The duties of the naval officer are many. They AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY
are often complex, dealing with technical areas
or personnel problems. One of your challenges When you accept your commission as a naval
as a naval officer is to carry out successfully all officer, you assume many responsibilities. Your
the duties you are assigned in an efficient manner. peers in the civilian sector would have to
To achieve this task requires much forethought. work several years into their careers before
Although your duties remain somewhat consis- assuming such responsibilities. To handle these
tent, the conditions vary on a day-to-day basis; responsibilities, you need the authority to carry
sometimes they even change during the course of them out. Authority within the Navy means
the day. seniors have the legal right to require subordinates
to obey their lawful orders. Your authority
After your entry-level training, your first duty can be either general or organizational. You
assignment will probably be as a division officer. use general authority to fulfill the duties and
Division officers are assigned by the commanding responsibilities of your assignment or specific
officer to manage a division of the unit’s organiza- billet within an organization. By virtue of your
tion. Standard Organization and Regulations of commission, you are granted the organizational
the U.S. Navy, OPNAVINST 3120.32B, generally authority to perform your duties and respon-
referred to as the SORN, outlines the division sibilities based on United States Navy Regulations,
officer’s duties. Note, don’t confuse the SORN 1990.
with the SORM. The SORM is the Standard
Organization and Regulations Manual for your NAVY REGULATIONS
individual command. We will look at some of the
division officer’s duties later in this chapter, but Navy Regulations outlines the authority of
first let’s look at your authority and responsibility naval personnel in great detail. (Chapter 10 of
as a naval officer. Navy Regulations, which has several articles

4-1
dealing with authority, will be covered more SORN defines a watch as any period during
thoroughly in chapter 6 of this text.) For the which an individual is assigned specific, detailed
purpose of explanation and brevity, article 1012 responsibilities on a recurring basis. Watches on
best describes the authority of naval officers as board ships are set both in port and underway.
follows: Commanding officers establish the watches re-
quired for the safety, security, and proper opera-
All officers of the naval service, of tion of their command.
whatever designation or corps, shall have Although ships have numerous watches, those
all the necessary authority for the per- we discuss in the following paragraphs are the
formance of their duties and shall be primary control watches for a ship underway.
obeyed by all persons, of whatever designa-
tion or corps, who are, in accordance OFFICER OF THE DECK UNDERWAY
with these regulations and orders from
competent authority, subordinate to them. One of the most important watches on a ship
at sea is that of the officer of the deck (OOD).
Chapter 11 of Navy Regulations explains some The commanding officer designates the assign-
of your duties and responsibilities. SORN also ex- ment of the OOD in writing. The OOD takes
plains your duties and responsibilities, but it charge of the safe and proper operation of the
explains them more in detail than in general terms. ship.
The duties, responsibilities, and authority of
STANDARD ORGANIZATION AND the OOD include the following:
REGULATIONS OF THE U.S. NAVY
(SORN) • Being aware of the tactical situation and
geographic factors that may affect safe
SORN applies to all members of the U.S. navigation and taking action to avoid the
Navy. It lists the duties and responsibilities for danger of grounding or collision
almost every billet and watch station in the Navy.
It also gives us regulations on which to base our • Issuing necessary orders to the helm and
unit and watch organizations. main engine control to avoid danger, to
No portion of the SORN is intended to take or keep an assigned station, and to
contradict or supersede any portion of Navy change course and speed following the
Regulations. Many articles in the SORN and Navy orders of proper authority
Regulations appear to say the same thing; but they
are separate directives, and both apply to all • Making all required reports to the
members of the naval service. commanding officer
In addition to your primary duties, you may
be assigned a number of collateral duties. • Supervising the personnel on watch on the
Guidance on the performance of collateral duties bridge, ensuring all deck log entries are
can also be found in the SORN. made, and signing the log at the end of the
Do not rely solely on Navy Regulations and watch
SORN as your only sources for guidance in
performing your duties. Use other directives and • Being aware of the status of the engineer-
instructions that further amplify what you are ing plant and keeping the engineering
required to do, such as those written by your officer of the watch advised of power
command. requirements

• Carrying out the routine of the ship as

WATCH STANDING published in the plan of the day and other
ship’s directives
As a naval officer, whether you are assigned
ashore or afloat, a portion of your duties will • Supervising and conducting on-the-job
involve watch standing. Although many watches training for the junior officer of the watch
are assigned to personnel assigned to shore duty, (JOOW), the junior officer of the deck
the primary scope of this text deals with the watch (JOOD), and enlisted personnel of the
organization of an afloat command. bridge watch

4-2
 Although we have listed only some of the Keeping the OOD informed concerning all
OOD’s duties and responsibilities, those listed radars in operation and those under repair
show the enormous responsibility involved. When
an individual is designated OOD (underway), the Ensuring all CIC logs are properly main-
commanding officer has placed special trust and tained for the duration of the watch
confidence in that person’s capabilities. Supervising and evaluating the on-the-job
Although the OOD is responsible for the deck training of enlisted CIC personnel on
and the conn, the OOD normally delegates the watch, including the ship’s lookouts
conn to the JOOD. Just what are the deck and
the conn? The deck refers to the OOD’s watch; The CICWO normally makes reports to the
it means the OOD is in charge of all deck OOD. If a tactical action officer (TAO) is assigned
functions and supervises the maneuvers of the to the watch bill, the CICWO reports to the TAO
ship. The conn means the control, or direction on matters of tactical employment and defense.
by rudder and engine orders, of the movements
of a ship. The JOOD is in training for OOD and Tactical Action Officer (TAO)
must, therefore, learn how to conn the ship. Even
when delegating the conn, the OOD still remains The tactical action officer (TAO) acts as the
responsible for the actions of the conning officer. commanding officer’s representative concerning
A matter of extreme importance is that the the tactical employment and defense of the unit.
bridge watch team know who has the deck and The TAO is responsible for the safe and efficient
the conn. Only one person at a time can conn the operations of the combat systems and for any
ship, and that person must be known by the watch other duties prescribed by the commanding
team. For this reason, when one officer transfers officer. The TAO, who is not assigned to the
the conn to another, that officer announces this watch bill during normal peacetime steaming
transfer in the pilot house. Normally, the conning (Condition IV), stands watch in CIC.
officer being relieved announces, “This is [Rank When so authorized by the commanding
or Rate and name of the officer being relieved]. officer, the TAO may direct the OOD to take
[Rank or rate and name of relieving officer] has tactical actions required to fight or defend the
the conn.” The officer assuming the conn then unit. The TAO and the OOD have to work as a
announces, “This is [Rank or Rate and name]. team. With the TAO in CIC and the OOD on the
I have the conn. ” Each member of the watch team bridge, the TAO’s direction could possibly place
acknowledges this report. Customarily the the ship in danger. In these cases the OOD should
helmsman and lee helmsman report the course decline the direction and immediately advise the
being steered, the magnetic-compass course, and CO.
the speed and rpm indicated. A similar announce-
ment is also made for relief of the deck. Communications Watch Officer

COMBAT INFORMATION CENTER Another important position in the underway

WATCH OFFICER (CICWO) watch organization is the communications watch
officer. The communications watch officer is
The officer who supervises the operation of responsible for receiving all incoming message
the combat information center (CIC) is the CIC traffic and ensuring it is properly routed. The
watch officer (CICWO). The CICWO acts as a communications watch officer sends all opera-
representative of the CIC officer. The duties of tional messages to the CIC watch officer. The
the CICWO include the following: communications watch officer is also responsible
for transmitting the messages the unit needs to
Supervising personnel on watch in CIC,
send and ensuring all radio frequencies are
ensuring air, surface, and submarine
properly set. A ship must be able to communicate
contacts are detected and reported within
to accomplish its mission.
the capabilities of the equipment
Keeping the OOD advised of recom- ENGINEERING OFFICER OF
mended procedures for maintaining sta- THE WATCH (EOOW)
tion, avoiding navigational hazards and
collisions, and speed or course changes The engineering officer of the watch (EOOW)
necessary to change or regain station is in charge of the safe and proper operation of

4-3
the ship’s engineering plant. The EOOW has to large ships have a CDO assigned underway, but
be thoroughly familiar with the ship’s engineering in this text we will discuss the CDO in port.
systems, including their capabilities and limita- The commanding officer designates an officer,
tions. If a casualty occurs to any piece of equip- or in some cases a petty officer, as the CDO. The
ment in the engineering plant, the EOOW must CDO carries out the routine of the unit in port
know the proper procedures to follow to control and supervises the OOD (in port) in the safety and
the casualty. Some of the duties and respon- general duties of the unit. The CDO carries out
sibilities of the EOOW are as follows: the duties of the executive officer (XO) during the
XO’s temporary absence. Some of the duties and
Supervising personnel on watch in the responsibilities of the CDO are as follows:
Engineering Department to ensure they
operate machinery according to instruc- Advising and, if necessary, directing the
tions; ensuring personnel maintain re- OOD in the general duties of the unit
quired logs, properly man machinery and
controls, and carry out all required Keeping informed of the unit’s position,
inspections and safety precautions mooring lines or ground tackle in use,
status of the engineering plant, and all
Ensuring personnel promptly and properly
other matters affecting the safety and
execute all orders from the OOD concern-
security of the unit
ing the speed and direction of rotation of
the main engines
Relieving the OOD when necessary for the
Immediately executing all emergency safety of the unit, and informing the com-
orders concerning the speed and direction manding officer when such action is taken
of rotation of the screws
In the absence of the executive officer,
Immediately informing the OOD and the receiving the eight-o’clock reports from the
engineer officer of any casualty that would department duty officers and reporting the
prevent the execution of engine speed condition of the unit to the commanding
orders or would affect the operational officer
capability of the ship
Mustering, drilling, and inspecting duty
Keeping informed of the power re- emergency parties
quirements for operations; ensuring the
propulsion and auxiliary machinery com- Normally, the CDO stands a 24-hour watch.
bination effectively meets operational Most other watches are only for a 4-hour period.
requirements The CDO, being the direct representative of the
Supervising and coordinating on-the-job commanding officer, has full and complete
training for engineering personnel on authority over the unit. All personnel, regardless
watch of rate or rank, are subordinate to the CDO.

The EOOW is the OOD’s link to the engineer- OFFICER OF THE DECK (IN PORT)
ing plant. They work together and should keep
each other informed. The OOD should inform the The OOD (in port) is the officer or petty
EOOW as soon as possible when changes in speed officer on watch designated by the commanding
are anticipated. For example, to increase speed officer to be in charge of the unit. The OOD's
substantially to go to an assigned station, the primary responsibility is the safety and proper
OOD should notify the EOOW of the anticipated operation of the unit. The OOD's other duties and
speed required. This gives the EOOW time to start responsibilities include the following:
additional machinery needed to meet the increased
speed requirement. • Keeping continually informed of the unit’s
position, mooring lines or ground tackle
COMMAND DUTY OFFICER (CDO) in use, tide and weather information, the
status of the engineering plant, the status
The command duty officer (CDO) is the direct of the unit’s boats, and all other matter
representative of the commanding officer. Some affecting the safety and security of the unit

4-4
 Ensuring all required entries are made in of the duties and responsibilities of the division
the deck log, and signing the log at the end officer are as follows:
of the watch
• Assuming responsibility for the duties
Carrying out the routine as published in assigned to the division and for the
the plan of the day, ensuring the executive conduct of subordinates
officer, CDO, and department heads are
informed of circumstances requiring • Promptly reporting to the department head
changes in routine or other action on their repairs required or other defects needing
part correction that are beyond the capabilities
of the division
Ensuring boats are operated safely and all
boat safety regulations are observed • Ensuring optimum material readiness
within the division
Supervising the operation of the general
announcing system; the general and • Directing the operation of the division
chemical alarms; and the whistle, gong, through leading petty officers
and bell
• Supervising the performance of the work
Displaying required absentee pennants, centers within the division in carrying out
colors, and general information signals; the ship’s maintenance and material man-
and supervising the rendering of honors agement

Making all required reports to the CDO, • Ensuring damage control equipment,
executive officer, and commanding officer fittings, and checkoff lists in assigned
as directed by standing orders to the OOD spaces are in proper working condition and
are properly labeled
Supervising and conducting the on-the-job
training for the JOOW, JOOD, and the These duties and responsibilities represent only
enlisted personnel of the quarterdeck a portion of the division officer’s tasks. Other
watch responsibilities may be assigned by department
heads, the executive officer, or the commanding
The duties of the OOD are far less complex officer. Many of the division officer’s duties are
in port than at sea, but the in-port watch is still performed daily, while others are performed less
a very demanding job. The OOD supervises the frequently.
quarterdeck and gangway and greets all visitors. Sometimes you may feel you don’t have
The OOD maintains the security of the unit, enough hours in the day to perform all of your
inspects packages and liberty parties, and carries duties. This is where proper time management and
out the ship’s routine. While performing all these the effective use of your division personnel come
duties simultaneously, the OOD sometimes finds into play. To run your division effectively, you
the job overwhelming. Having complete authority have to delegate some of your authority to your
over the ship, under the CDO, enables the OOD chiefs and leading petty officers. Keep in mind,
to control all the functions of the job. however, that while you may delegate authority,
you cannot delegate your responsibility or
accountability.

DIVISION OFFICERS INSPECTIONS

As mentioned earlier, your first assignment One way the division officer can ensure the
will probably be as a division officer. The size of division meets all of its requirements is by holding
a division varies. Some divisions may have as few inspections. By personal supervision and frequent
as 5 personnel, while others may have as many inspections, the division officer can ensure
as 300. Regardless of division size, as the division personnel satisfactorily maintain spaces, equip-
officer you will be responsible for ensuring the ment, and supplies assigned to the division.
division operates properly and efficiently. Some Through these inspections, the division officer can

4-5
identify and require the removal of safety hazards The total safety program encompasses all
and discover and correct material discrepancies. safety areas, such as aviation, shipboard, and
The division officer should also inspect weapons and/or explosives safety, as well as
division personnel at morning quarters to ensure occupational safety and health. The Navy
they present a neat, clean, and well-groomed Occupational Safety and Health (NAVOSH)
appearance. Conducting daily personnel inspec- Program is a major component of the total safety
tions ensures the division’s readiness for a program.
surprise inspection by the executive officer or the Over the last several years, the CNO has issued
department head. many instructions that address employee safety
Additionally, division officers should inspect and health issues. The purpose of the instructions
all assigned spaces on a daily basis. The division has been to update the NAVOSH Program and
officer should not delegate this responsibility. to combine these instructions into a single
Inspecting all the spaces for cleanliness indicates organized program. The NAVOSH instruction
to division personnel that the division officer cares currently in effect is OPNAVINST 5100.23B.
about them and their living and working condi-
tions. It also gives the division officer the QUALIFICATIONS
opportunity to talk to subordinates. As the
division officer, praise the division for clean Division officers are responsible for ensuring
spaces, unless you note deficiencies. Set standards their personnel qualify for the watches they stand
for cleanliness and then ensure those standards as well for their in-rate advancement. To ensure
are met. personnel qualify in a timely manner, the division
Periodically, external inspection teams will officer should track the progress of division
conduct inspections. These inspections include the members. The qualification process goes hand in
operational readiness evaluation (ORE), main- hand with the division training program. If an
tenance and material management systems inspec- effective training program is in place, personnel
tion, command inspection, board of inspection will qualify for watches and advancement quickly.
and survey (INSURV) inspection, and operational While keeping the division qualifications on
propulsion plant examination (OPPE). As the track, division officers must also complete their
division officer, you are responsible for preparing own necessary qualifications. Trying to achieve
your division for these inspections and ensuring your own qualifications while keeping up with
your division is ready when the inspection party those of division personnel may seem like a full-
arrives. time job; but you are responsible for both.

Advancement in Rate
TRAINING
Personnel must meet various qualifications to
To have an efficient division, the division advance in their rate. Some of these qualifications
officer has to ensure all division personnel are apply to all enlisted personnel, while others may
properly trained. SORN devotes an entire chapter only apply to their particular rate.
to the subject of training. It provides guidance To qualify for advancement for the next
to help you develop and schedule a division train- higher paygrade, all enlisted personnel in
ing program. paygrades E-4 through E-7 must complete the
Divisional training programs should cover in- applicable personnel advancement requirements
rate, watch station, systems, and general military (PARs). They also must pass the military/leader-
training topics. The training program should also ship exam and the Navywide advancement exam
include personnel qualification standards (PQS). for their rate and have their commanding officer’s
Additionally, all naval personnel should receive recommendation. Other advancement require-
training in safety. ments are also necessary, such as requiring
Safety training programs should be designed personnel to complete performance tests or
to teach personnel safety-related precautions. The specific courses successfully or to attend certain
training should provide personnel with enough schools.
information to ensure their safety and well-being. To provide the leadership and guidance needed
Such information should lessen their chances of to help personnel advance in rate, division officers
being injured or killed or of causing damage or should become familiar with the rating qualifica-
destruction to our limited material resources. tions of their personnel. The Advancement

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Handbook for Petty Officers, published annually have the experience and can teach you much if
for each rating, provides an excellent source of you will let them.
information on these requirements.
Think back on chapter 1 for a moment. Do
you remember what the role of the U.S. Navy is
Watch Stations according to Title 10 of the U.S. Code? The
Navy’s role is to be ready to conduct prompt and
Almost every division of any command in the sustained combat operations in support of the
Navy requires personnel to stand watches. national interest. For the Navy to be able to fulfill
Although the requirements for the different this role, you, as a naval officer, must be ready
watches may vary, personnel must meet the to perform your military duties. Only through
qualifications for each watch they stand. Division self-examination, study of your job, and mature
officers must provide qualified individuals from and rational performance can you fulfill your
their division to meet these watch require- duties and responsibilities as a naval officer.
ments.

Before personnel can stand a watch, they must

complete the PQS for that watch. The PQS REFERENCES
Program qualifies officer and enlisted personnel
to perform portions of their assigned duties. This Standard Organization and Regulations of the
could include a specific watch station, such as U.S. Navy, OPNAVINST 3120.32B, Office of
OOD or a specific job, such as 3-M coordinator. the Chief of Naval Operations, Washington,
Personnel qualification standards are a written D.C., September, 1986.
compilation of the knowledge and skills required
for a specific watch station. Division officers have United States Navy Regulations, 1990, Depart-
the responsibility of tracking the progress of their ment of the Navy, Office of the Secretary,
personnel in completing the PQS required of Washington, D.C., 1990.
them. Having an efficient watch team requires
having personnel who are properly qualified to
stand the watches. Anything less is an invitation
to disaster. SUGGESTED READING

Lee, D.M., J.M. Brown, R. Morabito, H.S.

Dolenda, Watch Officer’s Guide, 12th ed.,
SUMMARY Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Md., 1986.

While being a naval officer may not be one

Mack, W.P. and T.D. Paulsen, The Naval
of the easiest jobs you have, it could well be the
Officer’s Guide, 9th ed., Naval Institute Press,
most rewarding. It might not make you rich or
Annapolis, Md., 1983.
famous, but it can be a job in which you have
great pride.
Noel, J.V., Division Officer’s Guide, 8th ed.,
Your duties as a naval officer are immense; Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Md., 1986.
yet so is your authority. Use this authority wisely
in performing your duties. Remember, the gold U.S. Department of Defense, The Armed Forces
bars you wear on your collar don’t make you Officer, DOD GEN-36A, American Forces
smarter; they only give you authority, Depend on Information Services, Washington, D.C.,
your chiefs and petty officers for guidance; they 1988.

4-7
 DOG WATCH

DOG WATCH IS THE NAME GIVEN TO THE 1600-1800 AND THE 1800-2000 WATCHES
ABOARD SHIP. THE 1600-2000 4-HOUR WATCH WAS ORIGINALLY SPLIT TO PREVENT
MEN FROM ALWAYS HAVING TO STAND THE SAME WATCHES DAILY. AS A RESULT,
SAILORS DODGE THE SAME DAILY ROUTINE, HENCE THEY ARE DODGING THE WATCH OR
STANDING THE DODGE WATCH.
IN ITS CORRUPTED FORM, DODGE BECAME DOG AND PROCEDURE IS REFERRED TO
AS “DOGGING THE WATCH” OR STANDING THE “DOG WATCH.”

4-8
 CHAPTER 5

DISCIPLINE AND LEADERSHIP

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the purpose of discipline in the 7. Describe the Navy’s policy on fraternization.
military.
8. Describe the Navy’s policy on sexual harass-
2. Describe the various qualities of a leader.
ment and sexual responsibility.
3. List the actions that characterize an outstand-
ing officer. 9. Identify the Navy’s requirements for physical
4. Identify the core values of the U.S. Navy. readiness.

5. D e s c r i b e t h e N a v y ’ s p o l i c y o n e q u a l 1 0 . Identify the six points of the code of conduct.

opportunisty.
6. Identify the Navy’s support program for single 11. Describe the Navy Leader Development
parents. Program courses offered by the Navy.

Civilian executives lead by virtue of superior laid aside when finished with a job, and to be
knowledge (through education an/or experience) picked up again when needed.
and strong characteristics or personality. No law Even though the Navy does everything feasible
sanctions their positions, and they may not be to provide for the physical well-being of its
legally responsible for those they lead. Their personnel, the young officer must not assume that
responsibility, if any, for the well-being of personnel are well cared for. The officer must be
their followers is primarily a moral one. On the personally concerned with their welfare and must
other hand, military officers, by virtue of their know each individual’s background, capabilities,
commissions, have a legal as well as a moral and limitations. The officer should be aware
obligation. They represent the government’s constantly that debts, personal health, or any one
responsibility to enforce the law of the land, and of many problems may destroy a person’s peace
they are charged with the well-being of their of mind and efficiency.
personnel. A good officer gains the confidence of the
A leader’s position is, to an extent, analogous personnel so that they will feel free to talk about
to that of a skilled artisan with a fine set of tools. their problems, knowing they will get all possible
The artisan keeps those tools in first-class condi- assistance. Occasionally people have difficulty
tion, for on them depends the artisan’s ability to discussing their personal problems with a superior.
turn out fine work. The leader’s tools are the per- A skillful officer maybe able to draw such people
sonnel who are assigned to accomplish the out and help them; however an officer should use
assigned mission. They, like the artisan’s tools, care and tact when attempting this.
must be in good physical condition; but here the Every group has a few people whose sole
analogy ends. Personnel are not objects to be interest in life is to complete their time in the Navy
polished by supplying their physical needs, to be and return to civilian life. Most of them are merely

5-1
 disinterested, but from their ranks many to control exerted for the good of the whole—
troublemakers arise. Any single division may have the compliance with rules or policies intended for
only one or two of them; in the aggregate, the orderly coordination of effort. In a study on
however, they present a tremendous problem. this subject, Admiral Arleigh A. Burke, USN
Properly motivated and instilled with a little moral (Retired), stated that “a well-disciplined organiza-
responsibility, they can become a great asset. All tion is one whose members work with enthusiasm,
are important, and we must not lose their services willingness, and zest as individuals and as a group,
through failure to redirect their interests and to fulfill the mission of the organization with
energies. expectation of success.” Personnel show signs of
The rebellious ones must be made to under- discipline in smart salutes, proper wearing of the
stand they will be required to abide by rules and uniform, prompt and correct action in any
regulations wherever they go, not only in the emergency, and battle efficiency that brings
Navy. They must see that rules and regulations victory in wars. Discipline, obviously, is in-
serve as guides by which we live and, if followed dispensable to a military organization. Without
by all, make life more pleasant and easy for all it almost any effort would be defeated by lack of
of us. They must be taught that the more they organization. Discipline demands habitual but
discipline themselves, the less they will be reasoned obedience to command-obedience that
disciplined by others. They must be shown their preserves initiative and functions unfalteringly
importance to the team and that their shipmates even in the absence of the commander.
must be able to depend on them day by day, as The purpose of discipline in the military
well as in battle. They, along with those who are services is to bring about an efficient military
disinterested, must be made to realize that organization. Its aim is to train and control a body
increasing their knowledge, advancing in rate, and of human beings for concerted action to attain
assuming more responsibilities are not matters of a common goal. Discipline trains each individual
personal preference but duties. to fit into the organization as a whole. The
In this chapter we will discuss why discipline members understand one another through the
and leadership are essential to a military organiza- sharing of common knowledge. They are bound
tion. together by a unity of will and interest that is
expressed by their willingness to follow and obey
their leader. A group so organized is effective, not
PURPOSE OF DISCIPLINE only for the specific purpose intended, but also
for an emergency.
The word discipline comes from a Latin word
meaning “to teach,” but it is a certain type of
teaching. Discipline is not peculiar to military REWARDS
organizations. Discipline is the training that
develops self-control, character, and efficiency, You can see the rewards of good discipline in
or is the result of such training. Discipline, rightly various ways in the naval organizational structure.
viewed, is a character builder rather than a The positive results are evident as sailors advance
destroyer of individuality. in rate, a division receives a passing grade on an
The Navy’s discipline consists of training its inspection, or a ship successfully completes a
men and women to behave in certain ways under deployment.
certain circumstances. It enables them to work as The reward of good discipline for an enlisted
a unit with maximum efficiency. To encourage person may be in the form of a Good Conduct
them toward this end, the Navy uses a system of Medal. If individuals are disciplined, they will
motivation and correction through reward and learn their rating and be rewarded with
punishment. Ambitious Navy men and women, promotions.
when recommended by their commanding These same individuals, when placed in
officers, are rewarded by timely promotions; lazy divisions, can also help establish discipline there.
or careless individuals suffer a self-inflicted The responsibility for divisional discipline falls on
punishment by missing out on these promotions. the petty officers, chiefs, and division officer. The
Those who are negligent or indifferent get into reward of a well-disciplined division is that it will
trouble and are punished by fines, restriction, operate smoothly and efficiently.
confinement, demotion, and other forms of Discipline has to be present to make any
disciplinary action. Discipline implies adherence organization work, but this is especially true in

5-2
the military. It is what brings individuals together qualities needed to be effective. All truly great
as a military team. Thus, a gun crew may be leaders share one common characteristic: a
readily converted into a repair party for carrying personal code of conduct and moral responsibility
out any essential job within its capabilities, or a that does not permit them to exploit their abilities
company of midshipmen may be turned into a and positions to the detriment of their followers.
fire-fighting organization. A well-disciplined naval Most of us understand about written and un-
unit responds automatically to an emergency and written laws that guide our actions and define our
is not subject to panic. This is the reward of duties—"thou shalts" and “thou shalt nots” by
discipline to the Navy. which we must abide. Our government establishes
written laws while the Navy establishes many
written and unwritten laws and prescribes our
PUNISHMENT duties. If we break these laws or neglect our
duties, authorities may give us suitable
Under the Navy’s concept, punishment is not punishment.
personal, it is not vindictive, nor is it inflicted as Other laws and other duties have no legal
revenge for misconduct. The Navy realizes that standing as far as any law-making or law-
punishment cannot right the wrong resulting from enforcing branch of government is concerned.
an act of dereliction. The Navy considers that the These are moral laws and duties. Each leader
value of punishment lies in the object lesson it establishes these based on his or her own
furnishes the wrongdoer and others—that the principles. Depending on the character of the
offense must not be repeated. This concept is person, they can be extensive and more binding
referred to as the deterrent theory of punishment. than any statutory laws, or they can be completely
To accomplish its purpose, punishment must nonexistent. The leader receives no legal punish-
be consistent, just, and recognized as such by the ment for ignoring these laws and duties, and the
recipients and their shipmates. Punishment should only enforcer is the leader’s own conscience.
neither be of such a nature that it lowers self- In various places throughout this text, we
-esteem nor so severe that it is out of proportion quote rules and regulations, at times explaining
to the offense. them in more or less detail. Therefore, we assume
Recipients of Navy punishment should keep the reader, by now, understands what legal
two facts in mind: First, they received punishment responsibilities are. But what about moral
only as a result of their misbehavior. Second, they responsibilities? The Navy expects its personnel
will not receive punishment again if they learn to to demonstrate more than minimum standards of
conform to Navy standards of conduct. moral responsibility. It expects commanding
The administration of punishment is not officers and others in authority to set good
personal; therefore, those who administer it examples of virtue, honor, patriotism, and
should be shown no malice. They are carrying out subordination. It expects them to be vigilant in
their duties as required by Navy regulations. inspecting the conduct of persons under their
command and to suppress all dissolute and
immoral practices. It expects those in authority
QUALITIES OF A LEADER to take necessary and proper procedures to
promote and safeguard the morale, physical well-
No two leaders are exactly alike. They do not being, and general welfare of persons under their
possess the same qualities in equal proportions, command.
nor do they accomplish their ends in the same The history of effective naval leadership
manner. One thing is certain, however. All great has isolated additional moral principles that
leaders possess certain characteristics and abilities have characterized successful leaders from the
that they use to the greatest advantage. Some have beginning of naval history to our present time.
turned weaknesses into strengths and, by exercise These principles are loyalty, devotion to duty,
of willpower and hard work, risen far above what professional knowledge, self-confidence, initiative
normally might have been expected of them. and ingenuity, courage, ability to organize and
Every leader will not possess every quality make decisions, and personal example.
discussed here, but every good leader will have
LOYALTY
a substantial number of them. Moreover, the less
natural ability a leader has, the more important Loyalty means a true, faithful, strong (even
is the person’s need to cultivate the leadership enthusiastic) devotion to one’s country. Ordinarily

5-3
personnel assume this type of loyalty without efficient accomplishment of the Navy’s mission,
question, but they must also broaden their loyalty not to receive personal gain.
to include their superiors and subordinates. Individuals who refuse to shoulder their share
Because of human nature, the ordinary person of the load make it that much heavier for the rest
wants to and will extend loyalty to others in the of the unit. Hardships may be increased, lives may
organization. In the long run, however, everyone be sacrificed needlessly, and the unit might fail
must earn the loyalty of others. Part of the price to accomplish its mission. The well-known parable
a person pays for earning this loyalty is extending of the loss of a kingdom through want of a horse
loyalty to others. Enlisted personnel are par- describes the situation perfectly.
ticularly sensitive about loyalty extended to them The ability to take orders goes hand in hand
and are quick to discern and resent its absence. with devotion to duty. One so closely follows the
The degree of loyalty a division officer shows other that distinguishing between them is difficult.
toward the division has a direct bearing on the Commands usually issue standing orders to cover
morale of division personnel. Most persons have every situation. The orders help those assigned to
a strong devotion to duty, and their self-respect the position do the job more effectively. As soon
will not allow them to neglect that duty merely as a person receives an order, it becomes that
to spite a superior. But the officer who has not person’s duty to carry it out. Therefore, personnel
earned the loyalty of the personnel cannot expect should not resent even the most trivial order, even
to receive that extra effort above the call of duty one given in the nature of a reminder, necessary
often necessary to accomplish a mission. This or not. Personnel should obey each order quickly
brings us to another important quality, devotion and cheerfully and report its accomplishment to
to duty. the superior who gave it.
Devotion to duty and the ability to take orders
DEVOTION TO DUTY are so important that the Navy has no place for
the immature people who refuse to grow up. It
Devotion to duty is closely allied to loyalty. has no place for the self-seekers who do their best
In fact, it might be defined as loyalty to the post only when it is advantageous to them to do so.
or position one holds. Occasionally immature The Navy doesn’t need resentful, hard-headed,
young persons feel their talents are superior to self-important individuals who cannot take
those required to fill the positions in which they orders.
find themselves. In such cases these young persons
may become resentful because their abilities are PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE
not used to better advantage. Consequently, their
performance falls off. Leaders who thoroughly know their job are
More mature persons might assume that far better qualified to lead than ones who do not;
because the position exists, it must be important but unfortunately, professional experience does
even though the importance is not readily not burst into full bloom merely because one
apparent. Assuming this, such persons give a little wishes it so. Although as a new officer, you will
more to the position than it requires by spending have professional knowledge, you will lack pro-
their extra energy and talents learning the new job. fessional experience when you step aboard ship
Thus, they fulfill their obligation to the organiza- for the first time. Yet, you will be placed in a
tion, inspire other personnel to greater efforts, position of leadership, given various jobs to do,
and earn the respect of all concerned. When and then seemingly left to your own devices. The
important openings occur, the choice between jobs will appear monumental to you. Uppermost
these individuals and others less willing to put in your mind will be the probability of your
forth extra effort is clear. making a serious error that could expose your
Any civilian firm would consider ambitious inexperience. You will have people on all sides,
persons as positive assets; employers would keep however, ready to assist you.
their eyes on them and perhaps expect great things The officer you relieve will assist you in
of them. However, mere ambition is not enough learning your new duties, outline the present
in the military service. Any military service program, and point out what has not been done.
expects all of its officers or enlisted persons to The officer will also discuss the inherent dif-
place duty above themselves. Everyone at all times ficulties of the job and briefly describe the abilities
must do their duty to the best of their ability. They and personalities of your new division personnel.
must do their best in an effort to support the Senior officers are always ready to give you a

5-4
helping hand. While tolerant of your inexperience, and ingenuity nearly every day. At first, these
they will insist that you do your duty and master opportunities may entail only small problems
the job as quickly as possible. Your petty officers requiring only a little ingenuity or initiative.
will also teach you provided you show them you However, if officers don’t take advantage of the
are willing to benefit from their experience. If small chances offered, they will never gain enough
necessary, the petty officers will "carry you" (as self-confidence to tackle the bigger problems.
the expression goes) as long as you try to
learn. The instructions may be subtle or frank,
depending upon the personality of your teachers. COURAGE
A few old hands may persist in their offers of aid
even when rebuffed, but the majority will Courage is one of the more necessary
promptly lose the desire to help as soon as you, characteristics of a leader. It is that quality of the
the officer, lose your desire to learn. Therefore, mind which enables us to meet danger and
it pays to be willing to listen to advice and difficulties with firmness. It enables us to over-
suggestions. Even the newest seaman apprentice come the fear of failure, injury, or death that
might be able to make a worthwhile contribution. normally precedes any difficult or dangerous act
we may attempt. Further, courage enables us to
SELF-CONFIDENCE acknowledge our responsibilities and to carry
them out regardless of consequences.
As an officer’s knowledge grows, self- Courage is a quality of the mind and, as such,
confidence, a most important quality of leader- can be developed. Like a muscle, you can
ship, should grow. A vast store of knowledge is strengthen it with use; the more you exercise it,
meaningless without the confidence and ability to the stronger it grows. Each time people meet and
use it. Never, however, should leaders become so tackle an obstacle, whether it is a particularly
swelled with the importance of their “superior” tough assignment, an examination in school, or
education, “vast” professional knowledge, or a hard-charging fullback on the football field,
“noteworthy” accomplishments that they dispIay they strengthen their courage a bit more. While
arrogance. Remember that the ordinary enlisted succeeding at an attempt might provide a great
person is not overly impressed with the number deal of satisfaction to people, success itself is not
of academic degrees officers hold; the enlisted completely essential to the development of their
person is most impressed with the officers’ courage. In fact, people who frequently become
abilities. Enlisted personnel can understand self- frustrated in their attempts but continue to try
confidence in proven officers, but they will regard again and again probably develop their courage
arrogance in new, untried ensigns as sheer faster than those who succeed at every endeavor.
buffoonery. They will meet arrogance with Young people thinking about going into battIe
indifference and resentment. The officers’ for the first time may have difficulty believing that
accompanying loss of respect will greatly diminish anything in their background has prepared them
their control over personnel. to overcome the fear they will experience. Having
doubts about their ability to conduct themselves
INITIATIVE AND INGENUITY with honor is normal. Because the military
services recognize this fact, they condition and
Junior officers are confronted with a train their warriors under the most realistic
multitude of Navy rules, regulations, operating conditions possible.
instructions, procedures, and the policies of senior Our Navy is no exception. Before going into
officers. Therefore, junior officers may assume battle, all hands have become well acquainted with
they have little room for personal initiative and the smell of gunpowder. They have been trained
ingenuity in the Navy today. Actually, the reverse and drilled at their battle stations until their
is true. With its new ships, equipment, technology, actions are almost automatic. Because of this
and concepts, the Navy has a demand for officers training, the fast action involved, their sense of
with initiative and ingenuity. Today’s naval duty, the inspiration of their cause and their
officers need the imagination to realize their leaders, and the close proximity of others, even
potentiality and the skill and daring to develop timid persons can develop courage. This courage
their potentiality to its fullest extent. will help them endure without faltering during the
Although limited by rules and regulations, comparatively short, though terrible, periods of
officers have an opportunity to exercise initiative battle or emergency.

5-5
 A courageous person is not necessarily leader in history, or even someone with antisocial
fearless, but has learned to conquer fear and tendencies or habits. Young people will, in some
concentrate on the mechanics of fighting. way, attempt to attach to and be like the person
they admire. As long as these young people are
ABILITY TO ORGANIZE not disillusioned and as long as they feel the need,
AND MAKE DECISIONS they will continue to emulate their hero.

Essentially your primary objective as a junior Naval officers should have such dignity and
officer is to coordinate the efforts of your competence in all respects that they inspire their
subordinates so that they can strive toward a enlisted personnel to emulate and respect them.
common goal. However, the normal day-to-day We cannot overemphasize the value of setting a
activity of the maintenance program of the good personal example in your daily life.
peacetime Navy may not readily reflect this. This
objective is more difficult to achieve when the goal Officers cannot live by the rule of’ "don’t do
is less easy to define. However, an overall view as I do; do as I say" without the risk of personnel
of the maintenance and training programs shows regarding them with suspicion or distaste.
how each minor accomplishment fits into the Suspicious or distasteful regard for an officer
whole. You should organize your subordinates so greatly diminishes the officer’s reputation as a
that their labor and training will be used to the leader. On the other hand, outstanding conduct
best possible advantage. by an officer can inspire others to follow the same
To organize effectively, know the skills and pattern, thereby benefiting the entire Navy.
physical capabilities of your personnel. Without
that knowledge you would have to rely on a senior When we speak of conduct, we mean conduct
petty officer to do the job. For officers to rely ashore as well as aboard ship. A person in uniform
on petty officers to the extent of their abilities is is consciously or unconsciously watched by
proper and desirable. However, as an officer, everyone around. In the minds of the observers,
never allow yourself to be reduced to the that person’s actions are interpreted as typical of
position of an old-time midshipman–a messenger everyone who wears a similar uniform. Therefore,
running between the wardroom and the forecastle. we must do nothing to dishonor the uniform, lest,
While you cannot help but profit from careful in so doing, we dishonor the entire Navy.
observation of the methods of skilled organizers,
you should eventually attempt some organization You cannot expect others to follow regulations
on your own. To do so, learn to make decisions; if you ignore them. Depending on the extent of
without the power of decision, you are useless as the digressions, you may, for all practical
a leader. When a person presents a problem to purposes, completely lose control of your person-
you, that person expects a clear-cut decision. nel. You may not realize you have lost control
Discuss complicated questions or those clearly at first because someone else may keep the
beyond your authority to decide with an personnel in line. However, sooner or later the
immediate superior; dispose of the lesser ones realization will become apparent, but by that time
yourself. Never allow the dread of making a you may be unable to do anything about it. In
mistake or the fear of looking ridiculous to deter any event, to regain the respect of your personnel
you from attempting to solve a problem. You will and to reestablish control over them will require
make mistakes occasionally, but an honest extraordinary effort. “Rank has its privileges,”
mistake seldom involves scorn or censure if all but those privileges are not extended to cover
elements of the problem were duly considered. deviations from accepted conduct. Rather, when
From mistakes comes experience, and from speaking of conduct, we must stress that “rank
experience comes wisdom. has its responsibilities.”

PERSONAL EXAMPLE
Sign of an Outstanding Officer
Young people have a strong personal need for
examples to live by, at least until they have Former Chief of Naval Operations George W.
formulated their own principles. They express this Anderson, Jr., considered that truly outstanding
need by following the example of someone they officers display the following traits. Many have
admire—father, brother, teacher, officer, a great a direct relationship to effective leadership and

5-6
thus are considered when officers are evaluated Ž KNOWLEDGE OF THE JOB—They
for reports of fitness. have a complete mastery of their job plus a
detailed knowledge of all its responsibilities,
Ž ACHIEVEMENTS—They produce including those of subordinates.
results; many are industrious. The effectiveness
of the work serves as a measure of their Ž MANNER OF PERFORMANCE—They
achievements. know themselves, the job, the enlisted personnel,
and the immediate situation. They use four
Ž ABILITY TO MAKE DECISIONS—They approaches to get the job done: (1) personally do
evaluate information, analyze the problem, and it, (2) drive others to do it, (3) inspire others to
then integrate the two into a sound and incisive do it, or (4) combine the three in the best manner.
decision. (This is closely allied to achievement.)
Ž SOCIAL GRACE—They know the rules
Ž BREADTH OF VISION—They bring to of social etiquette, such as which fork to use; but
the profession a knowledge of all the political, more importantly, they know how to show a
social, scientific, economic, and military com- sincere interest in the people they meet.
ponents that impinge upon the Navy.
Ž SENSE OF HUMOR—They keep every-
Ž PERSONAL APPEARANCE—They take thing in the proper perspective; they distinguish
pride in every detail of their personal appearance. between the important and the trivial.

Ž MILITARY BEARING—They conduct Ž PERSONAL BEHAVIOR—They reflect

themselves in a professional military manner integrity and honor in every facet of their
afloat or ashore, 24 hours a day, every day. behavior.

Ž MENTAL ALERTNESS—They give

continual attention to detail coupled with an
awareness of the big picture. CORE VALUES

The Navy established a set of core values to

Ž ABILITY TO EXPRESS SELF—They encourage personnel to make a commitment to
express themselves clearly orally and in writing personal excellence. These core values consist of
to communicate their ideas and decisions. Navy traditions and values that are in consonance
with our national values. In October of 1987 the
Ž CONTACTS WITH PEOPLE OUTSIDE Navy appointed a team of reviewers to determine
THE SERVICE—They have contact with people what these values should be. The team interviewed
outside their profession through participation in more than 100 sailors representing all com-
personal activities and interests. Officers who munities, all fleets, and numerous positions within
allow themselves and their interests to become the chain of command. The team asked these
completely involved with their profession will find sailors to do the following:
they have exhausted their potential growth.
Describe “tough situations” that posed
Ž BEING A GOOD SHIPMATE—They do values conflicts or ethics dilemmas.
not lose sight of their relationships with others
in the Navy. They realize they cannot function Characterize those persons they admired
alone and can be effective only through others. most and least in the Navy.

Ž IMAGINATION—They use their im- Discuss in very real terms the values that
agination and initiative to improve the task the Navy represents.
performance of their entire unit as well as their
own performance. A fitness report that states As you can imagine, these interviews produced
“This officer performs all ASSIGNED duties in enlightening accounts and personal insights, most
an excellent manner” could easily describe an of which revolve around a set of common themes.
officer who has stopped growing. They named the following values as those most

5-7
often portrayed in everyday decision making and make the command assessment, the CAT collects
espoused as important to the Navy: data on retention, advancement, and discipline.
The team obtains additional data from interviews,
TRADITION observations, and surveys.
ACTION PLANNING: A plan of actions and
Ž Concern for people
milestones (POA&M) provides for and tracks the
Ž Patriotism correction of existing or potential problems.
INSPECTIONS: Immediate superiors in com-
Ž Courage mand (ISIC) conduct CMEO inspections of
Ž Spiritual heritage subordinate commands.
The Navy Affirmative Action Plan (NAAP)
INTEGRITY also promotes the Navy’s EO program. The
NAAP consists of a continuing program of goals
Ž Honesty
and actions with realistic milestones. Affirmative
Ž Honor action is the taking of positive steps to correct or
eliminate discrimination. These steps are designed
Ž Responsibility
to correct problems and achieve goals over a
period of time. Therefore, continued monitoring
PROFESSIONALISM
is required as specific actions are completed and
Ž Competence to ensure that the Navy does not regress. The
NAAP is revised as appropriate after each annual
Ž Teamwork equal opportunity assessment.
• Loyalty Equal opportunity is essential to Navy leader-
ship. It must exist at every level of the chain of
The Navy expects these core values to result command as an integral part of the Navy’s
in a reemphasis and refocus of traditional Navy commitment to pride, professionalism, and per-
values and an improvement in the ethical practices sonal excellence. Equal opportunity improves the
of the Navy. quality of life for all Navy personnel, increases
combat readiness, and contributes to mission
accomplishment.
EQUAL OPPORTUNITY To be an effective officer, you should support
equal opportunity as part of your basic leader-
The Department of the Navy’s policy is to pro- ship skills. The personal example you set in
vide equal treatment and equal opportunity to all support of equal opportunity should motivate
Navy members, without regard to race, religion, your subordinates to do the same.
gender, age, or national origin.
The Command Managed Equal Opportunity
SINGLE PARENTING
(CMEO) program assists commands in supporting
the Navy’s equal opportunity (EO) policy. This The demands of the Navy lifestyle make single
management system is responsive to higher parenthood rough. But by taking full advantage
echelons but is controlled primarily at the of the resources available, single parents can make
command level. The program has four basic their lives, and their children’s lives, more
elements: rewarding and less stressful.
COMMAND TRAINING TEAM (CTT): The Navy single parents have more help available
CTT conducts the Navy Rights and Respon- to them than ever before because of Family
sibilities (NR&R) Workshops. These workshops Service Center programs and expanding child
present training on basic Navy EO principles and care options. Family Service Centers provide
policies, sexual harassment prevention, and informational, referral, educational, and other
command-specific issues. counseling services designed to assist single parents
COMMAND ASSESSMENT TEAM (CAT): and their children.
The CAT conducts the annual command assess- Child care is always a big concern—and often
ment. This survey focuses on EO personnel a big headache—for single parents. The capacity
management practices. It also surfaces problems of Navy-operated child care facilities is not always
or issues not directly related to EO that impact sufficient for the number of children eligible to
on the quality of life within the command. To help use them.

5-8
 The Family Home Care (FHC) program Over 200 years of seagoing experience has
allows spouses of Navy members to care for demonstrated that seniors must maintain
children of Navy personnel in their government thoroughly professional relationships with juniors
quarters. FHC serves over 30 commands stateside at all times. This custom prevents personnel from
and overseas. Those who wish to open their homes using a senior grade or position to show (or
for day care must complete training that includes give the impression of showing) favoritism or
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) instruction. preferential treatment or for personal gain. It also
Child care providers involved in the FHC program helps prevent officers from becoming involved in
must purchase insurance, which is available at a other actions that undermine good order,
nominal fee. A professional monitor ensures that discipline, authority, or unit morale. In a like
the child care offered is of the highest quality by manner, custom requires that junior personnel
providing training, screening and background recognize and respect the authority inherent in a
checks, and monthly visits to FHC homes. senior’s grade, rank, or position.
The Navy requires all single parents to include Fraternization is the traditional term used
in their service record a Dependent Care Plan to identify personal relationships that cross
and Navy Dependent Care Certificate, OP- the customary bounds of acceptable senior-
NAV 1740/1, that provides a plan for dependent subordinate relationships. Although it has most
care arrangements. The plan must include details commonly been applied to the officer-enlisted
such as who will provide care for the children relationship, fraternization also includes improper
during the parent’s normal duty hours, temporary relationships between officer members and be-
additional duty (TAD) assignments, and deploy- tween enlisted personnel.
ments, as well as other pertinent information. The By definition, fraternization is any unduly
parent must also provide a will with guardianship familiar personal relationship between an officer
provisions and a power of attorney authorizing and an enlisted member that does not respect
medical care. The Military Personnel Manual differences in rank and grade. It also includes
(MILPERSMAN), article 3810190, outlines the personal relationships between officers or between
dependent care policy and specifies the informa- enlisted personnel in which a senior-subordinate
tion parents must include on the certificate. supervisory relationship exists.
Some people worry that their status as single Fraternization is punishable as an offense
parents may hurt their Navy career, but this is under the Uniform Code of Military Justice when
simply not true. As long as parents keep an up- it is prejudicial to good order and discipline or
to-date dependent care certificate in their record, brings discredit to the naval service. We cannot
they have no limits on what they can achieve. name every act that may be prejudicial to good
Single parenting in the Navy isn’t easy, but order and discipline or is service discrediting; the
an understanding of Navy policy can help a single surrounding circumstances often have more to do
parent’s career run more smoothly. Single parents with making the act criminal than the act itself.
should realize the Navy expects them to accept However, dating, cohabitation, or sexual intimacy
full responsibility for the care of their children between officer and enlisted members is clearly
as well as their job requirements. inappropriate. A private business partnership
between officers and enlisted persons is also
inappropriate. Likewise, such conduct between
officers and between enlisted members in which
FRATERNIZATION a senior-subordinate supervisory relationship
exists is equally inappropriate. Conduct that
Navy customs and traditions have historically constitutes fraternization is not excused by a
defined the bounds of acceptable personal subsequent marriage between the offending
relationships among its members. Proper social parties.
interaction among officer and enlisted members The responsibility for preventing inappro-
has traditionally been encouraged, as it enhances priate relationships rests primarily on the senior.
unit morale and esprit de corps. At the same time, The senior party is expected to control and
unduly familiar personal relationships between preclude the development of inappropriate senior-
officers and enlisted members have traditionally subordinate relationships. However, since the
been contrary to naval custom. They undermine Navy’s fraternization policy applies to both
the respect for authority that is essential to the members, both are accountable for their own
Navy’s ability to accomplish its military mission. conduct.

5-9
 SEXUAL HARASSMENT SEXUAL RESPONSIBILITY

Sexual harassment is not an amusing or The Navy does not require its personnel to
trivial issue. It negatively affects the morale abstain totally from sexual relations. However,
and productivity of service members as well it does strive to instruct all Navy members on the
as team building and mission accomplishment. importance of sexual responsibility and the
It may also be a violation of any number of dangers of sexually transmitted diseases.
articles of the Uniform Code of Military Justice
(fig. 5-l). Syphilis, gonorrhea, genital herpes, and
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Sexual harassment is defined as (1) influenc- are all sexually transmitted diseases. They are
ing; offering to influence; or threatening the normally spread through sexual contact. AIDS
career, pay, or job of another person in exchange can also be spread through contaminated blood
for sexual favors; or (2) deliberate or repeated or by shared hypodermic needles. Sexually
offensive comments, gestures, or physical contact transmitted diseases are not spread through
of a sexual nature in a work or work-related inanimate objects such as toilet seats, door knobs,
environment. Sexual advances, requests for sexual or eating utensils.
favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of The most serious of these diseases is AIDS.
a sexual nature constitute sexual harassment under The AIDS virus attacks the body’s immune
the following circumstances: system. This results in the body’s inability to fight
infection.
1. When submission to such conduct is made
either explicitly or implicitly a term or Military persons must receive live virus
condition of a person’s job, pay, or career vaccines to protect them from certain illnesses and
2. When submission to or rejection of such from possible exposure to serious infections when
conduct by a person is used as a basis for deployed outside the United States. These vaccines
career or employment decisions affecting may be life-threatening to an infected person
this person whose immune system has been damaged by
3. When such conduct has the purpose or AIDS.
effect of interfering with a person’s per- At the present time no cure is known for
formance or creating an intimidating,
AIDS. More than 70 percent of all AIDS cases
hostile, or offensive environment prove fatal within 2 years of diagnosis.
Personnel, male or female, who use implicit As a Navy leader, you should be aware of
or explicit sexual behavior to control, influence, these sexually transmitted diseases and the
or affect the career, promotion opportunities, methods for reducing the risks of acquiring them.
duty assignments, or pay of any other Navy The only way people can be sure not to acquire
member are also engaging in sexual harassment. these diseases is to abstain from all forms of sexual
Sexual harassment is, therefore, the embarrass- contact. To reduce the risks of acquiring sexually
ment, intimidation, or exploitation of one person transmitted diseases, those who are sexually
by another through sex-related comments or active should take the following precautions:
behavior.
1. Avoid sexual contact with multiple part-
The Navy’s long tradition of military pro- ners, anonymous partners, prostitutes, and
fessionalism results from its positive, aggressive other persons with multiple sex partners.
leadership and its history of taking care of all 2. Avoid sexual contact with persons who
Navy members. Commanders, supervisors, and have a genital discharge, genital warts,
subordinates are all responsible for providing an genital herpes lesions, or other suspicious
environment free from sexual harassment. genital lesions.
3. Avoid oral or anal sex.
The Department of the Navy expects all of its 4. Avoid genital contact with cold sores.
personnel to support its policy of sexual harass- 5. Use condoms and diaphragms in combina-
ment prevention. This not only includes refrain- tion with spermicides.
ing from practicing such behavior but actively 6. Have periodic examinations for sexually
countering and promptly reporting such actions. transmitted diseases.

5-10
 THE SEXUAL HARASSER MAY IN VIOLA-
IF THE SEXUAL HARASSER ALSO BE GUILTY OF TION OF

1. Threatens to influence adversely the Extortion. Article 127

career, salary or job of another in Assault.
Article 128
exchange for sexual favors.
Communicating a threat. Article 134

2. Offers rewards for sexual favors. Bribery and graft. Article 134

3. Makes sexual comment and/or Indecent, insulting or obscene language Article 134
gestures. prejudicial to good order.
Provoking speech or gestures. Article 117
Disrespect. Article 89,91

4. Makes sexual contact. Assault Consummated by a battery. Article 128

Indecent Assault. Article 134
Rape. Article 120

5. Engages in sexual harassment to the Dereliction of duty Article 92

detriment of job performance.

6. Is an officer. Conduct unbecoming an officer. Article 133

7. Is cruel to or maltreats any person Cruelty and maltreatment. Article 93

subject to his or her orders.

8. Uses his or her official position to Failure to obey a lawful general order. Article 92
gain sexual favors or advantages.

Figure 5-l.-Example of conduct which might constitute both sexual harassment and an offense under the UCMJ.

HEALTH AND to achieve high standards hurt their units and the
PHYSICAL READINESS effectiveness of the Navy. Physical readiness train-
ing is a complete conditioning program. It
Certain people in the Navy and in the civilian includes weight control and nutrition, high blood
community share a common problem—excessive pressure identification and control, stress manage-
body fat. This problem usually results from ment, smoking cessation, and back injury
people working at desk jobs, eating too much, and prevention.
not getting enough exercise. Excessive body fat As a leader, stress the importance of physical
is a serious detriment to a person’s health, readiness training to your personnel.
longevity, stamina, and military appearance. We
need to maintain a high state of health and
physical readiness. If we do this, combat CODE OF CONDUCT FOR
readiness, personal effectiveness, and high morale MEMBERS OF THE ARMED
should follow. FORCES OF THE UNITED STATES
Health and physical readiness have become a
matter of concern to the Navy. Every Navy person Because of the conduct of a few Americans
should strive to achieve and maintain a high during the Korean conflict, President Dwight D.
standard of physical readiness. Members who fail Eisenhower prescribed a Code of Conduct for

5-11
members of the armed forces in 1955. The your mind alert. These have been the ingredients
purpose of the code is to provide American in the stories of the personnel of all branches of
military personnel with a standard of conduct the armed forces who have escaped from the
should they be captured by an enemy. It provides enemy.
a framework of ideals and ethical standards that Never risk placing yourself under obligation
will help personnel resist the physical, mental, and to the enemy by accepting favors; the enemy will
moral onslaughts of their captor. exploit to the utmost any weakness you show.
In 1988 President Ronald Reagan issued
Executive Order 12633, amending the code to use ARTICLE IV
gender-neutral language. First expressed in written
form in 1955, the code is based on time-honored If I become a prisoner of war, I will
concepts and traditions that date back to the days keep faith with my fellow prisoners. I will
of the American Revolution. give no information or take part in any
action which might be harmful to my
ARTICLE I comrades. If I am senior, I will take
command. If not, I will obey the lawful
I am an American, fighting in the orders of those appointed over me and will
forces which guard my country and our back them up in every way.
way of life. I am prepared to give my life
in their defense. Fellow prisoners are your friends in a prison
camp. Jealously guard and protect that friendship.
No matter what your job, you are a member Do nothing and say nothing that would jeopar-
o f the team first. Your duty is to oppose the dize a fellow prisoner. Article 105 (Misconduct
enemies of the United States under all as Prisoner) of the Uniform Code of Military
circumstances. Justice (UCMJ) provides for punishment of any
person who jeopardizes a fellow prisoner. This
ARTICLE II includes anyone who causes damage or harm to
other prisoners, of whatever nationality, for the
I will never surrender of my own free purpose of gaining personally favorable treat-
will. If in command I will never surrender ment. It also includes anyone who cruelly treats
the members of my command while they or abuses fellow prisoners while in a position of
still have the means to resist. authority.
You must always resist the enemy’s attempts
Even when a situation seems hopeless, you to break down your faith in fellow prisoners. The
often still have a chance to win. Remember John enemy will use various tactics to attempt to shatter
Paul Jones! As long as you have the means to the unity of the prisoners. A prisoner may be
resist, you must continue to do so. If you no singled out for special sessions with the captors.
longer have weapons, ammunition, or other The captors may appoint one person as their
means, you have the duty to evade capture and representative among the prisoners. The captors
attempt to rejoin friendly forces. may take one of the prisoners away from the
group for an extended period of time and then
ARTICLE III return the prisoner with no explanation. All of
these tactics are designed to destroy the prisoners’
If I am captured I will continue to resist faith in one another. If the captors are successful,
by all means available. I will make every mistrust will grow, individuals will lose faith in
effort to escape and aid others to escape. each other, and the group will disintegrate into
I will accept neither parole nor special a dog-eat-dog struggle for survival.
favors from the enemy. All military prisoners in the camp are subject
to the lawful orders of the senior officer present,
Even as a prisoner, you still have a weapon just as they would be aboard ship. Should you
for resistance. That weapon is your mind—the happen to be senior, you will assume command.
determination to resist and to escape. Stay An organization must be established to carry out
mentally and physically able to seize any activities such as care of the sick and wounded,
opportunity to escape. By maintaining the burn- camp sanitation, and escape and resistance
ing determination to resist and escape, you keep planning. Normally, your captors will not permit

5-12
this organization to function openly, so it will seven words signify your faith and confidence in
have to be established secretly. Good leadership your God, your country, your service, and
and discipline are keys to survival. yourself.
As a member of the armed forces of the
ARTICLE V United States, you are always subject to the
U C M J , even as a prisoner of war. After
When questioned, should I become a return to friendly forces or escape, you will be
prisoner of war, I am required to give investigated to determine the circumstances
name, rank, service number, and date of of your capture and your conduct as a prisoner.
birth. I will evade answering further If you have done your utmost to uphold the
questions to the utmost of my ability. I will principles of this code, you need not worry about
make no oral or written statements disloyal such an investigation. You may even be able to
to my country and its allies or harmful to give valuable information that will help future
their cause. prisoners.
Many Americans have been prisoners of war,
The Geneva Convention requires that you and they all agree that the life of a POW is a hard
give your name, rate, service number, and date one. A few of those POWs were either unprepared
of birth when questioned by the enemy. Any to resist or lacked the ability to maintain their
further information, although seemingly of no basic faith and loyalty under extreme pressure.
importance, could be of value to the enemy in These Americans succumbed to the enemy’s
attempts to break your spirit or to be used against efforts and acted in a manner detrimental to their
fellow prisoners. The Geneva Convention also country, their fellow service members, and
forbids physical and mental torture of prisoners. themselves. Remember, you will have to live the
However, since the Korean conflict, Communist rest of your life remembering your conduct under
forces have resorted to such tactics in their stress. The majority of American prisoners have
attempts to gain information and to get prisoners behaved honorably and with pride because they
to collaborate. believed in and adhered to the principles and
The time will come when you will have to say strength on which our country was founded.
something other than your name, rate, service
number, and date of birth, if only to avoid
further questioning. Do not makeup stories. You NAVY LEADER DEVELOPMENT
may fool the interrogator for a short time; but PROGRAM (NAVLEAD)
eventually the enemy will find your stories to be
Through research, the Navy has identified
false and may resort to harsher methods. A
various leadership skills to distinguish the
simple “I don’t know” will often suffice.
differences between superior performers and
Oral or written confessions to “war crimes,”
average performers as Navy leaders. These skills,
surrender or peace appeals, and statements critical
or characteristics, are sometimes referred to as
of the United States are forbidden. They could
competencies.
pose a danger to you and your fellow prisoners
The Navy offers a variety of 1-week Navy
and damage our country. Any confession becomes
Leader Development Program (NAVLEAD)
grounds for trying a prisoner as a war criminal
courses designed to train students to apply these
if the enemy so desires.
specific leadership skills in various job situations.
The NAVLEAD courses are available to E-5
ARTICLE VI
through O-6 personnel. All E-6 and E-7 personnel
are required to complete an NAVLEAD course
I will never forget that I am an
to be eligible for advancement to E-7 and E-8.
American, fighting for freedom, respon-
The NAVLEAD course for division officers
sible for my actions, and dedicated to the
is based on the following 13 characteristics:
principles which made my country free. I
will trust in my God and in the United 1. TAKES INITIATIVE: Demonstrates will-
States of America. ingness to go beyond what the situation
requires and to act before being asked.
In the event you are unable to avoid capture, 2. FOLLOWS THROUGH: Monitors what
remember the first sentence of the first article: “I people and the organization are doing to
am an American, fighting for freedom.” Those ensure quality and to maintain standards.

5-13
 3. DEMONSTRATES SELF-CONFIDENCE: you must have followers; to be a good leader, you
Projects an ability to succeed, to reach must have willing followers.
challenging goals, or to overcome ob- A key concept of leadership is flexibility. You
stacles. must be flexible to deal with the many facets of
4. SEEKS INFORMATION: Gathers data your job, such as job deadlines and the capabilities
from many sources to ensure actions have of your people. Your leadership style should be
potential for success. flexible enough to fit each situation.
5. PLANS: Sets goals and organizes own For you to perform all work tasks yourself is
and others’ work to accomplish these impractical and impossible; therefore, you must
efficiently. depend on your people to a large degree to do a
6. MA NA GE S TIME E FFICI ENT L Y: good job. As you work closely with your people
Develops ways of accomplishing multiple to get a job done, you will quickly recognize the
goals in a limited amount of time. need for cooperation and effort from your people.
7. E N F O R C E S H I G H S T A N D A R D S : Seek to know and understand your people. Try
Models, communicates, and upholds the to build a spirit of teamwork and high morale so
best criteria for performance. that they will willingly help you achieve the work
8. PROMOTES GOOD WORKING RELA- goal.
TIONSHIPS WITH THE CHIEF: Effec- As a leader you can practice leadership in
tively communicates with and delegates many ways. You have several leadership styles to
work to the chief petty officer. choose from. No one leadership style is right or
9. DEMONSTRATES CONCERN FOR wrong; the appropriate style depends on the
SUBORDINATES: Listens to subor- people being led, the situation, and the require-
dinates and works to meet their needs. ments of the job.
10. ACCEPTS RESPONSIBILITY: Shows Remember, leadership is more than a list of
willingness to make difficult decisions and do’s and don’ts. It is a frame of mind or an
face the consequences. attitude that you develop in dealing with people,
11. INFLUENCES: Motivates or persuades your responsibilities, and your role in the chain
others to act or to accept policy or of command.
position. Also remember that by applying the principles
12. COMMUNICATES: Demonstrates verbal of management, you can make sound leadership
and written skills in presenting ideas and decisions with skill and confidence. Good
information to others. managers come in many different forms and
13. PROBLEM-SOLVES: Analyzes situa- manage with a variety of styles. Whatever your
tions to determine causes and acts to over- personality, you can become a good manager. To
come obstacles and reach solutions. do so, you have to learn the techniques of good
leadership and concentrate on training yourself
SUMMARY to use them. You must realize that the job of
managing can be very satisfying for those who are
Leadership in the Navy is the process of prepared to meet its challenges but frustrating for
influencing people to effectively accomplish the those who have not mastered the basic leadership
mission of the unit. Good leadership is essential techniques.
in today’s military organization. Discipline must
be used in the military to reinforce the leadership
REFERENCES
structure.
You may see your leadership role as encourag- Barnett, Robin, “A Guide for Single Parents,”
ing your people to assume personal initiative and All Hands 857 (August 1988): 36-37.
a more active role in meeting their job respon-
Basic Military Requirements, N A V E D T R A
sibilities. This approach requires you to have
12043, Naval Education and Training Program
leadership skills in dealing with people to get them
Management Support Activity, Pensacola,
to cooperate and willingly participate.
Fla., 1992.
When you blend your personal leadership
skills with your official authority, you increase Military Requirements for Chief Petty Officer,
the productivity of your group. Successful leader- NAVEDTRA 12047, Naval Education and
ship occurs when you cause your subordinates to Training Program Management Support
accept orders without any undue exertion of Activity, Pensacola, Fla., 1992.
authority or force on your part. To be a leader,

5-14
Military Requirements for Petty Officer First Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) Clinical
Class, NAVEDTRA 12046, Naval Education Management Guidelines, NAVMEDCOM-
and Training Program Management Support INST 6222.1, Department of the Navy, Naval
Activity, Pensacola, Fla., 1992. Medical Command, Washington, D.C., 1987.

Navy Affirmative Action Plan (NAAP), O P -

NAVINST 5354.3B, Office of the Chief of
Naval Operations, Washington, D.C., 1989. SUGGESTED READING
Navy Equal Opportunity (EO) Manual, O P -
NAVINST 5354.1C, Office of the Chief of Mack, W.P. and T.D. Paulsen, The Naval
Naval Operations, Washington, D.C., 1989. Officer’s Guide, 9th ed., Naval Institute Press,
Annapolis, Md., 1983.
Navy Fraternization Policy, O P N A V I N S T
5370.2, Office of the Chief of Naval Opera- Noel, J.V., Division Officer’s Guide, 8th ed.,
tions, Washington, D.C., 1989. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Md., 1986.

MASTER-AT-ARMS

THE MASTER-AT-ARMS RATING IS BY NO MEANS A MODERN INNOVATION. NAVAL

RECORDS SHOW THAT THESE “SHERIFFS OF THE SEA” WERE KEEPING ORDER AS EARLY
AS THE REIGN OF CHARLES I OF ENGLAND. AT THE TIME, THEY WERE CHARGED WITH
KEEPING THE SWORDS, PISTOLS, CARBINES, AND MUSKETS IN GOOD WORKING ORDER AS
WELL AS ENSURING THAT THE BANDOLIERS WERE FILLED WITH FRESH POWDER BEFORE
COMBAT.
BESIDES BEING CHIEFS OF POLICE AT SEA, THE SEA CORPORALS, AS THEY WERE
CALLED IN THE BRITISH NAVY, HAD TO BE QUALIFIED IN CLOSE ORDER FIGHTING
UNDER ARMS AND ABLE TO TRAIN SEAMEN IN HAND-TO-HAND COMBAT. IN THE DAYS OF
SAIL, THE MAAs WERE TRULY “MASTERS AT ARMS. “ THE MASTER-AT-ARMS IN THE
U.S. NAVY CAN TRACE THE BEGINNING OF THIS RATE TO THE UNION NAVY OF THE
CIVIL WAR.

5-15
 CHAPTER 6

GOVERNING REGULATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the articles from Navy Regulations 6 . Describe the proceedings of nonjudicial
that all Navy personnel should know. punishment and the punishments that may be
awarded at nonjudicial punishment
2. Identify the contents of various articles from proceedings.
Navy Regulations.
7. Describe the three types of courts-martial.
3. Trace the development of the Uniform Code
of Military Justice.
8. Describe the purpose of the S t a n d a r d
4. Describe the contents of article 137 of the Organization and Regulations of the U.S.
Uniform Code of Military Justice. Navy.

5. Identify the contents of the articles that are 9. Identify the contents of various articles of the
explained in article 137 of the Uniform Code Standard Organization and Regulations of the
of Military Justice. U.S. Navy.

Figure 6-1 shows the three official sources U.S. NAVY REGULATIONS
that set forth the basic disciplinary laws for the
Navy. These sources are the Uniform Code of The 12 chapters of Navy Regs describe the
Military Justice (UCMJ) (contained in the authority and responsibilities of the offices within
Manual for Courts-Martial United States, 1984, the Department of the Navy. They also describe
Revised Edition); United States Navy Regulations, the regulations concerning the procedures,
1990 (commonly called Navy Regs); and the authority, and command of these offices. Navy
Standard Organization and Regulations of the Regs also covers honors and ceremonies, the rights
U.S. Navy. and responsibilities of persons in the Department
of the Navy, and the purpose and force of these
You probably have heard the saying, “Ig- regulations.
norance of the law is no excuse.” Obviously, this Each ship and station has complete copies of
idea must govern; otherwise, personnel could Navy Regs available to all personnel. Also
excuse illegal conduct merely by saying they did available is an excellent nonresident training
not know there was a law against it. When you course entitled Navy Regulations, N A V E D -
entered the Navy, you agreed to abide by the TRA 10740-C, which you are encouraged to
Navy’s laws and regulations. Naturally, you will complete. Your educational services officer (ESO)
need time to learn all the rules you must obey. can help you order this course.
However, you should make every effort to learn The following section lists articles (with a
them as soon as possible to avoid embarrassing condensation of their text, if appropriate) from
situations and disciplinary action. United States Navy Regulations, 1990, that all

6-1
 Figure 6-1.-Three official sources for basic disciplinary laws.

personnel in the Navy should know. This listing In the following excerpts the first two digits of
serves only as a starting place for you to learn about the article number indicate the chapter of Navy Regs
Navy regulations. You are responsible for learning from which the article is taken. When the article
and obeying all regulations. These regulations are not itself is self-explanatory, the article is presented in
punitive articles, but laws under which the Navy block quotation exactly as stated in Navy Regs; no
operates. Many exist for your own protection. Failure further explanation is given. Articles that are lengthy
to obey any regulation subjects the offender to and, in some cases, difficult to interpret are
charges under article 92, UCMJ (Failure to obey paraphrased to give you a brief overview of the
order or regulation). contents of the article.

6-2
0818. Publishing and Posting Orders and 0917. Dealings With Foreigners
Regulations
When in foreign ports, personnel shall respect
1. In accordance with Article 137 of local laws, customs, ceremonies, and regulations;
the Uniform Code of Military Justice, the display courtesy and moderation; and cultivate
articles specifically enumerated therein a feeling of good will and mutual respect.
shall be carefully explained to each enlisted
person: 1020. Exercise of Authority
a. At the time of entrance on All persons in the naval service on
active duty or within six days thereafter; active service, those on the retired list with
b. Again, after completion of six pay, and transferred members of the Fleet
months active duty; and Reserve and the Fleet Marine Corps
c. Again, upon the occasion of Reserve are at all times subject to naval
each reenlistment. authority. While on active service they
2. A text of the articles specifically may, if not on leave of absence except as
enumerated in Article 137 of the Uniform noted below, on the sick list, taken into
Code of Military Justice shall be posted in custody, under arrest, suspended from
a conspicuous place or places, readily duty, in confinement, or otherwise in-
accessible to all personnel of the capable of discharging their duties, exer-
command. cise authority over all persons who are
subordinate to them.
3. Instructions concerning the Uni-
form Code of Military Justice a n d 1021. Authority Over Subordinates
appropriate articles of Navy Regulations
shall be included in the training and educa- This article gives officers the authority
tional program of the command. necessary to perform their duties.
4. Such general orders, orders from
1023. Abuse of Authority
higher authority, and other matters which
the commanding officer considers of in- Persons in authority are forbidden to
terest to the personnel or profitable for injure their subordinates by tyrannical or
them to know shall be published to the capricious conduct, or by abusive
command as soon as practicable. Such language.
matters shall also be posted, in whole or
in part, in a conspicuous place or places 1024. Contradictory and Conflicting Orders
readily accessible to personnel of the
command. An enlisted person who receives an order that
annuls, suspends, or modifies one received from
5. Upon the request of any person on another superior shall immediately relate this fact
active duty in the armed services, the to the superior from whom the last order was
following publications shall be made received. If, after receiving this information, the
available for that person’s personal superior from whom the last order was received
examination: should insist upon the execution of that order, it
a. A complete text of the Uniform shall be obeyed. The person receiving and
Code of Military Justice, executing such order shall report the cir-
b. Manual for Courts-Martial, cumstances as soon as practicable to the superior
c. Navy Regulations, from whom the original order was received.
d. Manual of the Judge Advocate
General, 1033. Authority in a Boat
e. Marine Corps Manual ( f o r
Marine Corps personnel), This article provides the senior line officer
f. Naval Military Personnel Man- eligible for command at sea the authority over all
ual (for Navy personnel) or Marine Corps persons embarked in a boat. It also delegates the
Personnel Manual (for Marine Corps officer responsibility for the safety and manage-
personnel). ment of the boat.

6-3
1037. Authority of Warrant Officers, Non- interest rate, for the period of the loan, that
Commissioned Officers, and Petty Officers exceeds 18 percent simple interest per year.
Personnel may not act as a salesperson or an agent
Chief warrant officers, warrant of- or engage in a business on board without
ficers, non-commissioned officers, and permission of the commanding officer.
petty officers shall have, under their
superiors, all necessary authority for the 1115. Report of Fraud
proper performance of their duties, and
they shall be obeyed accordingly. Any suspicions of fraud, collusion, or im-
proper conduct in matters concerning supplies and
repairs should be reported to proper authority.
1038. Authority of a Sentry
1125. Inspection of the Record of a Person in the
A sentry, within the limits stated in his
Naval Service
or her orders, has authority over all
persons on his or her post.
A person’s naval record is maintained by the
Chief of Naval Personnel or the Commandant of
1039. Authority of Juniors To Issue Orders to the Marine Corps. The record must be available
Seniors for inspection by that person or an authorized
agent designated in writing by that person.
No member of the armed forces is authorized
by virtue of his or her rank alone to give any order 1130. Officer’s Duties Relative to Laws, Orders
or grant any privilege, permission, or liberty to and Regulations
any officer senior to him or her. A member is not
required to receive such order, privilege, per- All officers in the naval service shall acquaint
mission, or liberty from a junior, unless such themselves with and obey the laws, regulations,
junior is at the time: and orders relating to the Department of the
Navy. They shall also, as far as their authority
Ž In command of the ship or other command extends, enforce these laws, regulations, and
to which the senior is attached. orders. They shall faithfully and truthfully
discharge the duties of their office to the best of
Ž In command or direction of the military their ability in conformance with existing orders
expedition or duty on which such senior and regulations and their solemn profession of the
is serving. oath of office. In the absence of instructions, they
shall act in conformity with the policies and
Ž An executive officer executing an order of customs of the service to protect the public
the commanding officer. interest.

1132. Compliance With Lawful Orders

1111. Pecuniary Dealings With Enlisted Persons
All persons in the naval service are
No officer should have any dealings involving
required to obey readily and strictly, and
money with enlisted persons except as may be
to execute promptly, the lawful orders of
required in the performance of the officer’s duties
their superiors.
or as involved in the sale of personal property.
An officer may be designated by superior
1133. Language Reflecting on a Superior
authority to accept deposits from enlisted person-
nel for the purpose of safeguarding these funds
Language tending to diminish the confidence
under emergency or operational situations.
and respect due superior officers shall not be used.

1112. Lending Money and Engaging in a Trade 1134. Exchange of Duty

or Business
An assigned duty may not be changed with
Naval personnel shall not lend money to another person (such as trading watches) without
another member of the armed services at an permission from proper authority.

6-4
1137. Obligation To Report Offenses 1154. Communications to the Congress

All offenses observed should be reported to Personnel may not, in their official capacity,
the proper authority. apply to Congress for congressional action of any
kind or provide information requested by Con-
gress. The only exception to this regulation is such
1138. Responsibilities Concerning Marijuana, communication as authorized by the Secretary of
Narcotics, and Other Controlled Substances the Navy or as provided by law.

Personnel may not bring on board any naval

activity, or have in their possession at any time, 1155. Dealings With Members of Congress
marijuana, narcotics, or any controlled
substances. All persons may write to their congressmen on
any subject as long as they do not violate security
regulations or the law.
1143. Report of a Communicable Disease

Personnel should report any suspicions of 1156. Forwarding Individual Requests

communicable disease to their medical representa-
tive. Requests from persons in the naval
service shall be acted upon promptly.
When addressed to higher authority,
1144. Immunization requests shall be forwarded without delay.
The reason should be stated when a request
Personnel must take the immunizations is not approved or recommended.
prescribed for them as scheduled.
1157. Leave and Liberty
1145. Service Examinations
Leave and liberty will be granted to the
No persons in the Navy, without proper maximum extent practicable.
authority, should have or attempt to have in their
possession, any examination papers, any part or 1158. Quality and Quantity of Rations
copy thereof, or any examination answer sheets.
They also shall not obtain, sell, publish, give, Meals served in the general mess shall be
purchase, receive, or reproduce any of these sampled regularly by an officer detailed by the
examination products. commanding officer for that purpose. Should this
officer find the quality or quantity of the food
unsatisfactory or should any member of the mess
1150. Redress of Wrong Committed by a
object to the quality or quantity of the food, the
Superior
commanding officer shall be notified and shall
take appropriate action.
A person who believes that a superior
exercises authority in an unjust or cruel manner
or is guilty of misconduct should submit a 1159. Possession of Weapons
complaint to his or her commanding officer.
Personnel may not have any weapons or
explosives in their possession without proper
1151. Direct Communication With the Com- authority.
manding Officer

The right of any person in the naval 1160. Possession of Government Property
service to communicate with the com-
manding officer in a proper manner, and Personnel shall not possess, without permis-
at a proper time and place, shall not be sion, any property of the United States except
denied or restricted. what is needed in the performance of their duty.

6-5
1162. Alcoholic Liquors to every enlisted person at certain intervals. They
must be explained at the time the person enters
The personal possession of any alcoholic on active duty, after 6 months of active duty, and
liquors aboard any ship is prohibited. The when the person reenlists. In general, these articles
transportation aboard ship of alcoholic liquors concern the following topics:
for personal use ashore is authorized subject
to the discretion of, and under regulations Article Subject
established by, the commanding officer.
2 Persons subject to the Code

UNIFORM CODE OF 3 Right to try certain persons even

MILITARY JUSTICE though they have been separated from
service
Until 1951 the various branches of our armed
forces operated under different military codes. 7-14 Apprehension and restraint
The Army and Air Force were guided in the
administration of discipline and in legal processes 15 Nonjudicial punishment (captain’s
by the Army’s Articles of War. The Navy was mast)
guided by the Articles for the Government of the
Navy (“Rocks and Shoals”); and the Coast 25 Membership of courts-martial
Guard, by the Disciplinary Laws of the Coast
Guard. Not surprisingly, then, an act considered 27 Appointment of counsel to courts-
an offense in the eyes of the Navy may not have martial
been judged so by the Army. Even if an act was
31 Compulsory self-incrimination pro-
a breach of discipline in all branches of the armed
hibited
forces, the type of trial and severity of punish-
ment awarded varied.
37 Unlawful influence on the court
A standardized code of military justice was
recognized as a logical and necessary unification
38 Duties of counsel
measure. Therefore, then Secretary of Defense,
James Forrestal, appointed an interservice com- 55 Certain punishments prohibited
mittee to study the measure. After an intensive
study, the committee drafted what is now known 77-134 Punitive articles
as the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ).
The UCMJ was passed by Congress on 5 May 137 Articles that must be explained
1950, signed into law by the President, and
became effective 31 May 1951. 138 Complaints of wrongs
The Manual for Courts-Martial, United
States, 1951 (MCM) consolidated and stan- 139 Payment for injury or loss of property
dardized varying military legal procedures.
Effective 31 May 1951, the same date as the Navy Regulations supplements article 137 of
original UCMJ, it became the new touchstone of the UCMJ by requiring each command to post
military justice. Case decisions of the Court of the text of those articles in the preceding list in
Military Appeals and changes in courts-martial a conspicuous place. Navy Regs also requires each
procedures have made necessary several changes command to include these and other appropriate
to the original manual. The current edition is the articles of Navy Regulations in the command’s
Manual for Courts-Martial 1984. training and education program. Copies of the
complete UCMJ (140 articles), Navy Regulations,
ARTICLES TO BE EXPLAINED and other general orders are available to any
person desiring to read them.
Congress and the Navy have taken steps to
ensure you will know the disciplinary laws and EXCERPTS FROM THE UCMJ
regulations most likely to affect your daily life.
Article 137 of the UCMJ states that certain The purpose of this section is not to make you
articles of the Code must be explained carefully an expert on the Uniform Code of Military

6-6
Justice, but to give you an overview of each of Ž The United States Supreme Court has held
the articles prescribed by article 137. Those unconstitutional the exercise of court-martial
articles which are self-explanatory are shown in jurisdiction over civilians in time of peace.
block quotation as stated in the UCMJ n o
further explanation is given. Some of the more
lengthy articles have been edited to present only Art. 3. Jurisdiction To Try Certain Personnel
portions of these articles. Articles that are lengthy
and, in some cases, difficult to interpret are Article 3 states that a person maybe tried by
paraphrased to give you a brief overview of what court-martial, even after leaving the service, for
the article contains. offenses committed while under the UCMJ.
The UCMJ uses the terms “man” or “he” to
refer to all persons in the military service.
Art. 7. Apprehension
Art. 2. Persons Subject to This Code
(a) Apprehension is the taking of a
The following persons are subject to
person into custody.
this code:
(b) Any person authorized under
(1) Members of a regular compo- regulations governing the armed forces to
nent of the armed forces, including apprehend persons subject to this code or
those awaiting discharge after to trial thereunder may do so upon
expiration of their terms of enlist- reasonable belief that an offense has
ment; volunteers from the time of been committed and that the person
their muster or acceptance into the apprehended committed it.
armed forces; inductees from the (c) Commissioned officers, warrant
time of their actual induction into officers, petty officers, and noncommis-
the armed forces; and other persons sioned officers have authority to quell
lawfully called or ordered into, or quarrels, frays, and disorders among
to duty in or for training in, the persons subject to this code and to
armed forces, from the dates when apprehend persons subject to this code who
they are required by the terms of take part therein.
the call or order to obey it.
In addition to those listed in 7(c), security
This article includes all persons on active duty,
police, military police, shore patrol, and others
certain retired persons, prisoners, and prisoners
designated to perform guard or police duties may
of war.
apprehend persons subject to the UCMJ.
You should specifically note the following
provisions of article 2: Enlisted persons performing police duties
should not apprehend an officer except on specific
Ž Any person serving a sentence imposed by orders of a commissioned officer. The exception
a court-martial remains subject to the UCMJ. is when such apprehension is necessary to prevent
Thus, a prisoner who is serving a court-martial disgrace to the service, the commission of a serious
sentence may be tried for a crime committed while offense, or the escape of one who has committed
a prisoner. This applies even though the prisoner’s a serious offense. In such cases, the apprehending
term of enlistment has expired at the time of individual immediately notifies the officer to
commission of the crime. whom he or she is responsible or an officer of the
Ž A reservist on inactive-duty training is security police, military police, or shore patrol.
subject to the UCMJ when (a) the training is An apprehension is effected by clear notifica-
authorized by written orders; (b) the orders are tion to the offender that he or she is thereby taken
voluntarily accepted by the reservist; and (c) the into custody. The order may be oral or written.
orders specify that the reservist is subject to the
A clear distinction exists between the authority
UCMJ.
to apprehend and the authority to arrest or
Ž A reservist ordered into the active military confine (article 9). Any person empowered to
service is subject to the UCMJ beginning on the apprehend an offender, however, is authorized
date specified in the orders for the reservist to to secure the custody of an alleged offender until
report for active duty. proper authority may be notified.

6-7
Art. 8. Apprehension of Deserters of an alleged offender until proper
authority may be notified.
Any civil officer having authority to
apprehend offenders under the laws of the
United States or of a State, Territory, Art. 10. Restraint of Persons Charged With
Commonwealth, or possession, or the Offenses
District of Columbia may summarily
apprehend a deserter from the armed Any person subject to this code charged
forces and deliver him into the custody of with an offense under this code shall be
those forces. ordered into arrest or confinement, as
circumstances may require; but when
When a military service sends out a descrip- charged only with an offense normally
tion of a deserter, with a request for the deserter’s tried by a summary court-martial, he shall
apprehension, the notice gives civil officers the not ordinarily be placed in confinement.
authority to apprehend the person. When any person subject to this code is
placed in arrest or confinement prior to
trial, immediate steps shall be taken to in-
Art. 9. Imposition of Restraint form him of the specific wrong of which
he is accused and to try him or to dismiss
(a) Arrest is the restraint of a person the charges and release him.
by an order, not imposed as a punishment
for an offense, directing him to remain As the words “normally” and “or-
within certain specified limits. Confine- dinarily” imply, the provisions of this
ment is the physical restraint of a person. article may not apply in exceptional cases.
Whether to confine, arrest, or restrict a
(b) An enlisted member may be person in lieu of arrest is within the
ordered into arrest or confinement by any discretion of the officer having the power
commissioned officer by an order, oral or to do so. What this article says, in effect,
written, delivered in person or through is that in most instances confinement is not
other persons subject to this code. A com- necessary for persons accused of minor
manding officer may authorize warrant offenses.
officers, petty officers, or noncommis-
sioned officers to order enlisted members
of his command or subject to his authority Art. 11. Reports and Receiving of Prisoners
into arrest or confinement.
(a) No provost marshall, commander
(c) A commissioned officer, a warrant or a guard, or master-at-arms may refuse
officer, or a civilian subject to this code to receive or keep any prisoner committed
or to trial thereunder may be ordered into to his charge by a commissioned officer of
arrest or confinement only by a command- the armed forces, when the committing of-
ing officer to whose authority he is ficer furnishes a statement, signed by him,
subject, by an order, oral or written, of the offense charged against the prisoner.
delivered in person or by another commis- (b) Every commander of the guard or
sioned officer. The authority to order such master-at-arms to whose charge a prisoner
persons into arrest or confinement may not is committed shall, within twenty-four
be delegated. hours after that commitment or as soon as
he is relieved from guard, report to the
(d) No person may be ordered into commanding officer the name of the
arrest or confinement except for probable prisoner, the offense charged against him,
cause. and the name of the person who ordered
or authorized the commitment.
(e) Nothing in this article limits
the authority of persons authorized to An arrest is imposed by notification to the
apprehend offenders to secure the custody person to be arrested that he or she is under

6-8
arrest and of the limits of the arrest. The order delivery, if followed by conviction in a civil
of arrest may be oral or written. A person to be tribunal, interrupts the execution of the
confined is placed under guard and taken to the sentence of the court-martial, and the
place of confinement. offender after having answered to the civil
authorities for this offense shall, upon the
request of competent military authority, be
Art. 12. Confinement With Enemy Prisoners returned to military custody for the
Prohibited completion of his sentence.

No member of the armed forces may

be placed in confinement in immediate Art. 15. Commanding Officer’s Nonjudicial
association with enemy prisoners or other Punishment
foreign nationals not members of the
armed forces. Article 15 explains commanding officer’s non-
judicial punishment. For some offenses, com-
manders may offer an article 15 instead of
Art. 13. Punishment Prohibited Before Trial court-martial. If accepted, the commander may
impose punishment as permitted by regulations
Subject to . . . Article 57, no person, (usually at captain’s mast). Receiving an article
while being held for trial or the result of 15 is not a conviction, and it does not give a
trial, may be subjected to punishment or person a criminal record. This article will be
penalty other than arrest or confinement explained in greater detail later in this chapter
upon the charges pending against him, nor under “Nonjudicial Punishment.”
shall the arrest or confinement imposed
upon him be any more rigorous than the
circumstances require to ensure his Art. 25. Who May Serve on Courts-Martial
presence, but he maybe subjected to minor
punishment during that period for in- Any commissioned officer, including commis-
fractions of discipline. sioned warrant officers, on active duty with the
armed forces is eligible to serve on a court-martial.
The minor punishment permitted under article Any warrant officer on active duty with the armed
13 includes that authorized for violations of forces is eligible to serve on a general court-martial
discipline set forth by the place in which the (GCM) and special court-martial (SPCM) for the
person is confined. The article does not prevent trial of any person, other than a commissioned
a person from being required to do ordinary clean- officer. Any enlisted person on active duty with
ing or policing or from taking part in routine the armed forces who is not a member of the same
training and duties not involving the bearing of unit as the accused is eligible to serve on general
arms. and special courts-martial for the trial of enlisted
persons. However, enlisted personnel may serve
as a member of a court-martial only if, before the
Art. 14. Delivery of Offenders to Civil Author- assembling of such court, the accused has per-
ities sonally requested in writing that enlisted personnel
serve as members of the court.
(a) Under such regulations as the
Secretary concerned may prescribe, a
member of the armed forces accused of an Art. 27. Detail of Trial Counsel and Defense
offense against civil authority may be Counsel
delivered, upon request, to the civil
authority for trial. Each general and special court-martial must
have a trial counsel and a defense counsel, with
(b) When delivery under this article is such assistants as the convening authority deems
made to any civil authority of a person necessary. The terms “counsel,” “trial counsel,”
undergoing sentence of a court-martial, the and “defense counsel” should be interpreted to

6-9
mean the detailed counsel named in the convening statements explain your rights against self-
order. The term “individual counsel” refers to incrimination:
the military counsel selected by the accused or the
civilian counsel provided by the accused at his or You cannot be forced to answer questions
her own expense. or give evidence that may help to prove
your guilt.
The trial counsel and defense counsel detailed
for a general court-martial must have equivalent You must be told the nature of the offense
legal qualifications. Each must be a judge of which you are accused; that you do not
advocate of the Army, Navy, Air Force, or have to make any statement; and that if
Marine Corps who is a graduate of an accredited you do, it can be used against you.
law school or is a member of the bar of a federal
court or of the highest court of a state. Each must You cannot be forced to make a statement
be certified as competent to perform such duties or give evidence in a trial that is not related
by the Judge Advocate General of the armed to the case or that may degrade you.
forces of which he or she is a member. A civilian
counsel must be a member of the bar of a federal No statement obtained from you by threats
court or of the highest court of a state. or trickery can be used against you in a
court-martial trial.
In a special court-martial, the accused must
be afforded the opportunity to be represented by
counsel qualified under article 27, UCMJ, unless
Art. 37. Unlawfully Influencing Action of Court
such counsel cannot be obtained because of the
geographical location or pressing military re-
quirements. If qualified defense counsel cannot (a) No authority convening a general,
be obtained or if the accused has declined special, or summary court-martial, nor any
qualified counsel, the detailed defense counsel other commanding officer, may censure,
must meet the following requirements. If the reprimand, or admonish the court or any
detailed defense counsel does not meet the follow- member, military judge, or counsel
ing requirements, an SPCM is not legally thereof, with respect to the findings or
constituted: sentence adjudged by the court, or with
respect to any other exercise of its or his
functions in the conduct of the proceeding.
Ž If the detailed trial counsel or any No person subject to this code may attempt
assistant trial counsel is qualified to act as counsel to coerce or, by any unauthorized means,
before a GCM, the detailed defense counsel must influence the action of a court-martial or
be a person similarly qualified; or any other military tribunal or any member
thereof, in reaching the findings or
sentence in any case, or the action of any
Ž If the detailed trial counsel or any assis- convening, approving, or reviewing
tant trial counsel is a judge advocate or a member authority with respect to his judicial acts.
of the bar of a federal court or the highest court
of a state, the detailed defense counsel must be Article 37 is designed to ensure that every
one of the same. court, its members, and its officers shall be
completely free to fulfill their functions without
fear of reprisal.
Art. 31. Compulsory Self-Incrimination Pro-
hibited
Art. 38. Duties of Trial Counsel and Defense
Counsel
This article explains your right not to provide
evidence against yourself (self-incrimination), a
right given to all citizens under the Fifth Amend- The trial counsel prosecutes in the name of the
ment to the U.S. Constitution. The following United States and, under the direction of the

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court, prepares the record of proceedings. The Congress telling you what you must do and must
duties of the trial counsel might be compared to not do, under pain of punishment.
those of a civil district attorney. The prosecution What about civil laws? Can you be given
must prove beyond a reasonable doubt the guilt military punishment for nonmilitary offenses?
of the accused for each offense charged. Of Yes, you can. For example, the only U C M J
course, such burden of proof is relieved by a plea regulations against drunkenness are for drunken
of guilty. The many duties of the trial counsel vary driving and being drunk on duty. Many civilian
widely beginning at the time of assignment to the communities, though, have laws against drunken-
trial. The duties change throughout the prepara- ness in public. If you are found guilty in civil court
tion for trial, the trial itself, and the preparation and spend time in jail for being drunk in public,
and disposition of the record of trial. the Navy can try you for being absent without
All accused persons have the right to be leave (UCMJ, article 86) and for bringing discredit
represented before special and general courts- upon the Navy (UCMJ, article 134).
martial by defense counsel. This counsel may be If you willfully refuse to pay just debts, you
a civilian or military lawyer selected by the will be warned to pay them by your commanding
accused or may be a defense counsel appointed officer. Continued failure to pay your debts can
by the convening authority. If a civilian counsel lead to an undesirable type of discharge. The Navy
is selected, the accused must pay the counsel’s has no use for people who do not exhibit integrity
expenses. If the accused prefers to select counsel, and honesty. On the other hand, if you are being
the detailed counsel and assistant counsel act as gouged by unscrupulous dealers, see your legal
associate counsel if the accused so desires; other- officer for assistance.
wise, they may be excused. The punitive articles that follow are those you
are required to know. If you have any questions
Some of the duties of the defense counsel are about their meaning, ask your division officer for
as follows: guidance.

Ž To advise the accused of the right to have Art. 77. Principals

enlisted membership on the court
The mere fact that a person is at the scene of
Ž To explain the meaning and effect of a a crime does not make the person a principal. To
be a principal of a crime, the person must be guilty
guilty plea, if appropriate
of an intent to aid or encourage the persons who
Ž To advise the accused of the right to committed the crime.
introduce evidence; to testify or to remain A person who witnesses a crime can be a
silent; if after findings of guilty are an- principal. Evidence must show the witness had a
nounced, to make an unsworn statement duty to interfere and the witness’s noninterference
and to introduce evidence as to matters in was intended to operate and did operate to
extenuation and mitigation; and to assert encourage or protect the perpetrator.
any proper defense or objection A person maybe a principal even though not
at the scene of the crime if he or she commanded,
Art. 55. Cruel and Unusual Punishments Pro- advised, or obtained another person to commit
hibited an offense.

This article prohibits any cruel or unusual Art. 78. Accessory After the Fact
punishment. In particular, courts-martial are
Any person subject to this code who,
forbidden to award sentences that include whip-
knowing that an offense punishable by this
ping, branding, marking, or tattooing the body.
code has been committed, receives, com-
The use of irons is also prohibited, except for the
forts, or assists the offender in order to
purpose of safe custody.
hinder or prevent his apprehension, trial,
or punishment shall be punished as a court-
PUNITIVE ARTICLES OF THE UCMJ
martial may direct.
The punitive articles of the UCMJ are those A person who voluntarily gives an escaped
numbered 77 through 134. They are the laws of prisoner provisions that permit him or her to

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avoid pursuers becomes an accessory after the fact to the prisoner’s escape.
Provisions include transportation, clothing, money, or any other necessities.

Art. 79. Conviction of Lesser Included Offense

An accused maybe found guilty of an offense necessarily included

in the offense charged or of an attempt to commit either the offense
charged or an offense necessarily included therein.

A military tribunal may only try a person who has been charged with
violating a particular article or articles of the UCMJ. Quite simply, if a person
committed what is considered a crime but the code did not include that crime
in one of its punitive articles, no court-martial could try him or her. Articles
77, 78, 80, 81, and 82 of the code, thus, encompass persons who may not
have taken an active part in or successfully committed an offense. These
articles permit persons to be tried for being an accomplice in a crime, even
though the crime isn’t included in the UCMJ.

Article 79 goes a step further by authorizing the finding of guilty of a lesser

included offense when a finding of guilty cannot be sustained for the offense
charged. For this reason, a charge has three permissible findings: guilty; not
guilty; not guilty, but guilty of a violation of article .

The key words in article 79 are “offense necessarily included in the

offense charged.” For example, a violation of article 85 (Desertion) “with
intent to remain away therefrom permanently”—invariably is also an
uncharged violation of the lesser charge of article 86 (Absent without leave).
Proving that an accused deserter had no intention of ever returning might
be impossible. But the date the person absented himself or herself and the
date the person (was) returned to military jurisdiction are clear. Thus, many
deserters are, for lack of proof of intent, found not guilty, but guilty of a
violation of article 86.

Other examples of what generally are held to be lesser included offenses

contained in a principal offense include the following:

Article Principal Offense Article Lesser Included Offense

83 Fraudulent enlistment, 3 Jurisdiction to try certain

appointment, or separa- personnel
tion
94 Mutiny 92 Failure to obey lawful order

94 Sedition 116 Breach of the peace

95 Breach of arrest 134 Breach of restriction

118 Murder 119 Manslaughter

122 Robbery 121 Larceny

124 Maiming 128 Assault with a dangerous

weapon

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Art. 80. Attempts (b) Any person subject to this code
who solicits or advises another or others
(a) An act, done with specific intent to to commit an act of misbehavior before the
commit an offense under this code, enemy in violation of . . . Article 99 or
amounting to more than mere preparation sedition in violation of . . . Article 94
and tending, even though failing, to effect shall, if the offense solicited or advised is
its commission, is an attempt to commit committed, be punished with the punish-
that offense. ment provided for the commission of the
(b) Any person subject to this code offense, but, if the offense solicited or
who attempts to commit any offense advised is not committed, he shall be
punishable by this code shall be punished punished as a court-martial may direct.
as a court-martial may direct, unless other-
wise specifically prescribed. Solicitation may be accomplished by other
(c) Any person subject to this code means than by word of mouth or by writing. Any
may be convicted of an attempt to commit act or conduct that reasonably maybe considered
an offense although it appears on the trial as a serious request or advice to commit one of
that the offense was consummated. the offenses named in the article may constitute
solicitation. The accused may act through other
An accused maybe guilty of an attempt even persons in committing this offense.
though the crime turns out to be impossible to
commit because of an outside intervening cir-
cumstance. For example, a pickpocket who puts Art. 83. Fraudulent Enlistment, Appointment,
a hand in the pocket of another person with the or Separation
intent to steal a billfold is guilty of an attempt
to commit larceny, even though the pocket is Any person who:
empty.
(1) procures his own enlistment
or appointment in the armed forces
Art. 81. Conspiracy by knowingly false representation
or deliberate concealment as to his
“Conspiracy” is defined as an agreement qualifications for that enlistment or
between two or more persons to commit a crime. appointment and receives pay or
Conspiracy refers to such a plan by a group whose allowances thereunder; or
intent usually is to commit a crime of a bold (2) procures his own separation
nature, such as overthrowing a government. from the armed forces by knowingly
false representation or deliberate
The agreement in a conspiracy need not be concealment as to his eligibility for
formal. The agreement need only be a common that separation;
understanding in the minds of the parties to
accomplish the objective of the conspiracy. shall be punished as a court-martial may
direct.

Art. 82. Solicitation An essential element of the offense of

fraudulent enlistment or appointment is that the
(a) Any person subject to this code accused shall have received pay or allowances
who solicits or advises another or others while under that enlistment or appointment.
to desert in violation of . . . article 85 or Acceptance of food, clothing, shelter, or transpor-
mutiny in violation of . . . Article 94 shall, tation from the government constitutes receipt of
if the offense solicited or advised is allowances.
attempted or committed, be punished with After apprehension, an accused charged with
the punishment provided for the commis- having fraudulently obtained separation from a
sion of the offense, but, if the offense branch of the armed forces is subject to the
solicited or advised is not committed or UCMJ. The accused is subject to the UCMJ while
attempted, he shall be punished as a court- in the custody of the armed forces and while
martial may direct. awaiting trial for the fraudulent separation.

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Art. 84. Unlawful Enlistment, Appointment, or (3) absents himself or remains
Separation absent from his unit, organization,
or place of duty at which he is re-
Any person subject to this code who effects quired to be at the time prescribed;
an enlistment or appointment in or a separation
from the armed forces of any person who is
known to him to be ineligible for that enlistment, shall be punished as a court-martial may
appointment, or separation because it is pro- direct.
hibited by law, regulation, or order shall be
punished as a court-martial may direct. This article covers every case not provided for
in the other punitive articles in which an armed
forces member, through that member’s own fault,
Art. 85. Desertion is not in a required location at a specified time.
As opposed to desertion, whether or not the
This article states that members of the armed member intended to remain away makes no
forces who, without permission, leave their place difference. The intent is expressed by the
of duty or organization with the intent to remain member’s absence.
away permanently are guilty of desertion. Make sure you avoid the bad habit of taking
The status of an absentee changes to that of the last bus, train, or plane when returning from
a deserter after 30 days of absence, or sooner if leave. Always allow time for unexpected delays.
the intent to desert is apparent. For example,
suppose a Navy member goes ashore without
permission, taking all personal belongings and Art. 87. Missing Movement
announcing to shipmates that he or she is leaving
the service for good. That person could be Any person subject to this code who
immediately declared a deserter. through neglect or design misses the move-
ment of a ship, aircraft, or unit with which
After an individual is declared a deserter, he is required in the course of duty to move
notification is forwarded to the next of kin; shall be punished as a court-martial may
the deserter’s hometown police; and various direct.
other law enforcement agencies, including the
FBI. Deserters are nearly always caught and Provisions of article 87 should be self-
identified because of nationwide fingerprinting explanatory. However, note that the violator, to
and identification practices. Furthermore, ex- be found guilty, need not have known the exact
penses incurred in the return of the deserter to hour or even the exact date of the scheduled move-
military control are chargeable to the returned ment. If a person had knowledge of only the
absentee. approximate date, the court may convict the
The effects of desertion can be many; some absentee on the charge of missing movement.
can be severe. If tried and convicted of desertion, Missing ship is a serious offense to the Navy. It
the deserter is almost certainly imprisoned; in time leaves the ship shorthanded and requires
of war, the deserter may be executed. A person somebody to do the absentee’s work and stand
whose conviction of desertion in time of war the absentee’s watches.
results in a dishonorable discharge can never hold
any office of trust or profit in the United States
government. Art. 88. Contempt Toward Officials

Any commissioned officer who uses

Art. 86. Absence Without Leave contemptuous words against the President,
the Vice President, Congress, the Secretary
Any member of the armed forces who, of Defense, the Secretary of a military
without authority— department, the Secretary of the Treasury,
or the Governor or legislature of any State,
(1) fails to go to his appointed Territory, Commonwealth, or possession
place of duty at the time prescribed; in which he is on duty or present shall be
(2) goes from that place; or punished as a court-martial may direct.

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Art. 89. Disrespect Toward Superior Commis- (2) willfully disobeys the lawful
sioned Officer order of a warrant officer, non-
commissioned officer, or petty of-
Any person subject to this code who
ficer; or
behaves with disrespect toward his superior
(3) treats with contempt or is
commissioned officer shall be punished as
disrespectful in language or deport-
a court-martial may direct.
ment toward a warrant officer,
A superior commissioned officer is a commis- noncommissioned officer, or petty
sioned officer who is superior in rank or com- officer, while that officer is in the
mand. Disrespect includes insulting words, execution of his office;
insolence, impertinence, undue familiarity or
other rudeness, and failing to salute. shall be punished as a court-martial may
direct.
Art. 90. Assaulting or Willfully Disobeying
Superior Commissioned Officer This article has the same general objectives
with respect to warrant officers, noncommis-
Any person subject to this code who—
sioned officers, and petty officers as articles 89
(1) strikes his superior commis- and 90 have with respect to commissioned of-
sioned officer or lifts up any ficers. Namely, it ensures obedience to their lawful
weapon or offers any violence orders and protects them from violence, insult,
against him while he is in the or disrespect.
execution of his office; or
(2) willfully disobeys a lawful
command of his superior commis- Art. 92. Failure To Obey Order or Regulation
sioned officer;
Any person subject to this code who—
shall be punished, if the offense is
committed in time of war, by death or such
(1) violates or fails to obey any
other punishment as a court-martial may
lawful general order or regulation;
direct, and if the offense is committed at
(2) having knowledge of any
any other time, by such punishment, other
other lawful order issued by a
than death, as a court-martial may direct.
member of the armed forces, which
An officer is in the “execution of his office” it is his duty to obey, fails to obey
when performing any act the officer is required the order; or
or authorized to do. Note that the article is not (3) is derelict in the perform-
confined to striking a superior commissioned ance of his duties;
officer; it takes in brandishing a weapon or
waving a fist under the officer’s nose. shall be punished as a court-martial may
Willful disobedience, as used here, means direct.
intentional defiance of a lawful order. You must
presume that any order given by an officer is legal. A general order or regulation is one that
If you disobey because you think otherwise, you applies generally to an armed force. It may be
do so at your own risk. It is better to do your issued by the President or the Secretary of
questioning after you have carried out the order. Defense, the Secretary of Transportation, or the
Secretary of a military department. It may also
Art. 91. Insubordinate Conduct Toward Warrant be issued by an officer having general court-
Officer, Noncommissioned Officer, or martial jurisdiction, a general or flag officer in
Petty Officer command, or a commander superior to one of
these.
Any warrant officer or enlisted member
Disobedience of “any other lawful order”
who—
requires that the person must have had a duty to
(1) strikes or assaults a warrant obey the order and must have had knowledge of
officer, noncommissioned officer, the order. An accused may be charged with
or petty officer, while that officer disobedience of the lawful order of one not a
is in execution of his office; superior, provided the accused had a duty to obey

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such order. Examples are lawful orders of a Art. 96. Releasing Prisoner Without Proper
sentinel or of members of the armed forces police. Authority
Dereliction in the performance of duties
occurs when a person willfully or negligently fails Any person subject to this code who,
to perform them or performs them in a culpably without proper authority, releases any
inefficient manner. To be culpably inefficient, an prisoner committed to his charge, or who
accused must have had the ability and opportunity through neglect or design suffers any such
to perform the assigned duties efficiently, but prisoner to escape, shall be punished as a
performed them inefficiently nevertheless. court-martial may direct, whether or not
the prisoner was committed in strict
compliance with law.
Art. 93. Cruelty and Maltreatment

Any person subject to this code who is Art. 97. Unlawful Detention
guilty of cruelty toward, or oppression or
maltreatment of, any person subject to his Any person subject to this code who,
orders shall be punished as a court-martial except as provided by law, apprehends,
may direct. arrests, or confines any person shall be
punished as a court-martial may direct.
The cruelty, oppression, or maltreatment must
be real, although not necessarily physical. To Any unlawful restraint of another’s freedom
assault and to subject to improper punishment are will result in a violation of this article, whether
examples of this offense. The assignment of or not such action is taken under the appearance
necessary or proper duties and the requirement of authority.
for their correct performance will not constitute
this offense even though such duties are arduous
or hazardous or both. Art. 98. Noncompliance With Procedural Rules

Any person subject to this code who—

Art. 94. Mutiny or Sedition
(1) is responsible for un-
There are two distinct types of mutiny, both necessary delay in the deposition of
requiring an intent to usurp (to seize and hold by any case of a person accused of an
force without the legal right or authority) or over- offense under this code; or
ride military authority. One type would be the (2) knowingly and intentionally
creation of violence or disturbance with the fails to enforce or comply with any
intent to commit mutiny. This act may be provision of this code regulating the
committed by one person acting alone or by more proceedings before, during, or after
than one. The other type of mutiny consists of trial of an accused;
a refusal in concert (in agreement) with any other
person to obey or otherwise do one’s duty. This shall be punished as a court-martial may
second type of mutiny constitutes what is termed direct.
collective insubordination; it necessarily includes
some combination of two or more persons in
resisting lawful military authority. Art. 99. Misbehavior Before the Enemy

Any member of the armed forces who

Art. 95. Resistance, Breach of Arrest, and before or in the presence of the enemy—
Escape
(1) runs away;
Any person subject to this code who (2) shamefully abandons, sur-
resists apprehension or breaks arrest or renders, or delivers up any com-
who escapes from custody or confinement mand, unit, place, or military
shall be punished as a court-martial may property which it is his duty to
direct. defend;

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 (3) through disobedience, neg- Art. 101. Improper Use of Countersign
lect, or intentional misconduct
endangers the safety of any such Any person subject to this code who in
command, unit, place, or military time of war discloses the parole or counter-
property; sign to any person not entitled to receive
(4) casts away his arms or it or who gives to another who is entitled
ammunition; to receive and use the parole or counter-
(5) is guilty of cowardly sign a different parole or countersign from
conduct; that which, to his knowledge, he was
authorized and required to give, shall be
(6) quits his place of duty to
punished by death or such other punish-
plunder or pillage;
ment as a court-martial may direct.
(7) causes false alarms in any
command, unit, or place under A “countersign” is a word designated by the
control of the armed forces; principal headquarters of a command to aid
(8) willfully fails to do his guards and sentinels in their scrutiny of persons
utmost to encounter, engage, cap- who apply to pass the lines. It consists of a secret
ture, or destroy any enemy troops, challenge and a password. A “parole” is a word
combatants, vessels, aircraft, or used as a check on the countersign; it is imparted
any other thing, which it is his duty only to those who are entitled to inspect guards
so to encounter,, engage, capture, and to commanders of guards.
or destroy; or
(9) does not afford all practic- Art. 102. Forcing a Safeguard
able relief and assistance to any
troops, combatants, vessels, or air- Any person subject to this code who
craft of the armed forces belong- forces a safeguard shall suffer death or
ing to the United States or their such other punishment as a court-martial
allies when engaged in battle; may direct.

shall be punished by death or such other A “safeguard ” is a detachment, guard, or

punishment as a court-martial may direct. detail posted by a commander. It protects persons,
places, or property of the enemy or of a neutral
affected by the relationship of the opposing forces
Art. 100. Subordinate Compelling Surrender in their prosecution of war or during a state of
conflict. The term also includes a written order
Any person subject to this code who left by a commander with an enemy subject or
compels or attempts to compel the com- posted upon enemy property for the protection
mander of any place, vessel, aircraft, or of the individual or property concerned. The
other military property, or of any body of effect of a safeguard is a pledge of honor by a
members of the armed forces, to give it up nation that its armed force will respect the person
to an enemy or to abandon it, or who or property concerned.
strikes the colors or flag to an enemy
without proper authority, shall be punished Art. 103. Captured or Abandoned Property
by death or such other punishment as a
court-martial may direct. (a) All persons subject to this code
shall secure all public property taken from
Although these offenses are similar to mutiny, the enemy for the service of the United
they do not require concert of action. The com- States, and shall give notice and turn over
pulsion to surrender must be by acts rather than to the proper authority without delay all
words. To “strike the colors or flag” is to captured or abandoned property in their
surrender. The offense is committed by anyone possession, custody, or control.
subject to the UCMJ who assumes the authority (b) Any person subject to this code
to surrender a military force or position when that who—
person is not authorized to do so either by com- (1) fails to carry out the duties
petent authority or by the necessities of battle. prescribed in subsection (a);

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 (2) buys, sells, trades, or in any might result in closer confinement or other
way deals in or disposes of captured measures against fellow prisoners still in the hands
or abandoned property, whereby he of the enemy. Such escape, however, is not an
receives or expects any profit, offense under this article, as escape from the
benefit, or advantage to himself or enemy is regarded as authorized by custom.
another directly or indirectly con-
nected with himself; or Art. 106. Spies
(3) engages in looting or pil- Any person who in time of war is found
laging; lurking as a spy or acting as a spy in or
shall be punished as a court-martial may about any place, vessel, or aircraft, within
direct. the control or jurisdiction of any of the
armed forces, or in or about any shipyard,
Immediately upon its capture from the enemy, any manufacturing or industrial plant, or
public property becomes the property of the any other place or institution engaged in
United States. Persons subject to military law have work in aid of the prosecution of the war
an immediate duty to take those steps within their by the United States, or elsewhere, shall
power and functions to secure such property to be tried by a general court-martial or by
the service of the United States. They then have a military commission and on conviction
the duty to protect that property from destruc- shall be punished by death.
tion or loss.
The words “any person” bring within the
Art. 104. Aiding the Enemy jurisdiction of courts-martial and military com-
missions all persons of whatever nationality or
Any person who— status who commit the offense of spying.
(1) aids, or attempts to aid, the
Art. 107. False Official Statements
enemy with arms, ammunition,
supplies, money or other things; or Any person subject to this code who,
(2) without proper authority, with intent to deceive, signs any false
knowingly harbors or protects or record, return, regulation, order, or other
gives intelligence to, or com- official document, knowing it to be false,
municates or corresponds with or or makes any other false official statement
holds any intercourse with the knowing it to be false, shall be punished
enemy, either directly or indirectly; as a court-martial may direct.
shall suffer death or such other punishment Several articles of the UCMJ provide for the
as a court-martial or military commission punishment of untruths: articles 83 and 84
may direct. (Fraudulent and unlawful enlistment, appoint-
ment, or separation), article 107 (False official
This article applies to all persons whether or not
statements), article 131 (Perjury), and article 132
they are otherwise subject to military law. “Enemy”
(Fraud). You can see how highly truth is regarded
denotes citizens as well as members of military
in the military service.
organizations. All the citizens of hostile nations,
A statement, whether oral or in writing, is
as well as their government, are our enemies.
official when it is made pursuant to regulations.
Art. 105. Misconduct as Prisoner A statement is also official when made in response
to a request or question from one’s commanding
Misconduct covers unauthorized conduct by officer or a person acting under the commanding
a prisoner of war that tends to improve his or her officer’s authority. Official statements thus
condition to the detriment of other prisoners. include all those made in the line of duty.
Such acts may be the reporting of plans to escape
or the reporting of secret caches of food, equip- Art. 108. Military Property of the United
ment, or arms. The acts must be related to the States—Loss, Damage, Destruction,
captors and tend to have the probable effect of or Wrongful Disposition
bestowing upon the accused some favor with, or
Any person subject to this code who,
advantage from, the captors. The act of the
without proper authority—
accused must be contrary to law, custom, or
regulation. For example, the escape of a prisoner (1) sells or otherwise disposes of;

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 (2) willfully or through neglect shall be punished as a court-martial may
damages, destroys, or loses; or direct.
(3) willfully or through neglect
suffers to be lost, damaged, The word “suffers” means to allow or permit.
destroyed, sold, or wrongfully A person “suffers” a ship to be hazarded who,
disposed of; although not in direct control of the vessel, knows
a danger to be imminent but takes no steps to pre-
any military property of the United States, vent it. For example, a plotting officer of a ship
shall be punished as a court-martial may underway inadvertently fails to report observa-
direct. tion of a radar target on a collision course with,
and dangerously close to, the ship. The officer
Whether the property in question was issued has negligently suffered the ship to be hazarded.
to the accused, whether it was issued to someone
other than the accused, or whether it was issued Art. 111. Drunken or Reckless Driving
at all is immaterial.
“Willful” means intentional. “Neglect” Any person subject to this code who
means inattention to duty or failure to take operates any vehicle while drunk, or in a
action that, under the circumstances, should have reckless or wanton manner, shall be
been taken to prevent the loss, destruction, or punished as a court-martial may direct.
damage.
Operating a vehicle includes not only driving
or guiding it while in motion. It also includes the
Art. 109. Property Other Than Military Property
setting of its motive power in action or the
of United States—Waste, Spoilage, or
manipulating of its controls to cause the vehicle
Destruction
to move. The term “vehicle” applies to all types
of land transportation, whether motor-driven or
Any person subject to this code who
passenger-carrying. Drunken or reckless opera-
willfully or recklessly wastes, spoils, or
tion of water or air transportation may be charged
otherwise willfully and wrongfully destroys
as a violation of article 134. For the meaning of
or damages any property other than
“drunk,” see the remarks following article 112.
military property of the United States shall
be punished as a court-martial may direct.
Art. 112. Drunk on Duty
“Wastes” and “spoils” refer to wrongful acts
Any person subject to this code, other
of voluntary destruction, such as burning down
than a sentinel or lookout, who is found
buildings, burning piers, tearing down fences, or
drunk on duty, shall be punished as a
cutting down trees. To be destroyed, property
court-martial may direct.
need be only sufficiently injured to be useless for
the purpose for which it was intended. “Damage”
The term “on duty” in article 112 refers to
consists of any physical injury to the property.
routine or detailed duties on board a ship or
The property must be other than military property
station. The term does not cover periods of leave
of the United States and must belong to one other
or liberty (which come under a different article),
than the accused.
but does include duties of a standby nature. A
person whose mental or physical abilities are
Art. 110. Improper Hazarding of Vessel impaired by either liquor or drugs may be con-
sidered drunk.
(a) Any person subject to this code
who willfully and wrongfully hazards or Art. l12a. Wrongful Use, Possession, etc., of
suffers to be hazarded any vessel of the Controlled Substances
armed forces shall suffer death or such
other punishment as a court-martial may (a) Any person subject to this code
direct. who wrongfully uses, possesses, manufac-
(b) Any person subject to this code tures, distributes, imports into the customs
who negligently hazards or suffers to be territory of the United States, exports from
hazarded any vessel of the armed forces the United States, or introduces into an

6-19
 installation, vessel, vehicle, or aircraft used But being drunk while on duty as a sentinel or
by or under the control of the armed forces lookout in time of war might endanger every
a substance described in subsection (b) person in the command.
shall be punished as a court-martial may
direct.
(b) The substances referred to in Art. 114. Dueling
subsection (a) are the following:
(1) Opium, heroin, cocaine, Any person subject to this code who
amphetamine, lysergic acid fights or promotes, or is concerned in or
diethylamide, methamphetamine, connives at fighting a duel, or who, having
phencyclidine, barbituric acid, and knowledge of a challenge sent or about to
marijuana and any compound or be sent, fails to report the fact promptly
derivative of any such substance. to the proper authority, shall be punished
(2) Any substance not specified as a court-martial may direct.
in clause (1) that is listed on a
schedule of controlled substances
prescribed by the President for the Art. 115. Malingering
purposes of this article.
(3) Any other substance not Any person subject to this code who for
specified in clause (1) or contained the purpose of avoiding work, duty, or
on a list prescribed by the President service—
under clause (2) that is listed in
schedules I through V of section (1) feigns illness, physical dis-
202 of the Controlled Substances ablement, mental lapse or derange-
Act (21 U.S.C. 812). ment; or
(2) intentionally inflicts self-
Art. 113. Misbehavior of Sentinel injury;

Any sentinel or lookout who is found shall be punished as a court-martial may

drunk or sleeping upon his post, or leaves direct.
it before he is regularly relieved, shall be
punished, if the offense is committed in “Malingering” is an offense defined as any
time of war, by death or such other punish- act to avoid duty by pretending to be ill or
ment as a court-martial may direct, but if physically/mentally disabled.
the offense is committed at any other time,
by such punishment other than death as a
court-martial may direct. Art. 116. Riot or Breach of Peace

A post is not limited by some actual or Any person subject to this code who
imaginary line, nor is it confined to those times causes or participates in any riot or breach
when you may be on watch as a sentry. This article of the peace shall be punished as a court-
covers all periods when you are standing a watch martial may direct.
of any kind, such as guarding stores or prisoners
or acting as a bow lookout. It also covers periods The term “riot” is used when a disturbance
when you are performing any other duty that is caused by a group of three or more persons
requires you to remain alert at all times. engaged in a concerted action against anyone who
A sentinel on post who is found asleep or may oppose them.
drunk is guilty of a serious offense; in time of war,
the offense may be punishable by death. For “Breach of the peace” is an unlawful disturb-
persons in the armed forces, drunkenness is ance by violent or turbulent means that disturbs
prejudicial to good order and discipline whenever the peace of the community. Engaging in a fight
and wherever it appears. Being drunk in public, or using abusive words in public are examples of
whether a person is in uniform or civilian clothes, breach of the peace. As used in this article,
may bring discredit upon the service, while being “community” includes any military installation
drunk on station is a breach of military discipline. or ship as well as a civilian community.

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Art. 117. Provoking Speeches or Gestures great bodily harm, unlawfully kills a
human being—
Any person subject to this code who (1) by culpable negligence; or
uses provoking or reproachful words or (2) while perpetrating or at-
gestures towards any other person subject tempting to perpetrate an offense,
to this code shall be punished as a court- other than those named in clause (4)
martial may direct. of . . . Article 118, directly affect-
ing the person;
“Provoking” and “reproachful” describe
those words or gestures used in the presence of is guilty of involuntary manslaughter and
the person to whom they are directed which tend shall be punished as a court-martial may
to induce breaches of the peace. They do not direct.
include reprimands, censures, reproofs, and the
like, which may properly be administered in the Manslaughter is the unlawful killing of
interests of training, efficiency, or discipline in another. There are two basic types of man-
the armed forces. slaughter: voluntary and involuntary.
Voluntary manslaughter is the unlawful killing
of another when there is an intent to kill or
Art. 118. Murder inflict great bodily harm, but the act is committed
in the heat of sudden passion caused by adequate
Any person subject to this code who, provocation.
without justification or excuse, unlawfully Involuntary manslaughter is the unlawful kill-
kills a human being, when he— ing of another committed without an intent to kill
or inflict great bodily harm.
(1) has a premeditated design
to kill; Art. 120. Rape and Carnal Knowledge
(2) intends to kill or inflict great
bodily harm; (a) Any person subject to this code
(3) is engaged in an act which who commits an act of sexual intercourse
is inherently dangerous to others with a female not his wife, by force and
and evinces a wanton disregard of without her consent, is guilty of rape and
human life; or shall be punished by death or such other
(4) is engaged in the perpetra- punishment as a court-martial may direct.
tion or attempted perpetration of (b) Any person subject to this code
burglary, sodomy, rape, robbery, who, under circumstances not amounting
or aggravated arson; to rape, commits an act of sexual inter-
course with a female not his wife who has
is guilty of murder, and shall suffer such not attained the age of sixteen years, is
punishment as a court-martial may direct, guilty of carnal knowledge and shall be
except that if found guilty under clause (1) punished as a court-martial may direct.
or (4), he shall suffer death or imprison- (c) Penetration, however slight, is suf-
ment for life as a court-martial may direct. ficient to complete these offenses.

Art. 121. Larceny and Wrongful Appropriation

Art. 119. Manslaughter
“Larceny” is stealing something and keeping
(a) Any person subject to this code it; “wrongful appropriation” is taking something
who, with an intent to kill or inflict great not your own, but only temporarily. Legally,
bodily harm, unlawfully kills a human taking or withholding is wrong if done without
being in the heat of sudden passion caused the consent of the owner; obtaining usually
by adequate provocation is guilty of implies getting something under false pretenses.
voluntary manslaughter and shall be All of these meanings denote theft.
punished as a court-martial may direct. The most common example of larceny, of
(b) Any person subject to this code course, is outright theft. An example of obtaining
who, without an intent to kill or inflict something under false pretenses is to obtain a

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radio from a person who borrowed it from the another person of the same name. The receiver
owner, saying you will return it to the owner, but commits forgery if, knowing the check to be
instead, selling it. another person’s, he or she endorses it with his
An example of wrongful appropriation is or her own name with the intent to defraud.
taking someone’s car without permission and Some of the instruments most frequently
going for a joyride, later returning or abandoning subject to forgery are checks, orders for delivery
the car. of money or goods, military orders directing
travel, and receipts. A writing may be falsely
Art. 122. Robbery “made” by materially altering an existing writing;
by filling in or signing the blanks in a paper, such
Any person subject to this code who as a blank check; or by signing an instrument
with intent to steal takes anything of value already written.
from the person or in the presence of
another, against his will, by means of force Art. 123a. Making, Drawing, or Uttering Check,
or violence or fear of immediate or future Draft, or Order Without Sufficient
injury to his person or property or to the Funds
person or property of a relative or member
of his family or of anyone in his company This article provides specific statutory auth-
at the time of the robbery, is guilty of ority for the prosecution of bad check offenses.
robbery and shall be punished as a court- In the absence of evidence indicating otherwise,
martial may direct. bad faith might be shown by the maker’s or
drawer’s failure to effect redemption within the
When a robbery is committed by force or 5-day period provided for in the article. The
violence, evidence must exist of actual force or offense of wrongfully and dishonorably failing
violence to the victim preceding or accompanying to maintain sufficient funds for payment of
the taking against the victim’s will. Whether or checks upon presentment is a violation of article
not fear is engendered in the victim is immaterial. 134. This offense is a lesser included offense under
When a robbery is committed by means of article 123, not requiring proof of fraudulent
fear, no evidence is required of actual force or intent.
violence. However, evidence of demonstrations
of force or menaces that place the victim in such Art. 124. Maiming
fear that the victim is warranted in offering no
resistance is required. Any person subject to this code who,
with intent to injure, disfigure, or disable,
Art. 123. Forgery inflicts upon the person of another an
injury, which—
Any person subject to this code who,
with intent to defraud— (1) seriously disfigures his per-
son by any mutilation thereof;
(1) falsely makes or alters any (2) destroys or disables any
signature to, or any part of, any member or organ of his body; or
writing which would, if genuine, (3) seriously diminishes his
apparently impose a legal liability physical vigor by the injury of any
on another or change his legal right member or organ;
or liability to his prejudice; or
(2) utters, offers, issues, or is guilty of maiming and shall be punished
transfers such a writing, known by as a court-martial may direct.
him to be so made or altered; Maiming includes putting out a person’s eye;
is guilty of forgery and shall be punished cutting off a person’s hand, foot, or finger; or
as a court-martial may direct. knocking out a person’s front teeth, as these
injuries destroy or disable those members or
A forgery may be committed by a person’s organs. Maiming also includes cutting off a per-
signing his or her own name to an instrument. For son’s ear or scaring a person’s face, as these
example, presume a check payable to the order injuries seriously disfigure the person. Injuring
of a certain person comes into the hands of an internal organ so as to seriously diminish the

6-22
physical vigor of a person is also considered anything of value or any acquittance,
maiming. advantage, or immunity is guilty of extor-
The disfigurement, diminishment of vigor, or tion and shall be punished as a court-
destruction or disablement of any member or martial may direct.
organ must be a serious injury, one of a sub-
stantially permanent nature. However, the offense A threat may be communicated by word of
is complete if such an injury is inflicted, even mouth or in writing, the essential element of the
though the victim may eventually recover the use offense being the knowledge of the threat to the
of the member or organ or the disfigurement may victim. An acquittance is, in general terms, a
be cured by surgery. release or discharge from an obligation. An
intent to obtain any advantage or immunity of
Art. 125. Sodomy any description may include an intent to make a
person do an act unwillingly.
(a) Any person subject to this code The threat sufficient to constitute extortion
who engages in unnatural carnal copula- may be a threat against the person or property
tion with another person of the same or of the individual threatened. It may also be a
opposite sex or with an animal is guilty of threat of unlawful injury or any other harm to
sodomy. Penetration, however slight, is any family member or other person held dear to
sufficient to complete the offense. the victim.
(b) Any person found guilty of sodomy
shall be punished as a court-martial may Art. 128. Assault
direct.
(a) Any person subject to this code
Any unnatural method of carnal copulation who attempts or offers with unlawful force
is prohibited by this article. Any penetration, or violence to do bodily harm to another
however slight, is sufficient to complete the person, whether or not the attempt or offer
offense; emission is not necessary. is consummated, is guilty of assault and
shall be punished as a court-martial may
Art. 126. Arson direct.
(b) Any person subject to this code
(a) Any person subject to this code who—
who willfully and maliciously burns or sets (1) commits an assault with a
on fire an inhabited dwelling, or any other dangerous weapon or other means
structure, movable or immovable, wherein of force likely to produce death or
to the knowledge of the offender there is grievous bodily harm; or
at the time a human being, is guilty of (2) commits an assault and
aggravated arson and shall be punished as intentionally inflicts grievous bodily
a court-martial may direct. harm with or without a weapon;
(b) Any person subject to this code
who willfully and maliciously burns or sets is guilty of aggravated assault and shall be
fire to the property of another, except as punished as a court-martial may direct.
provided in subsection (a), is guilty of
simple arson and shall be punished as a Section (a) describes the offense of simple
court-martial may direct. assault. Swinging your fist, pointing a gun at a
person, or raising a club over someone’s head,
In aggravated arson, danger to human life is even though no harm is actually done, is each an
the essential element; in simple arson, it is injury act of simple assault. When the threat is
to the property of another. In either case, the fact consummated and force is applied to the victim,
that no one is injured is immaterial. the offense becomes assault and battery.
Section (b) describes aggravated assault, of
Art. 127. Extortion which there are two types. The first is assault with
a dangerous weapon and other means of force
Any person subject to this code who likely to kill or grievously harm the victim (like
communicates threats to another person shoving a person over the fantail). The second
with the intention thereby to obtain type takes place when an assailant intentionally

6-23
inflicts severe bodily harm, with or without a law to be substituted for an oath, any false
weapon. If, after you have knocked an individual testimony material to the issue or matter
down, you repeatedly kick him or her so as to of inquiry is guilty of perjury and shall be
break the person’s ribs, you have committed punished as a court-martial may direct.
aggravated assault.
“Judicial proceeding” includes a trial by
Art. 129. Burglary court-martial, and “course of justice” includes
an investigation conducted under article 32.
Any person subject to this code who, For false testimony to be “willfully and
with intent to commit an offense punish- corruptly” given, the accused must appear not to
able under . . . Articles 118-128, breaks believe his or her testimony to be true.
and enters, in the nighttime, the dwelling The false testimony must be with respect to
house of another, is guilty of burglary and a material matter, but that matter need not be the
shall be punished as a court-martial may main issue in the case. Thus, a person may
direct. commit perjury by giving false testimony about
the credibility of a material witness, as well as by
The house must be a dwelling place at the time giving false testimony concerning either direct or
of the breaking and entry, but the residents do circumstantial evidence.
not have to actually be in it. A simple act such
as opening a closed door or window or some other Art. 132. Frauds Against the United States
similar fixture or cutting out the glass of a window
or the netting of a screen constitutes breaking This article deals with frauds against the
Entry gained through a trick, false pretense, United States. It pertains to making false claims
impersonation, intimidation, or collusion also against the government to obtain money or
constitutes breaking. For the intruder to succeed property.
in carrying out the intent for which the house was It also pertains to the offense of making a
broken into is not an essential element. writing or other paper known to contain a false
statement for the purpose of obtaining the
Art. 130. Housebreaking approval, allowance, or payment of a claim. The
offense is complete when the writing or paper is
Any person subject to this code who made for that purpose, whether or not the use of
unlawfully enters the building or structure either one has been attempted and whether or not
of another with intent to commit a criminal the claim has been presented.
offense therein is guilty of housebreaking
and shall be punished as a court-martial Art. 133. Conduct Unbecoming an Officer and
may direct. a Gentleman

The initial entering must amount to trespass- Any commissioned officer, cadet, or
ing; this article is not violated if the accused midshipman who is convicted of conduct
entered the building or structure lawfully, even unbecoming an officer and a gentleman
though the person had the intent to commit an shall be punished as a court-martial may
offense therein. This offense is broader than direct.
burglary in that the place entered need not be a
dwelling house; also, the place need not be Art. 134. General Article
occupied. A breaking is not essential. The entry
may be either in the nighttime or in the daytime. Though not specifically mentioned in
The criminal intent is not limited to those offenses this code, all disorders and neglects to the
punishable under articles 118 through 128. prejudice of good order and discipline in
the armed forces, all conduct of a nature
Art. 131. Perjury to bring discredit upon the armed forces,
and crimes and offenses not capital, of
Any person subject to this code who in which persons subject to this code may be
a judicial proceeding or in a course of guilty, shall be taken cognizance of by a
justice willfully and corruptly gives, upon general, special, or summary court-martial,
a lawful oath or in any form allowed by according to the nature and degree of the

6-24
 offense, and shall be punished at the discre- officer exercising general court-martial
tion of that court. jurisdiction shall examine into the com-
plaint and take proper measures for
Article 134 makes punishable acts or omissions redressing the wrong complained of; and
not specifically mentioned in other articles. They he shall, as soon as possible, send to the
include wearing an improper uniform, abusive use Secretary concerned a true statement of
of a military vehicle, the careless discharge of a that complaint, with the proceedings had
firearm, and impersonating an officer. They also thereon.
include offenses involving official passes, permits,
and certificates, and the wrongful possession of This article provides for redress of wrongs
a habit-forming narcotic drug. inflicted by a commanding officer on subor-
“Discredit” means to injure the reputation of; dinates, and it prescribes the procedure to be
that is, to bring the service into disrepute. followed by subordinates to apply for such
Examples include acts in violation of state or redress.
foreign laws, failure to pay one’s debts, adultery,
bigamy, and indecent acts.
Crimes and offenses not capital include those Art. 139. Redress of Injuries to Property
acts or omissions, not punishable by another
article, denounced as crimes or offenses by enact- (a) Whenever complaint is made to any
ments of Congress or under authority of Congress commanding officer that willful damage
and made triable in the federal civil courts. Cer- has been done to the property of any
tain of such offenses are made punishable person or that his property has been
wherever committed; others are punishable only wrongfully taken by members of the armed
if committed within the geographical boundaries forces, he may, under such regulations as
of the areas in which they are applicable. the Secretary concerned may prescribe,
convene a board to investigate the com-
plaint. The board shall consist of from one
Art. 137. Articles To Be Explained
to three commissioned officers and, for the
purpose of that investigation, it has power
Articles 2, 3, 7-15, 25, 27, 31, 37, 38,
to summon witnesses and examine them
55, 77-134 and 137-139 of this code shall
upon oath, to receive depositions or other
be carefully explained to each enlisted
documentary evidence, and to assess the
member at the time of his entrance on
damages sustained against the responsible
active duty, or within six days thereafter.
parties. The assessment of damages made
They shall be explained again after he has
by the board is subject to the approval of
completed six months of active duty, and
the commanding officer, and in the
again at the time when he reenlists. A
amount approved by him shall be charged
complete text of the Uniform Code of
against the pay of the offenders. The order
Military Justice and of the regulations
of the commanding officer directing
prescribed by the President thereunder
charges herein authorized is conclusive on
shall be made available to any person on
any disbursing officer for the payment by
active duty upon his request, for his per-
him to the injured parties of the damages
sonal examination.
so assessed and approved.

Art. 138. Complaints of Wrongs (b) If the offenders cannot be ascer-

tained, but the organization or detachment
Any member of the armed forces who to which they belong is known, charges
believes himself wronged by his command- totaling the amount of damages assessed
ing officer, and who, upon due application and approved may be made in such
to that commanding officer, is refused proportion as maybe considered just upon
redress, may complain to any superior the individual members thereof who are
commissioned officer, who shall forward shown to have been present at the scene at
the complaint to the officer exercising the time the damages complained of were
general court-martial jurisdiction over the inflicted, as determined by the approved
officer against whom it is made. The findings of the board.

6-25
ENFORCEMENT OF THE UCMJ extra duties or hard labor. A typical example is
an individual who is free to carry out regular
The UCMJ gives the rules and regulations that duties during the day but is confined in the brig
should govern our behavior. These rules, as with at night.
any rules, however, are not always obeyed. When
these rules are broken, the offender must be
punished. This is done according to the provisions CONFINEMENT ON BREAD AND WATER
of article 15 (Commanding officer’s nonjudicial OR DIMINISHED RATIONS. —Confinement
punishment) or, in some cases, by courts- on bread and water or diminished rations may be
martial. imposed only on enlisted persons aboard ship.
Correctional custody and confinement on bread
and water may be imposed only on enlisted per-
Nonjudicial Punishment sons below the rank of petty officer.

Commanding officer’s nonjudicial punish-

ment is often referred to as captain’s mast. EXTRA DUTY. —Extra duty is the assign-
Captain’s mast gets its name from the old sailing ment of any duty (except guard duty) to be
days when the setting for this form of naval performed after the person’s regular working
justice was the weather deck near the ship’s hours. Extra duty is not to exceed 2 hours daily
mainmast. or to be performed on holidays. Petty officers
may not be assigned extra duties that would
Cases are heard and punishments given at demean their grade or position.
captain’s mast. Anyone who is not attached to
or embarked in a vessel may, however, demand
trial by court-martial in lieu of punishment at FORFEITURE OF PAY. —Forfeiture of pay
mast, before such punishment is imposed. Anyone is a permanent loss of a specified amount or a
attached to a vessel may not request trial by court- temporary withholding of a certain amount of
martial in lieu of captains’s mast. pay. The detention period must be specified. The
money detained is normally returned at the end
The punishments permitted at captain’s mast of the detention period, but it can be detained for
depend upon the rank of the officer holding mast. a period of 1 year.
Figure 6-2 shows the punishment that may be
awarded.
DETENTION OF PAY. —Detention of pay
A commanding officer who decides an offense is the temporary withholding of a certain amount
deserves a punishment more severe than he or she of pay. The detention period must be specified.
is authorized to award at mast may order a court- The money detained is normally returned at the
martial. end of the detention period, but it can be detained
for a period of 1 year.
The following paragraphs explain some of the
punishments that may be given at captain’s
mast. APPEALS. —If persons consider their punish-
ment under article 15 to be unjust or out of
proportion to the offense, they may appeal to the
RESTRICTION. —Restriction is the require-
next superior authority in the chain of command.
ment to remain within certain specified limits
The appeal must be made within a reasonable time
(ship, station, etc.). Although required to
(generally 15 days) and promptly forwarded. If
muster at certain times, the restricted person
the superior authority upholds the appeal, all
usually continues to perform his or her regular
rights, privileges, and property are restored.
duties.

CORRECTIONAL CUSTODY. —Correc- PROTECTION AGAINST SELF-INCRIMI-

tional custody is the physical restraint (confine- NATION. —Under article 31 of the UCMJ,
ment) of a person during duty or nonduty hours, compulsory self-incrimination is prohibited. The
or both. The person may be required to perform accused must be informed of the nature of the

6-26
 PUNISHMENT IMPOSED BY

Flag or general
officer CO if LCDR CO if below OIC—any
PUNISHMENT in command or above LCDR grade

Admonition or Yes Yes Yes No

reprimand

Restriction 60 days 30 days 15 days No

-JAG man. 0101-

Arrest in quarters 30 days No No No

Forfeiture of pay 1/2 of 1 mo. pay No No No

per mo. for 2 mo.

Detention of pay 1/2 of 1 mo. pay No No No

per mo. for 3 mo.

Any officer commanding, Commanding officers below LCDR;

LCDR and above OICs, any grade

Admonition or Yes Yes

reprimand

Confinement on 3 consecutive days (only on E-3 3 consecutive days (only on E-3

B&W or dimin- and below, aboard ship) and below, aboard ship)
ished rations -JAG Man. 0101- -JAG Man. 0101-

Correctional 30 consecutive days (only on E-3 7 consecutive days (only on E-3

custody and below) and below)
-JAG Man. 0101- -JAG Man. 0101-

Forfeiture of pay 1/2 of 1 mo. pay per mo. for 2 mo. 7 days’ pay

Reduction in To next inferior grade To next inferior grade

grade -JAG Man. 0101-

Extra duty 45 days 14 days

Restriction 60 days 14 days

Detention of pay 1/2 of 1 mo. pay per mo. for 3 mo. 14 days’ pay

Figure 6-2.-One or more of the maximum punishments authorized by article 15, UCMJ, may be imposed upon military
personnel of the commands by the categories of commanding officers (including officers in charge) shown above.
Punishments authorized by article 15 are primarily corrective in nature.

6-27
charges against him or her. The accused must also SPECIAL COURT-MARTIAL (SPCM). —
be advised that he or she does not have to make A special court-martial (SPCM) consists of not
any statement regarding the offense of which less than three members. The accused can request
accused, but that any statement made may be used that enlisted personnel serve on the court. In that
as evidence against him or her in a trial by court- event, enlisted personnel make up at least one-
martial. No statement obtained through the use third of the court membership. When a military
of coercion, unlawful influence, or unlawful judge (a qualified lawyer) is detailed to the court,
inducement may be used as evidence against the the accused has the right to know the identity of
accused. the military judge. The accused also has the right
to consult with the defense counsel and to request
that the court consist of only the military judge.
MERITORIOUS AND REQUEST MASTS. — The request must be in writing, submitted before
Not all masts are for disciplinary purposes. A the court is assembled, and approved by the
meritorious mast may be held by the commanding military judge. A special court-martial may award
officer to give awards or commendations to those the same punishment as a summary court, or it
persons who have earned them. may award a more severe punishment. For
example, it can award a bad conduct discharge,
Article 1107 of Navy Regs grants the right confinement for 6 months, loss of two-thirds pay
for any person to communicate with the per month for 6 months, and hard labor without
commanding officer. You can’t just walk up to confinement for 3 months.
the captain, however, and start talking. Certain
times are set aside by the CO for the purpose of
hearing valid requests or complaints from crew GENERAL COURT-MARTIAL (GCM). —
members. This practice is called request mast. The A general court-martial (GCM) consists of a
person having a request or grievance should first military judge and not less than five members. As
try to resolve the problem with the division in a special court-martial, the accused may request
officer. Failing that, the person may request a that enlisted personnel serve on the court. Under
mast. Usually, the person will talk to the executive the conditions described for a special court, the
officer first. If the executive officer cannot accused may request that the court consist of only
settle the matter, then the person may see the a military judge. A general court-martial can
commanding officer. award any punishment not forbidden by the
UCMJ, including death when specifically
authorized for the offense.
Courts-martial

Based on article 16 of the UCMJ, courts-

STANDARD ORGANIZATION AND
martial are of three types: summary, special, and
REGULATIONS OF THE U.S. NAVY
general. The captain decides the type of court-
martial to award based on the nature, time, and
place of the offense. The Standard Organization and Regulations
of the U.S. Navy (OPNAVINST 3120.32B) pro-
vides regulations and guidance governing the
SUMMARY COURT-MARTIAL (SCM). — conduct of all members of the Navy. This publica-
A summary court-martial (SCM) consists of one tion specifies duties and responsibilities of per-
commissioned officer. If the commanding officer sonnel within a unit organization—from the
is the only officer with the command, that officer commanding officer down to the messenger of the
acts as the summary court officer. A summary watch.
court can award any sentence that may be given
at mast. It can also award the additional The information quoted in italicized type in
punishments of confinement for 1 month and this instruction is regulatory; these regulations
hard labor without confinement for 45 days. Any apply to each member of the U.S. Navy. Failure
person awarded a summary court-martial will then to comply with the provisions of the regulatory
be held, as appropriate. material is punishable in accordance with the

6-28
Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). it is subject to customs and other inspec-
Regulatory articles are printed on large posters, tions by Federal authorities.
which are posted in conspicuous locations aboard
naval units. a. On such occasions, customs dec-
larations will be distributed to all hands in
Quoted material in plain type is guidance for sufficient time to be filled out and returned
commanders, commanding officers, and officers before arrival in port.
in charge. b. It shall be the duty of all person-
nel to complete customs declarations
Because the explanation of these regula- accurately prior to arrival in port.
tions is beyond the scope of this book, only c. No person, without permission
a selected few of the regulatory articles will from the Commanding Officer, shall bring
be given as examples. Our concern in this on board any article, animal, or any other
section is with chapter 5, “Regulations,” of thing, the introduction of which into U.S.
the Standard Organization and Regulations of the territory is forbidden or restricted under
U.S. Navy. current regulations.

510.16 Divine Services

510.5 Armed Forces Identification Cards and Accessible and appropriate space shall
Leave Papers
be provided for divine services. No person
shall conduct himself/herself in a manner
No person without proper authority which would interfere with properly
shall: authorized divine services.

a. Have in his/her possession more

than one properly validated Armed Forces
510.18 Emergency Equipment
Identification Card.

b. Depart on liberty without his/her No person shall use emergency equip-

own properly validated identification card; ment for any purpose other than that for
or, in the case of leave, without his/her which it is intended. Emergency equipment
own properly validated leave papers and includes items such as battle lanterns,
identification card. emergency first aid boxes, shoring,
wrenches, life rings, equipment in life rafts
c. Have in his/her possession a false
or unauthorized identification card; or a and boats, portable fire pumps, fire hoses,
mutilated, erased, altered, or not properly and fuel for emergency machinery.
validated identification card; or an iden-
tification card bearing false or inaccurate
information concerning a name, grade, 510.21 Government Property
service number, or date of birth.

d. Return from leave without deposit- No person shall:

ing his/her leave papers with the proper
authority. Any person returning without a. Conceal or fail to report to proper
an identification card shall report the loss authority the loss, removal, destruction,
to the OOD in person. or damage of Government property en-
trusted to his/her care or custody.

b. Remove without proper authority

510.14 Customs
from its regular place of stowage or loca-
tion, for any purpose whatever, any arti-
Upon arrival of a naval unit in United cle of Government property, including hull
States territory after visiting a foreign port, and damage control fittings, first aid

6-29
 equipment, life saving and emergency all persons who return on board in an
equipment, and stores and foodstuffs. intoxicated condition, or found on board
c. Have in his/her possession any intoxicated, shall be promptly examined
article of Government property except as by the medical officer or a qualified
may be necessary for the performance of representative.
his/her duty or as may be authorized by b. When restraint is imposed on an
proper authority. individual, it should be in such a man-
ner as to accomplish the desired degree
of restraint with a minimum of force.
510.22 Grooming and Personal Appearance Attachment of an individual to a fixed or
immovable object should only be authorized
It is the responsibility of officers in when all else fails, and then a continuous
command to ensure their personnel are guard should be posted with specific
neat and well groomed at all times. (See instructions to care for the welfare of the
U.S. Navy Uniform Regulations, NAV- person under restraint in the event of an
PERS 15665G, for current standards.) emergency.

510.24 Hitchhiking 510.28 Leave and Liberty

No naval personnel will, on a public No person will:

road, street, or highway, endeavor by
a. Proceed from the confines of a
words, gestures, or otherwise to beg,
naval unit without permission of proper
solicit, or hitchhike a ride in or on
authority.
any motor vehicle. Accepting rides at
b. Proceed from the confines of a
established service personnel pickup sta-
naval unit while knowingly in a restraint
tions is authorized.
status without permission of the Com-
manding Officer, the Executive Officer, or
in emergencies, the Command Duty
510.25 Indebtedness
Officer.
c. Proceed from the confines of a
Since indebtedness brings a discredit
naval unit while knowingly on the sick list,
to the naval service, debts shall not be
binnacle list, or the medical quarantine list.
incurred when there is no reasonable
d. Fail to report his/her departure
expectation of repaying them. The Com-
from or return to a naval unit to the OOD
manding Officer’s interest in the matter of
or an authorized representative.
indebtedness of personnel attached to a
naval unit will be directed principally to
the establishment of facts so that corrective
510.34 Motor Vehicles
or disciplinary measures may be taken.
The following provisions relate to per-
sonnel operating motor vehicles assigned
510.27 Intoxicated Persons to Navy units:

All persons intoxicated to such an a. No person shall operate a Govern-

extent as to create a disturbance or to make ment-owned motor vehicle assigned to a
their being at large dangerous to their naval unit unless specifically designated to
personal safety or to the safety of the do so by the Commanding Officer, and
unit shall be placed under protective then only for official unit business.
restraint upon direction of the Command- b. Military personnel operating Gov-
ing Officer, the Command Duty Officer, ernment-owned motor vehicles shall com-
or the Officer of the Deck. ply with all post, station, local, state, and
Federal directives. U.S. Government
a. The Officer of the Deck or the operator’s permit is not required for
Command Duty Officer shall ensure that vehicles under one ton.

6-30
 c. All persons operating Government- photographic equipment capable of ex-
owned motor vehicles assigned to a naval posing a photographic plate or film
unit shall obtain the permission of the without permission of the Commanding
OOD before driving away from the unit Officer or his authorized representative.
and shall report to the OOD upon their b. Make photographs of a naval unit
return. Arrival and departure reports of or its equipment, or of objects from
vehicles assigned to naval vessels may be the unit, without permission of the
made to the beach guard. Commanding Officer, and then only
of the objects for which permission was
specifically given.
510.40 Personal Effects c. While on watch or duty as a sentry
or member of a patrol, knowingly permit
The command and individuals have a the introduction of any camera or photo-
shared responsibility to safeguard the graphic equipment on board a naval unit
personal property of members of the unit. unless such equipment is authorized by
the Commanding Officer or authorized
a. No person will maintain personal representative.
belongings or other articles in any locker
closet, peacoat locker, or space other than 510.45 Plan of the Day
that regularly assigned to him/her or
authorized by proper authority to use. A plan of the day will be published
b. Each person is responsible for daily by the Executive Officer or an
obtaining a lock and keeping his/her authorized representative and will issue
locker locked at all times. Any evidence of such orders and directives as the Executive
tampering with locks or unauthorized Officer may issue. When the Executive
entry into a personal locker will be Officer is absent from the unit it will be
reported to the Chief Master-At-Arms issued by the Command Duty Officer.
immediately.
c. When any enlisted person on board a. The Plan of the Day will be posted
a naval unit is declared a deserter or on all department and division bulletin
becomes mentally or physically incapac- boards.
itated to the extent that he/she can no b. All persons will read the Plan of the
longer care for his/her personal effects, Day each day. They are responsible for
they will be collected, inventoried, and obeying applicable orders contained
sealed by a division petty officer in the therein. In port, the Plan of the Day will
presence of the division officer and a be read at quarters.
master-at-arms and delivered to the Chief
Master-At-Arms for safekeeping and 510.46 Profane Language
disposition in accordance with current
instructions. Only personnel designated No person will use profane, obscene,
will handle or disturb in any way the per- or vulgar words or gestures on board a
sonal effects of another person. naval unit.
d. The personal effects of an absent or
incapacitated officer will be inventoried
and packed by two officers designated by SUMMARY
the Executive Officer and will be delivered
to the supply office for safekeeping and Although most of us could not possibly
disposition per current instructions. memorize each article of Navy Regs, the UCMJ,
or the SORN, we should all be familiar with them.
510.44 Photographic Equipment The intent of this chapter is just that: to
familiarize you with these articles; therefore, we
No person shall: only scratch the surface. You would be wise to
read Navy Regs, the UCMJ, and the SORN in
a. Possess or introduce on board their entirety. Even then you should go back and
a naval unit any camera or other review them periodically, because all are often

6-31
used in the process of running a division and the Manual for Courts-Martial, United States, 1984,
Navy. Washington, D.C., 1984.

Standard Organization and Regulations of the

REFERENCES
U.S. Navy, OPNAVINST 3120.32B, Chief of
Basic Military Requirements, N A V E D T R A Naval Operations, Washington, D.C., 1986.
12043, Naval Education and Training Program
Management Support Activity, Pensacola, United States Navy Regulations, 1990, Secretary
Fla., 1992. of the Navy, Washington, D.C., 1990.

KEELHAUL

TO BE KEELHAULED TODAY IS MERELY TO BE GIVEN A SEVERE REPRIMAND

FOR SOME INFRACTION OF THE RULES. AS LATE AS THE 19TH CENTURY,
HOWEVER, IT MEANT THE EXTREME. IT WAS A DIRE AND OFTEN FATAL
TORTURE EMPLOYED TO PUNISH OFFENDERS OF CERTAIN NAVAL LAWS.
AN OFFENDER WAS SECURELY BOUND BOTH HAND AND FOOT AND HAD HEAVY
WEIGHTS ATTACHED TO HIS BODY. HE WAS THEN LOWERED OVER THE SHIP’S
SIDE AND SLOWLY DRAGGED ALONG UNDER THE SHIP’S HULL. IF HE DIDN’T
DROWN-- WHICH WAS RARE --BARNACLES USUALLY RIPPED HIM, CAUSING HIM
TO BLEED TO DEATH.
ALL NAVIES STOPPED THIS CRUEL AND UNUSUAL PUNISHMENT MANY YEARS
AGO AND TODAY ANY SUCH PUNISHMENT IS FORBIDDEN.

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 CHAPTER 7

MILITARY COURTESY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the normal courtesies juniors render 6. Identify the rules for quarterdeck etiquette.
to seniors.
7. Describe the organization and rules of
2. Identify the basic rules of conduct for ship- etiquette for the wardroom mess.
board officers.
8. Identify the rules of boat etiquette.
3. Describe the basic guidelines for officers’ 9.
Describe the conduct expected of naval
relationships with enlisted personnel.
personnel in foreign countries.
4. Identify the proper forms of address for 10. Describe the origin of the hand salute.
military personnel to both military and civilian
persons. 11. Identify the proper method of saluting.

5. Describe the proper procedures for boarding 12. Identify the times when saluting is appro-
ships and boats. priate and inappropriate.

The essential traits of a naval officer are tact, NAVAL ETIQUETTE

loyalty, integrity, tolerance, dependability, good
manners, self-confidence, a sense of humor, Military courtesy between officers and enlisted
regard for the rights of others, and the ability to personnel undergoes little change during wartime.
treat everyone as equals. These relations are the most fundamental part of
all military courtesy and the main source of most
In a letter to Congress in 1775, John Paul naval etiquette.
Jones wrote, “It is by no means enough that The twin foundations of military courtesy
an officer of the Navy should be a capable among officers are precedence and deference to
mariner. He must be that, of course, but also a seniors. Officers take precedence according to
great deal more. He should be as well a gentleman their grade. This precedence is not confined
of liberal education and refined manners, strictly to military relationships on ship or shore,
punctilious courtesy, and the nicest sense of but extends to the mess, to the club, and to social
personal honor.” life.
Naval courtesy prescribes that junior officers
This chapter introduces most of the main accord their seniors certain respect. This respect
aspects of military courtesy and etiquette. It corresponds to that which younger people accord
covers the traditional elements that still survive to their elders in a polite society. It also prescribes
and those which have changed with the passage that seniors acknowledge and respond, with equal
of time. care, to these tokens of respect required of

7-1
juniors. Those serving their country in the strictly In replying to questions from a senior, a junior
ordered fraternity of military service observe naval officer avoids a great deal of embarrassment by
courtesy as a type of ritual. giving complete and explicit answers. If the junior
cannot supply the desired information, an “I
don’t know, sir/ma’am, but I will find out and
GENERAL RELATIONS BETWEEN let you know ” is the best answer. An indirect
JUNIORS AND SENIORS answer may convey misinformation on which a
senior may be basing an important decision. To
A junior officer approaching a senior for the avoid admitting ignorance, juniors sometimes
purpose of making an official report remains at make evasive statements that not only seriously
attention until invited to be seated or to stand at affect their reputation but also confuse the issue.
ease. The junior officer awaits rather than A junior assigned to do a task should
anticipates the invitation. promptly report the progress of completing the
Unless on watch, a person in the naval task to the senior. The junior should report either
service uncovers when entering a room where a the completion of the task or exactly what has
senior is present. been done toward its completion.
When a senior enters a room where junior When given orders, juniors must ensure they
officers or enlisted persons are seated, the one who know what is required. They should not hesitate
first sees the senior calls, “Attention on deck.” to ask questions to clarify points. If they need ad-
All present remain at attention until ordered to vice, they should seek it first from their peers, but
carry on. should not hesitate to go to the senior who gave
Personnel seated at work, at games, or at mess the orders. Juniors should anticipate the wishes
normally are not required to rise when an officer of a senior whenever possible.
passes unless they must clear a path. However, An officer should not jump the chain of
they are required to rise when called to attention command. When necessary to proceed to someone
or when a flag officer or the captain of the ship higher in the chain of command, officers should
passes. keep their immediate supervisor informed of their
The place of honor is on the right. Accordingly, actions.
when a junior walks, rides, or sits with a senior,
Suggestions for Junior Officers
the junior takes position alongside and to the left.
When entering an automobile or a boat, Excuses for failure or negligence are always
officers do so in inverse order of grade. A unacceptable. Officers should assume responsibility
lieutenant and a captain getting into an auto- and not depend on alibis. If at fault, they should
mobile enter in that order. The lieutenant takes freely accept blame.
the seat in the far, or left-hand, corner and the Bootlicking, a deliberate courting of a person
captain sits on the right side. When getting out, for favor, is despised. Seniors may temporarily
the captain leaves first. In entering buildings or mistake such tactics for a sincere desire to please
rooms, however, the junior opens doors for the and to do a good job. However, through long
senior and enters last. experience with such behavior, they in time
The custom of the “right-hand rule” is an old recognize this false sincerity. However, junior
one, quaintly expressed by George Washington officers must make a genuine effort to be friendly
in the 30th “Rule of Civility”: “In walking, the and cooperative to succeed. Persons with a
highest place in most countries seems to be on the continued willingness to undertake any task
right hand, therefore, place yourself on the left assigned and perform it cheerfully and efficiently
of him whom you desire to honor.” eventually gain a reputation for dependability.
At parties, to leave before the commanding They also ensure their popularity with fellow
officer is considered poor taste. If necessary to officers. Continued complaining has the opposite
do so, guests should pay their respects to the effect.
commanding officer before departing. The satisfaction of having done a good job
A junior never offers to shake hands with a should be sufficient reward in itself. The junior
senior; the senior makes the first gesture. officer should not report each personal or
A junior officer avoids keeping a senior divisional accomplishment to the senior officer.
waiting. Normal courtesy aside, punctuality is Of course a report that is required must be made,
essential in the military service. When called by but work well done generally reaches the attention
a senior, a junior responds immediately. of superiors.

7-2
 The conduct of members of the service must All hands will critically evaluate new officers
be above criticism. The Navy is often judged by shortly after they report aboard ship. Since they
the appearance and behavior of its personnel. will evaluate the appearance as well as the ability
Officers should carefully consider all under- of new officers, having a good appearance is
takings and projects in advance and make all important. Therefore, officers should wear their
preparations necessary to their success well in good clothes at quarters and their best clothes at
advance. Officers should be capable of thinking inspections.
ahead and making intelligent plans; they must Senior officers do not always call attention to
always strive to demonstrate that they are entitled minor faults or errors made by juniors, but they
to the grade they hold. are sure to notice them and will form their
One of the best things a senior officer can say opinions accordingly. While senior officers will
about juniors is that when given a job, they can make allowances for lack of experience, they will
always be depended upon for satisfactory results. base their final estimate entirely on what the new
officer contributes. Junior officers should be alert
Suggestions for Shipboard Officers
and analyze their own conduct frequently to
Officers have customarily relieved the watch determine if they are unintentionally offending
not later than 15 minutes before the hour that the anyone. Such behavior might involve a junior’s
watch begins (usually signaled by the traditional lack of respect toward senior officers or a
bell system of shipboard timekeeping). That tendency to become familiar with them. It could
requires the officers to be on the bridge at sea also involve the officer’s harsh, unreasonable
30 minutes before the bell. For officers to be late handling of enlisted personnel or irresponsibility
to relieve the watch is not only a breach of naval and lack of initiative.
custom but is discourteous and unpardonable. An outstanding naval officer of the 19th
Every officer has two personalities, the official century, Matthew Fontaine Maury, said: “Make
and the unofficial. An officer who plays the it a rule never to offend, or to seek causes of
“good guy” on watch is sooner or later bound offense in the conduct of others. Be polite to all,
to come to grief. Holding a boat for another familiar with but few. The rule in the Navy is to
officer who is late is an example. Telling the treat everybody as a gentleman until he proves
executive officer that the written order contained himself to be otherwise. It is a good rule—observe
in the boat schedule has been disobeyed simply it well.”
because another officer requested it is a poor Some officers tend to think their rank or
excuse. position will carry them through all difficult
Whenever an officer receives an order to pass situations even if they are unqualified for the
to subordinates for action, that officer must responsibilities of the office they hold. Inevitably
promptly and smartly execute that order. The they suffer a rude awakening. Intelligent and
officer’s responsibility in the matter does not end effective junior officers know the limits of
until the order has been completed. their abilities and continually strive to increase
Although personnel will not like every order those limits by learning from all available
they receive, everyone in the chain of command sources.
must obey all orders. Carrying out such orders Of all the valuable qualities an officer can
may seem difficult, but an officer should never have, few of them are superior in importance to
apologize for them and should never question an tact. In a military sense tact means a knowledge
order in front of subordinates. and an appreciation of when and how to do
When new officers report aboard ship, they things. Tactful officers know how to deal with
should devote most of their spare time to their shipmates—both senior and junior. The
professional reading and getting acquainted with usefulness of many officers who are otherwise
the ship’s organization and regulations. They capable has been damaged because they do not
should set aside a certain amount of time each use tact.
day for professional study. In conclusion, all organizations in society have
New officers would be wise never to request certain customs and etiquette. Such customs and
permission to leave the ship in the afternoon etiquette are especially necessary for smooth
until they have completed the work assigned or cooperation between persons living close together
expected of them. They have much to learn in the as done aboard a man-of-war. Disregard of
first few months aboard ship. Astute newcomers customs and etiquette marks a person as careless,
will avoid becoming known as “liberty hounds.” indifferent, or ignorant.

7-3
 All professional officers and enlisted persons petty officers and officers. Such leaders, because
take pride in naval traditions and eagerly conform they are friendly and approachable, will be the
to the customs and etiquette of the service. These first ones their people turn to for advice.
traditions and customs are the honorable heritage Being friendly with subordinates does not
of “seamen who go down to the sea in ships.” mean being easy with them. Leaders must
handle breaches of discipline immediately,
SHIPBOARD RELATIONS BETWEEN justly, and consistently. They cannot react
OFFICERS AND ENLISTED PERSONS severely to breaches one day and pass them off
as insignificant the next. Such an approach can
A shipboard environment increases the only result in confusion, poor morale, and distrust
difficulty with which officers and enlisted persons of the leader.
maintain the proper relationship. Developing a Two fundamental rules apply: (1) Never make
level of communication with their personnel that a regulation you cannot or will not enforce; and
will foster mutual respect is of vital importance (2) take immediate, fair action that leaves no
for new officers. The key to developing this doubt in the mind of the offenders as to why they
communication is for officers to learn the are being punished.
personality and character of every one of their In summary, a good relationship between
juniors. American blue-jackets are intelligent, officers and their subordinates must be founded
cooperative, and ambitious. They want their on mutual respect. The measure of respect an
superiors to treat them well and show appreciation officer inspires in enlisted personnel is a measure
for their ability. They want to respect their of that officer as a leader and a seaman.
officers, to admire them, and to be able to boast
about them to the crews of other ships. Relations With the Leading
By virtue of their commission, new officers Chief Petty Officer (LCPO)
find themselves in charge of people; they may feel
strange about this newly acquired authority. Many new officers have difficulty adjusting
Because inexperienced officers may feel uncertain to their new roles of authority. Just the simple
about associating with enlisted personnel, they case of having someone 10 to 15 years their senior
may hesitate to develop a good relationship. They calling them “sir” or “ma’am” often takes some
want to be liked by their personnel, to know them getting used to. That coupled with the respon-
as individuals, yet maintain rightful authority over sibilities of their billet and the Navy way of life
them. may induce a “culture shock.”
Personal dignity is a quality new officers must A very important person in the development
cultivate. Successful leaders possess that un- of the new division officer is the leading chief
definable quality that enables them to talk casually petty officer (LCPO). As the division’s technical
and unofficially with their people, while main- authority and supervisor, the LCPO has the
taining that reserve which discourages undue expertise and skill to accomplish all divisional
familiarity. However, consideration for enlisted tasks. LCPOs have traditionally contributed
personnel is a must; good leaders always show to the professional growth of junior officers
concern for the welfare of their people. through a hands-on approach of passing on their
The relationship between officers and their knowledge.
subordinates influences discipline. Officers should The LCPO has been around the Navy and the
not fraternize with enlisted persons or attempt to division longer than the new officer and stands
be “one of the gang.” This type of familiarity ready to give support. New officers should make
quickly undermines discipline. If subordinates a point of talking with their LCPO about
become familiar and fail to keep the proper decisions affecting the division. When new
distance between themselves and a senior, the officers develop a step-by-step plan to accomplish
officer usually is at fault. a task, they should discuss the plan with the
A great difference exists between familiarity LCPO. The LCPO has the experience and
and friendship. The officer who talks to technical expertise to disassemble the plan and put
subordinates in a friendly manner, taking a it back together. The LCPO will give an honest
personal interest in them and showing concern for opinion of the plan and provide suggestions for
their problems, quickly gains their confidence and improvement. The LCPO will be supportive of
respect. Subordinates want to look to their seniors the plan if it is sound but will also voice
for guidance; they want to be proud of their senior objection when in doubt.

7-4
 The bottom line is this: The officer and the so forth, honor that request. When addressing an
LCPO are a team working toward the same goals. officer whose grade includes a modifier (lieutenant
The LCPO will bend over backwards to assist and commander for example), you may drop the
teach the officer if allowed. Conversely, the modifier (lieutenant).
LCPO will soon stop trying to help if the officer In general, calling officers of the rank of
doesn’t accept support. When that happens the commander or above by their title and name is
officer ends up with numerous problems. preferable; that is, “Commander ”
rather than the impersonal “sir” or “ma’am.”
Relations With the Command Address other officers in the same manner.
Master Chief (CM/C) However, in prolonged conversation, in which
repetition would seem forced or awkward, use
Probably the most vital link between officer “sir” or “ma’am.”
and enlisted personnel in a command is the Address a chief warrant officer as “Chief
command master chief (CM/C). The CM/C Warrant Officer .” In military
serves as the senior enlisted adviser to the circles, address a midshipman as “Mr. or Ms. (or
commander or commanding officer on all Miss) .” When with civilians, in-
matters relating to enlisted policy. The CM/C troduce the midshipman as “Midshipman
carries out and promotes command policy and ” and address the midshipman as
enjoys special command trust and confidence “Mr. or Ms. (or Miss) ”
extending to the administration and management
Aboard ship, address the regularly assigned
of enlisted personnel.
commanding officer as “Captain” regardless of
The CM/C often provides guidance and
grade.
counseling to enlisted personnel. Division officers
should seek the advice of the CM/C on personal Introduce naval officers to civilians by title.
problems of members of their division. The The method of introduction should cue the
CM/C, having years of experience in the Navy, civilians as to how they should address the officers
possesses a wealth of knowledge. More often than from then on. If you were introducing an officer
not the CM/C is more than willing to assist both below the grade of commander to a civilian, you
officers and enlisted personnel. Division officers might say, “This is Lieutenant Jones. Mr. Jones
can’t expect the CM/C to run the division and is an old shipmate of mine.” This introduction
perform their duties; but if they have problems serves a double purpose; it gives the officer’s
in communicating with a member of the division, grade, and it also gives the correct method of
they can count on the CM/C to help. address, “Mr. Jones.”
Because many people are not familiar with
FORMS OF ADDRESS Navy grade insignia and corps devices, make
any introduction, however brief, reasonably
Custom, tradition, and social change deter- informative. You may introduce a female
mine the form of verbal address you use to lieutenant with the words, “This is Lieutenant
introduce members of the naval service. Although Johnson. Miss (or Ms. or Mrs.) Johnson is in
tradition and military customs generally pre- the Nurse Corps,” or “This is Lieutenant
dominate, methods of addressing and introducing Commander Jones. Miss Jones is on duty in the
military personnel differ according to whether you Navy Department.”
are in civilian or military circles at the time. (See The Navy today is a cross-section of America.
fig. 7-1.) In the same family, one man may be a Chief
Except as provided in the paragraphs that Machinist’s Mate and his brother a lieutenant. An
follow, address or introduce all officers in the ensign may have a sister who is a Yeoman second
naval service by the title of their grade preceding class, and so forth. General Pershing held the
the surname. highest United States military rank, General of
You may address officers of the Medical the Armies, but his son entered World War II
Corps or Dental Corps and officers of the Medical as a private. The first Secretary of Defense
Service Corps or Nurse Corps having a doctoral entered World War I as a Seaman second class.
degree as “Doctor.” Likewise, you may address Accordingly, even though the distinction between
an officer of the Chaplain Corps as “Chaplain.” officer and enlisted personnel still exists in all
However, if the doctor or chaplain prefers to be formal and official relations, it does so less and
addressed by lieutenant, commander, captain, and less in nonmilitary relations.

7-5
 TO MILITARY TO CIVILIAN
PERSON ADDRESSED
OR INTRODUCED
INTRODUCED AS: ADDRESSED AS: INTRODUCED AS: ADDRESSED AS:

1
COMMANDER COMMANDER COMMANDER COMMANDER COMMANDER
or above (or appropriate rank) (or appropriate rank) (or appropriate rank) (or appropriate
rank)
Smith Smith Smith Smith

2 3
LIEUTENANT COMMANDER LIEUTENANT COMMANDER COMMANDER LIEUTENANT COMMANDER MR.
or above (or appropriate rank) SMITH SMITH (Mrs., Miss, Ms.)
SMITH SMITH

MEDICAL and/or LIEUTENANT SMITH

4 4 4
DENTAL CORPS DR. SMITH DR. SMITH OF THE DR. SMITH
OFFICER NAVY MEDICAL CORPS

CHAPLAIN CORPS CHAPLAIN CHAPLAIN CHAPLAIN CHAPLAIN

OFFICER SMITH SMITH SMITH

NAVY NURSE CORPS COMMANDER COMMANDER COMMANDER SMITH COMMANDER

OFFICER (or appropriate rank) SMITH OF THE (Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms.)
SMITH NAVY NURSE CORPS SMITH

CHIEF WARRANT CHIEF WARRANT OFFICER CHIEF WARRANT OFFICER CHIEF WARRANT OFFICER MR.
OFFICER SMITH SMITH SMITH (Mrs., Miss, Ms.)
SMITH

MIDSHIPMAN MIDSHIPMAN MIDSHIPMAN MIDSHIPMAN MR.

SMITH SMITH SMITH ( Miss, Ms.)
SMITH

5 5
CHIEF PETTY CHIEF CHIEF CHIEF YEOMAN MR.
OFFICER SMITH or SMITH (Mrs., Miss, Ms.)
5
CHIEF SMITH SMITH

AVIATION AVIATION CADET MR. SMITH AVIATION CADET MR.

CADET SMITH SMITH (Mrs., Miss, Ms.)
SMITH

PETTY PETTY OFFICER PETTY OFFICER PETTY OFFICER MR.

OFFICER SMITH SMITH SMITH (Mrs., Miss, Ms.)
SMITH

SEAMAN SEAMAN SMITH SEAMAN MR.

SMITH SMITH (Mrs., Miss, Ms.)
SMITH

1. When not in uniform a captain or lieutenant would be introduced as “of the Navy” to distinguish the grade from the other services.
2. When addressing an officer whose grade includes a modifier (i.e., lieutenant commander) the modifier may be dropped.
3. A suggested form of introduction is: “This is LCDR Smith , Mr. (Mrs., Miss, Ms.) Smith is now stationed here.” This indicates both (a) the officer’s
grade and (b) the form of address.
4. If a senior officer of the Medical or Dental Corps prefers to be addressed by title, such preference should be honored.
5. Prefixed by “Senior” or “Master” as appropriate.

Figure 7-1.-Introducing and addressing naval personnel.

Military and civilian practices differ in the or “Master,” if appropriate. Introduce and address
introduction and address of enlisted personnel. Under petty officers in paygrades E-4 through E-6 both
military conditions, address and introduce petty formally and informally as “Petty Officer
officers of the Navy by their respective title followed _____________.” You aren’t required to change the
by their last name. Address petty officers in the form of verbal address (by last name) of personnel in
paygrades of E-7, E-8, and E-9 informally as paygrades E-3 and below. However, when
“Chief______” prefixed by “Senior” or “Master,” if introducing them, precede their last name by
appropriate. Introduce them formally as “Chief Petty “Seaman,” “Fireman,” “Airman,” “ Constructionman,”
Officer __________” prefixed by “Senior” and so forth, as appropriate.

7-6
 Civilians often feel uncomfortable in social QUARTERDECK ETIQUETTE
gatherings when addressing enlisted personnel as
described in the preceding paragraph. Therefore, Quarterdeck etiquette remains the same in
those outside the service customarily address peace and war. The quarterdeck has always been
enlisted personnel in the same manner they honored as part of the ship on which official
address civilians. In other words they prefix their ceremonies are conducted. It still retains its
names with “Mr.,” “Mrs.,” “Miss,” or “Ms.,” sanctity. Because of that sanctity, you cannot just
as the case may be. When introducing enlisted walk on and off a ship as you would enter and
personnel to civilians, give their title and name, leave your home; you must follow certain
then the mode of address, such as “This is Petty procedures.
Officer Smith. Mr. Smith will be visiting us for
a while.”
Quarterdeck Conduct
Only one response to an oral order is proper:
“Aye, aye, sir/ma’am.” This reply means more
The watch officer should strictly enforce the
than yes. It indicates, I understand and will obey.
etiquette of the quarterdeck. The quarterdeck
Responses to an order such as “O. K., sir” or
should be kept immaculate and its ceremonial
“Alright, sir” are improper. A senior may
character maintained. On the quarterdeck,
properly acknowledge a report made by a junior
by saying, “Very well,” but a junior never says officers and enlisted persons alike must adhere to
“Very well” to a senior. the following rules of etiquette:

Use “sir/ma’am” as a prefix to an official Ž Avoid appearing out of uniform.

report, statement, or question addressed to a
senior. Also use it when addressing an official on Ž Never smoke.
duty representing a senior. For example, the
officer of the deck (OOD), regardless of grade, Ž Refrain from putting hands in pockets.
represents the commanding officer; therefore,
address the OOD as “sir/ma,’am.” Ž Don’t engage in recreational athletics
Juniors addressing a senior should introduce unless they are sanctioned by the captain,
themselves unless certain the senior knows them and then only after working hours.
by sight.
Junior and senior officers observe certain Boarding a Ship in Uniform
differences in phrasing. Senior officers send their
“compliments” to juniors. For example, “Admiral When in uniform and boarding ANY ship
Smith presents his compliments to Captain flying the national ensign, salute in the following
Brown.” Juniors send their “respects.” When order:
making a call upon a commanding officer, the
junior is correct in saying, “Captain, I came to 1. Halt at the gangway, face aft, and salute
pay my respects.” If an orderly or a secretary the ensign.
presents guests to the captain, ask the orderly or 2. Turn to the officer of the deck (OOD) and
secretary to “please tell the captain that Ensign salute.
Jones would like to pay her respects.”
In written correspondence, a senior officer When returning to your own ship, salute the
may “call” attention to something, but a junior OOD and say, ‘‘I report my return aboard,
may only “invite” it. For many years, Navy sir/ma’am.” The OOD returns both salutes and
custom prescribed that a junior writing a responds with, “Very well,” or a similar
memorandum to a senior use the complimentary expression.
close “Very respectfully” and a senior writing to
a junior use “Respectfully.” Some officers and When you salute the OOD upon boarding a
enlisted still follow that custom when writing ship other than your own, say, “I request
memorandums. However, the Department of the permission to come aboard, sir/ma’am . . .” and
Navy Correspondence Manual, SECNAVINST then add the purpose of your visit; for example,
5216.5C, states that “a complimentary close is not “. . . to visit a friend,” or ‘‘. . . to go to small
desired or required.” stores.”

7-7
 When leaving your ship, reverse the order of serving as OOD. You are saluting the position and
saluting: authority represented—not the individual.

1. Salute the OOD first and say, “I have per- Small Boats Approaching
mission to leave the ship, sir/ma’am.” the Ship at Anchor
When leaving a ship you have visited,
salute the OOD and say, ‘‘I request per- The OOD should know who is approaching
mission to leave the ship sir/ma’am.” the ship at all times. At night the sentry,
2. After receiving permission, face and salute gangway watch, or quartermaster hails small
the ensign (if it is flying) and depart. boats nearing a vessel at anchor with “Boat
ahoy!” The boat coxswain returns the hail with
Boarding a Ship in Civilian Attire a response such as the following, depending on
the personnel aboard:
When in civilian attire and boarding a ship
flying the national ensign, halt at the gangway, “United States’’—if the President of the
at attention, and face aft. Then, remaining at United States is aboard
attention, turn to the OOD. If you are returning
to your own ship, say, “I report my return “Navy”—if the Secretary of the Navy is
aboard, sir/ma’am.” The OOD salutes and aboard
responds with “Very well,” or a similar
expression. When boarding a ship other than your “Fleet” —if the commander in chief of the
own, say, ‘‘I request permission to come aboard, fleet is aboard
sir/ma’am . . .” and then add the purpose of
your visit. The OOD will then say, “Permission “Name of ship’’—if the commanding officer
granted” or “Permission not granted.” is aboard
When leaving a ship in civilian attire, reverse
the procedure. First stand at attention in front of “Aye, aye”—if a commissioned officer is
the OOD and say, “I have permission to leave aboard
the ship, sir/ma’ am.” After receiving permission,
stand at attention facing the ensign (if it is “No, no” —if a midshipman is aboard
flying) and depart.
“ H e l l o ” —if an enlisted person is aboard
Boarding and Departing Ships in a Nest
“Passing’’—if the boat does not intend to
Sometimes destroyers, submarines, and other come alongside, regardless of passenger status
ships must tie up in nests alongside a repair ship,
tender, or pier. At such times you may have to WARDROOM ETIQUETTE
cross several ships to go ashore or return to your
own ship. Upon boarding a ship that you must The officers’ mess is organized on a business-
cross, salute the colors (if flying); then turn like basis. All officers must contribute to a mess
toward and salute the OOD, and request fund upon joining the mess. Officers receive a
permission to cross. After receiving permission, subsistence allowance from the Navy with which
proceed to cross without delay. When departing to pay the mess fund. As a courteous gesture
that ship, you are not required to salute the officers should ask the mess treasurer, within the
colors or OOD again. Repeat this crossing first 24 hours aboard, for their mess bill and mess
procedure until you reach your destination. entrance fee and pay them at once. The monthly
mess assessments defray the cost of food as well
Boarding Ships With Petty as conveniences such as periodicals.
Officers Standing OOD Watch The mess treasurer, who is elected by the
members, administers the mess fund. In messes
On many ships, particularly those of destroyer where the treasurer does not also act as caterer,
size and smaller, a first class or chief petty officer the commanding officer appoints a mess caterer.
instead of an officer may be on the quarterdeck. The treasurer then accounts for all receipts and
Although you do not usually salute enlisted expenditures, while the caterer takes responsibility
personnel, you must salute an enlisted person for the purchase of food, preparation of menus,

7-8
and supervision of service. Both offices are Ž Avoid being boisterous or noisy.
recognized as collateral duties, and attention is
paid to them in the marking of officers’ reports • Don’t talk shop continuously.
of fitness. As with all things, doing either job well
requires study and application. Some caterers • Pay mess bills promptly.
perform their tasks exceptionally well. They give
their full attention to planning balanced diets and • As a new officer, be a good listener.
light appetizing luncheons and to planning with
the Mess Management Specialist for new dishes • Don’t discuss religion and politics.
and varied menus. At the close of each month,
the mess treasurer gives the mess members a Ž Don’t express unfavorable comments and
statement of the mess accounts. opinions about senior officers. Expressing
The senior officer of the wardroom mess such comments with the intention of
always welcomes junior officers and treats them being overheard by seniors is known as
as full-fledged members of the mess in every "bulkheading."
respect. Nevertheless, a junior officer should not
be too forward in conversation or action. An Good manners, with a consideration for other
error on the side of formality is more readily members and their guests, constitute the first
pardoned than one in the other direction. principle to which all others are secondary.
Like many other phases of naval courtesy, The executive officer normally serves as the
wardroom etiquette, of necessity, undergoes many president of the mess. A small ship such as a
changes in time of war. In the interest of destroyer, however, does not provide a separate
completeness, we will cover the rules of wardroom mess for the commanding officer. In this case the
etiquette as they are in peacetime and then give CO, who eats meals in the wardroom, serves as
some of the variations that would be brought president of the mess.
about by war. Officers are assigned permanent seats at the
table, alternately, in the order of grade, to the
right and left of the presiding officer. (Second
In Peacetime ranking officer sits on the right of the presiding
officer, third on the left, and so on.) The mess
The wardroom is the commissioned officers’ caterer occupies the seat opposite that of the
mess and lounge room, The main peacetime rules presiding officer.
of wardroom etiquette are as follows:
In Wartime
Don’t enter or lounge in the wardroom out
of uniform. During a war, the routine of the wardroom
is vastly different from that just described.
Except at breakfast, don’t sit down to Regular mealtimes are out of the question
meals before the presiding officer does. during general quarters. If, before starting to eat,
officers always waited for the presiding officer to
If necessary to leave before the completion sit down, meals would be too irregular and
of the meal, ask to be excused. delayed.
Instead of dining in the wardroom during
Introduce guests to wardroom officers, wartime, many officers eat a hasty meal of
especially on small ships. sandwiches and coffee served topside whenever
time allows. A rule about never being late for
Never be late for meals. If you are meals is hardly binding under such circumstances.
unavoidably late, make your apologies to The seating arrangements in wardrooms may
the presiding officer. undergo changes during a war. A ship may
scatter higher ranking officers among many tables
Don’t loiter in the wardroom during rather than concentrate them at one place, where
working hours. a chance enemy hit might wipe out all of them
at once. Seating arrangements for persons eating
Avoid wearing a cap in the wardroom, in shifts are sometimes cross-sectioned by grade
especially when your shipmates are eating. among the various shifts for the same reason.

7-9
 In short, in peacetime, wardroom etiquette captain’s cabin, although in small ships the
follows the old, established customs; but during captain may dispense with the formality of
a war, common sense and necessity dictate courtesy visits.
expedient conduct. At an activity ashore, the commanding officer
may designate “at home” hours during which
BOAT ETIQUETTE juniors make their social calls. At other stations,
the commanding officer may hold periodic “hail
Officers observe the following rules of boat and farewell” cocktail parties during which
etiquette: juniors make and return calls. Newly reported
juniors should also call at the homes of their
Ž Unless otherwise directed by the senior department head and executive officer within the
officer present, officers enter boats in first 2 weeks after they report aboard. If married,
inverse order of rank (juniors first) and the spouse should accompany the officer.
leave them in order of rank (juniors last). Officers making courtesy visits to the
commanding officer’s cabin or office should never
Ž Juniors may stand and salute when a settle back for a long conversation; they should
senior enters or leaves a boat, unless an remain for approximately 10 minutes, unless
officer or petty officer is in charge to requested to remain longer. They should be
render the honors. However, common attentive and polite but not servile or wooden.
sense and safety always prevail. Although they should allow their host to direct
the conversation, they should try to add more to
Ž When a senior officer is present, do not it than simply affirmatives and negatives. Officers
sit in the stern seats unless asked to do so. should refrain from asking leading questions
about their new duty, about military problems
Ž Leave the most desirable seats for seniors. facing their host, or about intimate details
concerning the commanding officer’s private life.
Ž Always offer a seat to a senior. Officers invited to dinner should take
particular pains to be punctual and to leave before
Ž When leaving a ship, get in the boat a their welcome has worn out. They shouldn’t stay
minute before the boat gong or when the all afternoon or evening. A visit of 45 minutes
OOD says the boat is ready; don’t make to an hour after a meal is all that courtesy
a last-second dash down the gangway. demands; they should ask to be excused within
this time unless urged to remain. If a guest of
Ž If the boat is crowded, juniors embark in honor who is not a houseguest is present, other
the next boat. guests should await that individual’s departure,
if possible.
Ž Juniors in boats take care to give seniors
room to move about.
CONDUCT IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES
Ž Don’t use the thwarts, gunwales, and
decking of another boat as a walkway When ashore in uniform in foreign countries,
without permission. Don’t request per- remember that your conduct will represent the
mission to use another boat as a walkway conduct of all members of the United States naval
if another route is available. service. Scrupulously respect the laws and customs
of any foreign country. Infractions of a seemingly
SOCIAL CALLS unimportant nature, even though committed
unwittingly, arouse resentment and may result in
Except during wartime, when the practice serious complications. Under no circumstances
is almost universally canceled, officers first should you enter into an altercation or argument
reporting to a command make a visit of courtesy with anyone abroad. In case of trouble of any
to the commanding officer within 48 hours. That nature, refer the matter to the appropriate U.S.
is done even though they may have met the naval authority ashore or afloat. If senior naval
captain when they reported for duty. The guidance is not available, consult the consular
executive officer usually arranges a time for the officer or diplomatic representatives of the United
visit. Aboard ship, the social call is made in the States.

7-10
 United States customs regulations explicitly the cap was simplified into merely touching the cap
state that exemption from payment of duty for or, if uncovered, the head (forelock). The act finally
articles purchased abroad covers only articles evolved into the present form of salute.
intended for personal use of the returning traveler.
The term personal use as used in the regulations PROPER MANNER OF SALUTING
refers to articles purchased with the traveler’s own
money, either for personal use or as a gift to others. Except when walking, stand at attention when
The import of large quantities of material, under any saluting. In any case, turn your head and eyes
agreement that permits transfer of goods after toward the person saluted unless doing so is
importation, violates the regulations. Offenders are inappropriate, such as when a division in ranks
liable to heavy fines as well as to imprisonment. salutes an inspecting officer on command. Raise the
Travelers should keep an accurate record of right hand smartly until the tip of the forefinger
purchases made abroad so that they can make a touches the lower part of the headgear or forehead
correct customs declaration. The prices actually paid above and slightly to the right of the right eye. Join
for articles purchased abroad, either in the currency and extend thumb and fingers. Turn the palm
of the country where purchased or the equivalent in slightly inward until the person saluting can just see
United States currency, must be stated in the its surface from the corner of the right eye. Position
customs declaration. the upper arm parallel to the ground with the elbow
slightly in front of the body. Incline the forearm at a
THE SALUTE 45-degree angle with the hand and wrist in a straight
line. Complete the salute (after it is returned) by
One of the essentials of military courtesy is the dropping the arm to its normal position in one sharp,
salute. Regulations governing its use are founded on clean motion. (See fig. 7-2.)
military etiquette and, as such, are deeply rooted in Execute the first position of the hand salute
traditions and customs of the service. A military when six paces from the person saluted, or at the
organization functions efficiently only as a unit, and nearest point of approach, if more than six paces.
any common bond or identifying symbol that furthers (Thirty paces is generally regarded as maximum
the feeling of comradeship strengthens that unity. saluting distance.) Hold the first position until the
The custom of saluting is a time-honored person saluted has passed or returns the salute.
demonstration of courtesy among military personnel
the world over. It expresses mutual respect and pride According to naval custom, a word of greeting
in the military service. should accompany the hand salute. The junior
In form, the salute is simple and dignified, but
that gesture has great significance. The privilege of
saluting is generally denied prisoners because their
status is unworthy of the comradeship of military
personnel.
The salute probably originated in the days of
chivalry, when knights in mail (flexible armor)
customarily raised their visors to friends for the
purpose of identification. Because of strict gradations
or rank, the junior was required to make the first
gesture. Another school of thought traces the salute
back to a custom at the time of the Borgias. Since
assassinations by dagger were common at that time,
men began approaching each other with raised hand,
palm to the front, to show they concealed no weapon.
In the American Navy, however, history
indicates that the hand salute came to use directly
from the British Navy. In the earliest days of British
military units, the junior uncovered when meeting or
addressing a senior. Gradually, the act of removing Figure 7-2.-Hand salute.

7-11
stands at attention; looks the senior straight in Extend salutes to officers of the Navy, Army,
the eye; and, depending upon the time of day, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard and
extends one of the following greetings: to foreign military officers whose governments are
formally recognized by the government of the
From first rising until noon: “Good morning, United States. When in uniform, extend salutes
...” to officers of the Naval, Army, Air Force, Marine
Corps, and Coast Guard Reserves and the
From noon until sunset: “Good afternoon, National Guard. Public Health Service and
...” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
officers also rate a salute when serving with the
From sunset until turning in: “Good evening, armed forces of the United States.
. . . ” When several officers in company are saluted,
all return the salute when the senior officer in
Preferably, the junior should call the senior the company returns the salute accorded. For
by grade and name, such as “Commander example, if an ensign is walking with a
Jones,” rather than by the impersonal “sir” or commander and an Army captain approaches, the
“ma’am.” ensign waits for the Army captain to salute the
commander. As the commander returns the
Naval custom permits saluting with the left salute, the ensign salutes simultaneously. If two
hand when you cannot render a salute with the or more persons of various grades accompany the
right hand. Army and Air Force custom permits senior officer, the same rule applies: they render
only right-hand salutes. the salute when the senior officer returns the salute
accorded.
Avoid making the following common errors Civilians entitled by reason of their position
in saluting: to gun salutes or other honors also are entitled
by custom to the hand salute.
Bowing the head when giving the salute. Five types of personal salutes are rendered:
hand salute; hand salute under arms; present
Dropping the salute before it has been arms; sword salute; and “eyes right,” given by
returned. personnel passing in review.

Holding the arm awkwardly high or letting it Aboard Ship

sag too low.
All officer and enlisted personnel on board a
Saluting while on the double. ship of the Navy salute the following officers:

Avoiding the gaze of the person saluted. All flag officers (officers above the grade of
captain)
Saluting with pipe, cigar, or cigarette in the
mouth or in the hand. The commanding officer

Waiting too long to begin a salute. Visiting officers senior to themselves on every
occasion of meeting, passing near, or being
Saluting in a casual or perfunctory manner. addressed

WHEN TO SALUTE On the first daily meeting, personnel salute all

senior officers attached to their ship. (Many ships
In the Navy, as in practically every military consider salutes rendered at quarters to suffice for
service in the world, everybody salutes–from the this first salute of the day.) They salute when
bottom to the top of the ranks and down again. addressing or being addressed by seniors. They
Enlisted personnel salute all officers, and every also salute an inspecting officer during the course
officer salutes seniors. All who are saluted return of an official inspection. When the progress of
the salute. When uncovered, the person saluted a senior officer may be impeded, all personnel
usually acknowledges a salute by an appropriate clear a path and stand at attention facing the
oral greeting or nod of the head. (See fig. 7-3.) senior officer until he or she has passed.

7-12
Figure 7-3.—When to salute.

7-13
In Boats Reporting

Personnel in charge of a boat that is not When reporting on deck or out-of-doors

underway salute officers that come alongside ashore, all personnel remain covered and salute
or pass nearby. If no one is in charge, all accordingly. When reporting in an office, juniors
those in the boat render the salute. Boat uncover upon approaching the senior but do not
coxswains salute all officers entering or leaving salute.
their boats. (Although personnel customarily
stand when saluting, this formality is dispensed Seated
with if it risks the safety of the boat.)
When boat awnings are spread, enlisted per- An enlisted person being seated and without
sonnel sit at attention while saluting; they particular occupation rises upon the approach of
do not rise. Officers seated in boats rise when an officer; faces the officer; and salutes, if
rendering salutes to seniors who are entering covered. If both remain in the same general
or leaving. vicinity, they need not repeat the compliments.
When boats pass each other with embarked
officers or officials in view, the senior officer Seniority Unknown
and coxswain in each boat render hand salutes.
Officers seated in passing boats do not rise when In most cases officers will know the relative
saluting; the coxswain rises to salute unless it is seniority of those with whom they are in frequent
dangerous or impracticable to do so. contact. However, in many situations, especially
ashore, that is an obvious impossibility. To be
In Civilian Attire safe, salute at such times, doing so without delay.
As a matter of fact, in practically every case where
When a junior recognizes a senior in the armed uncertainty exists, regardless of grade, the rule is
services as one who rates a salute, the junior to render the salute.
initiates a proper greeting even though the senior
may be in civilian clothing. If the senior is Sentries
covered, the junior may render a salute. In time
of war, however, an officer not in uniform may Sentries at gangways salute all officers going
be deliberately avoiding disclosure of his or her or coming over the side. They also salute when
naval membership. Therefore, the junior should passing or being passed by officers close aboard
be discriminate about following the normal in boats or otherwise.
(peacetime) rule.
Normally, you do not render salutes while Vehicles
wearing civilian clothing. If necessary to avoid
embarrassment to the naval service, render a Enlisted personnel and officers salute all senior
salute when in doubt. officers riding in vehicles. Those in the vehicle
both render and return salutes, as may be
In a Group required. The driver of a vehicle must salute if
the vehicle is at a halt but may omit the salute
If enlisted personnel or officers are standing while the vehicle is in motion to avoid endangering
together and a senior officer approaches, the first the safety of the occupants.
to see the senior calls, “Attention!” All then face
the senior officer and salute. Watch Relief

Overtaking Many watches aboard ship do not require the

watch stander to be covered. However, personnel
No junior should overhaul and pass a senior standing watch on the bridge are covered. When
without permission. When for any reason the personnel enter the pilothouse, they salute the
junior must pass, he or she does so to the Boatswain’s Mate of the Watch (BMOW) and
left, When abreast of the senior, the junior request permission to enter. The helmsman and
salutes and asks, “By your leave, sir/ma'am?” lee helmsman salute the conning officer and
The senior replies, “Very well,” and returns the request permission to relieve the helm and lee
salute. helm. The conning officer and the OOD also

7-14
 Figure 7-4.-When not to salute.

exchange salutes with the personnel who relieve In formation, except on command
them. Personnel customarily salute whenever the
commanding officer enters the pilothouse. They also On work detail (Person in charge of detail salutes.)
salute whenever making reports to the commanding
officer. When engaged in athletics or assembled for
recreation or entertainment
WHEN NOT TO SALUTE
In public places where obviously inappropriate
Saluting is improper in the following situations (theaters, restaurants, etc.)
(fig. 7-4):
When uncovered, except where failure to salute In public conveyances
might cause embarrassment or misunderstanding

7-15
 When a member of the guard is engaged in colors, if displayed; otherwise, they face the sound
performance of a duty that prevents saluting of the music. If covered, they begin the salute at
the first note and end it at the last note.
In action or under simulated combat con- When in ranks, the officer in charge orders,
ditions “Attention,” and renders the appropriate hand
or sword salute for the formation. In boats, only
At mess (When addressed, stop eating and the boat officer–or, in the officer’s absence, the
show respectful attention.) coxswain–stands and salutes when the national
anthem is played. Other members of the crew, and
passengers who are already standing, stand at
HAND SALUTES ON attention. All others remain seated at attention.
FORMAL OCCASIONS Personnel in civilian clothing standing at attention
in a boat during the pIaying of the national
Formal occasions require hand salutes anthem do not render the “hand-over-heart”
according to the situation. At a military ceremony salute. That is an exception to the general
and when the occasion requires, an officer or rule.
enlisted person salutes rather than uncovers, as
that is the traditional mark of respect. The above rules apply only to a formal
When an officer officially attends a military rendition of the national anthem. For example,
funeral, a salute is appropriate at the following if you were in uniform and heard “The Star-
times: Spangled Banner” being broadcast over the radio,
you would not be expected to stop, face the music,
Whenever honors are rendered and salute. However, you would render the
required honors if you were attending a public
When the body is removed from the hearse gathering where the anthem was being broadcast
to the chapel, from the chapel to the caisson, as part of the ceremony.
and from the caisson to the grave

When the volleys are fired During Parades

When “Taps” is sounded Military personnel salute the flag when they
are passed by or pass the flag being carried
Participants at a nonmilitary funeral or burial uncased in a parade or military formation.
service may follow the civilian custom of un-
covering (rather than saluting) when such honors
are called for. For example, they might uncover Funerals and Religious Services
during the procession to the grave or the lowering
of the body. During funerals (fig. 7-5), officers and enlisted
Jewish custom calls for remaining covered personnel remain covered while in the open but
during all religious ceremonies. The usual rules uncover during the committal service at the grave.
regarding uncovering do not apply when a During burial services at sea, they remain covered
representative of that faith conducts the service. throughout the service.
Additionally, personnel may wear a skullcap
(yarmulke) with the uniform whenever a military During religious services aboard ship and
cap, hat, or other headgear is not prescribed. They during formal religious ceremonies outdoors
also may wear a skullcap underneath military ashore (such as Easter sunrise service), members
headgear as long as it does not interfere with the remain uncovered throughout the ceremony.
proper wearing, functioning, or appearance of the
prescribed headgear. In general, a military person uncovers during
a religious ceremony but remains covered during
a military ceremony. Religious ceremonies include
During National Anthem church services, civilian funerals, or burial
services an officer or enlisted person attends as
When the national anthem is played, persons a friend of a relative rather than as a represent-
in the naval service stand at attention, facing the ative of the Navy. Military funerals and burials

7-16
7-17
at sea are regarded primarily as military
ceremonies.

Service personnel wearing civilian clothing at a

military funeral follow the etiquette prescribed for
civilians.

Honors to the Colors

Naval ships not underway hoist the national

ensign at the flagstaff aft at 0800 and lower it at
sunset. Likewise, they hoist and lower the union
jack at the jackstaff forward at the same time. At
colors, they smartly hoist the ensign, lower it
slowly, and never allow it to touch the deck. At
both morning and evening colors, ships sound
“Attention,” and all officers and enlisted personnel
topside face the ensign and render the salute. At
shore stations and, in peacetime, on board large
vessels where a band is present, they play the
national anthem during the ceremonies. In the
absence of a band, a bugler, if available, sounds
“To the Colors” at morning ceremonies and
“Retreat” at sunset formalities. (When underway,
naval ships usually fly the ensign both day and
night from the mast and do not hoist the jack.) In
half-roasting the ensign, personnel first raise it to
the truck or peak and then lower it to half-mast.
Before lowering the ensign from half-mast, they 134.38
first raise it to the truck or peak and then lower it.
Figure 7-6.-The church pennant, displayed
During colors, boats underway within sight or during divine services, is the only emblem
hearing of the ceremony either lie to or proceed at that may be flown above the ensign.
the slowest safe speed. Boat officers–or in their
absence, coxswains–stand and salute except when
dangerous to do so. Other persons in the boat SUMMARY
remain seated or standing and do not salute.
Vehicles within sight or hearing of colors stop.
Persons riding in vehicles sit at attention. The Courtesy can be defined as an act or verbal
person in charge of a military vehicle (but expression of consideration or respect for others.
someone other than the driver) renders the hand When a person acts with courtesy toward another,
salute. the courtesy is likely to be returned. We are
courteous to our seniors because we are aware of
When a vessel under the flag of a nation their greater responsibilities and authority. We
formally recognized by the government of the are courteous to our juniors because we are aware
United States salutes a ship of our Navy by of their important contributions to the Navy’s
dipping its ensign, our ship returns the salute dip mission.
for dip. U.S. naval vessels never initiate the
dipping of the ensign. In the military service, and particularly in the
Navy where personnel must live and work in
In the large assortment of flags carried by rather close quarters, we must practice courtesy in
American men-of-war, only one flies above the all that we do on and off duty. Military courtesy is
ensign–the church pennant (fig. 7-6). It is important to everyone in the Navy. If you know
displayed during a divine service held by a and practice military courtesy, you will make
chaplain or visiting church dignitary. favorable impressions and display a self-assurance

7-18
that will carry you through many difficult Military Requirements for Chief Petty Officer,
situations. Acts of respect and courtesy are NAVEDTRA 10047-A, Naval Education and
required of all members of the naval service; the Training Program Management Support
junior member takes the initiative, and the senior Activity, Pensacola, Fla., 1988.
member returns the courtesy.
Military Requirements for Senior and Master
While not all-inclusive, this chapter has shown
Chief Petty Officer, NAVEDTRA 10048-A,
you some of the basic guidelines for military
Naval Education and Training Program
courtesies and naval etiquette. As with all other Management Support Activity, Pensacola,
endeavors, you must also apply a good measure
Fla., 1988.
of common sense.
United States Navy Regulations, 1990, D e p a r t - .
ment of the Navy, Office of the Secretary,
REFERENCES Washington, D.C., 1990.

Accommodation of Religious Practices, SEC-

NAVINST 1730.8, Department of the Navy, SUGGESTED READING
Office of the Secretary, Washington, D.C.,
Bearden, Bill, and Bill Wedertz, The Bluejacket’s
1988.
Manual, 21th ed., United States Naval
Institute Press, Annapolis, Md., 1990.
Chief Petty Officer Indoctrination Course, NAV-
EDTRA 10825-B, Naval Education and Mack, W.P., and T.D. Paulsen, The Naval
Training Program Management Support Officer’s Guide, 9th ed, Naval Institute Press,
Activity, Pensacola, Fla., 1987. Annapolis, Md., 1983.

HE KNOWS THE ROPES

WHEN WE SAY THAT SOMEONE KNOWS THE ROPES WE INFER THAT
HE KNOWS HIS WAY AROUND AT SEA AND IS QUITE CAPABLE OF
HANDLING MOST NAUTICAL PROBLEMS. THROUGH THE YEARS THE
PHRASE‘S MEANING HAS CHANGED SOMEWHAT. ORIGINALLY, THE
STATEMENT WAS PRINTED ON A SEAMAN’S DISCHARGE TO INDI-
CATE THAT HE KNEW THE NAMES AND PRIMARY USES OF THE
MAIN ROPES ON BOARD SHIP. IN OTHER WORDS, "THIS MAN IS
A NOVICE SEAMAN AND KNOWS ONLY THE BASICS OF SE AMAN SHIP.”

7-19
 CHAPTER 8

HONORS AND CEREMONIES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe the procedures for conducting morning 7. Describe the ceremony conducted by a ship
and evening colors. passing Washington’s Tomb.

2. Identify the procedures for saluting the 8. Describe the ceremonies conducted by the
national ensign when boarding a ship or when Navy on President’s Day, Independence Day,
meeting a military formation. and Memorial Day.

3. Name the individual who is accorded “Hail to 9. Describe the ceremony conducted by a ship
the Chief.”
passing the USS Arizona memorial.
4. Describe the U.S. Navy’s regulations for gun
salutes. 10. Describe the procedure for conducting military
funerals.
5. Describe the U.S. Navy’s regulations for
conducting passing honors. 11. Describe the procedure for placing a U.S.
Navy ship in commission.
6. Describe the U.S. Navy’s regulations for
displaying the national ensign, union jack, and 12. Describe a formal change-of-command
distinctive marks of vessels. ceremony.

Honors and ceremonies have been an integral chapter 12 of United States Navy Regulations in
part of military courtesy and naval custom for many sections of this chapter.
hundreds of years. As a part of naval custom, we
have traditionally rendered honors to ships, to
high ranking individuals, and to nations. We often HONORS TO NATIONAL ANTHEMS
render honors in the form of ceremonies. We AND NATIONAL ENSIGNS
make festive occasions of many naval honors and
When naval bands play the national anthem
ceremonies at which the Navy is seen at its best.
of the United States, “The Star Spangled
We perform ceremonies as formal acts on public
Banner,” they play it in its entirety. They play
occasions.
it as written and prescribed in the official U.S.
The Navy has too many types of honors and
Navy Band arrangement, which is designated as
ceremonies and too many occasions on which they
the official Department of Defense arrangement.
are performed for us to include all of them in this
The following rules apply to the rendering of the
chapter. Instead, we will discuss some of the more
national anthem:
common situations involving a formal ceremony
or honor and the behavior required of you Ž The official U.S. Navy Band’s playing of
during the event. We have used excerpts from the national anthem of the United States, or of

8-1
any other country, as a part of a medley is ensign is started from the peak or truck at the
prohibited. beginning of the music and lowered at a pace with
the music so as to be completed at the last note.
Ž When a foreign national anthem is
prescribed in connection with honors, and per- Ž At the completion of the music, the bugle
forming the national anthem of the United States call “Carry On” is sounded.
is also considered appropriate, the national
ant hem of the United States is performed last. Ž In the absence of a band, “To the Colors”
is played by the bugle at morning colors, and
Ž On other occasions when foreign national “Retreat” at evening colors. The salute is
anthems are performed, the national anthem of rendered as prescribed for the national anthem.
the United States is performed last, except when
performed in conjunction with morning colors. Ž In the absence of music, a whistle sounds
“Attention” and “Carry On” to begin and end
Whenever the national anthem of the United the salute. “Carry On” is sounded as soon as the
States is played, all naval service personnel not ensign is completely lowered.
in formation stand at attention and face the
national ensign; if the national ensign is not Ž During colors, boats underway within sight
being displayed, they face the source of the music. or hearing of the ceremony lie-to or proceed at
When covered, they salute at the first note of the the slowest safe speed. Boat officers (or in their
anthem. Persons in formation are brought to absence, coxswains) stand and salute except when
order arms or called to attention as appropriate. dangerous to do so. Other persons in the boat
The formation commander faces in the direction remain seated or standing and do not salute.
of the music or ensign and renders the salute for
the unit. Persons in formation participating in a Ž During colors, vehicles within sight or
ceremony, on the formation commander’s com- hearing of the ceremony stop. Persons riding in
mand, follow the procedure prescribed for such such vehicles remain seated at attention.
persons during colors; persons in civilian clothes
comply with the rules and customs established for Ž After morning colors, if foreign warships
civilians. are present, the national anthem of each nation
Personnel show the same respect prescribed represented is played. Anthems are played in the
during the playing of the national anthem of the order in which a gun salute would be fired to, or
United States during the playing of a foreign exchanged with, the senior official or officer
national anthem. present of each nation. This is provided so that
when a ship is in a foreign port, the national
MORNING AND EVENING COLORS anthem of the port is played immediately after
morning colors, followed by the national anthems
Naval commands ashore and aboard ships not of other foreign nations present.
underway observe the ceremonial hoisting and
lowering of the national ensign at 0800 and sunset. SALUTES TO THE NATIONAL ENSIGN
At 0800, this ceremony is known as morning
colors; at sunset, it is known as evening colors, Each person in the naval service, upon
Commands carry out this ceremony as prescribed boarding a ship of the Navy, salutes the national
in Navy Regulations as follows: ensign if it is flying. Each person stops on reaching
the upper platform of the accommodation ladder
Ž The guard of the day and the band are or the shipboard end of the brow; faces the
paraded in the vicinity of the point of hoist of the national ensign; renders the salute; and then, in
ensign. turn, salutes the officer of the deck. On leaving
the ship, the person renders the salute in inverse
Ž “Attention” is sounded, followed by the order. The officer of the deck returns both salutes.
playing of the national anthem by the band. When passed by or passing the national ensign
being carried, uncased, in a military formation,
Ž At morning colors, the ensign is started up all persons in the naval service salute. Persons in
at the beginning of the music and hoisted smartly vehicles or boats follow the procedure prescribed
to the peak or truck. At evening colors, the for such persons during colors.

8-2
 The salutes prescribed above are also ren- • Under the circumstances prescribed, a
dered to foreign national ensigns and aboard 19-gun salute is fired to the flag of the Secretary
foreign men-of-war. of State when the Secretary is acting as a special
foreign representative of the President. Table 8-
1 lists the gun salutes rendered to civil officials
‘‘HAIL TO THE CHIEF” of the United States when they are on official
visits.
The traditional musical selection “Hail to
the Chief” is designated as a musical tribute to
the President of the United States. As such, na- AUTHORITY TO FIRE GUN
val bands do not perform it as a tribute to other SALUTES TO OFFICERS IN THE
dignitaries. Naval personnel give “Hail to the UNITED STATES NAVAL SERVICE
Chief” the same honor as that accorded during
renditions of the national anthem or “To the As prescribed in Navy Regulations, gun sa-
Colors.” lutes for officers and officials entitled to 17 or more
guns are fired on the occasion of each official visit
of the individual concerned (fig. 8-1). Gun salutes
GUN SALUTES Gun Salutes
Officers Arrival Departure
Gun salutes have been a tradition of navies
Chairman, Joint Chiefs of
throughout history. The U.S. Navy follows spe- Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 19
cific regulations concerning gun salutes.
Chief of Staff, U.S. Army 19 19

Chief of Naval Operations 19 19

SALUTING SHIPS AND STATIONS
Chief of Staff, U.S. Air
Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 19
The Secretary of the Navy or the Secretary’s Commandant of the
duly authorized representative designates cer- Marine Corps . . . . . . . . . 19 19
tain ships and stations as “saluting ships and
stations. ” These ships and stations fire gun sa- General of the Army . . . . . 19 19
lutes as prescribed in Navy Regulations. Other Fleet Admiral . . . . . . . . . . 19 19
ships and stations do not fire gun salutes, unless
General of the Air Force 19 19
directed to do so by the senior officer present on
exceptional occasions when courtesy requires Generals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 17
them.
Admirals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 17
Gun salutes to the flag of the President or
the Secretary of State are carried out as follows: Naval or other military
Governor, commissioned
• A 21-gun salute is fired to the flag of the as such by the President,
within the area of his
President by the following: jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 17

Vice Admiral or
—Each ship falling in with a ship dis-
Lieutenant General . . . . ..... 15
playing such flag, arriving at a place where
such flag is displayed ashore, or present Rear Admiral or Major
when such flag is broken General . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 13

Rear Admiral or
—A naval station when a ship displaying Brigadier General . . . . . ..... 11
such flag arrives at the naval station or when
Other commissioned
such flag is broken by a ship present officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .....

—A flag or general officer assuming com-

mand or, while in command, breaking the flag of Figure 8-1.—Gun salutes rendered to commis-
an increased grade in the presence of a ship or sioned military officers of the United States
naval station displaying the flag of the President on the occasions of their official visits.

8-3
 Table 8-1.—Gun salutes rendered to civil officials of the United States on the occasions of their official visits

Gun Salute Gun Salute

Official Official
Arrival Departure Arrival Departure

President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 21 Governor General or

Governor of a commonwealth
Ex-President or President-elect . . . . . . . 21 21 or possession of the United States
or area under United States
Secretary of State when acting administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 17
as special foreign representative
of the President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 19 Other Undersecretaries of Cabinet,
the Solicitor General, the Deputy
Vice President . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ....... 19 Attorney General, and the
Deputy Postmaster General . . . . . . ....... 17
Speaker of the House of
Representatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 19 Members of Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 17

Governor of a state of the United States. ....... 19 Envoy Extraordinary

and Minister Plenipotentiary . . . . . ....... 15
Chief Justice of the United States . . . . . . ....... 19
Minister Resident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 13
Ambassador, High Commissioner, or
special diplomatic representative Charge d’Affaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 11
whose credentials give him authority
equal to or greater than that of an Career Minister, or Counselor of
Ambassador ....... 19 Embassy or Legation . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... .......

Associate Justices of Supreme Court . . . ....... 19 Consul General; or Consul or Vice

Consul when in charge of a
US representative to the UN . . . . . . . . . ....... 19 Consulate General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 11

Secretary of Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 19 First Secretary of Embassy

or Legation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... .......
Deputy Secretary of Defense . . . . . . . . . . 19 19
Consul; or Vice Consul when in
Cabinet officer other than Secretary charge of a Consulate General . . . . ....... 7
of Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 19
Mayor of an incorporated city . . . . . . . ....... .......
Secretaries of the Army, Navy,
and Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 19 Second or Third Secretary of
Embassy or Legation . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... .......
Director of Defense Research
and Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 19 Vice Consul when only represen-
tative of United States, and not
President pro tempore of the Senate . . . . ....... 19 in charge of a Consulate General
or Consulate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 5
Assistant Secretaries of Defense . . . . . . . 17 17
Consular Agent when only
General Counsel of the DOD . . . . . . . . . . 17 17 representative of the
United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... .......
Undersecretaries of the Army, Navy
and Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 17

Assistant Secretaries of the Army,

Navy, and Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 17

8-4
for officers and officials entitled to 15 guns or Ž A salute fired by the flag or general
less are not fired unless so ordered by the senior officer’s flagship or headquarters in honor
officer present or higher authority. of the flag or general officer is not
returned.
GUN SALUTES TO THE
SENIOR OFFICER PRESENT Ž A salute fired in honor of an anniversary,
celebration, or solemnity is not returned.
When a flag officer embarked in a ship of that
officer’s command arrives in port and is the senior Ž Subject to the provisions of Navy Regula-
officer present or when a flag officer assumes tions, a salute fired in honor of a United
command and becomes the senior officer present, States officer or official is returned with
that officer is saluted by the former senior officer the number of guns specified for the grade
present. of the flag or general officer rendering the
The senior officer of one or more ships salute, or, if not a flag or general officer,
arriving in port salutes the flag officer who is the with seven guns.
senior officer present. The arriving senior officer’s
flagship fires a gun salute on the following Ž No return salute may be expected in the
occasions: case of a salute fired by a United States
ship or station in honor of the following
Ž When a flag officer who is the senior officials or occasions. Otherwise, a salute
officer present assumes command fired in honor of a foreign nation or a
foreign official or officer is returned gun
Ž When a flag officer who is the senior
for gun.
officer present is relieved of command or
is advanced in grade
—A foreign sovereign
The senior officer present salutes the relieving
senior officer present at the following times: —A head of state

Ž When a flag officer embarked in a ship of —A member of a reigning royal family

the senior officer’s command arrives in
port and is the senior officer present —A special representative of a head of
state
Ž When a flag officer assumes command and
becomes the senior officer present —A foreign anniversary

When a flag officer who is not the senior —A celebration

officer present assumes command, that officer
fires a salute to the senior officer present. —A solemnity

RETURNING GUN SALUTES —An official visit

United States ships and stations observe the Ž No officer, except a flag or general officer,
following regulations in returning gun salutes: is saluted with guns except in return for
a gun salute rendered by that officer.
A salute fired to the nation by a foreign
ship arriving in port is returned gun for
gun.
• No officer of the armed services, while in
civilian clothes, is saluted with guns, unless
A salute fired to a flag or general officer such officer is at the time acting in an
by a foreign ship or station is returned gun official civil capacity.
for gun.
• No salute is fired between sunset and
A salute fired in honor of the President of sunrise, before 0800, or on Sunday except
the United States or the Secretary of State when international courtesy so dictates or
when acting as a special representative of when related to cleat h ceremonies. A gun
the President is not returned. salute in honor of an official or officer

8-5
 Ruffles
and
Official Uniform flourishes Music Guard Remarks

President As prescribed by 4 National Anthem Full Man rail, unless otherwise

senior officer directed by senior officer
present. present.

Secretary of State when . . .” 4 . . .” . . .” Crew at quarters.

special foreign representative
of the President.

Vice President Uniform of the day Hail Columbia ...” . . .”

Secretary of Defense, Deputy . . .” National Anthem . . .” . . .”

Secretary of Defense, or
Secretary of the Navy; Direc-
tor of Defense, Research and
Engineering.

An Assistant Secretary of . . .” . . .” ...” ...”

Defense, Undersecretary, or
an Assistant Secretary of the
Navy.

Figure 8-2.-Passing honors between ships and, when practicable, between ships and naval stations.

who arrives before 0800 is fired at 0800 unless In addition, a ship of the Navy passing close
the day is Sunday or the officer has departed aboard a ship or naval station displaying the flag of
meanwhile. If the day is Sunday, the salute is the officials indicated therein renders the honors
fired on Monday; if the official or officer has prescribed in figure 8-2. When a ship displaying such
departed meanwhile, the salute is not fired. In flag passes close aboard a naval station, that station
case of a gun salute at 0800, the first gun of the also renders the honors prescribed in figure 8-2 when
salute is fired immediately upon the completion practicable.
of morning colors or the last note of the last
national anthem. PASSING HONORS TO
OFFICIALS AND OFFICERS
EMBARKED IN BOATS
PASSING HONORS
A ship of the Navy being passed close aboard by
“Passing honors” are those honors, other than a boat displaying the flag or pennant of the indicated
gun salutes, rendered on occasions when ships or officials and officers renders the honors prescribed in
embarked officials or officers pass, or are passed, figure 8-3.
close aboard. “Close aboard” means passing within Persons on the quarterdeck salute when boats
600 yards for ships and 400 yards for boats. These pass close aboard in which a flag officer, a unit
rules are interpreted liberally to ensure that commander, or a commanding officer is embarked
appropriate honors are rendered. under the following circumstances:

PASSING HONORS BETWEEN SHIPS • When the officer in the boat is in uniform,
which is indicated by the display of the
Passing honors between ships consists of each national ensign in United States ports
ship sounding “Attention” and all persons in view on
deck and not in ranks rendering the hand salute.
Passing honors are exchanged between ships of the • When a miniature of a flag or pennant is
Navy and between ships of the Navy and the Coast displayed in addition to the national ensign
Guard passing close aboard. in foreign ports

8-6
 Ruffles
and
Official flourishes Music Guard Remarks

President 4 National Anthem Full ”Attention” sounded and salute by

all persons in view on deck. If
directed by the senior officer
present, man rail.

Secretary of State when special 4 . . .” . . .” ”Attention” sounded, and salute by

foreign representative of all persons in view on deck.
President.

Vice President 4 Hail Columbia ...” . . .”

Secretary of Defense; Deputy 4 Admiral’s March . . .” . . .”

Secretary of Defense; Secretary of
the Navy; Director of Defense,
Research and Engineering; Assist-
tant Secretary of Defense; and
Undersecretary or an Assistant
Secretary of the Navy.

Other Civil official entitled to ...”

honors on official visit.

Officer of armed service. ...”

Figure 8-3.-Passing honors to officials and military officers embarked in boats.

SEQUENCE IN RENDERING Passing honors are not rendered by or required

PASSING HONORS of ships with small bridge areas, such as sub-marines,
particularly when in restricted waters.
Ships render passing honors in the following
sequence: CREW AT QUARTERS ON
ENTERING OR LEAVING PORT
1. When the bow of one ship passes the bow or stern
of the other, the junior sounds attention when the The crew is paraded at quarters during day-light
bow of one ship passes the bow or stern of the on entering or leaving port on occasions of ceremony
other. If the senior is embarked in a boat, the except when weather or other circumstances make it
junior sounds attention before the boat is abreast impracticable or undesirable to do so. Ordinarily,
of the quarterdeck. occasions of ceremony are construed as visits that are
not operational; as visits at home port when
2. The music, if required, sounds off. departing for or returning from a lengthy
deployment; as visits to foreign ports not visited
3. “Carry on” is sounded when the prescribed honors recently; and as other special occasions so determined
have been rendered and acknowledged. by a superior. In lieu of parading the entire crew at
quarters, an honor guard may be paraded in a
conspicuous place on weather decks.
DISPENSING WITH
PASSING HONORS

Passing honors are not rendered after sunset or DISPLAY OF NATIONAL ENSIGN,
before 0800 except when international courtesy UNION JACK, AND DISTINCTIVE
requires. They also are not exchanged between Navy MARK FROM SHIPS AND CRAFT
ships engaged in tactical evolutions outside port. The
senior officer present may direct that passing honors Ships and craft of the Navy display the national
be dispensed with in whole or in part. ensign, the union jack, their personal flag

8-7
 PERSONAL
FLAG,
NATIONAL UNION COMMAND
SHIPS OR CRAFTS ENSIGN JACK PENNANT, OR
DISPLAYED DISPLAYED COMMISSION
PENNANT
DISPLAYED

ACTIVE:
In commission Yes Yes Yes
In service Yes Yes No2

INACTIVE:
In commission, in reserve Yes Yes Yes
In service, in reserve Yes Yes Yes
Out of commission, in
reserve No1 No No
Out of service, in reserve No1 No No

SPECIAL STATUS:
In commission, special Yes Yes Yes
In service, special Yes Yes Yes
Out of commission,
special No1 No No
Out of service, special No1 No No

1
National ensign shall be displayed if necessary to indicate the national character of the ship or craft.
2
Applies to display of commission pennant only. A flag officer or unit commander embarked may
display a personal flag or command pennant.

Figure 8-4.-Display of ensign, union jack, and distinctive mark from ships and craft.

or pennant, or their commission pennant as specified and night. Ships display the distinctive mark at the
in figure 8-4. after masthead or, in a mastless ship, from the
loftiest and most conspicuous hoist.
The distinctive mark of a commissioned Navy
ship or craft is a personal flag or a command pennant When not underway ships display the national
of an officer of the Navy or a commission pennant. ensign from the flagstaff and the union jack from the
The distinctive mark of a commissioned hospital ship jackstaff from 0800 until sunset. A ship that enters
of the Navy is the Red Cross flag. port at night, when appropriate, displays the national
ensign from the gaff at daylight for a time sufficient
A ship or craft does not display more than one to establish its nationality. Other ships of war
distinctive mark at one time, nor does it display the customarily display their national ensigns in return.
commission pennant and the personal flag of a civil
official at one time. Unless the senior officer present directs otherwise, a
ship underway displays the ensign during daylight
Except as prescribed in Navy Regulations for from the gaff under the following circumstances. (If
certain occasions of ceremony and when civil officials the ship has mast-mounted booms and stays that
are embarked, ships display the flag or pennant day would interfere with the

8-8
hoisting, lowering, or flying of the ensign, it recognized by the United States government,
displays the ensign on the triatic stay.) salutes a ship of the Navy by dipping its ensign,
it is answered dip for dip. If not already being
Ž Getting underway and coming to anchor displayed, the national ensign is hoisted for the
purpose of answering the dip. An ensign being
Ž Falling in with other ships displayed at half-mast is hoisted to the truck or
peak before a dip is answered.
Ž Cruising near land No ship of the Navy dips the national ensign
Ž During battle unless in return for such compliment.
Of the colors carried by a naval force on shore,
The union jack displayed from the jackstaff only the battalion or regimental colors are
is the size of the union of the national ensign dipped in rendering or acknowledging a salute.
displayed from the flagstaff. Submarines, or other vessels on which dipping
Ships display the union jack at a yardarm to would endanger the lives of its personnel, are not
denote that a general court-martial or court of required to dip the ensign.
inquiry is in session.

NATIONAL ENSIGN AT HALF-MASTING THE NATIONAL

COMMANDS ASHORE ENSIGN AND UNION JACK

The national ensign is displayed from 0800 to When the national ensign is half-masted, if not
sunset near the headquarters of every command previously hoisted, it is first hoisted to the truck
ashore. When the proximity of headquarters of or peak and then lowered to half-mast. Before it
two or more commands makes the display of is lowered from half-mast, the ensign is hoisted
separate ensigns inappropriate, the ensign is to the truck or peak and then lowered.
displayed at the headquarters of the senior. When the national ensign is half-masted, the
union jack, if displayed from the jackstaff, is
DISPLAY OF NATIONAL likewise half-masted. Personal flags, command
ENSIGN IN BOATS pennants, and commission pennants are not
displayed at half-mast except as prescribed in
Waterborne boats of the naval service display Navy Regulations for a deceased official or
the national ensign at the following times: officer.
When directed by the President, the national
When underway during daylight in a ensign is flown at half-staff at military facilities
foreign port and aboard naval vessels and at stations abroad.
It is flown at half-mast whether or not the national
During dress ship or full-dress ship ensign of another nation is flown full-staff
alongside that of the United States.
When going alongside a foreign vessel

When an officer or official is embarked on

BOW INSIGNIA AND FLAGSTAFF
an official occasion
INSIGNIA FOR BOATS
When a flag or general officer, unit
commander, commanding officer, or chief A boat regularly assigned to an officer for
of staff, in uniform, is embarked in a boat personal use carries insignia on each bow as
assigned to the officer’s command or in follows:
one assigned for that officer’s personal use
• For a flag or general officer, the stars as
At such other times as maybe prescribed arranged in that officer’s flag
by the senior officer present
• For a unit commander who is not a flag
DIPPING THE NATIONAL ENSIGN officer, a replica of the command pennant

When any vessel, under the United States Ž For a commanding officer or for a chief
registry or the registry of a nation formally of staff who is not a flag officer, an arrow

8-9
 Certain boats display the ensign and the mastless ships make a display as little modified
personal flag or pennant of an officer on a staff from the rainbow effect as possible.
fitted at the peak with certain devices. A boat During dress or full-dress ship in honor of a
assigned for the personal use of a flag or general foreign nation, the national ensign of that nation
officer, unit commander, chief of staff, or replaces the United States national ensign at the
commanding officer, or on which a civil official main, or at the masthead in the case of a single-
is embarked carries a staff fitted with the masted ship. During dress or full-dress ship in
following devices: honor of more than one nation, the ensign of each
nation is displayed at the main, or at the masthead
A spread eagle for an official or officer in a single-roasted ship.
whose official salute is 19 or more guns
Should half-masting of the national ensign be re-
A halberd quired on occasions of dress or full-dress ship, only
the national ensign at the flagstaff is half-roasted.
—for a flag or general officer whose When full-dress ship is prescribed, the senior
official salute is less than 19 guns or officer present may direct that dress ship be
—for a civil official whose official salute substituted if, in that officer’s opinion, the state
is 11 or more guns but less than 19 guns of the weather makes such action advisable. The
senior officer present may also, under such circum-
A ball stances, direct that the ensigns be hauled down
from the mastheads after they have been hoisted.
—for an officer of the grade, or relative
Dress ship or full-dress ship is prescribed for
grade, of captain in the Navy or
ships not underway from 0800 until sunset.
—for a career minister, a counselor or first Neither dress ship nor full-dress ship is prescribed
secretary of embassy or legation, or a for ships underway.
consul
SENIOR OFFICER PRESENT
A star for an officer of the grade, or AFLOAT PENNANT
relative grade, of commander in the Navy
Ships use the “starboard” pennant as the
A flat truck senior officer present afloat (SOPA) pennant.
If two or more Navy ships are docked together
—for an officer below the grade, or
in port, the ship in which the senior officer
relative grade, of commander in the Navy
present afloat (SOPA) is embarked displays the
or
SOPA pennant, except when the SOPA’s personal
—for a civil official not listed above and flag clearly indicates that officer’s seniority. It is
for whom honors are prescribed for an displayed from the inboard halyard of the
official visit starboard main yardarm.

DRESS AND FULL-DRESS SHIP

SPECIAL CEREMONIES,
ANNIVERSARIES, AND
Flying the largest national ensign assigned to
SOLEMNITIES
the ship from the flagstaff with a national ensign
displayed at each masthead is known as dress ship. Navy ships, stations, and activities perform
A personal flag or command pennant will not be special ceremonies in honor of certain memorials,
substituted with a national ensign. The national solemnities, and events, such as funerals, the
ensigns displayed at the masthead are of uniform commissioning of ships, and holidays. Although
size. When a substantial difference in heights of they perform special ceremonies for several
the mastheads exists, using different sizes of holidays, they observe all national holidays.
national ensigns is appropriate.
NATIONAL HOLIDAYS
In addition to dressing of the mastheads,
displaying a rainbow of signal flags reaching from Naval ships, stations, and activities observe
the foot of the jackstaff to the mastheads and the following national holidays and such other
from those points to the foot of the flagstaff is days as may be designated by the President:
known as full-dress ship. Dress ship and full-dress
New Year’s Day, the 1st of January
ship requirements are prescribed in the Navy
Department publication Flags, Pennants, and Martin Luther King Day, the third Monday in
Customs (NTP-13A). Peculiarly roasted or January

8-10
 President’s Day, the third Monday February having a saluting battery fire a salute of 21
minute-guns. All ships and naval stations display
Memorial Day, the last Monday in May the national ensign at half-mast from 0800 until
the completion of the salute or until 1220 if no
Independence Day, the 4th of July in salute is fired or to be fired.
When the 4th of July occurs on Sunday, all
Labor Day, the first Monday in September special ceremonies are postponed until the follow-
ing day.
Columbus Day, the second Monday in October
SHIPS PASSING
Veterans Day, the 11th of November WASHINGTON’S TOMB

Thanksgiving Day, the fourth Thursday in When passing Washington’s Tomb, located in
November Mount Vernon, Virginia, between sunrise and
sunset, Navy ships perform the following
Christmas Day, the 25th of December ceremony insofar as practicable: The full guard
and band are paraded, the bell tolled, and the
Whenever any of the above designated dates national ensign half-masted at the beginning of
fall on Saturday, the preceding day is observed as the tolling of the bell. When opposite Wash-
a holiday; whenever such dates fall on Sunday, the ington’s Tomb, the guard presents arms; persons
following day is observed. on deck salute, facing in the direction of the tomb;
and “Taps” is sounded. The national ensign is
CEREMONIES FOR hoisted to the truck or peak and the tolling ceases
NATIONAL HOLIDAYS at the last note of “Taps,” after which the national
anthem is played. Upon completion of the national
On President’s Day (the third Monday in anthem, “Carry On” is sounded.
February) and on Independence Day (the 4th of
July), every ship of the Navy in commission, not SHIPS PASSING THE
underway, displays full-dress ship. At noon each USS ARIZONA MEMORIAL
saluting ship and each naval station equipped
with a saluting battery fires a national salute of 21 When passing the USS Arizona memorial in
guns. Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, between sunrise and
At noon on Memorial Day (the last Monday in sunset, ships execute passing honors (fig. 8-5). To
May), all saluting ships and all naval stations

109.14
Figure 8-5.-Crew members manning the rail of the aircraft carrier USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63) as the
ship passes the USS Arizona memorial.

8-11
execute passing honors, ships sound “Attention” volleys are fired over the body after it has been
and all persons in view on deck and not in ranks lowered into the boat alongside.
render the hand salute. During burial at sea, the ship is stopped, if
possible, and the ensign is displayed at half-mast
from the beginning of the funeral service until
FUNERALS the body has been committed to the deep.
Further display of the ensign at half-mast maybe
If no chaplain or clergy is available, the com- prescribed, depending on the circumstances, by
manding officer (CO) or the CO’s representative the senior officer present.
conducts the funeral service of a Navy member.
Funeral honors are not rendered between
sunset and sunrise. When circumstances require
Six pallbearers and six body bearers escort the
burial of the dead at night, such funeral services
body of a Navy member during a military funeral.
as are feasible are conducted.
The pallbearers are usually of the same grade or
rating as the deceased. If a sufficient number of
foreign officers of appropriate grade attend the
SHIP COMMISSIONING CEREMONY
funeral, they may be invited to serve as additional
pallbearers.
Although Navy Regulations does not specif-
ically prescribe the ceremony for commissioning
Those attending a military funeral may wear
a Navy ship, custom has established a formal and
the mourning badge at their discretion. Escorts
impressive routine. The crew of the ship being
for a military funeral wear the mourning badge
commissioned assembles and stands in formation,
as prescribed in the U.S. Navy Uniform
headed by the division officer or department
Regulations for their own command.
heads. Other ship’s officers assemble facing the
ceremony, usually behind the executive officer.
Boats taking part in a funeral procession
Distinguished guests and participants in the
display the national ensign at half-mast. If the
ceremony are seated. The first watch and the
deceased was a flag or general officer; or at the
officer of the deck (OOD) take their stations on
time of death, a unit commander; or a com-
the quarterdeck. Crew members station them-
manding officer of a ship, that officer’s flag or
selves at the ready, standing by the national
command pennant, or a commission pennant, is
ensign, union jack, and commission pennant or
draped in mourning. It is then displayed at half-
personal flag halyards.
mast from a staff in the bow of the boat carrying
the body. The officer making the transfer (usually an
officer of flag rank) opens the ceremony by
The casket is covered with the national ensign. reading the orders for delivery of the ship to the
The ensign is placed on the casket so that the U.S. Navy. “Attention” is sounded by the bugle,
union is at the head and over the left shoulder of the national anthem is played, and all flags,
the deceased. The ensign is removed from the including the personal flag of the officer making
casket before it is lowered into the grave or the transfer, are hoisted simultaneously. With this
committed to the deep. act the ship is officially commissioned.
The officer effecting the transfer delivers the
Persons in the naval service salute when the ship to the new commanding officer by saying,
body is carried past them, while the body is “I hereby deliver the USS [name of ship]." The
being lowered into the grave or committed to the new commanding officer reads his or her orders
deep, and during the firing of volleys and the and states, “I hereby assume command of the
sounding of “Taps.” USS [name of ship],” and orders the executive
officer to “set the watch.” The executive officer,
Three rifle volleys are fired after the body has in turn, directs the OOD to set the watch, and the
been lowered into the grave or committed to the ship’s boatswain (or chief boatswain’s mate in
deep, following which “Taps” is sounded by the small ships) pipes the watch. The OOD and the
bugle. In a foreign port, when a ship has not other members of the watch take their assigned
obtained permission to land an armed escort, the watch stations.

8-12
 Customarily the CO delivers a short speech. or Ma’am, I am ready to be relieved.” The
The speech usually touches on the work of the prospective CO steps forward, reads the orders
building yard, the name of the ship, the history of assignment to command, faces the departing
of any previous ships of the same name, and other CO, salutes, and says, “Sir or Ma’am, I relieve
items of interest. you.” The unit commander, if present, is saluted
by the new CO, who says, “Sir or Ma’am, I report
If the state, city, or sponsor intends to make for duty.” The new CO makes a few brief
a presentation of silver or another gift, this remarks, usually confined to wishing the
portion of the ceremony then takes place. A departing CO well and stating that all orders of
benediction by the ship or yard chaplain concludes his or her predecessor remain in effect. After the
the ceremony. exchange-of-command salute, the old commission
pennant is lowered and a new one broken. The
After the ceremony, the officer’s wardroom, old commission pennant is then presented to the
chief petty officer’s (CPO’s) mess, and crew’s departing CO. As with the ship commissioning
mess host a reception or luncheon to entertain the ceremony, the officer’s wardroom, CPO’s mess,
guests. and crew’s mess usually host a reception.

This ceremony provides an impressive and

fitting way for a new ship to enter the U.S.
Navy. SUMMARY

Few occasions stir the emotions of people

CHANGE-OF-COMMAND CEREMONY more than a formal naval ceremony. Most of
these ceremonies instill a great amount of pride
Following U.S. Navy Regulations, a com- in our naval service for all who attend.
manding officer about to be relieved of command
will, at the time of turning over command, call In your naval career you will attend many
all hands to muster. With the crew at quarters, formal ceremonies. No matter what role you fill,
the commanding officer reads the orders of take a moment to look around you to reflect on
detachment and relinquishes command to the the traditions and customs that have been carried
prospective commanding officer, who then on for many years. These traditions and customs
assumes command as directed. will make you proud to be a part of the greatest
Navy in the world.
The change-of-command ceremony, which is
rich in naval tradition, is quite formal. The
turnover of a Navy command is the formal
passing of responsibility, authority, and account- REFERENCES
ability of command from one officer to another.
United States Navy Regulations, 1990, Depart-
With all hands at quarters, with officers and ment of the Navy, Office of the Secretary,
crew in ranks, the senior officer participating in Washington, D.C., 1990.
the ceremony parades and readies for inspection
an appropriate guard. Guests are seated.
Although the main purpose of the ceremony is
the turnover of responsibility from one officer SUGGESTED READING
to another, it provides the outgoing CO the
opportunity to say goodbye to the officers and Mack, W.P., and R.W. Connell, Naval Cere-
enlisted personnel. It also provides an opportunity monies, Customs, and Traditions, 5th ed.,
for the new CO to greet the crew. Normally, the Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Md., 1980.
uniform should be full dress with swords for
participants and service dress for military guests. Mack, W.P., and T.D. Paulsen, The Naval
After the reading of orders, the departing CO 0fficer’s Guide, 9th ed., Naval Institute Press,
turns to the relieving officer and says, “Sir Annapolis, Md., 1983.

8-13
 ENSIGN

THE NAME GIVEN THE NAVY’S JUNIOR-MOST OFFICER DATES TO

MEDEVIAL TIMES. LORDS HONORED THEIR SQUIRES BY ALLOWING
THEM TO CARRY THE ENSIGN (BANNER) INTO BATTLE. LATER
THESE SQUIRES BECAME KNOWN BY THE NAME OF THE BANNER
ITSELF.
IN THE U.S. ARMY THE LOWEST RANKING OFFICER WAS ORIGINALLY
CALLED “ENSIGN” BECAUSE HE, LIKE THE SQUIRE OF OLD, WOULD
ONE DAY LEAD TROOPS INTO BATTLE AND WAS TRAINING TO THAT
END. IT IS STILL THE LOWEST COMMISSIONED RANK IN THE
BRITISH ARMY TODAY.
WHEN THE U.S. NAVY WAS ESTABLISHED, THE AMERICANS CARRIED
ON THE TRADITION AND ADAPTED THE RANK OF ENSIGN AS THE
TITLE FOR ITS JUNIOR COMMISSIONED OFFICERS.

8-14
 CHAPTER 9

UNIFORMS, INSIGNIA, AND AWARDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the differences between flag officers, 8. Identify the various breast insignia worn by
line officers, and staff corps officers. naval personnel.

2. Identify the uniforms and corps devices worn 9. Define the terms associated with naval medals
by naval officers. and awards.

3. Identify the different types of aiguillettes and 10. Determine the order of precedence for
those personnel authorized to wear them. wearing various naval medals and awards and
the manner in which they are worn.
4. Describe the use of mourning badges.
11. Describe various uniform modifications that
5. Identify midshipmen’s and officer candidate’s may be authorized by your prescribing
uniform markings. authority.

6. Describe the differences between rates and 12. Identify the Navy’s facility for ordering
ratings for enlisted personnel. uniforms through the mail.

SIGNIFICANT DATES midshipmen. It also describes the uniforms, rating

insignia, and distinguishing marks of enlisted
5 Sep. 1776 Navy adopts its first uniform. personnel in the Navy. Included are comparisons
of rank, rate, and grade insignia of all service
1 Jul. 1933 Navy Clothing Depot, Brooklyn, members.
N.Y., established.
OFFICER PERSONNEL
Every naval officer should be an authority on
the grades, ratings, and insignia of the Navy. An As in other branches of the armed services,
officer should also be able to recognize and officers of the Navy have precedence according
know the meaning of the insignia worn by other to their grade. Within their grade, officers have
branches of the armed forces. precedence according to their date of appointment
Because Navy ways might be new to you, to that grade. Officers are junior to those with
many questions probably have crossed your mind. a higher grade. Within grades, officers are junior
For example, at times you may have thought, to those with an appointment date prior to theirs.
What is that officer’s rank? What does that Although the word rank is often used inter-
petty officer’s insignia mean? What does that changeably with grade, this is incorrect. Officers
collar device stand for? hold a grade (captain, commander, etc.); they
This chapter describes the types of uniforms outrank a junior, or they rank from the date of
and corps/grade devices of naval officers and appointment to their grade (date of rank).

9-1
 All commissioned officers (including a chief The personal flag of an officer of the line has
[commissioned] warrant officer) hold a com- a blue field with white stars. The personal flag
mission granted by the President and signed by of a staff corps officer has a white field with blue
the Secretary of the Navy. stars.

OFFICERS’ GRADES AND TITLES

Admiral
The following shows how naval officers’
grades correspond to those of the other services: The title of admiral comes from the Arabic
amir-al-bahr, meaning ruler of the sea. The
Army, Marine Corps, Moorish also used the term emir as the title given
Navy Air Force to the senior ranking officer in the Moorish army.
See figure 9-1 for a description of the term
Admiral General admiral. The French and English used the title
long before the discovery of America, but the
Vice admiral Lieutenant general
grade was not established in the U.S. Navy until
Rear admiral, upper half (UH) Major general 1862 (along with commodore).
Rear admiral, lower half (LH) Brigadier general In 1944 Congress established the five-star
Captain Colonel grade of fleet admiral (a comparable grade of
General of the Army). The first officers appointed
Commander Lieutenant colonel to this grade were Admirals William D. Leahy;
Lieutenant commander Major Ernest J. King; Chester W. Nimitz; and William
F. Halsey, Jr. Authority for the grade of fleet
Lieutenant Captain admiral no longer exists (it expired with the death
of Admiral Nimitz in 1966). Its reestablishment
Lieutenant (junior grade) First lieutenant
will require another act of Congress.
Ensign Second lieutenant
Chief warrant officer (W-4) Same as Navy*
Commodore
Chief warrant officer (W-3) Same as Navy*
Chief warrant officer (W-2) Same as Navy* Until 1862 all captains in the United
States Navy commanding or having com-
*The U.S. Air Force does not have a chief warrant officer
rank. manded squadrons of ships were customarily
addressed as commodore, though never com-
missioned as such. Commodore became a
Flag Officer fixed grade in 1862 and then was abandoned
as a grade on the active list in 1899. In
Officers of the grade of rear admiral and 1943 the grade of commodore was reestablished
above are known as flag officers. Flag officers for temporary service in time of war or national
have the privilege of flying a personal flag on the emergency.
ship or station to which they are attached. The
number of stars decorating the flag indicates the
officer’s grade as follows: Line and Staff Corps Officers

Rear admiral (LH) 1 star

Navy officers who are eligible to assume
Rear admiral (UH) 2 stars command of ships (and stations) are designated
unrestricted line officers, being in the line of
Vice admiral 3 stars command. Other officers serve as members of the
several staff corps or as specialists in various
Admiral 4 stars fields.

9-2
 ADMIRAL

AN ADMIRAL IS THE SENIOR RANKING OFFICER IN THE U.S.

NAVY, BUT HIS TITLE COMES FROM THE NAME GIVEN THE
SENIOR RANKING OFFICER IN THE MOORISH ARMY OF MANY
YEARS AGO. A MOORISH CHIEF WAS AN “EMIR” AND THE
CHIEF OF ALL CHIEFS WAS THE “EMIR-AL.” OUR ENGLISH
WORD IS DERIVED DIRECTLY FROM THE MOORISH.

Figure 9-1.-The origin of the term “admiral.”

The staff corps of the Navy consists of the Medical Service*

following nine members, listed in their order of
precedence: Nurse

U.S. Navy Band (Musicians)

Medical*
*The Medical Corps consists of physicians and
Supply surgeons. The Medical Service Corps is made up
of pharmacists, medics, administrative officers,
Chaplain
medical technologists, and so forth.
Civil Engineer
While commissioned officers of the staff corps
Judge Advocate General have the rights and privileges of their grades, they
may only assume command in their own corps.
Dental A medical officer, for example, can command

9-3
 Figure 9-2.—Basic men’s uniforms.

Figure 9-3.—Basic women’s uniforms.

9-4
only a medical activity, such as a hospital or Area coordinators prescribe the uniform of the
dispensary. Staff corps officers should not be confused day to be worn in their respective geographical areas.
with staff officers. Staff officers may be either line or The senior officer present afloat (SOPA) prescribes
staff corps officers assigned to the staffs of high- the uniform of the day for shipboard commands
ranking officers. outside the geographical limits of the area
coordinator. The senior officer present (SOP)
UNIFORMS AND CORPS DEVICES prescribes the uniform of the day for shore stations.
Officers wear certain devices with different
Naval officers wear various uniforms for uniforms to signify their grade. They wear gold sleeve
different occasions, similar to various civilian dress stripes on blue coats; black sleeve stripes on forest
requirements. Figures 9-2 and 9-3 show some of the green coats; and shoulder marks on white coats,
uniforms worn by Navy men and women. Naval white tropical shirts, and blue over-coats. They wear
aviators and chief petty officers (CPOs) serving as metal grade insignia on the shoulder straps of the
pilots or naval flight officers or in aviation support blue raincoat and overcoat and on collars of khaki
billets wear the aviation working green uniform and blue flannel shirts.
(forest green). Other officers and chief petty officers Above the stripes (inboard of them on shoulder
attached to aviation commands may also wear it. U.S. boards), line officers wear a five-pointed gold star;
Navy Uniform Regulations gives full details staff corps officers wear the appropriate corps
regarding uniforms and insignia. device, as shown in figure 9-4. Women

Figure 9-4.—Commissioned officers’ line and staff corps devices.

9-5
 Figure 9-5.—Warrant officers’ specialty insignia.

officers wear cap and sleeve insignia identical to admiral, and four for fleet admiral. As shown in the
those of male officers. figure, the size and number of 1/2-inch and 1/4-inch
The specialty devices for commissioned warrant stripes indicate the grades of other commissioned
officers appear in figure 9-5. officers. All chief warrant officers wear one broken
Figure 9-6 shows the gold stripes that indicate 1/2-inch stripe.
an officer’s grade. Flag officers’ sleeve markings Officers wear grade-indicating devices on the
consist of at least one 2-inch stripe. The addition of collars of khaki and winter blue shirts. Line officers
1/2-inch stripes above the 2-inch band indicates wear the device on both collar tips. Staff corps officers
relative seniority by grade—one stripe for rear wear the grade device on the right collar tip and the
admiral (UH), two for vice admiral, three for full corps device on the left.

9-6
9-7
 Naval officers wear the following grade Personnel wear the rank device on the garrison
devices; they are similar to the grade devices worn cap on the right side near the front and a
by Army, Air Force, and Marine officers: miniature cap device on the left side.

Grade Device
AIGUILLETTES AND
Fleet admiral Five silver stars MOURNING BADGES

Admiral Four silver stars Officers wear aiguillettes when assigned to the
following duties:
Vice admiral Three silver stars
Personal aide to the President
Rear admiral (UH) Two silver stars
Aide to the Vice President
Rear admiral (LH) One silver star
Aide at the White House
Captain Silver spread eagle
Aide to the Secretary of Defense
Commander Silver oak leaf
Aide to the Secretary, Undersecretary, and
Lieutenant commander Gold oak leaf Assistant Secretaries of the Navy

Lieutenant Two silver bars Aide to the Deputy or Assistant Secretaries of

Defense
Lieutenant (jg) One silver bar
Aide to flag officers
Ensign One gold bar
Naval attache
Commissioned warrant Dark blue bar with
officer silver (W-4, W-3) or Aide to top ranking representatives of foreign
gold (W-2) breaks nations visiting the United States

The Navy authorizes officers to wear two Recruit company commander

types of caps: combination and garrison. The
combination cap has a stiff visor and rigid- Recruit company commander assistant
standing front. Officers wear it with a detachable
blue, white, khaki, or aviation green (for aviation U.S. Navy ceremonial guard
personnel) cap cover. The blue is prescribed only
in extremely cold weather. The color of the cap Officers appointed as aides on the staff of a
cover and the uniform must match except for the governor of a state or territory may wear
white cover, which officers may wear with both aiguillettes on official occasions.
blue and white uniforms. They have the option
Aides to the President, to the Vice President,
of wearing the garrison cap, which is either green
at the White House, and to foreign heads of state
or khaki, with a uniform of the same color. When
wear them on the right side; all others wear them
authorized by proper authority, they may wear
on the left. Officers wear them on the outside of
a command ball cap with the working uniform.
overcoats or reefers.
Combination caps worn by officers below the Service aiguillettes consist of loops of
grade of commander have a plain, black visor. gold cord with a blue silk insertion. The
Captains’ and commanders’ visors are partly one worn by an aide to the President has
fretted by gold embroidery; flag officers’ caps no insertion. The aiguillette cord fastens on
bear full visor embroidery. Cap devices consist the shoulder and then loops around the shoulder
of two crossed fouled anchors with a silver shield just under the armpit. The number of loops
surmounted by a spread eagle. Chin straps are indicates the wearer’s duty assignment or status
faced with gold lace. (fig. 9-7).

9-8
 Figure 9-7.—The number of loops in the aiguillettes indicates the status of the wearer.

Dress aiguillettes consist of two single plaits MIDSHIPMEN’S AND OFFICER

of aiguillette cord with two loops. At the end of the CANDIDATE’S UNIFORM MARKINGS
plaits are approximately 3 inches of plain cord to
which two gilt metal pencils are secured. The metal Naval Academy midshipmen are classified as
pencils are approximately 3 1/2 inches long and officers of the line but are officers only in a qualified
mounted with two silver anchors. Aides wear them on sense. They rank just below chief warrant officers.
various uniforms for special or ceremonial occasions They wear the following uniforms: service dress, full
or when prescribed. dress, dinner dress, working, infantry, and tropical.
U.S. Naval Academy midshipmen wear Their service dress and working uniforms are similar
aiguillettes as prescribed by the Commandant of to those of commissioned officers.
Midshipmen; they pin them on the shoulder at the
arm seam. Midshipmen wear a 3/8-inch gold chin strap
Mourning badges, made of black crepe, are 3 and a gold fouled anchor device on the combination
inches wide; officers wear them on the left sleeve of the cap. They wear a miniature cap device on the left side
outer coat, halfway between the shoulder and elbow. of the garrison cap.
Officers wear mourning badges when serving as
honorary pallbearers at military funerals, when Midshipmen wear a pin-on gold anchor on
attending military funerals in an official capacity, and at each lapel of the blue service blouse. Outstanding
other prescribed times. Those attending civilian funerals midshipmen of each class wear a pin-on gold star
may wear mourning badges if desired. above each collar anchor on the full dress and

9-9
 Figure 9-8.—USNA midshipmen class/rank stripes and shoulder marks.

service dress blue uniform. Midshipmen wear class Midshipmen wear gold fouled anchors, an eagle,
insignia (fig. 9-8, view A) as follows: and bar insignia on collar tips’ of blue drill shirts,
khaki shirts, and green utilities as follows:
• First class wear one horizontal gold stripe
around each sleeve.
• Second class wear two diagonal gold stripes • Midshipmen first class of other than officer
on the left sleeve only. The stripes extend rank wear the eagle insignia on both collars.
between the elbow and cuff with the higher
end along the rear seam and the lower end • Midshipmen second class wear the anchor
along the front. insignia on both collars.
• Third class wear one diagonal gold stripe on
the left sleeve.
• Midshipmen third class wear the anchor
• Fourth class wear no sleeve stripes. insignia on the right collar only.

9-10
 Figure 9-9.—Grade stripes for NROTC midshipmen and officer candidates

• Midshipmen fourth class wear no insignia on are rates. In the case of a Boatswain’s Mate second
the collar. class (BM2), for example, Boatswain’s Mate is the
rating and second class is the rate.

• Midshipmen officers wear from one to six

bars representing the ranks of midshipman RATES AND RATINGS
ensign through midshipman captain.
Newcomers without previous naval experience
Instead of sleeve stripes denoting class, normally enter the service as recruits in paygrade E-
midshipmen officers of the first class wear gold 1, the basic paygrade in the armed forces’ rating
stripes to denote grade, as shown in figure 9-8, view structure. From the recruit level they begin to absorb
B. training in a broad occupational group and to
advance in rate or rating when qualified. After
The uniform of NROTC midshipmen is similar to completing recruit training and qualifying for
the uniforms of officers and USNA midshipmen. advancement to the apprentice level (paygrade E-2),
Figure 9-9 shows the variation in grade stripes. they must again qualify for the next higher level
(paygrade E-3). After advancing to seaman (or
Officer candidates wear uniforms similar to fireman, airman, constructionman, hospitalman, or
officer service dress, working blue, and khaki dentalman), they then work to qualify for the lowest
uniforms. Midshipmen first and second class wear petty officer rate of a particular rating, depending on
corps or line insignia on service dress uniforms and their ability and inclinations. At this level E-3s begin
gold anchor devices on each collar tip of the blue and the occupational career they will follow for the
khaki shirts. Midshipmen third and fourth class wear remainder of their naval service. Within most
no insignia. ratings, personnel can choose specialties. For
example, the Gunner’s Mate rating includes
ENLISTED PERSONNEL Gunner’s Mate (Guns) and Gunner’s Mate
(Missiles) specialties. Normally, once advanced to
In the enlisted ranks, a field of work or an that rating, the person specializes only in that
occupation is called a rating; levels within the rating field.

9-11
Figure 9-10.—Insignia of U.S. armed forces enlisted personnel.

9-12
 The following shows the normal path of Figure 9-10 shows a comparison by paygrade
advancement by paygrades: insignia of enlisted personnel of the Navy,
Marines, Army, and Air Force.
General Title Paygrade
Let us trace the advancement of a typical
Seaman recruit E-1 enlisted naval careerist, Tom Gaskins, who
specializes in the occupational field of Gunner’s
Fireman recruit Mate (Guns) (GMG). Gaskins first enlists as
a seaman recruit (SR). After receiving basic
Airman recruit training at a recruit training center, he expresses
interest in deck seamanship. Upon completion
Constructionman recruit of his training, he is transferred to sea
duty. Aboard ship he receives general training
Hospitalman recruit in seamanship and, in time, qualifies for
advancement to seaman apprentice (SA), then to
Dentalman recruit seaman (SN).

Meantime, having demonstrated an interest

Seaman apprentice E-2 in the rating of Gunner’s Mate (Guns) (GMG),
Gaskins receives an assignment to gunnery
Fireman apprentice maintenance duties in the weapons department.
Having shown himself proficient in that field
Airman apprentice of work, Gaskins receives authorization from
his commanding officer to participate in the
Constructionman apprentice Navywide advancement examination for GMG3.
Gaskins can participate in this examination
Hospitalman apprentice only after he has met certain requirements,
such as length of time in service and paygrade.
Dentalman apprentice If successful, he then has recurring opportunities
to compete for successive advancement to GMG2,
GMG1, and GMC. Gaskins retains the specialty
Seaman E-3 rating (Guns) until he advances to chief.
Thereafter, he becomes eligible to compete
Fireman for advancement to senior and master chief
petty officer, the latter being the highest
Airman enlisted rate. He even has a possibility of
being selected as the master chief petty officer
Constructionman of the Navy, a billet held by only one Navy
enlisted person at a time.
Hospitalman
Subject to standard instructions, personnel
Dentalman in the lower paygrades may freely change
laterally from one group to another before
receiving intensive training in one particular
Petty officer third class E-4 field. This allows time for each person to
find his or her choice of work in the Navy.
Petty officer second class E-5 However, once a person has advanced to the
petty officer level, lateral changes are permitted
Petty officer first class E-6 less frequently.

Chief petty officer E-7

UNIFORMS
Senior chief petty officer E-8
The jumper-style uniform, worn since the
Master chief petty officer E-9 turn of the century, is still the prescribed

9-13
 Figure 9-11.—Typical uniforms for enlisted Figure 9-12.—Uniforms for CPOs.
personnel below CPO.

CPOs also wear miniature fouled anchors on each

uniform for male personnel E-1 through E-6 (fig. collar tip of the khaki, working blue, and tropical
9-11). white shirt.

Uniforms for chief petty officers, like The color of a rating badge varies according to
officers, are of the distinctive and traditional the uniform on which it is worn. Enlisted personnel
double-- breasted coat and tie style shown in generally wear scarlet chevrons on blue uniforms and
figure 9-12. The differences between officers’ blue on all others.
and chief petty officers’ uniforms are in
identifying insignia. The service stripes (hashmarks) on the left
sleeve below the rating badge identify the number of
Chief petty officers wear a visor cap similar to years an enlisted person has served in the armed
the junior officer type. The chin strap is black forces. CPOs wear 7-inch-long diagonal service
leather, and the insignia is a gold fouled anchor on stripes; E-6 and below wear 5-inch-long diagonal
which are superimposed the silver letters USN. The stripes. Each stripe represents 4 years of service in
number of stars atop the anchor reflects the rate of a the Navy, Marine Corps, Coast Guard, Army, Air
senior or master chief petty officer: one star for senior Force, or Naval Reserve. All enlisted personnel below
and two for master (with a third star for the master CPO wear red hashmarks on blue uniforms and blue
chief petty officer of the Navy). on others. Personnel who have completed 12 years of
active service (broken or unbroken) in the Navy and
Petty officers wear, midway between shoulder Naval Reserve with good conduct wear gold chevrons
and elbow of the left sleeve, a rating badge. The and hashmarks with the blue and white uniforms.
badge consists of a perched eagle, the specialty
mark of their rating (see figs. 9-13 and 9-14), and Personnel below paygrade E-4 wear 3-inch-
chevrons, indicating the rate. Senior and master long rectangular group-rate marks on the left
chief petty officers wear stars above the eagle of sleeve in place of the PO rating badge (fig. 9-13).
the rating badge to indicate their rate, as shown in The color of the stripes, alone or in combination
figure 9-10. In addition to the rating badge, with a specialty or striker’s mark, indicates the

9-14
Figure 9-13.—Enlisted rate insignia.

9-15
Figure 9-14.—Navy enlisted rating insignia.

9-16
Figure 9-14.—Navy enlisted rating insignia—Continued.

9-17
general occupational field to which a nonrated person of these insignia (fig. 9-16) in the following
belongs, as follows: paragraphs.
Persons below flag rank who have, or had,
Seaman White stripes on blue uniforms command of commissioned ships or aviation
Hospitalman and navy blue stripes on squadrons at sea wear the Command at Sea
Dentalman white uniforms insignia. Officers currently in command wear
the insignia on the right breast. Those not
Fireman Red presently in command, but who have held
command, wear it on the left breast below any
Airman Emerald green ribbons, medals, or other insignia.
Officers below flag rank who have, or had,
Constructionman Light blue command ashore or served as a project manager
wear the Command Ashore/Project Manager
Graduates of apprenticeship training schools insignia. They wear this insignia in the same
wear the appropriate device indicating the broad manner as that prescribed for the Command at
occupational field they are entering. As shown in Sea insignia.
figure 9-15, they wear the airman insignia for Personnel currently serving, or having
aviation ratings; fireman, for engineering ratings; previously served, as an officer in charge of
and seaman, for deck, weapons, and other related small craft wear the Small Craft insignia. They
fields. wear this insignia in the same manner as that
After demonstrating they have met the prescribed for the Command at Sea insignia.
requirements to enter into a rating, either through Personnel wear the insignia described in the
formal schooling or on-the-job training, graduates following paragraphs on the left breast above
may receive authorization from their commanding any ribbons, medals, or insignia:
officers to wear the rating insignia specialty mark or
designated striker’s mark. This device is the same Personnel who have qualified in all phases
specialty mark petty officers wear on their rating of surface warfare wear the Surface Warfare
hedge, shown earlier in figure 9-14. The striker’s insignia.
mark replaces the apprenticeship device. Personnel who have qualified to serve in
submarines wear the Submarine insignia. In
BREAST INSIGNIA addition to the basic insignia, personnel serving
AND IDENTIFICATION BADGES as submarine medical, engineering, and supply
officers wear another submarine insignia that
The breast insignia indicates special qualifica- identifies their specialty. Those who successfully
tions or designations earned. We describe some take part in combat patrols also wear an
additional submarine insignia.
Personnel qualified to serve in flight wear
different Aviation insignia that indicate their
specialty. Aviators (pilots), flight officers, flight
surgeons, flight nurses, aircrewman, and combat
aircrewmen each wear a different Aviation
insignia that identifies their specialty.
Personnel qualified in underwater and
beach reconnaissance, demolition, and special
warfare tactics wear Special Warfare insignia.
They are usually associated with underwater
demolition or Sea-Air-Land (SEAL) team
detachments.
Personnel qualified in the identification and
safe disposal of ordnance wear Explosive
Ordnance Disposal insignia. Those who wear
this insignia have the ability to identify and
dispose of the many different types of ordnance
produced by the United States, our allies, and
our enemies.
Figure 9-15.—Apprenticeship insignia. Personnel who successfully complete a patrol on
a fleet ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) wear

9-18
 Figure 9-16.—Breast insignia.

SSBN Deterrent Patrol insignia. Gold stars mounted Officers wear gold insignia; enlisted personnel wear
on the scroll indicate each successful patrol silver.
subsequent to that for which the original insignia was
awarded. In addition to the foregoing, naval astro-
Personnel qualified in various classes of nauts, aerospace physiologists/experimental
diving wear the Diver insignia. psychologists, and diving officers wear special
Figure 9-16 shows the identification badges insignia. Those presently or previously engaged in
worn by command, force, or fleet master chiefs and presidential service or assigned to certain staffs, such
command career counselors. as the organization of the Joint Chiefs of Staff or the
The insignia worn by officers and enlisted staff of the Secretary of Defense, display
personnel are identical with the exception of color. identification badges.

9-19
 MEDALS AND AWARDS A medal is an award presented to an individual
for performance of certain duties, acts, or
According to legend, Alexander the Great services. It consists of a suspension ribbon, made
began the custom of awarding medals for of distinctive colors, from which a medallion
heroism on the battlefield more than 2,000 hangs.
years ago. Thus, a historic precedent exists
for medals worn by military personnel the world A miniature medal is a replica of a large
over. The bewildering array of ribbons on the medal, made to a scale one-half of the original
left breast of the dress uniform of veterans size.
often seems quite puzzling to the newcomer in
the Navy. These distinctive ribbons represent A badge is an award for some special
medals that are too cumbersome to be worn proficiency apart from the duties of the
at all times. Personnel wear them in horizontal individual’s grade or rate. It consists of a
rows of three each, arranged in order of medallion hung from a bar or from bars.
precedence from the center of the body to
the left shoulder and from top row to bottom A ribbon or ribbon bar consists of a portion
row. of the suspension ribbon of a medal and is worn
instead of the medal. The dimensions of all
Fundamentally, the military presents decora- ribbons are 1 3/8 inches by 3/8 inch.
tions and awards for the purpose of publicly
recognizing and rewarding its personnel for the An attachment is any appurtenance, such as
following acts or services: a star, clasp, or device, worn on the suspension
ribbon of a medal or on the ribbon (ribbon bar).
Extraordinary performance of duty

Exceptionally meritorious service ORDER OF PRECEDENCE

Conspicuously outstanding acts of heroism Navy personnel wear awards in a set

precedence according to the following categories:
Other acts or services beyond that normally
expected 1. Military decorations
2. Unit awards
Acts or services that distinguish the individual 3. Nonmilitary decorations
or unit among those performing similar acts 4. Campaign and service awards
or services 5. Foreign decorations, non-U.S. awards,
foreign unit awards, and foreign service
awards
TYPES OF MEDALS AND AWARDS 6. Marksmanship awards
7. Awards of military societies and other
An award is an all-inclusive term covering any organizations
decoration, medal, badge, ribbon, or an attach-
ment thereof bestowed on an individual.
Military Decorations
A unit award is an award made to an operating
unit and worn only by members of that unit who The following list contains the military decora-
participated in the cited action. tions, in their order of precedence, authorized for
wear on the naval uniform:
A service award is an award made to those
persons who have participated in designated wars, Medal of Honor
campaigns, expeditions, and so forth, or who have
fulfilled, in a creditable manner, specified service Navy Cross
requirements.
Defense Distinguished Service Medal*
A decoration is an award bestowed for a
specific act of gallantry or meritorious service. Distinguished Service Medal

9-20
 Silver Star Medal Campaign and Service Awards

Defense Superior Service Medal* The following list contains some of the
Legion of Merit campaign and service awards, in their order of
precedence, authorized for wear on the naval
Distinguished Flying Cross uniform after all nonmilitary decorations:

Navy and Marine Corps Medal Prisoner of War (POW) Medal

Bronze Star Medal
Good Conduct Medal
Purple Heart
Naval Reserve Meritorious Service Medal
Defense Meritorious Service Medal*
Fleet Marine Force Ribbon
Meritorious Service Medal
China Service Medal
Air Medal

Joint Service Commendation Medal* U.S. Antarctic Expedition Medal

Navy Achievement Medal Navy Occupation Service Medal

Combat Action Ribbon Medal for Humane Action
*Not a Navy decoration—listed for precedence
National Defense Service Medal
only.
Korean Service Medal
Unit Awards
Antarctica Service Medal
The following list contains the unit awards,
in their order of precedence, authorized for wear Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal
after all military decorations:
Vietnam Service Medal
Presidential Unit Citation
Humanitarian Service Medal
Joint Meritorious Unit Award
Sea Service Deployment Ribbon
Navy Unit Commendation
Naval Arctic Service Ribbon
Meritorious Unit Commendation
Naval Reserve Sea Service Ribbon
Navy E Ribbon
Navy and Marine Corps Overseas Service
Nonmilitary Decorations Ribbon
The following list contains certain nonmilitary Navy Recruiting Service Ribbon
decorations, but not necessarily in their order of
precedence, authorized for wear on the naval Armed Forces Reserve Medal
uniform after all unit awards. (We only list those
which personnel may earn while a member of the Naval Reserve Medal
naval service. See Uniform Regulations,
paragraph 10307, for a complete listing.) Merchant Marine Vietnam Service Bar

Presidential Medal of Freedom Foreign Decorations and

Non-U.S. Service Awards
Gold Lifesaving Medal
Personnel who have been specifically authorized
NASA Distinguished Service Medal
to accept military decorations from foreign govern-
National Sciences Medal ments (see SECNAVINST 1650.1E) may wear

9-21
them in the order of their receipt after all U.S. The following non-U.S. service awards take
service awards. If you possess two or more awards precedence immediately after foreign unit awards.
from the same country, the rules of the country The precedence of non-U.S. service awards for
concerned determine the order of precedence of which naval personnel are eligible to qualify is as
those particular awards. follows:
U.S. military personnel who received foreign
United Nations Service Medal
awards for service in Vietnam may wear them in
the following order of precedence: United Nations Medal

National Order of Vietnam Inter-American Defense Board Medal/Ribbon

Foreign service awards take precedence
Military Merit Medal
immediately after non-U.S. service awards.
Army Distinguished Service Order
MARKSMANSHIP AWARDS
Air Force Distinguished Service Order
The following list contains the only marks-
Navy Distinguished Service Order manship badges, in their order of precedence,
authorized for wear on the naval uniform:
Army Meritorious Service Medal
U.S. Distinguished International Shooter
Air Force Meritorious Service Medal Badge
Navy Meritorious Service Medal Distinguished Marksman Badge

Special Service Medal Distinguished Pistol Shot Badge

National Trophy Match Rifleman Excellence
Gallantry Cross
in Competition Badge (Gold)
Air Gallantry Cross National Trophy Match Pistol Shot Excellence
in Competition Badge (Gold)
Hazardous Service Medal
Interservice Rifle Excellence in Competition
Lifesaving Medal Badge (Gold)
Armed Forces Honor Medal Interservice Pistol Shot Excellence in Competi-
tion Badge (Gold)
Staff Service Medal
Navy Rifleman Excellence in Competition
Technical Service Medal Badge (Gold)
Training Service Medal Fleet Rifleman Excellence in Competition
Badge (Gold)
Civil Actions Medal
Fleet Pistol Shot Excellence in Competition
The following foreign unit awards, listed in Badge (Gold)
their order of precedence, do not require
(National, Interservice, Navy and Fleet Badges
individual legislative authorization. Wear them
in silver and bronze continue in the above
immediately after all foreign personal decorations:
order with silver taking precedence over
Philippine Republic Presidential Unit Citation bronze)

Korean Presidential Unit Citation Expert Rifleman Medal

Expert Pistol Shot Medal
Vietnam Presidential Unit Citation
Navy Rifle Marksmanship Ribbon (Expert,
Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Sharpshooter,
Citation (Civil Actions Medal)* Marksman)
*Wear the initial award (ribbon with frame President’s Hundred Award—Rifle (enlisted
and palm) only. personnel only)

9-22
AWARDS OF MILITARY SOCIETIES
AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS

Th e follow in g or g an ization s issu e

aw ar ds au th or ized for w ear on th e n av al
u n ifor m. Wear medals an d r ibbon s, in th e
or der ear n ed, after all U. S. ser v ic e aw ar ds.
Wear badg es, in th e or der ear n ed, after
mar ksman sh ip badg es.

Ar my an d Nav y Un ion of th e Un ited

States

Amer ic an Leg ion Citizen sh ip an d

Sc h olar sh ip M edal

Veter an s of For eig n War s or oth er

offic ially r ec og n ized

Veter an s’ O r g an ization s

M edic al Sc ien tific Soc ieties

Nav al Reser v e Assoc iation

Th e Reser v e O ffic er s Assoc iation (RO A)

Wear medals, r ibbon s, an d badg es

adopted by th ese soc ieties on ly w h ile
ac tu ally atten din g meetin g s or c on v en tion s
or w h ile par tic ipatin g in par ades or oth er
c er emon ies as a member of th ese
or g an ization s.

MANNER OF WEARI NG AWARDS

Y ou mu st w ear medals, r ibbon s, an d

attac h men ts on appr opr iate u n ifor ms an d in
th e man n er ex plain ed in th e follow in g
par ag r aph s.

La rg e Meda l s

Wear fu ll-size medals on fu ll dr ess

u n ifor ms. Wear th e h oldin g bar of th e low est
r ow of medals appr ox imately 1/ 4 in c h abov e
th e left br east poc ket an d c lear of th e lapel.
En su r e th e bottoms of th e medals dr ess in a
h or izon tal lin e, as sh ow n in fig u r e 9-17.
Wh en w ear in g mor e th an on e r ow , ar r an g e Figure 9-17.—Proper display of large medals.
medals so th at n o r ow c on tain s a lesser
n u mber th an th e r ow abov e it. As far as
possible, ex c ept for th e top r ow , w ear th e
same n u mber of medals in all r ow s

9-23
 Number of Medals Per Row

Number of Medals Prescribed Number Top 2d 3d 4th

to be worn of Rows Row Row Row Row

1-5 1 row only 1-5

6 2 3 3

7 2 3 4

8 2 4 4

9 2 4 5

10 2 5 5

11 3 3 4 4

12 3 4 4 4

13 3 4 4 5

14 3 4 5 5

15 3 5 5 5

16 4 4 4 4 4
and so on

Figure 9-18.-Manner of wearing medals.

(as in fig. 9-18), three medals side by side, or up to notch (fig. 9-19) and centered on the lapel. If the bar
five medals overlapping. Overlap medals equally with exceeds a length of 2 3/4 inches, extend the bar over
the right, or inboard, medal showing in full. Mount the outboard edge of the lapel. When worn on a male
upper rows of medals so as to cover the suspension officer’s blue or white coat, center the lowest bar
ribbons of the medals below. Arrange awards by immediately above the left breast pocket. On a female
seniority from top down and from inboard to officer’s uniform, center the lowest bar on the left
outboard. You may wear all medals; but if you pocket flap of
possess five or more, wear a minimum of five. Wear
the Medal of Honor, worn when either large or
miniature medals are prescribed, from a suspension
ribbon placed around the neck.

Miniature Medals

Wear miniature medals with formal dress and

dinner dress uniforms. On male formal and dinner
Figure 9-19.-Proper display of miniature
dress jackets, position the holding bar of the lowest
medals.
row of medals on the left lapel, 3 inches below the

9-24
the blue or white service coat. On other uniforms, LETTER DEVICES. —Wear metal letter
attach the bar in the same relative position. devices, when authorized, centered on the
Wear up to five miniatures on one holding appropriate ribbon.
bar. When wearing more than five, arrange in two
or more rows as shown in figure 9-18. Individuals awarded the Legion of Merit,
Bronze Star Medal, Joint Service Commendation
Medal, Navy Achievement Medal, or the
Service Ribbons Commendation Medal for acts or services
involving direct participation in combat opera-
Wear service ribbons in their order of tions may be authorized to wear a bronze
precedence (from top down and from inboard to letter V.
outboard) with all service dress uniforms. Allow
no intervals between ribbons or rows of ribbons. Personnel who qualify may wear the bronze
Do not impregnate with preservatives that change S on the medal, signifying their qualification as
their appearance or wear with transparent covers. a sharpshooter, or the bronze E, signifying their
On uniforms, center the lower edge of the expertise, on their Pistol or Rifle Marksmanship
bottom row of ribbons approximately 1/4 inch medals and ribbons, as appropriate. They wear
above the left breast pocket. a silver E upon qualifying for the third E.
Wear three ribbons or less in a single
horizontal row. When authorized to wear three CLASPS. —Wear clasps, when authorized,
or more ribbons, wear them in rows of three only on suspension ribbons of large medals.
each. If not in multiples of three, place the However, you may display stars or other devices
lesser number in the uppermost row and center worn instead of clasps on the suspension ribbons
over the row beneath. If you possess three or of miniature medals and on ribbon bars.
more, wear a minimum of three; you may wear
all if desired.
Miscellaneous Devices

Attachments The following miscellaneous devices are also

authorized for wear on the naval uniform:
A variety of stars, devices, and clasps are
authorized for wear on the suspension ribbons of Fleet Marine Force Combat Operations
medals and service ribbons. Insignia: Beginning with World War II, Navy
personnel who have been attached to Fleet Marine
STARS. —Stars are made of gold, bronze, or Force units in active combat with an armed enemy
silver. You wear them as follows: may wear a bronze miniature Marine Corps
emblem with the appropriate World War II Area
Wear a gold star instead of a second or Campaign Medal, Korean Service Ribbon, Armed
subsequent award of a military decoration, except Forces Expeditionary Medal, and Vietnam Service
for the air medal. Medal.
Wear a 3/16-inch bronze star for the second,
third, and fourth award of a campaign or service Hour Glass: Naval Reserve personnel may
medal. wear this device instead of a second or subsequent
Wear a silver star instead of five gold or Armed Forces Reserve Medal for each succeeding
bronze stars, except for the air medal. 10 years of service. (The device is a representation
Center a single star on the ribbon. If wearing of an hourglass superimposed with the reman
more than one star, place them in a horizontal numeral X.)
line close to and symmetrically about the center
of the ribbon. Locate the silver star as near the Antarctica Wintered Over Disk: This device
center of the ribbon as symmetry permits. When consists of a bronze disk inscribed with an outline
wearing a star in addition to a silver star or letter of the Antarctic Continent. You may wear it on
device, wear on your right. Wear a second star the suspension ribbons of the miniature Antarctica
to your left, and so on. When medals overlap, Service Medal and on the corresponding ribbon
you may wear all stars to your left. Place stars bar (wear a Wintered Over clasp with the large
on the ribbon with two rays pointing down. medal).

9-25
 Strike/Flight Numerals: Personnel receiving • MEN’S NECKTIE
Strike/Flight awards of the Air Medal wear a
bronze numeral on the medal indicating the total —The aviation green working uniforms
number of awards of this type received after without the black, four-in-hand necktie
9 April 1962. when the work situation or industrial
safety considerations make wearing the
tie impractical or unsafe
AUTHORIZED UNIFORM
MODIFICATIONS • NAME TAGS

If authorized by your local prescribing —A name tag when authorized by the

authority, you may adopt certain uniform commander or commanding officer
modifications. You may wear the following
accessories and clothing: • SCARFS

• CAP COVERS —A blue scarf at sea if climatic conditions

warrant
—Vinyl cap covers
—A plastic rain cover over the combina- —A white scarf with overcoats, raincoats,
tion cap with the lightweight raincoat reefers, or pea coats
• COLLAR INSIGNIA
• LONG-SLEEVE WORKING KHAKI
—Collar devices with the aviation green SHIRTS
working uniform when wearing a coat
—Long-sleeve working khaki shirts when
—Collar devices on the windbreaker and aboard ship or as otherwise deemed
the raincoat if you are an officer appropriate by your prescribing authority
• CUFF LINKS
—Mother-of-pearl cuff links with the
• MEN’S WHITE NONEPAULETTED
SHIRT
formal dress uniform
—Gold cuff links with the dinner dress —The white nonepauletted shirt instead of
uniform the formal white shirt (turn-down collar)
with the dinner dress blue uniform
• CUMMERBUND
—Wraparound or front-only style cummer-
• WOMEN’S WHITE LONG-SLEEVE
SHIRT
bunds with dinner dress jacket uniforms
(You must wear the wraparound style —The white long-sleeve shirt with the
with tropical dinner dress blue service dress blue uniform
uniforms.)
• EARRINGS (Authorized for women only) • SHOES

— Small single-pearl earrings with dinner —Gymnasium shoes with working khaki
dress or formal uniforms (Wear only or dungaree uniforms when authorized
one earring in each ear with all (They may be prescribed for boat
uniforms.) crews. )
• GLOVES (Carry gloves with the fingers —Safety shoes with any working uniform
forward when not wearing them)
—White gloves as prescribed depending on • SWEATER
the uniform composition for men and
—A blue cardigan sweater with the service
women
dress blue, winter blue, winter working
—Lined black gloves when wearing the blue, summer khaki, working khaki,
overcoat, reefer, raincoat, or bluejacket and summer white uniforms in working
with indicated uniforms in cold weather spaces

9-26
 • MEN’S TIE CLASP/TIE TACK SUMMARY

—A tie clasp or tie tack with any uniform The uniform promotes a feeling of unity and
requiring the wear of a four-in-hand contributes smartness to the appearance of an
necktie (When wearing the uniform individual or a group. The insignia worn upon the
coat, ensure the tie tack or clasp is not uniform can indicate the corps, grade, rate, and
visible. The use of insignia and devices specialty, as well as other distinguishing features,
on tie tacks should be limited to those such as awards, campaign ribbons, and service
to which you have some proprietary stripes to which the wearer is entitled.
entitlement.)
The following excerpt, taken from an address
You may also adopt the following uniform delivered to a graduating group of midshipmen,
modifications if authorized by your local prescrib- truly expresses the meaning of the uniform:
ing authority:
Have an exalted pride in the uniform you wear
• COATS and all that it represents. Wear it correctly;
wear it proudly. Salute it with respect when
—Remove the service dress blue coat in you meet it; behave in it in a seemly manner;
working spaces protect it when it is offended or in danger. It
represents the fleet, the Nation, your home,
• UMBRELLA and your family. It is a symbol of all that is
dear to you and of all that men are willing to
—Carry a plain, black umbrella with any die for.
uniform
The United States Navy has had a basic
Women must abide by the following skirt- uniform policy for many years. The purpose of
length regulations: the uniform policy is to ensure that naval
personnel have attractive, distinctive, and
• WOMEN’S SKIRT LENGTH practical uniforms.

—Wear skirts no longer than 1 1/2 inches To clarify any questions that may arise
below the crease of the back of the knee concerning uniforms, consult U.S. Navy Uniform
and no higher than 1 1/2 inches above Regulations (NAVPERS 15665G), which provides
the crease. the basic naval uniform policy.

—Wear floor-length formal dress skirts

REFERENCES
MAIL-ORDER UNIFORMS
Basic Military Requirements, NAVEDTRA 12043,
The following mail-order facilities provide Naval Education and Training Program
uniform items: Management Support Activity, Pensacola,
Fla., 1992.
Uniform Support Center
P.O. Box 15065 U.S. Navy Uniform Regulations, NAVPERS
Norfolk, VA 23521-0065 15665G, Bureau of Naval Personnel, Wash-
ington, D.C., 1987.
Naval Uniform Made-to-Measure Program
Naval Resale and Services Support Office
Fort Wadsworth
Staten Island, NY 10305-5097 SUGGESTED READING

For further ordering information, refer to Bearden, Bill, and Bill Wedertz, The Bluejacket’s
U.S. Navy Uniform Regulations, NAVPERS Manual, 20th ed., United States Naval
15665G, page XIV. Institute Press, Annapolis, Md., 1978.

9-27
 PEA COAT

SAILORS WHO HAVE TO ENDURE PEA-SOUP WEATHER OFTEN

DON THEIR PEA COATS BUT THE COAT’S NAME ISN’T
DERIVED FROM THE WEATHER.
THE HEAVY TOP COAT WORN IN COLD, MISERABLE WEATHER
BY SEAFARING MEN WAS ONCE TAILORED FROM PILOT
CLOTH - A HEAVY, COARSE, STOUT KIND OF TWILLED
BLUE CLOTH WITH THE NAP ON ONE SIDE. THE CLOTH
WAS SOMETIMES CALLED P-CLOTH FOR THE INITIAL LETTER
OF THE WORD AND THE GARMENT MADE FROM IT WAS CALLED
A P-JACKET - LATER A PEA COAT. THE TERM HAS BEEN
USED SINCE 1723 TO DENOTE COATS MADE FROM THAT
CLOTH.

9-28
 CHAPTER 10

NAVAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe the historical foundation of the U.S. 6. Identify the purpose and curriculum of Of-
Naval Academy. ficer Candidate School.

2. Describe the appointment process to the Naval 7. Identify the purpose and curriculum of Aviation
Academy. Officer Candidate School.

3. Identify the eligibility criteria for appointment 8. Identify the purpose and curriculum of the
to the Naval Academy. Naval Postgraduate School.

4. Identify the eligibility requirements for entering 9. List the degrees offered by the Uniformed
the NROTC Program. Services University of the Health Sciences.

5. Describe the NROTC organization on the 10. Identify the mission and historical founda-
college campus. tion of the Naval War College.

Career Navy officers who, after being com- You may have the opportunity to attend some of
missioned, feel that their academic life is over are these schools during your naval career.
sadly mistaken. Formal education is a recurring
part of their entire career. The use officers
make of it determines to a great measure their UNITED STATES
success. NAVAL ACADEMY
The Navy places importance on formal officer
education for two primary reasons. First, the SIGNIFICANT DATES
overall mission of the Navy and the personnel
needed to accomplish this mission have increased 10 Dec. 1815 Navy establishes school for its
tremendously in scope and complexity. Therefore, officers.
the Navy must thoroughly train the people
primarily responsible for this mission. The 10 Oct. 1845 The Naval School opens at An-
second—and equally important—reason is that napolis, Maryland (now the
every career officer’s eventual aim is to command. Naval Academy).
Succession to command presumes a sound 11 Jul. 1846 First Naval Academy graduate,
knowledge of the operations of the unit to be Richmond Aulick, receives com-
commanded. mission as a passed midshipman.
In this chapter we will look at some of the
educational institutions used to train naval 5 Feb. 1852 Navy dedicates chapel built at
officers. We will discuss both commissioning Annapolis, Maryland; first to be
source schools and continuing education schools built on Navy property.

10-1
 5 May 1861 Naval Academy transfers to Rowdy Row, the Gas House, Brandywine
Newport, Rhode Island; returns Cottage, and the Abbey. The names of the
to Annapolis, Maryland, on 9 buildings reflected the principal characteristics of
August 1865. their residents or, in the case of Brandywine
Cottage, the ship from which the residents came.
11 Sep. 1872 James Henry Conyers, first black The subjects studied included gunnery, naval
midshipman, enters Naval tactics, engineering, chemistry, mathematics,
Academy. astronomy, French, and English.
Some of the students had come to the new
26 Jun. 1884 Congress authorizes commission- school without any previous sea duty and were
ing of Naval Academy graduates designated “acting midshipmen.” Most students,
as ensigns. however, had appointments as midshipmen and
had several years of sea duty. (The acting
29 Nov. 1890 Navy beats Army 24-0 in first midshipmen were more comparable to today’s
Army-Navy football game. midshipmen than the latter.)
During the first few years, many of the
2 Apr. 1898 Naval Academy adopts coat of midshipmen had difficulty taking their studies or
arms. the school discipline seriously. This difficulty
probably resulted because of their previous sea
3 Jun. 1949 The Naval Academy graduates its duty experience, their ages (ranging up to 27
first black, John Wesley Brown. years), and their being used to unrestricted liberty
when ashore. This is reflected by the following
28 May 1980 Naval Academy graduates its reportedly true stories.
first women officers. One incident concerned the midshipmen living
at the Abbey, who supposedly led exemplary lives.
During the first 50 years of the United States One night, however, the officer of the day found
Navy’s existence, it had no organized, efficient the Abbey deserted. Upon investigation the
Navywide system for training its prospective officer discovered a tunnel that went under the
officers. Midshipmen received most of their yard wall immediately adjacent to and toward
training aboard ship under the ship’s chaplain. Annapolis. The next day the school ended the use
They received some training, however, from time of the Abbey as a midshipmen’s residence.
to time at various schools ashore. On another occasion, the midshipmen were
Despite growing evidence of the need for a reported to have hung Professor Henry H.
naval academy, efforts to establish it were Lockwood in effigy from the Academy flagstaff
rebuffed until 1845. At that time the Honorable one St. Patrick’s Day. For this, the ringleaders
George Bancroft, distinguished historian and were ordered to appear before a court-martial
educator, became Secretary of the Navy in board for insulting a superior officer. They
President Polk’s cabinet. With the establishment claimed in defense the professor was not
of a naval academy in mind, Secretary Bancroft superior to students since he was not an officer.
made several adroit moves, including obtaining (Congress eventually remedied this situation by
Fort Severn from the War Department. Fort raising instructors to the equivalent ranks of
Severn occupied 10 acres on a neck of land called officers.)
Windmill Point at Annapolis. There, in late 1845, Another story about this period deals with the
he set up a naval school for midshipmen. The linguistic prowess shown by one Midshipman
school was officially designated as the United Nelson during the annual examinations. Professor
States Naval Academy some 5 years later. Arsene Girault, instructor in French, had patiently
Under Commander Franklin Buchanan, its tried to teach Nelson to speak something
first superintendent, the new school got under way resembling that language. When time for the
on 10 October 1845. The original seven-member exam arrived, however, Nelson knew he could do
faculty consisted of four officers and three nothing of the kind. Therefore, he memorized a
civilians. series of phrases out of the French textbook.
The school opened with a student body of During the examination, with half a dozen
60, whose members were divided into a junior commodores present, the Professor, speaking in
and senior class. They were housed in several French, asked, “Mr. Nelson, what is your native
small buildings, popularly named Apollo Row, state?”

10-2
 Nelson, not understanding a word of the Attrition during the early years was heavy.
question, replied with one of his memorized Only 269 midshipmen of the first 1,209 completed
phrases, “Thank You, I am very well. ” the course of study. George Dewey entered with
The startled Professor glared at him and a class of 75; after their annual examination in
continued, “What course have you just finished?” June 1855, only 38 were retained. Of these, the
‘‘I am 24 years of age,” replied Nelson. future hero of Manila Bay ranked 35th! At
One of the commodores present during the graduation, however, he ranked fifth in his class
examination was Commodore Matthew C. Perry, of 15.
who did not understand a word of French. As the The 1850s also saw two other firsts at the
situation reached an impasse, Commodore Perry Academy. Franklin Pierce became the first
arose from his seat and congratulated Girault on President of the United States to visit the
his success in teaching the midshipman to speak Academy when he attended a naval ball therein
French with such fluency and accuracy. 1856. Two years later the school’s first literary
Initially the course of study at the Academy society was formed. It honored James Lawrence,
took 5 years. Of these, midshipmen spent only whose words, "Don’t give up the ship!" adorn
the first and last at Annapolis; they spent the Memorial Hall.
intervening 3 years at sea. During 1850 and 1851 The coming of the Civil War brought the
the school was reorganized as the U.S. Naval young school trying years in 1860 and 1861. As
Academy, and the course of study was changed states seceded from the Union, the tension
to 4 consecutive years. Summer practice cruises mounted. Finally, one day in April 1861, all hands
replaced the omitted sea service. Thus, today’s were ordered to muster aboard the Constitution,
basic 4-year curriculum first appeared at the Naval the school ship. Lieutenant Christopher R. P.
Academy over 100 years ago, long before it Rogers, commandant of midshipmen, addressed
became general practice in American under- the group and ordered all those who desired to
graduate education. resign to fall out of ranks. Many did and, amid
With the reorganization that changed the sad farewells, went off to join the Confederacy.
Naval School to the Naval Academy, the school’s Officers at the Academy also went their
executive officer became the commandant of respective ways, including the brothers William
midshipmen. The school also adopted a naval and Foxhall Parker. William had argued they
uniform for acting midshipmen and inaugurated should remain with the Union because of
the marking scale of 4.0. education and Navy ties; Foxhall argued for
The reorganization also provided that the the Confederacy because of family and state
holder of a certificate of graduation was entitled connections. They separated after their discussion;
to a midshipman’s warrant. After 2 years of sea but each had been so persuasive that, unknown
duty, the midshipman could return for an to each other, William resigned and Foxhall
examination for lieutenant. Only Naval Academy remained with the Union.
graduates were to receive the warrants—the first The rapidly expanding Union Navy urgently
step toward regulating the quality and quantity needed junior officers. Therefore, the first,
of officers in the fleet. second, and third class midshipmen who remained
In 1851 the method of appointing midshipmen at the Academy were sent off to war. Shortly there-
in proportion to the members of the House of after the fourth class, aboard the Constitution,
Representatives was established. In 1852 the sailed for Newport, Rhode Island, which became
proviso requiring an Academy aspirant to receive the home of the Academy for the duration of the
the recommendation of his Congressman was War.
added. Organized athletics were introduced to the
In 1855 the original “fourth class” entered the Academy during the post-Civil War period.
academy. Almost simultaneously the "my plebe" In 1867 the Academy formed class baseball
tradition developed. With this tradition the new teams and held the first of a series of annual
third classmen selected particular members of the Thanksgiving athletic carnivals. The athletic
incoming class over whom they kept a watchful program included track and field competition,
eye. This eventually became a first classman baseball, rowing, and gymnastics. In 1870 the
privilege. Until the advent of the squad system Academy began competing against outside crews
in 1965, the closest relationship at the Naval in rowing. Football was being played at the
Academy was between the first classmen and the Academy by 1880; and in 1882 the school’s foot-
plebes. ball team played its first outside game, defeating

10-3
the Clifton Football Club of Baltimore 8-0. Eight By this time, the original 10-acre yard had
years later came the first football game between been expanded greatly through various
Annapolis and West Point, with the Navy winning acquisitions (fig. 10-1). The mansion and gardens
24-0. of the Governor of Maryland were purchased in
The Naval Academy Athletic Association was 1866, and 10 acres were purchased from St. John’s
founded in 1892, and in 1894 Walter B. Izard of College a year later. In 1868 the 65 acres now
the Academy set a new world record for the 50- occupied by the Naval Academy cemetery and the
yard swim. naval hospital were purchased. More land was
Following the Spanish-American War, an needed, however, and most of this was provided by
extensive building program began. Under this the mud dredged out of Chesapeake Bay.
program, nearly all the existing buildings at the During the early 1900s, a number of buildings
Academy were eventually replaced with the were completed under the new plan. Dahlgren
French Renaissance-style buildings that stand Hall and MacDonough Hall were completed in
today. The first steps toward this program began 1903; Isherwood Hall and the officer’s club in
in 1895 when the Academy’s buildings were 1905; and Bancroft Hall in 1906. The
condemned as a menace to health and safety. Administration Building, Mahan Hall, Sampson
Following this, Colonel Robert Means Thompson, Hall, and Maury Hall were completed in 1907.
class of 1868 and a member of the Board of Bancroft Hall, built as the dormitory for all
Visitors, engaged a noted architect named Ernest midshipmen, is the main building at the Academy.
Flagg. Flagg drew a plan for new buildings as well Six wings have been added to the building since
as a completely new arrangement of the yard. 1906 to keep pace with the brigade expansion.
Congress approved, and in 1899 the architect’s Within Bancroft Hall is Memorial Hall, which
plans began to be carried out. pays tribute to American naval heroes. Its most

109.15
Figure 10-1.-An aerial view of the U.S. Naval Academy.

10-4
stirring exhibit is the faded blue flag on which is Nimitz, Raymond Spruance, Harold R. Stark,
sewn in uneven white letters the undying words Richmond K. Turner, and Marc A. Mitscher.
of Captain James Lawrence, "Don’t give up the An important change at the Academy at this
ship." time concerned the summer practice cruises.
The Naval Academy Chapel, with its great Ever since 1851 these cruises had normally taken
dome that dominates the yard, was completed in place in practice ships assigned to the Academy.
1908. One striking feature of the chapel is the These included such famous sailing ships as the
stained-glass windows. Of these, the three main Constitution and the Constellation and the last
windows are memorials to Admirals Porter and square rigger built (1900) for the U.S. Navy, the
Farragut and Rear Admiral Sampson. The two Chesapeake. In 1904, however, part of the
flanking windows portray the mission of the midshipmen embarked in the coast squadron of
chapel. One shows Sir Galahad with his sheathed the North Atlantic Fleet. This procedure was
sword before him. The other portrays Christ repeated yearly until 1912. At that time the Navy
showing a newly commissioned ensign the beacon began the present system of holding summer
he must follow as an officer. The bronze doors practice cruises only in ships of the fleet.
of the chapel, another of its noteworthy features, An act of Congress in 1902 restored to
were the gifts of Colonel Robert Means Academy students the nautical title “mid-
Thompson. shipmen.” They had been given this title from
The original chapel was constructed in the 1862 to 1870 and are called by this title today.
form of a Greek cross. In 1939 an extension was (From 1845 to 1862 they had been called “acting
added to increase its capacity, which changed the midshipmen on probation”; from 1870 to 1882,
construction to the form of a Christian cross. “cadet midshipmen”; and from 1882 to 1902,
Another notable feature of the chapel is the votive “naval cadets.”)
ship that hangs from a chain in the arch of the In 1898 the Academy adopted a coat of arms.
nave. It was presented to the Academy in 1941 The coat of arms consists of a trident, the motto
by alumni who had served in the Construction “Ex Scientia Tridens,” a book, and a shield
Corps. (The idea of exhibiting a ship model in a exhibiting a Roman galley coming bows on into
church goes back to ancient days. The model action. The trident is the ancient symbol of sea
symbolizes the dedication of seafaring men to power. The motto “EX Scientia Tridens,” which
their God.) means “From knowledge, sea power, ” represents
Beneath the chapel lies the crypt containing the purpose of the Academy. The book depicts
the sarcophagus (marble coffin) of John Paul scholastic ideas.
Jones. Completed in 1913, the sarcophagus is In 1907 the Academy’s bandmaster, Lieutenant
surrounded by eight columns of Pyrenean Charles A. Zimmerman, and a choir member,
marble. Inlaid in a circle in the marble floor Midshipman First Class Alfred H. Miles,
around it are the names of the seven ships Jones composed the Navy’s battle song, “Anchors
commanded or captured during the revolutionary Aweigh. ” The midshipmen first sang it at
war: Serapis, Alliance, Providence, Bonhomme the Army-Navy football game in 1907 as the
Richard, Alfred, Ariel, and Ranger. Navy won its second successive victory over West
Until brought to Annapolis in 1905, Jones’ Point.
remains had been in France since his death over During this period the Academy strived to
a century before. The reinterment in 1906 was one develop its midshipmen into gentlemen with the
of the most impressive ceremonies in the strictest sense of dignity and honor. A regulation
Academy’s history. For the occasion a large crowd about dancing serves as an example of the close
filled Dahlgren Hall to honor the memory of the attention the Academy gave to this task. This
“Father of the American Navy” and to hear regulation, formulated in 1913 by the Department
President Theodore Roosevelt. The President of Discipline (the forerunner of today’s Executive
closed the day with these ringing words, "The Department), presented the following restrictions:
man who never surrenders never has to make
excuses!" 1. None of the modern dances will be
Attending the Academy during this period of performed under any circumstances.
growth were several midshipmen who later led the 2. Midshipmen must keep their left arm
Navy during World War II, the period of the straight during all dances.
Navy’s greatest expansion. Among them were 3. A space of 3 inches must be kept between
Ernest F. King, William F. Halsey, Chester the dancing couple.

10-5
 4. Midshipmen must not take their partner’s In 1930 six midshipmen were awarded Rhodes
arm under any circumstances. Scholarships —a record number. In that same
5. Midshipmen will not leave the ballroom year, the Association of American Universities
floor until the dance has been completed accredited the Academy as a member. Following
and all officers and their guests have left. that, Congress passed a law in 1933 authorizing
the Academy to grant bachelor of science degrees
The Department of Discipline also strictly to all graduates, beginning with the class of 1931.
regulated smoking. For many years, midshipmen Subsequently, in 1939 Congress authorized the
were not permitted to smoke in their rooms. award of the B.S. degree to all living graduates.
Later, first classmen were given the privilege of After the entry of the United States into World
keeping their smoking articles in Recreation Hall; War II, the Academy accelerated its course of
there they could gather after dinner to smoke and study. The class of 1942 graduated 6 months early
talk. The custom gave Recreation Hall its more in December 1941, and the class of 1943 joined
popular name “Smoke Hall.” them in the fleet the following June. Throughout
A significant and colorful event in the life of the war, the three remaining classes (plebes,
a midshipman —the Ring Dance—had its origin youngsters, and finishers) pursued a program that
in the 1920s. For some time first classmen had placed greater emphasis on professional and
observed the custom of throwing second classmen technological courses.
into Dewey Basin as soon as the latter had become The brilliant role played by Academy
eligible to wear their class rings. (They became graduates in all theaters in World War II forms
eligible to wear their class rings after passing their an indelible page in the nation’s and Navy’s
final exams for the year.) In 1924 this custom history.
resulted in the tragic drowning of a second The ending of World War II caused a minor
classman, so it was replaced by the Ring Dance. mishap to one noted landmark in the Academy
The Ring Dance has several special features. yard—the Japanese Bell. In 1845 the Regent of
One is the Ring Dance Dinner, the only occasion Napha, Ryukyu Islands, presented this bell to
when midshipmen may entertain their ladies at Commodore Matthew C. Perry during his
dinner in the mess hall. The most important expedition to Japan. After his death, his widow
feature, however, is the presentation of the rings. presented it to the Naval Academy (in 1859)
At the scene of the dance, on a carpeted dais, according to his wish. Traditionally, the bell is
stands a huge golden ring modeled after the class rung only after a victory over Army in football.
ring. The ring is surmounted by a glowing globe An exception to this was made on V-J Day in 1945
that simulates the jewel of the ring. As each when the bell was struck with such enthusiasm
couple approaches the replica of the ring, the lady that it cracked. Today a replica of the Japanese
dips the midshipman’s ring, suspended from a Bell stands outside Bancroft Hall, the original
ribbon, into a compass binnacle. The binnacle having been returned to Okinawa in 1987.
is filled with water from the Severn River Today these traditions and many others
and the seven seas, symbolic of the midshipman’s remain at the Naval Academy. Plebes still come
present and future home. The couple then passes through the Academy gates in July and do not
through the replica where she places the ring leave the yard again until the end of August.
on his finger. It is a moment charged with White-capped midshipmen in dress blue and brass
romance, especially if he presents her with a buttons still pass in review on Worden Field, and
miniature class ring, regarded as equivalent to an drum rolls still thunder in the courtyard of
engagement ring. They then kiss and seal the Bancroft Hall during meal formations.
ceremony. Academy graduates continue to distinguish
In 1926 an exciting and historical Army-Navy themselves in military roles as well as in public
football game took place at Soldier’s Field in life. President Jimmy Carter (class of 1947) was
Chicago. The largest crowd ever to watch a foot- a successful businessman, a state governor, and
ball game—110,000 persons—saw Navy come the first Academy graduate to hold the highest
from behind to tie Army 21-21. Midshipman office in the land.
Tom Hamilton (now Rear Admiral Thomas J. Along with the continuing traditions at the
Hamilton, Ret.) was the Navy’s hero as he Naval Academy, exciting changes, academically
kicked the tying point that gave Navy an and physically, reflect the trends and needs
undefeated season and a claim to the national of the times. Midshipmen no longer march to
title. classes, just as they are no longer locked into

10-6
the same rigid academic pattern. New emphasis Instead of the 7 founding professors, the
on broadening their academic opportunity has Academy faculty now numbers more than 610.
expanded the old basic core curriculum into Half of the faculty are naval officers who serve
majors ranging from aerospace engineering, to on a rotating basis, bringing fresh thinking from
history, to oceanography. A little more than a the fleet. The other half are civilians, ensuring
decade ago, all midshipmen took the same 40 continuity and input from the academic
courses. Today’s midshipmen can select from community.
more than 500 courses, including political science, Some 50 young men crowded into the old
languages, and computer science. barracks of the 10-acre Fort Severn in 1845 to
The professional changes at Annapolis are open the new national Naval School. Now more
also important. Along with the emphasis on than 4,500 midshipmen walk the 309 acres of
broadening the academic curriculum, the today’s Naval Academy.
Academy provides more intense officer training.
Upperclassmen have more of the responsibility for APPOINTMENT PROCESS
plebe training and for leadership of the entire
4,500-person brigade of midshipmen. Appointments are granted to applicants to the
New buildings—modern, yet in harmony with Naval Academy by either their Congressman or
the classic structures from the past—now line the the Vice President. The Vice President and each
Severn River. The twin towers of the science and Congressman may have five of their appointees
mathematics buildings, Michelson and Chauvenet in the Academy at any one time. They may
Halls, have been in use since 1971. The allocate these on the basis of 1 principal and 9
560,000-volume Nimitz Library, dedicated in the alternate appointments or award them com-
fall of 1973, contains complete audiovisual and petitively with 10 applicants vying for each
closed-circuit television facilities. Rickover Hall, vacancy.
the Academy’s engineering studies complex, is as Remaining appointments are strictly com-
extensive a laboratory facility as any in the petitive and are awarded on the basis of those
nation. considered best qualified as set in the Academy’s
On the waterfront rises the Robert Crown “Whole-Person Evaluation.” Competitive appoint-
Sailing Center, dedicated in April 1974. Built from ments are available in the following general
privately donated funds, the center houses the classes:
Intercollegiate Sailing Hall of Fame. It also
provides facilities for the Academy’s program of 1. Presidential 100 each year to sons
varsity and intramural sailing training, Venerable and daughters of mem-
Dahlgren Hall, for years an armory and drill hall, bers of the Regular
has been converted with private donations into and Reserve compon-
the Midshipman Activity Center. This center ents of the armed ser-
contains a hockey-size skating rink, snack bar, vices who are on active
and other recreational facilities. duty and have served
The new Brigade Activity Center, which continuously on active
opened in 1990, can seat the entire brigade. It duty for at least 8
houses a theater and concert hall and is used for years; retired person-
brigade professional programs. nel; and those who
Today’s Academy boasts improved facilities died while in receipt of
along with a sophisticated professional training retired pay
program to meet the more complex needs of
today’s nuclear Navy. These improvements and 2. Regular Navy and 85 enlisted members
the increased versatility of the academic program Marine Corps per year
and extracurricular activities provide midshipmen
with a well-balanced education. 3. Naval and Marine 85 enlisted members
Beginning with the class of 1980, the Academy Corps Reserve per year
offered this education to women as well as men.
Under a new law passed by Congress, the Naval 4. NROTC students and 20 annually (normally
Academy admitted the first women midshipmen graduates of honor 10 from each cate-
with the plebe class that reported in July military and naval gory)
1976. schools

10-7
5. Deceased and dis- 40 for the sons and For more information, you may request a
abled veterans daughters of members of pre-candidate questionnaire by writing to the
the armed forces who following address:
were killed in action or
died of, or have a 100 per- Director, Candidate Guidance
cent disability resulting Code 304
from, wounds or injuries U.S. Naval Academy
received or diseases con- Annapolis, MD 21402-5018
tracted in, or preexisting
injury or disease aggra- ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA
vated by, active service FOR APPOINTMENT

6. District of 5 at any one time In addition to the competitive appointment

Columbia process, applicants must meet the following
eligibility criteria to gain entry to the Naval
7. Virgin Islands, 1 at any one time Academy:
Guam, American
Samoa, Puerto Be a U.S. citizen
Rico, and Canal
Zone Be of good moral character

8. American 20 at any one time; no Be unmarried and have no dependents

Republics more than 3 from any
one country Be at least 17. but not over 22, years of
age on 1 July of year entering
9. Congressionally The first 150 vacancies of
qualified alternates an unfilled class quota Be physically qualified in accordance with
for congressionally ap- Navy standards
pointed alternates
Have minimum SAT scores of 520 (verbal)
Candidates receiving Vice Presidential and and 600 (math); have minimum ACT
Congressional appointments and those who are scores of 25 (English) and 31 (math)
children of holders of the Medal of Honor receive
direct appointments.
NAVAL RESERVE OFFICER
To bring an entering class up to strength, the TRAINING CORPS
Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV) may appoint
additional nominees. SECNAV appoints these The Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps
from the remaining qualified alternates and (NROTC) Program was founded in 1926. This
competitors in their order of merit. Three- program produces Navy officers from NROTC
fourths of these appointments must be filled by units in operation at many colleges and universities
congressionally qualified alternates. throughout the United States. The annual output
By law, a small number of nationals from is approximately 1,500 new officers commissioned
certain foreign countries may attend. They are not mainly in the unrestricted line.
eligible for commissions, but receive the same The NROTC Program is highly competitive.
training and are governed by the same regulations It educates and trains qualified young men and
as other students. women for service as commissioned officers of
the Regular Navy and Marine Corps. NROTC
Applicants should submit a pre-candidate midshipmen lead essentially the same campus life
questionnaire to the Naval Academy in the late as other undergraduates. They make their own
spring of their junior year of high school. The arrangements for enrollment and room and
Naval Academy will open a pre-admission file board, and they pursue academic studies leading
upon receipt of this questionnaire and will to a bachelor’s degree. They may also participate
provide an initial evaluation to the applicant by in any extracurricular activities that do not
early summer. interfere with their NROTC obligations.

10-8
ELIGIBILITY REQUIREMENTS framework from which they can instill in their
students a highly motivated interest in the naval
There are currently two major NROTC service.
programs. The first is the Scholarship Program, Normally, the Navy instructors teach eight
with 8,000 authorized scholarships. It provides for naval professional courses and provide weekly
tuition, books, instructional fees, and a $100-per- laboratory periods for practical work in these
month subsistence allowance during the academic courses. In early fall and late spring, instructors
year for a maximum of 40 academic months. use this lab time for close-order drill.
Scholarship students incur a service obligation Future Marine Corps officers make their
at the end of their sophomore year. Students choice between the Navy or the Marine Corps
incur a 4-year active-duty obligation upon during the first 2 years. For the last 2 years, their
commissioning. program of instruction and training differs from
The second program is called the College that given prospective Navy officers.
Program. Although this program has no NROTC scholarship students may select, with
enrollment limit, it averages between 2,000 and the approval of academic authorities, a field of
3,000 students annually. The program pays a study leading to a baccalaureate degree, subject
$100-per-month subsistence allowance during the to certain limitations. Exempted as majors, for
junior and senior year of college. Students must example, are studies in such academic fields as
serve 3 years of active duty upon commissioning. music, theology, and others deemed of limited
Applicants for both programs must meet the value to naval officers.
following eligibility requirements: The Navy requires that midshipmen acquire
a background in physics and mathematics and a
• Be a U.S. citizen general proficiency in written and oral expression.
Students are encouraged to participate in any of
• Be accepted for admission as a civilian the school’s extracurricular activities as long as
student to one of the NROTC participating they do not conflict with Navy classes and drills.
colleges or universities NROTC midshipmen have about the same
summer cruise obligations as their contemporaries
• Be at least 17 years of age, but have not from the Naval Academy.
reached 27 1/2 by 30 June of the year of
college graduation
OFFICER CANDIDATE SCHOOL
• Be physically qualified in accordance with
Navy standards Officer Candidate School (OCS) was founded
in 1951 at Newport, Rhode Island, in response
• Be of good moral character to an increased demand for naval officers during
the Korean conflict. OCS continues today as a
• Have minimum SAT scores of 450 (verbal) major source of recruitment of male and female
and 500 (math); have ACT scores of 19 officers for the United States Navy. It provides
(English) and 23 (math) college graduates from the civilian and Navy
enlisted communities an opportunity for a naval
NROTC ORGANIZATION commission.
“Leadership is our most important product”
The NROTC organization of a college or stands as the motto of OCS, The school places
university is centered in a Department of Naval officer candidates in positions of responsibility
Science. A Navy captain or Marine Corps colonel and closely evaluates their leadership potential in
with the title of Professor of Naval Science addition to academics. The pace of OCS is
normally heads the NROTC organization. The strenuous and demanding. In 16 weeks, officer
instructors, Navy and Marine Corps officers, hold candidates must complete a highly concentrated
academic ranks as assistant professors. The course in the fundamentals of naval science. Naval
officers selected for this important duty must science subjects studied include seamanship,
possess academic ability and have diversified navigation, naval engineering, naval warfare,
duty experience. Their experience adds to the store military justice, and principles of leadership.
of academic knowledge that they impart to the Additionally, students weekly participate in 6
midshipmen. It also provides a realistic hours of physical training activities.

10-9
 To reenforce principles learned in the class- 1951, although the original postgraduate school
room, the school requires students to engage in dates back to the early 1900s.
“hands-on” training, This includes underway The current total educational emphasis of this
experience on yard-patrol craft and time in mock- school is on graduate-level programs; the school
ups of ship’s bridges and combat information meets 80 percent of the Navy’s graduate educa-
centers. It also includes training on the USS tion requirement. NPS has over 40 programs of
Buttercup, a damage control trainer that simulates study, ranging from the traditional engineering
a sinking ship. and physical sciences to the rapidly evolving space
Upon successful completion of the course of science programs. No other university offers
instruction, officer candidates receive a com- Navy-oriented graduate curricula with such a
mission as an ensign in the United States Naval broad span of topics. Studies include aircraft
Reserve. They then serve 4 years on active duty combat survivability, fiber optics, robotics,
and 2 years in an inactive Reserve status. The top artificial intelligence, data base systems, and
10 percent of each graduating class receive light weight satellites.
recognition as distinguished naval graduates and
Lieutenant and lieutenant commander selection
are offered a Regular U.S. Navy commission.
boards screen officers for NPS. The boards also
determine the officers’ areas of study, based on
AVIATION OFFICER the officers’ designators and academic profile
CANDIDATE SCHOOL codes. Potential NPS students discuss with their
detailers how the school can fit into their careers
The Navy began the Aviation Officer
Candidate School (AOCS) Program in 1955. It and whether or not they wish to attend.
provides an avenue to commissioned service for NPS is accredited by the Accrediting Com-
applicants interested in serving as naval aviators, mission for Senior Colleges and Universities of
naval flight officers, intelligence officers, or the Western Association of Schools and Colleges.
aviation maintenance duty officers.
Candidates selected for AOCS attend 14 weeks
of indoctrination training at Pensacola, Florida.
Subjects of instruction include seamanship, UNIFORMED SERVICES
organizational operations, naval administration, UNIVERSITY OF THE HEALTH
sea power, military law, naval leadership, SCIENCES
aeronautics, engineering, and navigation. Upon
successful completion they receive their com- The Uniformed Services University of the
missions as ensigns. Health Sciences was established to educate career-
Members desiring pilot training continue their oriented medical officers for the military services.
flight training for 12 to 18 months after com- The university currently incorporates the F.
missioning. Following successful completion of Edward Hebert School of Medicine graduate and
the additional flight training, candidates are continuing education programs. It is located on
designated naval aviators and accept a 7-year the Naval Medical Command Reservation in
active-duty obligation. Bethesda, Maryland.
Naval flight officer (NFO) candidates, after A faculty committee on admissions makes
commissioning, will continue their training student selections. The committee bases its
leading to designation as NFOs. NFOs incur a selections upon candidates’ motivation and
6-year active-duty obligation following their dedication to a career in the uniformed services
designation. and an overall appraisal of their personal and
Candidates selected for the intelligence intellectual characteristics. Applicants must be
program and the aviation maintenance duty U.S. citizens and meet the physical and personal
officer program undergo additional training qualifications for commissioning. They also must
following commissioning. They must serve on give evidence of a strong commitment to serving
active duty for 4 years from their date of as a uniformed medical officer. The graduating
commissioning. medical student must serve a period of obligation
of not less than 7 years.
The university’s F. Edward Hebert School of
NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
Medicine now has an enrollment of over 600
The Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) was officers in training for their M.D. degrees. It
officially established at Monterey, California, in has an additional enrollment of over 100

10-10
 134.130
Figure 10-2.-One of the foremost seaman of his day, Rear Admiral Lute was the driving influence
behind the institution of the U.S. Naval War College in 1884 and the use of fleet exercises as
battle practice for our expanding naval armada.

individuals in one of its basic sciences graduate NAVAL WAR COLLEGE

programs.
The Naval War College was established to
The university’s fully accredited graduate provide military officers a chance to study their
program is available to both civilian and military profession in mid-career, much as many civilian
applicants. Graduates may receive the Ph.D. professionals frequently do. The mission of the
degree in one of the biomedical sciences, the Naval War College is to enhance the professional
master of public health degree, or the master of capabilities of its students. It helps students in
tropical medicine and hygiene degree. In addition, both command and management positions
the university serves as the focus for a vigorous increase their ability to make sound decisions. It
continuing medical education program that also helps them to conduct research leading to the
supports the military services. The university development of advanced strategic and tactical
offers unique training opportunities both at the concepts for the future employment of naval
Bethesda campus and at military bases around the forces. The Naval War College was established on
world, where such training is otherwise 6 October 1884 by order of the Secretary of the
unavailable. Navy. Rear Admiral Stephen B. Lute (fig. 10-2)

10-11
 109.16
Figure 10-3.-The U.S. Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island.

was appointed as the first president of the Naval new technologies and to respond quickly to new
War College in Newport, Rhode Island (fig. 10-3). challenges. The Navy must also be able to develop
Lute’s conception of the nature and needs of sound national and international policy and
the naval profession shaped the War College from efficiently manage its limited resources. In short,
its start. He appreciated the interrelationship of it must be able to convert invention into combat
naval power, technology, and international politics readiness. This requires an educated officer corps
and the need for senior officers to understand such with the intellect and vision to capitalize on
complex issues. Lute organized the War College as evolving technology and developments. The
a place of original research on all questions about various naval educational institutions discussed in
war, the statesmanship connected with war, or the this chapter help to provide the trained and
prevention of war. educated professionals required to fill these needs.
Lute’s original format has carried through over
the years. Over the last 100 years, the Naval War
College has shaped its educational requirements to REFERENCES
meet the professional and environmental needs of
the Navy. Navy Fact File, 8th ed., Office of Information,
Washington, D.C., 1988.
SUMMARY
“Paths to a Commission,” All Hands, Number 863
We live in a volatile and complex world in (February 1989): 42-47.
which sudden and unexpected changes in world
leadership frequently occur. In addition, The United States Government Manual 1989/90,
technological innovations frequently occur in Office of the Federal Register, National
computer science, artificial intelligence, and Archives and Records Administration, Wash-
robotics, The Navy must have the ability to apply ington, D.C., 1989.

10-12
 MIND YOUR Ps AND Qs

THERE ARE FEW OF US WHO HAVE NOT AT ONE TIME OR ANOTHER BEEN
ADMONISHED TO “MIND OUR Ps AND Qs,” OR IN OTHER WORDS, TO BE-
HAVE OUR BEST. ODDLY ENOUGH, “MIND YOUR Ps AND Qs” HAD NAU-
TICAL BEGINNINGS AS A METHOD OF KEEPING BOOKS ON THE WATER-
FRONT.
IN THE DAYS OF SAIL WHEN SAILORS WERE PAID PITTANCE, SEAMEN
DRANK THEIR ALE IN TAVERNS WHOSE KEEPERS WERE WILLING TO EX-
TEND CREDIT UNTIL PAYDAY. SINCE MANY SALTS WERE ILLITERATE,
KEEPERS KEPT A TALLY OF PINTS AND QUARTS CONSUMED BY EACH
SAILOR ON A CHALKBOARD BEHIND THE BAR. NEXT TO EACH PERSON’S
NAME , A MARK WAS MADE UNDER “P” FOR PINT OR “Q” FOR QUART
WHENEVER A SEAMAN ORDERED ANOTHER DRAUGHT.
ON PAYDAY, EACH SEAMAN WAS LIABLE FOR EACH MARK NEXT TO HIS
NAME, SO HE WAS FORCED TO “MIND HIS Ps AND Qs” OR GET INTO
FINANCIAL TROUBLE. TO ENSURE AN ACCURATE COUNT BY UNSCRUPULOUS
KEEPERS, SAILORS HAD TO KEEP THEIR WITS AND REMAIN SOMEWHAT
SOBER. SOBRIETY USUALLY ENSURED GOOD BEHAVIOR; HENCE, THE
MEANING OF “MIND YOUR Ps AND Qs."

10-13
 CHAPTER 11

THE ARMED FORCES

OF THE UNITED STATES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe the authority of the President in using 10. Identify the mission and function of the U.S.
the military to maintain national security. Air Force.

2. Identify the members and function of the 11. Identify the mission and function of the U.S.
National Security Council. Coast Guard.

3. List the three primary provisions of the 12. Identify the key members of the Navy
National Security Act. Department.
4. Identify the key members and the mission of 13. Identify the responsibilities of the Chief of
the Department of Defense. Naval Operations.
5. Identify the role of the Secretary of Defense. 14. Identify the duties of the master chief petty
6. Identify the three elements that make up the officer of the Navy.
TRIAD and the role of the U.S. Navy and
15. Identify the purpose of the shore establish-
U.S. Air Force in support of the TRIAD.
ment.
7. Identify the members and functions of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff. 16. Identify the key members of the operating
forces.
8. Describe the difference between a unified
command and a specified command. 17. Identify the administrative and operational
chain of command for operating units.
9. Identify the mission and function of the U.S.
Army. 18. Describe the composition of a task force.

SIGNIFICANT DATES As you will recall from chapter 1, the U.S.

Navy constantly prepares to conduct prompt and
14 Jun. 1775 The American Continental Army sustained combat operations at sea in support of
(now called the United States U.S. national interests. This preparation is the
Army) is established by the Con- primary mission of the U.S. Navy as part of the
tinental Congress more than a Department of Defense (DOD). Meeting the
year before the Declaration of objectives of this mission requires a well-organized
Independence. Navy. This chapter presents information on DOD
and U.S. Navy organization.
4 Aug. 1790 The Revenue Marine is established
The Navy’s authority to act in the interest of
(now called the United States
security stems from congressional legislation.
Coast Guard).
Congress enacted legislation to ensure the security
18 Sep. 1947 Department of the Air Force is of the United States. The legislation authorized
established. a Department of Defense, including three military

11-1
11-2
departments, each under its own Secretary: Army, In 1845 President Polk deployed the Navy
Navy (including the Marine Corps), and Air to the coast of Mexico to quell trouble
Force. The three Secretaries function under the caused by the annexation of Texas. He
direction, authority, and control of the Secretary asked Congress to declare war on Mexico
of Defense. See figure 11-1 for the DOD organiza- 5 months later, and Congress did.
tional chart.
Congress also created the Joint Chiefs of Staff In 1862 President Lincoln personally
(JCS) to integrate planning and operations among assumed command of successful military
the armed services. The Chiefs of Staff of the operations against Confederate forces in
separate services make up the JCS. A chairman, Norfolk, Virginia.
considered to be the senior member of the armed
services, heads the JCS. In 1896 President McKinley ordered the
The legislation also established unified and naval blockade of Cuba. Congress
specified commands. This action unified the declared war on Spain 3 days later.
strategic direction of the combatant forces into
an efficient team of land, naval, and air forces. In 1941 President Franklin Roosevelt
A unified command consists of significant declared an unlimited national emergency
components of two or more military services. A and ordered the U.S. Navy to “sink on
specified command normally consists of forces sight” foreign submarines found in our
from only one service. “defensive waters.”
As you read this chapter, you will learn more
about the DOD, the three military services, the In 1962 President Kennedy ordered a naval
JCS, and unified and specified commands. If you quarantine of Cuba based on Soviet
are unfamiliar with these subjects, this will be a military activity on that island.
good introduction. If you have a good under-
standing of these subjects, this will serve as a good In 1965 President Johnson ordered naval
review. air action against North Vietnamese gun-
boats and support facilities.

NATIONAL SECURITY In 1979 President Carter ordered units of

the U.S. Sixth and Seventh Fleets to the
National security is a matter of concern for Indian Ocean to assist in hostage evacua-
all Americans, but no U.S. citizen faces more tion operations and as deterrents against
responsibility than the President of the United Iranian actions.
States. The National Security Council (NSC),
under the President, shares in this responsibility. These and other less significant actions of our
The NSC sits at the pinnacle of our nation’s Presidents have established presidential authority
defense structure. and control of U.S. military forces.

THE PRESIDENT NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL

(COMMANDER IN CHIEF)
The National Security Act of 1947 established
The power of the President in the capacity of
the National Security Council. The President
COMMANDER IN CHIEF OF THE ARMED
chairs the Council.
FORCES is extensive. That power increases in the The statutory members, in addition to the
event of war or some other national emergency.
President, consist of the Vice President and the
For example, the President may declare an
Secretaries of State and Defense. The Chairman
emergency and call out the military Reserves or
of the Joint Chiefs of Staff serves as the statutory
even order the armed forces into military action
military adviser to the Council. The Director of
before Congress actually declares war. Often a Central Intelligence serves as the intelligence
President has referred a matter to Congress after
adviser.
the fact. The following actions are examples:
The National Security Council advises the
• In 1801 President Jefferson sent naval President about the integration of domestic,
squadrons to the Mediterranean and then foreign, and military policies relating to national
informed Congress. security.

11-3
 THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE President regarding the DOD, including powers,
(DOD) duties, and authorities. In this capacity, SECDEF
exercises “direction, authority, and control over
In 1949 Congress amended the National
the Department of Defense” and reports to the
Security Act of 1947 to create the Department of
President on all military matters concerning the
Defense (DOD), In enacting this amendment,
department. SECDEF, therefore, serves as the
Congress set forth the following three primary
principal assistant to the President in all matters
provisions:
relating to the DOD. The Deputy Secretary of
The establishment of a Department of Defense assists SECDEF by supervising and
Defense, including the three Military coordinating the activities of the department and
Departments of the Army, the Navy substituting for SECDEF during absence or
(including naval aviation and the United disability.
States Marine Corps), and the Air Force
under the direction, authority, and control
of the Secretary of Defense STRATEGIC NUCLEAR
DETERRENCE
The separate organization of each military
department under its own Secretary
The United States uses a TRIAD of three
The establishment of unified or specified closely related strategic nuclear forces as a
combatant commands and a clear and deterrent against a potential enemy. These
direct line of command to such commands nuclear forces consist of the U.S. Navy’s SEA-
LAUNCHED BALLISTIC MISSILES and the
We discussed the awesome power of the
U.S. Air Force’s INTERCONTINENTAL BAL-
President of the United States as Commander in
LISTIC MISSILES (ICBMs) and LONG-
Chief earlier in this chapter. The Commander in
RANGE BOMBERS.
Chief must be kept abreast of all matters affecting
The probability of a strategic nuclear attack
the ability of the Department of Defense to
on the United States is very low. However, should
properly defend the United States and its allies.
we ever experience such an attack, the conse-
The Department of Defense is the largest
quences would be catastrophic. The TRIAD has
government agency in the United States. It spends
been developed and maintained to deter nuclear
a major portion of the national budget and
attack. Similarly, the Soviet Union has developed
employs nearly 4 million people (military and
and is maintaining powerful strategic forces of its
civilian). The DOD was crested to carry out the
own. Our objective is to obtain a condition of
military policies of the United States.
essential equivalence—a condition in which the
MISSION following situations occur:

Simply stated, the mission of the DOD is to 1. Soviet strategic nuclear forces do not
maintain and employ armed forces to accomplish become effective instruments of political
the following: leverage or coercion.
Support and defend the Constitution of the 2. Nuclear stability is maintained.
United States against all enemies 3. Advantages in strategic force characteristics
possessed by the Soviets are offset by
Protect the United States, its possessions, advantages of the United States in other
and areas vital to its interests characteristics.
Advance the policies and interests of the 4. U.S. strategic forces are not, nor are they
United States perceived to be, inferior in performance to
those of the Soviet Union.
Safeguard the internal security of the
United States The credibility of our TRIAD as perceived by
potential opponents and allies is very important.
SECRETARY OF DEFENSE
If they perceive that our TRIAD does not exist
(SECDEF)
or is weak, regardless of the facts, it will no longer
The Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) functions serve to deter an attack.
as a member of both the President’s cabinet and This condition of essential equivalence should
the National Security Council. The Secretary of produce a mutual deterrence that is so stable it
Defense is delegated all the functions vested in the will not be upset in a crisis. The United States

11-4
seeks to maintain this stability through a deterrent TRIAD. The submarine leg of the
combination of specific, equitable, and verifiable TRIAD consists of older SSBNs armed with
arms-control agreements. Poseidon C-3 or Trident C-4 missiles and new
The focus on relations between the United Trident submarines carrying Trident C-4 and D-5
States and the Soviet Union is necessary because missiles. These submarines spend about 55
both nations are the greatest military powers in percent of their time at sea, with their missiles
the world today. For the foreseeable future, the targeted at sites in the Soviet Union and Eastern
two countries will continue to cooperate and Europe. Tridents carry 24 submarine-launched
compete. The precise mixture of cooperation and ballistic missiles (SLBMs) compared with 16 in
competition will depend on the place, the issue, earlier submarines.
and how each sees its own national interests in a
particular case. U.S. AIR FORCE’S ROLE
The Soviets appear willing to strike some
bargains that can reduce the chances of mutual Our land-based intercontinental ballistic
destruction. At the same time, because their missiles (ICBMs) are unsurpassed in readiness
interests and objectives are different from ours, and immediate reaction capability. They can be
tensions have risen in the past and will continue launched quickly, and they have a high capability
to do so in the future. of survival. The Strategic Air Command’s (SAC’s)
The unique qualities of each leg of the TRIAD ICBM force consists of Minuteman missiles and
combined provide a level of flexibility that could Titan II missiles, which are being retired. SAC is
not be attained by each one alone. The TRIAD modernizing its missile forces with new
enhances our employment options, complicates the Peacekeeper ICBMs, which are being deployed in
Soviet’s hedge against possible Soviet violations of Minuteman silos. The Peacekeeper is more
arms-control limitations, and reduces the impact accurate, carries more warheads, and places at
of new technological advances. risk the most difficult Soviet targets.
SAC’s manned bombers are the most flexible
U.S. NAVY’S ROLE element of the TRIAD. They are the only leg of the
TRIAD that can be recalled and reused. Bombers
Deterrence of war has been the sole mission of can be used as a manned penetration or as a
and fundamental reason for the existence of the cruise missile launch platform. Bombers can also
fleet ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) since its be used in support of conventional operations. SAC
inception in 1960. The SSBN program is the can use B-52 and FB-111 bombers to penetrate
Navy’s highest priority. It is an essential corner- Soviet defenses. New B-1B bombers (fig. 11-2) are
stone of the national security policy, functioning being placed into service to modernize SAC’s aging
as a survivable and dependable leg of the strategic B-52 forces.

134.131
Figure 11-2.-U.S. Air Force B-1B bomber.

11-5
 JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF (JCS) military command over the JCS or any of the
armed forces.
Before we describe the functions of the Joint One additional member, the Vice Chairman,
Chiefs of Staff (JCS), let’s review a little history. is appointed in the same manner as the Chairman.
The Joint Chiefs of Staff resulted from the The Vice Chairman participates in all meetings
establishment of a supreme British-American of the JCS but may vote only when acting as
military body for the strategic direction of World Chairman.
War II. This British-American body of military
officers was known as the Combined Chiefs of FUNCTION
Staff.
Our own JCS took form from the British The members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are
Chiefs of Staff, who were colleagues and counter- the principal military advisers to the President,
parts of U.S. representatives. The JCS soon began the National Security Council, and the Secretary
to function as the corporate leadership for the of Defense. Subject to the authority and
United States military structure. At the national direction of the President and SECDEF, the duties
level, the JCS absorbed and extended the of the JCS include the following:
functions of the Joint Army and Navy Board.
This joint board handled interservice cooperation Preparing strategic plans and providing
and joint war planning in the prewar period. strategic direction of the armed forces
During World War II the JCS existed to assist
the President in the exercise of his powers as Preparing joint logistic plans and assigning
Commander in Chief. The organization that logistic responsibilities to the armed forces
developed to support the JCS during World War
II included a few standing committees composed Establishing unified commands
of full-time working members. However, the
majority of committees were manned by officers Reviewing major material and personnel
who served in this JCS function as part-time requirements of the armed forces
members. This function was an extension of
their primary assignments in the War or Navy Formulating policies for joint training of
Departments. the armed forces
With few modifications, the wartime JCS
organization continued to operate in the postwar Formulating policies for coordinating
period until the effective date of the National military education of members of the
Security Act of 1947. This act established the JCS armed forces
as a permanent agency within the National
Military Establishment. It appointed the members Providing representation of the United
as "the principal military advisers to the President States on the Military Staff Committee of
and Secretary of Defense." the United Nations

COMPOSITION Performing other duties as the President

or SECDEF prescribes
The JCS consists of the Chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff; the Chief of Staff, United States
Army; the Chief of Naval Operations; the Chief UNIFIED COMMANDS AND
of Staff, United States Air Force; and the SPECIFIED COMMANDS
Commandant of the Marine Corps.
The President appoints the Chairman, with the The United States’ concept of the Military
advice and consent of the Senate. The Chairman Establishment is that it is an efficient team of
serves at the pleasure of the President for a 2-year land, naval, and air forces. This concept is based
term and may be reappointed in the same on the principle of effective use of military power.
manner for an additional 2-year term. During This principle requires close integration of the
time of war, the number of reappointments is efforts of the separate military services. Unity of
unlimited. While holding office, the Chairman of effort among the services at the national level
the JCS outranks all other officers of the armed results from a joint effort. The Secretaries of the
forces. However, the Chairman may not exercise Army, Navy, and Air Force; the JCS; and the

11-6
various military departments work together in this The authority (the President, Secretary of
joint effort. Defense, etc.) establishing a unified command
Under the National Security Act, each military appoints a unified commander. This authority
department and service must coordinate with the also determines the unified command’s structure
others. Each is responsible for organizing, and assigns its forces, missions, and general
training, equipping, and providing forces to fulfill geographic area of responsibility.
certain specific combat functions and for The commander of a unified command has a
administering and supporting these forces. joint staff with members in key positions from
Our country must have the full use and each service having component forces under the
exploration of the weapons, techniques, and unified command. The joint staff requires a
capabilities of each department and service to balance in the composition of the forces and
attain its national security objectives. Unified character of the operations. This balance ensures
commands and specified commands provide us an understanding by the commander of the
with the ability to combine our forces effectively. tactics, techniques, capabilities, needs, and
limitations of each component force.
UNIFIED COMMANDS Each component of a unified command is
normally commanded directly by an officer of
A unified command has a broad continuing that component. Operational command by a
mission and is composed of significant com- unified commander is usually exercised through
ponents of two or more services under a single the service component commanders or through
commander. A situation in which either or both the commanders of subordinate unified com-
of the following criteria apply requires a unified mands. (A unified commander may establish
command: subordinate unified commands.) In exercising
operational command, a unified commander
1. A broad continuing mission exists that regards the knowledge and responsibilities of
requires significant forces of two or more assigned service component commanders.
services and a single strategic direction. The responsibilities of the commander of a
2. Any combination of the following situa- unified command include the following:
tions exists when significant forces of two
or more services are involved: Maintaining the security of the command
a. A large-scale operation requires positive and protecting the United States, its
control and tactical execution by a large possessions, and its bases against attack or
and complex force a hostile outbreak
b. A large geographic area requires single
responsibility for effective coordination Carrying out assigned missions, tasks, and
of operations responsibilities
c. Limited logistic resources require a
single point of command Assigning tasks to and directing coordina-
The unified commands include the following: tion among subordinate commands to
ensure unity of effort in the accomplish-
U.S. European Command (USEUCOM) ment of assigned mission(s)
U.S. Southern Command
SPECIFIED COMMANDS
(USSOUTHCOM)
U.S. Pacific Command (USPACOM) A specified command is a command with a
broad continuing mission. It is normally composed
U.S. Atlantic Command (USLANTCOM) of forces from only one service but may include
U.S. Space Command (USSPACECOM) units and staff representation from other services.
The authority that establishes a specified
U.S. Transportation Command command appoints the specified commander and
(USTRANSCOM) the force structure. This authority also assigns the
missions and defines the commander’s general
U.S. Special Operations Command
geographic area of responsibility.
(USSOCOM)
Units of other services assigned to a specified
U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM) command normally are told the purpose and

11-7
duration of the assignment. Such assignment, in • To develop, in coordination with other
itself, does not change the specified command to U.S. military services, doctrines, tactics,
a unified command. If, however, the assignment techniques, and equipment for amphibious
is major and of long duration, a unified command operations
is normally established instead of a specified
command.
• To organize, train, equip, and provide
forces for the support and conduct of
The commander of a specified command has
special operations
the same responsibilities as the commander
of a unified command; however, the specified • To develop, in coordination with other
commander cannot establish subordinate unified U.S. military services, doctrines, pro-
commands. cedures, and equipment employed by
The only specified commands in existence at Army and Marine forces in airborne
the time of this writing are the Strategic Air operations
Command (SAC) and the U.S. Forces Command
(USFORCOM).
• To provide forces to occupy territories
abroad and establish a military govern-
ment pending the transfer of this respon-
sibility to other authority
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
• To perform functions relating to the
The primary responsibility of the Department management and operation of the Panama
of the Army is to prepare land forces, as Canal
necessary, for war. The Department of the Army
is also responsible for expansion of peacetime
• To perform projects for improvement of
navigation, flood control, beach erosion
components of the Army to meet the needs of
control, and other water resource develop-
war. The Army includes land combat and service
ment in the United States, its territories,
forces and aviation and water transport.
and its possessions
MISSION
DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE
The mission of the Department of the Army
is to organize, train, and equip active-duty and
The primary responsibility of the Department
Reserve forces for the preservation of peace,
of the Air Force is to prepare the Air Force, as
security, and the defense of our nation. The
necessary, for war. It is also responsible for the
Army’s mission focuses on land operations; its
expansion of peacetime components of the Air
soldiers must be trained with modern arms and
Force to meet the needs of war. The Air Force,
equipment and be ready to respond quickly.
within the Department of the Air Force, includes
both combat and service aviation forces.
FUNCTION
MISSION
The following are the primary functions of the
Department of the Army:
The mission of the Air Force is to preserve,
in conjunction with the other armed forces, the
To organize, train, and equip forces
peace and security of the United States by
for the conduct of prompt and sustained
providing air-combat, air-service, aerospace,
combat operations on land—specifically,
missile, and airlift forces.
forces to defeat enemy land forces and to
seize, occupy, and defend land areas
FUNCTION
To organize, train, equip, and provide
Army air defense units as required to The primary functions of the Air Force are
defend the United States against air attack as follows:
To organize, train, equip, and provide • To organize, train, and equip Air Force
Army forces, in coordination with the personnel to conduct prompt and sustained
other services, for joint amphibious and combat operations in the air. Specifically,
airborne operations the Air Force defends the United States

11-8
against air attack. The functions of the Air • To restrain enemy sea power through air
Force support the doctrines established by operations.
the Joint Chiefs of Staff. These doctrines
include gaining and maintaining general air • To conduct antisubmarine warfare and
supremacy, defeating enemy air forces, protect shipping.
controlling vital air areas, and establishing
local air superiority. • To conduct aerial minelaying operations.

To develop doctrines and procedures, in Air Force responsibilities in support of space

coordination with other U.S. military operations include the following:
services, for the unified defense of the
United States against air attack. —Organizing, training, equipping, and pro-
viding forces to support operations
To organize, train, and equip Air Force
personnel for strategic air warfare. —Developing, in coordination with other U.S.
military services, tactics, techniques, and
To organize, train, and equip Air Force
equipment employed by Air Force person-
personnel for joint amphibious and air-
nel for use in space operations
borne operations in coordination with
other U.S. military services.
—Conducting individual and unit training of
To furnish close combat and logistical air Air Force space operations forces
support to the Army. This air support
includes airlift, support, and resupply of —Participating with other U.S. military ser-
airborne operations; aerial photography; vices in joint space operations, training, and
tactical reconnaissance; and restraint of exercises
enemy land power and communications.

To provide air transport for the armed

forces. THE UNITED STATES
COAST GUARD
To develop, in coordination with other
U.S. military services, doctrines, pro- The United States Coast Guard has a dual role
cedures, and equipment for air defense that is unique among the services. By statute,
from land areas, including the continental organization, and operation, the Coast Guard is
United States. a military service and a branch of the armed forces
always; but normally it operates as a service in
To formulate doctrines and procedures for the Department of Transportation. In time of war
organizing, equipping, training, and or when the President so directs, it becomes a
employing Air Force troops. service in the Navy but continues to perform its
normal specialized duties.
To provide an organization capable of The Coast Guard is the nation’s oldest
furnishing adequate, timely, and reliable continuous seagoing service. Established in 1790
intelligence for the Air Force. as the United States Revenue Marine (later
renamed the Revenue Cutter Service), the service
To furnish aerial photography for car-
was an arm of the Treasury Department, under
tographic purposes.
then Secretary Alexander Hamilton.
To develop tactics, techniques, and equip- The Revenue Marine was primarily a law
ment for amphibious operations in enforcement agency. Its responsibility was to
coordination with other U.S. military collect custom duties from ships entering United
services. States waters.
Although the original role of the service was
To develop doctrines, procedures, and law enforcement, revenue cutters and crews took
equipment employed by Air Force troops part in almost every conflict involving the United
in airborne operations with other U.S. States. These involvements established the military
military services. readiness of the service.

11-9
 In the mid-1800s Congress established the U.S. • Marine environmental protection to
Lifesaving Service, an organization of local prevent and contain spills of oil and other
stations scattered along the U.S. coast. Shortly hazardous substances
after the turn of the century, the Lifesaving
Service and the Revenue Cutter Service merged Because the Coast Guard is a military
to form the U.S. Coast Guard. This merger service—one that has ships, planes, and boats—it
provided the Coast Guard with its traditional also has a military readiness mission. The Coast
image—the lifesavers. Guard works closely with the Navy, undergoes
regular refresher training for its major cutters, and
In 1939 the Coast Guard joined the Light- participates in joint operational exercises.
house Service and assumed the responsibility With the advent of World War II, the Coast
for establishing and maintaining aids to nav- Guard assumed the responsibilities of in-port
igation in U.S. waters. This responsibility safety and security and commercial vessel safety.
has grown to such an extent that today the The Coast Guard has continued to grow and
Coast Guard maintains nearly 50,000 navigational shoulder additional responsibilities. In the last
aids, including worldwide electronic navigation 30 years, the Coast Guard has acquired respon-
systems. sibilities for polar and domestic ice breaking,
cleanup and protection of the marine environ-
ment, and recreational boating safety. In 1967 the
MISSION Coast Guard became part of the newly formed
Department of Transportation.
The mission of the U.S. Coast Guard is
twofold. During peacetime the Coast Guard’s In wartime the U.S. Coast Guard has always
modern-day mission is an interesting mixture. served with pride. Today, during a wartime
Various peacetime roles include the following: condition, the U.S. Coast Guard would operate
directly under the Chief of Naval Operations. It
• Enforcement of maritime laws and treaties would still have the same mission as it did during
World War II, plus added roles. The Coast Guard
• Search and rescue operations would assume convoy duties as well as anti-
submarine warfare missions. Its cutters are well
• Enforcement of U.S. drug and contraband suited for convoy duties as they have a long
cruising range and room for armament.
laws
The air search and rescue section of the Coast
• Installation and maintenance of aids to Guard would fly rescue missions and would also
navigation be used for reconnaissance flights. They also
would be used as antisubmarine aircraft. The
• Ice-breaking operations that keep commer- Coast Guard’s mission in wartime would strain
cial vessel traffic moving in domestic its limited assets.
waters and support scientific research in
the Arctic and Antarctica
FUNCTION
As the primary maritime law enforcement
agency of the United States, the Coast Guard is The primary functions of the Coast Guard are
responsible for enforcing maritime regulatory laws as follows:
concerning the following:
Enforcing all applicable federal laws upon
Safety regulations for all U.S. commercial the high seas and in waters that are
vessels, offshore structures, and recreational subject to the jurisdiction of the United
boating States

Port safety and security, including ports, Safeguarding against destruction or loss
harbors, and their approaches from sabotage or other subversive acts all
vessels, harbors, ports, and waterfront
The movement of vessels in ports and facilities in the United States and its
waterways during crisis situations territories

11-10
 Extending medical aid to crews of vessels THE NAVY DEPARTMENT
at sea, caring for and transporting
shipwrecked and destitute persons, and The Navy Department assists the Secretary of
engaging in flood-relief work the Navy in carrying out the responsibilities of that
office. SECNAV is responsible, under the
Removing and destroying derelicts, Secretary of Defense, for the policies and control
wrecks, and other dangers to navigation, of the Navy. This includes its organization,
and assisting marine commerce by opening administration, operation, and efficiency. The
ice-blocked channels and ports Navy Department includes the Undersecretary of
the Navy, Assistant Secretaries, the Chief of Naval
Investigating marine disasters Operations, the Commandant of the Marine
Corps, and the Judge Advocate General.
Regulating the transportation of explosives Remember, the Department of the Navy is the
on vessels entire organization, which includes the Navy
Department, the shore establishment, and the
Issuing and enforcing the rules for lights, operating forces. The Navy Department, which
signals, speed, steering, sailing, passing, is only one part of the Department of the
anchorage, movement, and towlines of Navy, is an administrative group that assists
vessels SECNAV.

Establishing and maintaining marine aids

to navigation such as lighthouses, lights, Chief of Naval Operations
radio beacons, radio direction-finder
stations, buoys, and Vessel Traffic Services The Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) is the
(VTSs), as required to serve the needs of senior military officer of the Department of the
commerce and of the armed forces Navy. The CNO takes precedence over all other
officers of the naval service, except an officer of
Conducting surveillance operations for the the naval service who is serving as Chairman of
preservation of marine life and the the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The CNO is the
prevention of environmental pollution principal naval adviser to the President and
to the Secretary of the Navy on the conduct
Conducting operations for drug of the activities of the Department of the
interdiction Navy. The Chief of Naval Operations is the
Navy member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
The CNO is responsible for keeping the
Secretary of the Navy fully informed on
DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY matters considered or acted upon by the
Joint Chiefs of Staff. As a member of the
The Department of the Navy (fig. 11-3) is Joint Chiefs of Staff, the CNO is responsible
made up of the Navy Department (the executive to the President and the Secretary of Defense
offices); Headquarters, United States Marine for duties external to the Department of the Navy
Corps; and all operating forces of the Navy and as prescribed by law.
Marine Corps and their Reserve components. It The Chief of Naval Operations, under the
also includes all shore (field) activities, head- direction of the Secretary of the Navy, exercises
quarters, forces, bases, installations, and other command over the operating forces of the Navy
activities under the control or supervision of the (consistent with the operational command vested
Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV). in the commanders of unified or specified
combatant commands). These forces include the
Notice, on the left of the figure, that the several fleets, seagoing forces, Fleet Marine
Department of the Navy is divided into three Forces, Military Sealift Command, and other
major sections: the Navy Department, the shore forces and activities as may be assigned by the
establishment, and the operating forces. President or SECNAV. The CNO also exercises
command over the Bureau of Naval Personnel
The mission and function of the Navy were and such shore activities as may be assigned by
described in chapter 1. the Secretary of the Navy. In addition, the Chief

11-11
11-12
 Figure 11-4.—Office of the Chief of Naval Operations.

of Naval Operations has the following specific • To monitor the Department of the Navy to
responsibilities: determine and maintain efficiency,
discipline, and readiness
• To organize, train, equip, prepare, and
maintain the readiness of Navy • To determine the need for and to
operational forces provide for the conduct of research,
development, testing, and evaluation
• To determine and direct the efforts that meets long-range objectives,
necessary to fulfill current and future immediate requirements, and fiscal
requirements of the Navy for manpower, limitations
material, weapons, facilities, and services
• To formulate Navy strategic plans and
• To exercise leadership in maintaining a high policies and participate in the formulation
degree of competence among Navy officers of joint and combined strategic plans and
and enlisted and civilian personnel policies

• To maintain the morale and motivation of • To budget for commands and offices
Navy personnel and the prestige of a assigned to the command of the Chief of
Navy career Naval Operations and other activities and
programs as assigned
• To plan and provide health care for personnel
of the naval service and their dependents As shown in figure 11-4, staff assistants,
the Vice CNO and the Vice CNO’s assistant,
• To direct the organization, Directors of Major Staff Offices (DMSOs), and
administration, training, and support of Deputy Chiefs of Naval Operations aid the CNO
the Naval Reserve in carrying out these responsibilities. One of the

11-13
principal assistants and advisers to the CNO is the MCPON also travels extensively throughout the
master chief petty officer of the Navy (MCPON). fleet and serves as the Navy enlisted representative
of the Department of the Navy at special events,
The Master Chief Petty Officer celebrations, and ceremonies.
of the Navy 4. The MCPON makes recommendations to
help develop effective leadership and training at
The office of the master chief petty officer of all enlisted levels and to help attain high standards
the Navy was established upon a recommendation of conduct and general appearance within the
derived from the Secretary of the Navy’s task enlisted community. The MCPON acts at all times
force on Navy/Marine Corps personnel retention to maintain and promote the chain of command
in 1966. The function of the office was to provide and its associated chain of communications,
a direct, unofficial channel of communication Further, the MCPON is concerned with existing
between enlisted personnel and the senior policy or potential situations, procedures, and practices
level of the Department of the Navy. With a tour that affect the use, morale, retention, career
length established at 4 years, the office was enhancement, human goals programs, and general
formally established 1 March 1967. well-being of the enlisted men and women of the
The charter of the master chief petty officer Navy and their dependents.
of the Navy outlines the specific duties of the
MCPON as follows: The MCPON does not work alone. Assisted
by a staff, the MCPON relies on the quality and
1. The MCPON is assigned to the immediate experience of the fleet, force, and command
Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. master chiefs. With their solid support, the
The MCPON serves as the senior enlisted MCPON carries out the duties of the office.
representative of the Navy and acts as the primary
enlisted adviser to the CNO. The MCPON advises
the Chief of Naval Personnel in all matters THE SHORE ESTABLISHMENT
pertaining to both active-duty and retired enlisted
members and their dependents. To list and describe every type of shore
2. The MCPON serves in an advisory capacity activity operated by the Navy is beyond the scope
on various boards pertaining to enlisted members, of this manual. Primarily, the major shore
including: commands (fig. 11-5) are responsible for training,
supplying, maintaining, and supporting the
• Board of Managers, Navy Relief operating forces. They accomplish this through
Society the delivery of materials, services, and personnel
to the operating forces. All of the major shore
• Board of Administrators of the Central commands answer directly to the Chief of Naval
Nonappropriated Funds Operations in carrying out their missions.

• Board of Equal Opportunity for

Women THE OPERATING FORCES

• Rating Review Board The operating forces of the Navy are combat
or combat-support oriented. Combatant and
• Navy Wives Club of America (Liaison) certain supporting forces are assigned under the
commander of a unified or specified command.
• Fleet Reserve Association (Liaison) The operating forces of the Navy (fig. 11-6) in-
clude the following:
• Navy Resale System Advisory Board
1. The Pacific and Atlantic fleets, including
3. The MCPON, when called upon, testifies forces and commands by type as follows:
before congressional committees and subcommit- a. Fleet Marine Forces
tees. The MCPON also accompanies the Chief of b. Naval Air Forces
Naval Operations and the Chief of Naval Person- c. Naval Surface Forces
nel on occasional official trips and the Navy d. Submarine Forces
Inspector General on selected inspection trips. The e. Training Commands

11-14
 Figure 11-5.—The major shore commands.

Figure 11-6.—Operating forces reporting to the CNO.

2. U.S. Naval Forces Europe 7. U.S. Naval Forces Central Command

3. Mine Warfare Command 8. U.S. Naval Forces Southern Command

4. Military Sealift Command 9. Shore activities of the Department of the

Navy assigned to the operating forces.
5. Operational Test and Evaluation Force
The operating forces have two organizational
6. Naval Reserve Force chains of command: a permanent administrative

11-15
Figure 11-7.—Administrative chain of command for operating units.

Figure 11-8.—Operational chain of command.

11-16
chain and a task-oriented operational chain that The operating forces are responsible for naval
can be structured to meet particular requirements. operations necessary to carry out the department’s
Fleet organization can be illustrated by these role in upholding and advancing the national
chains, as shown in figures 11-7 and 11-8. For an policies and interests of the United States.
example, a destroyer may administratively belong
to a squadron (DESRON) that is part of a cruiser-
destroyer group (CRUDESGRU), which, in turn,
is part of the surface force (SURFLANT) that SUMMARY
reports to the Commander in Chief, Atlantic Fleet
(CINCLANTFLT). Operationally the same Organization is not a new concept. In its
destroyer may be deployed as part of a task simplest form, organization is the orderly
element, unit, group, and force that is part of the arrangement of assets. As a naval officer, you
Seventh Fleet answering to the Commander in must understand the organization of our Navy.
Chief, Pacific Fleet (CINCPACFLT). Our Constitution authorized the building and
A task force is a subdivision of a fleet support of our Navy as well as the Army. The
composed of several types of ships according to Constitution also stated that the President of the
operational necessity. Thus, a task force may United States would be the commander in chief
include battleships, aircraft carriers, cruisers, of the Army and Navy. You have read the
amphibious craft, and auxiliary vessels such as examples of Presidential acts that exemplify the
tenders or supply ships. When a fleet is large power of the commander in chief.
enough and its duties are extensive enough to In 1949 the National Security Act (NSA) was
require division into many task forces, the task amended, thus establishing the Department of
forces are usually grouped into task fleets. A task Defense as we know it today. This act established
force (TF) is divided into task groups (TGs). Task the position of Secretary of Defense and gave the
groups are assigned numbers corresponding to the position presidential cabinet rank. The NSA also
particular task force of which they area part. For established the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS). The
instance, TF 77 may have a task group assigned Joint Chiefs of Staff are the top individuals from
to reconnaissance, and its designated number will each service who advise the Secretary of Defense
be TG 77.3. Task groups may be even further and the President on all military matters. The
subdivided into task units (TUs) and task elements naval representative is the Chief of Naval
(TEs). For example: TU 77.3.1 is Task Unit 1 of Operations (CNO). The CNO is a member of the
Task Group 3 of Task Force 7 of the Seventh Department of the Navy (DON), and so are you.
Fleet. The Department of the Navy is composed of
Fleet Marine Forces are type commands under three major parts: the Navy Department, the
the administrative control of the Commandant of shore establishment, and the operating forces.
the Marine Corps. These forces operate under the From this chapter, you can follow the chain
respective fleet commander in chief as do other of command from your activity to the commander
type commands. in chief. You can also see how the other branches
The Military Sealift Command, operated by of the military fit into this chain. as well as their
the Navy for all armed services, consists of ships, mission and functions, thus covering the basic
tankers, and commercial vessels manned by civil defense structure of our nation.
service and contract personnel. The prime
mission of the Military Sealift Command is to
provide immediate sealift capability in an
emergency. These ships transport service person- REFERENCES
nel, their dependents, combat troops, and material
throughout the world. Military Requirements for Petty Officer First
A shore activity may be placed under the Class, NAVEDTRA 12046, Naval Education
command of the operating forces if it is outside and Training Program Management Support
the jurisdiction of an area coordinator or if it Activity, Pensacola, Fla., 1991.
provides support only to units of operating forces.
Some of the activities so assigned include naval Military Requirements for Petty Officer Second
air facilities, communication facilities, naval and Class, NAVEDTRA 12045, Naval Education
submarine bases, ship repair facilities, naval repair and Training Program Management Support
facilities, and supply depots. Activity, Pensacola, Fla., 1991.

11-17
Military Requirements for Petty Officer Third The United States Government Manual 1989/90,
Class, NAVEDTRA 12044, Naval Education Office of the Federal Register, National
and Training Program Management Support Archives and Records Administration, Wash-
Activity, Pensacola, Fla., 1991. ington, D.C., 1989.

Military Requirements for Senior and Master

Chief Petty Officer, NAVEDTRA 12048, SUGGESTED READING
Naval Education and Training Program
Management Support Activity, Pensacola, Mack, W.P., and T.D. Paulsen, The Naval
Fla., 1991. Officer’s Guide, 9th ed., Naval Institute Press,
Annapolis, Md., 1983.
United States Department of Defense, Functions
of the Department of Defense and Its Major U.S. Department of Defense, The Armed Forces
Components, DoD Directive 5100.1, Office of Officer, DoD GEN-36A, American Forces
the Secretary of Defense, Washington, D.C., Information Services, Washington, D.C.,
1987. 1988.

SEA CHANTIES
SEA CHANTIES WERE SONGS SUNG IN THE DAYS OF SAIL BY CREWS AS
THEY WORKED AT HEAVING THE LINES OR TURNING THE CAPSTAN. THE
SONGS’ RHYTHMS CAUSED EVERYONE TO PUSH OR PULL SIMULTANEOUSLY,
HENCE CAUSING A CONCERTED EFFORT AND BETTER RESULTS.
SOME BELIEVE THE TERM IS A DERIVATION OF THE FRENCH WORD
“CHANTER” WHICH MEANS “TO SING. ” OTHERS MAINTAIN THE SPELLING
SHOULD BE “SHANTIES,” CLAIMING THE NAME REFERS TO THE SHANTIES
ALONG THE MOBILE, ALA. WATERFRONT WHERE MANY OF THE TUNES WERE
LEARNED BY SAILORS.
WHATEVER THE ORIGIN, CHANTIES WERE DIVIDED INTO THREE DISTINCT
CLASSES. SHORT-DRAG CHANTIES, USED WHEN A FEW STRONG PULLS WERE
NEEDED; LONG-DRAG CHANTIES, LONGER SONGS TO SPEED THE WORK OF
LONG-HAUL JOBS; AND HEAVING CHANTIES, USED FOR JOBS REQURING
CONTINUOUS ACTION SUCH AS TURNING THE CAPSTAN.
ONE MAN, THE CHANTY-MAN, STOOD HIGH ABOVE THE WORKING CREW AND
SANG THE MAIN LINES WHILE THE REST OF THE CREW ADDED THEIR
VOICES STRONGLY ON THE SECOND LINE. ON THE LAST WORD, A COM-
BINED PULL MADE THE ROPES “COME HOME.”
A GOOD CHANTY-MAN WAS HIGHLY PRIZED BY OFFICERS AND CREW ALIKE.
ALTHOUGH HE HAD NO OFFICIAL TITLE OR RATE, HE WAS USUALLY RELIEVED
OF ALL DUTIES TO COMPOSE NEW VERSES FOR SEA CHANTIES.

11-18
 CHAPTER 12

COMPONENTS OF THE NAVY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the basic parts of fixed-wing and 8. Describe the capabilities of Navy ships to
rotary-wing aircraft. counter enemy missiles.

2. Describe the method of identification of 9. Identify the roles of surface ships, aircraft,
various types of naval aircraft.
and submarines in antisubmarine warfare.
3. Identify the various aircraft used by the Navy.
10. Describe the shipboard antisubmarine war-
4. Describe the planning and conduct of an air fare organization.
strike.
11. Describe how sonar is used in the detection
5. Describe the capabilities and the Navy’s use of submarines.
of surface action groups.

6. Explain the Navy’s role in fire support 12. Identify the phases of an amphibious
missions. operation.

7. Explain the role of combat air patrol aircraft 13. Identify the methods of communication used
in antiair warfare. by the Navy.

Essential to the Navy in the performance of 26 Oct. 1922 First carrier landing occurs on a
its mission are various components and warfare ship underway aboard USS
areas. In this chapter, we discuss some of these Langley. First catapult launch
components and warfare areas and some of the from an aircraft carrier occurs
organizations that assist in their planning and 1 month later.
operations. We discuss other branches or elements
of the Navy that also provide support to these 28 Nov. 1929 LCDR Richard E. Byrd makes
components and warfare areas in other chapters. first flight over South Pole;
becomes the first pilot to fly over
both Poles.
NAVAL AVIATION
SIGNIFICANT DATES 23 Jul. 1947 First delivery of a “pure-jet”
fighter, the FJ-1 Phantom, to a
4 Mar. 1911 Congress provides $25,000 to de- Navy squadron takes place.
velop aviation for naval purposes.
9 Apr. 1959 Under Project Mercury, the
8 May 1911 Navy orders first airplane.
astronaut program selects four
20 Jan. 1914 Navy establishes first school for navaI aviators among seven
naval air training in Pensacola, persons as prospective astro-
Florida. nauts.

12-1
 The history of naval aviation goes back to the The fuselage is the main body of the aircraft,
turn of the century when an Army-Navy board containing the cockpit and, if there is one, the
studied designs for the Langley “flying machine.” cabin. On virtually all naval fighter and attack
Afterward, members of the board agreed that aircraft operational today, engines are mounted
aircraft could be developed for use in warfare. within the fuselage, as are some of the fuel tanks.
The first naval officer selected for flight Wings are the primary lifting devices of an
training was Lieutenant T.G. Ellyson. In aircraft, although the fuselage and tail provide
December 1910 Ellyson received orders to undergo some lift. Several devices located on the trailing
instruction with Glenn Curtiss, producer of the (rear) edge of the wings help control the aircraft.
first practical hydroplane. Curtiss also trained the Flaps give extra lift on takeoff and slow the
pilot who made the first shipboard takeoff from aircraft in flight or landing. Ailerons control
USS Birmingham in 1910—Eugene Ely. Ely later the roll, or bank, of the aircraft. Trim tabs
made the first successful aircraft landing on the aerodynamically unload the control surfaces to
deck of a ship, the armored cruiser Pennsylvania. relieve some of the pilot’s work.
In July 1911 the Navy received its first Auxiliary lifting devices, resembling flaps,
airplanes—a Wright landplane for training and located on the leading (front) edge of the wing
a Curtiss hydroplane. The next year Lieutenant increase the camber (curvature) of the wing for
Ellyson proved the feasibility of the newly added lift on takeoff.
devised compressed-air catapult by flying a plane Most Navy jet aircraft carry their bomb loads
shot from a barge. on pylons (called stations) under the wings and,
From that time until the present, the Navy has in some cases, under the fuselage. Some jets have
tried four distinct approaches to integrating missile stations on the sides of the fuselage. Fuel
aeronautics with the fleet. It has used carriers, cells are fitted inside the wings; additional tanks
flying boats, lighter-than-air craft, and pontoon are fitted on the outside of the wings for extra
aircraft that operated from noncarrier ships. range. Larger jets may have their engines slung
Using these approaches has taken naval aviation beneath the wings in pods. On some low-wing air-
through two eras. During the first era propeller- craft, the main landing gear retracts into the wings
driven combat aircraft flew from small, straight- while the nose wheel retracts into the fuselage. On
deck carriers while pontoon planes operated from most high-wing aircraft, such as the A-7, all gears
large men-o-war. Great flying boats flew antisub- retract into the fuselage.
marine warfare (ASW) patrols and were serviced The empennage consists of the stabilizing fins
by seaplane tenders, and huge rigid and nonrigid mounted on the tail section of the fuselage. The
lighter-than-air craft roamed the skies. The second vertical stabilizer, upon which is generally
era exists today. This era of modern naval mounted the rudder, controls yaw (the direction
aviation consists of jet-powered aircraft; giant of the nose about the vertical axis). The horizon-
carriers; helicopters; and large, long-range patrol tal stabilizer, on the trailing edge of which are the
planes. During both of these eras, naval aviation elevators, determines the pitch (climb or dive).
has enjoyed success. Some supersonic aircraft may have a full delta
Soon after the attack on Pearl Harbor on wing. These aircraft have no horizontal stabilizer,
7 December 1941, American carriers dispelled any and their elevators and ailerons are combined
doubts about the effectiveness of shipboard into control surfaces called elevons. In aircraft
aviation. Carriers that fortunately were absent with internally mounted jet engines, exhausts are
from the scene that fateful morning delivered normally located in the tail. High-performance
forceful retaliatory blows on enemy installations jets have afterburners that give additional thrust
in the Pacific. at the cost of greatly increased fuel consumption.
Naval aviation has come a long way since its Rudder, ailerons, and elevators are collectively
beginning in 1910. As naval aircraft have become grouped as control surfaces. The ailerons and
increasingly more advanced over the years, they elevators are controlled by the “stick” or a similar
have been used in many ways. Today’s naval device in the cockpit. The rudder is controlled by
aircraft fall under one of two categories: fixed foot pedals. On high-performance aircraft, aero-
wing or rotary wing. dynamic pressures on these surfaces become too
great for a pilot to overcome manually; hence,
FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT
all high-speed models today have power-assisted
A fixed-wing aircraft maybe divided into three controls. Figure 12-1 shows representative types
basic parts: fuselage, wings, and empennage. of fixed-wing aircraft.

12-2
12-3
Fighter Class Attack Class

Fighters are high-performance aircraft Although attack planes are used for low-level
generally employed to gain air superiority. They bombing, ground support, or nuclear strikes, they
may be deployed defensively as interceptors, do not need the speed of fighters. They have good
offensively as escorts for bombers or during stability, can carry heavy payloads, and can carry
ground support missions, or independently to enough fuel to remain on station long enough to
counter enemy aircraft. Some are capable of render extended support to troops, if needed.
carrying sufficient payloads for collateral bomb- Attack aircraft normally operate under conditions
ing missions. of good visibility, but the A-6 has the equipment
needed for all-weather and night attacks.
F-14A TOMCAT. —The F-14A Tomcat is a
supersonic, twin-engine, variable-sweeping wing, A-6E INTRUDER. —The A-6E is an all-
two-place fighter. It replaced the venerable F-4 weather, two-seat, subsonic, carrier-based attack
Phantom II series of fleet air defense fighters (the aircraft. It is equipped with a microminiaturized
last one of which was phased out in 1986). It can digital computer; a solid-state weapons release
track up to 24 targets simultaneously with its system; and a single, integrated track and search
advanced AWG-9 weapons control system. It can radar. The target recognition attack multisensory
attack six targets with Phoenix (AIM-54A) (TRAM) version of the A-6E was introduced to
missiles, while continuing to scan the airspace. Its the fleet in 1979. It is equipped with a chin turret
armament also includes a mix of other air containing a forward-looking infrared (FLIR)
intercept missiles, rockets, and bombs. F-14s system and a laser designator and receiver.
provided air cover for the joint strike on Libyan The A-6E again proved it is the best all-
terrorist-related targets in 1986. weather precision bomber in the world in the joint
The F-14 is the world’s foremost all-weather, strike on Libyan terrorist-related targets in 1986.
day-night fleet air defense fighter. The F-14A was With Air Force FB-111s, A-6E Intruders
introduced in the mid-1970s. The upgraded penetrated the sophisticated Libyan air defense
F-14A+ version, with its new GE F-110 engines, systems. Since the Libyan air defense system had
is now widespread throughout the fleet. It is more been alerted by the high level of diplomatic
than a match for threat fighters in the close-in, tension and by rumors of impending attacks, it
air combat arena. The follow-on F-14D is was ready to retaliate. Although the strike force
designed to close emerging gaps in the carrier had to evade over 100 guided missiles while
battle group’s outer air capability against new- flying at low levels in complete darkness, it
generation Soviet bombers and cruise missiles. delivered laser-guided and other types of ordnance
on target.
F/A-18 HORNET. —The single-seat F/A-18
Hornet is the nation’s first strike fighter, It was A-7E CORSAIR II. —The A-7E Corsair II is
designed for traditional strike applications, such the current fleet version of the A-7. After more
as interdiction and close air support, without than two decades of service, however, it is due
compromising its fighter capabilities. With its to be replaced by the F/A-18 Hornet. The A-7E
excellent fighter and self-defense capabilities, the has a 20-mm gun, can carry payloads of up to
F/A-18 concurrently increases strike mission 15,000 pounds of bombs and missiles, and has
survivability and supplements the F-14 Tomcat eight ordnance stations.
in fleet air defense. It thus acts as a true force
multiplier, providing operational commanders the A-7E Corsair IIs were part of the two-carrier
flexibility to employ it in either its fighter or its battle group that conducted a joint strike on
attack role. selected Libyan terrorist-related targets in 1986.
F/A-18s can operate both from aircraft Together with carrier-based F/A-18s, A-7s used
carriers and ground bases. They were part of the antiradiation missiles to neutralize Libyan air
two-carrier battle force that conducted a joint defenses.
strike on selected Libyan terrorist-related targets F/A-18s are scheduled to replace A-7Es in the
in 1986. They provided fleet air defense and, carrier air wings. The last two A-7E squadrons
together with carrier-based A-7 Corsairs, used are scheduled to make the transition in fiscal year
antiradiation missiles to neutralize air defenses. 1992.

12-4
 AV-8B HARRIER. —The AV-8B is a single- E-2 aircraft also have worked effectively
engine, single-crew-member aircraft capable of with U.S. law enforcement agencies in drug
vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) interdiction operations.
operations. Operated by the U.S. Marine Corps, The E-2C replaces the E-2B, an earlier version.
it was designed to be highly responsive to the E-2C aircraft entered U.S. Navy service in
needs of ground forces for close air support. Its November 1973.
V/STOL capability enables it to operate from
relatively unprepared sites close to the action,
EA-6B PROWLER. —The EA-6B Prowler is
thus increasing its sortie rate. It also can operate
a four-seat derivative of the highly successful A-6
from U.S. Navy amphibious assault ships. The
Intruder medium attack aircraft. Among its
AV-8B is built primarily by McDonnell Aircraft
features are a computer-controlled electronic
Company, a division of McDonnell-Douglas
surveillance and control system and high-power
Corporation, with major contributions by British
jamming transmitters in various frequency bands.
Aerospace. The predecessor to the AV-8B, the
The jamming transmitters are contained in pods
British Aerospace’s AV-8C, was introduced to the
mounted externally on the five aircraft pylons.
U.S. Marine Corps in 1969. The British version
Aircraft capabilities can be varied throughout the
of the aircraft saw a great deal of action during
frequency spectrum by varying the mix of
the 1982 Falklands War.
jamming transmitters on the aircraft.
EA-6B Prowlers played an important role in
the joint strike on Libyan terrorist-related targets
Other Fixed-Wing Aircraft
in 1986. Working with Air Force EF-111 Ravens,
Navy and Marine Corps Prowlers jammed Libyan
The Navy uses different aircraft in various
air defense surveillance. That enabled carrier-
roles, ranging from early warning to submarine
launched Navy A-6E Intruders and land-based Air
patrol. Some of these aircraft are discussed in the
Force FB-111s to put their ordnance on target.
following paragraphs.
An EA-6B improved-capability (ICAP II)
aircraft modernization program is underway to
E-2C HAWKEYE. —The E-2C Hawkeye is upgrade the entire EA-6B inventory. The first
the U.S. Navy’s all-weather, carrier-based tactical ICAP II-equipped EA-6B squadron provided
airborne warning and control system platform. flawless coverage for the joint USS Saratoga and
An integral component of the carrier air wing, the Carrier Air Wing 17 HARM missile strike against
E-2C carries three primary sensors: radar, Libya. ICAP II includes an inertial navigation
identification friend or foe (IFF), and a passive system, the universal exciter jamming pod,
detection system. These sensors are integrated updated displays, and the ability to interface with
with a general-purpose computer. This computer computerized mission planning systems. It
enables the E-2C to provide early warning, threat provides the latest equipment to meet current and
analyses, and control of counteraction against air projected threats.
and surface targets. The E-2C incorporates the
latest solid-state electronics.
P-3C ORION. —The P-3C is a land-based,
F-14 Tomcat fighters provided combat air long-range antisubmarine warfare (ASW) patrol
patrol during the two-carrier battle group joint aircraft. It has advanced submarine detection
strike against terrorist-related Libyan targets in sensors such as the directional frequency and
1986. The carrier-based E-2C Hawkeye directed ranging (DIFAR) sonobuoys and magnetic
the F-14 Tomcat fighters during the strike and anomaly detection (MAD) equipment. The
during the crisis periods preceding and following avionics system is integrated with a general-
the strike. E-2Cs and Aegis cruisers, working purpose digital computer. This computerized
together, provided total air mass superiority over system supports all of the tactical displays and
the American fleet. American aircraft intercepted monitors and automatically launches ordnance,
153 Libyan air force attempts to overfly the U.S. while providing flight information to the pilots.
fleet, intercept the U.S. fighter combat air patrol, In addition, the system coordinates navigation
or gather intelligence information. Not once did information and accepts sensor data inputs for
a Libyan aircraft get into firing position before tactical display and storage. The P-3C can carry
a U.S. aircraft or Aegis platform missile locked a mixed payload of weapons internally and on
it into its sight. wing pylons.

12-5
 S-3A VIKING. —The S-3A Viking is a carrier- Since World War II, rotary-wing aircraft have
based, subsonic, all-weather, long-range, high- become an indispensable part of naval warfare.
endurance, turbofan-powered aircraft. It can Their applications seem limitless—ASW; pilot
locate and destroy enemy submarines, including rescue; transfer of supplies, mail, and personnel
newer high-speed, deep-submergence, quiet- within dispersed forces; amphibious warfare;
running submarines. The S-3A operates primarily evacuation of wounded; counterinsurgency;
in the middle and outer carrier battle group anti- minesweeping; and others. Representative types
submarine warfare (ASW) zones with other ASW are shown in figure 12-2.
units—surface, airborne, and subsurface. It also
can operate independently or in tandem with its SH-2F Seasprite
long-range, land-based ASW partner, the P-3
Orion. Weapons carried by the S-3A include The Seasprite is a ship-based antisubmarine
various combinations of torpedoes, depth charges, warfare (ASW) and antiship surveillance and
missiles, rockets, and special weapons. targeting (ASST) helicopter. The SH-2F is
equipped with a search radar, electronic support
ROTARY-WING AIRCRAFT measures, magnetic anomaly detectors, and an
acoustic data link. The helicopter also carries
The aerodynamics of rotary-wing aircraft are active and passive sonobuoys.
considerably more complex than those of fixed- The prototype Seasprite flew for the first
wing aircraft. A helicopter essentially consists of time in 1959. Since then, many versions have
a fuselage, a main rotor or rotors, and often a been produced for the Navy under its light
tail rotor. The fuselage, as in fixed-wing craft, airborne multipurpose system (LAMPS) program
contains the cockpit and cabin. to provide helicopters for ASW and ASST
The main rotor is the approximate equivalent operations.
of the wing of a fixed-wing aircraft; each rotor
blade is an airfoil, like a wing. The rotation of SH-3H Sea King
the main rotor assembly creates a flow of air over The SH-3H is a twin-engine, all-weather, ship-
the blades that generates lift. The aerodynamic based ASW helicopter. It is equipped with
forces on the rotor lift the helicopter into the air; variable depth sonar, sonobuoys, data link, chaff,
it is not pushed up by the downwash. Some and a tactical navigation system.
helicopters have twin rotors in tandem at either The first version of this workhorse ASW
end of the fuselage. Most have a single, main rotor helicopter was flown more than 20 years ago.
with a tail rotor mounted at right angles. A few The current model is equipped with sonar, active
have tandem intermeshing rotors. and passive sonar buoys, and magnetic anomaly
The tail rotor (on helicopters that have one) detection equipment.
provides directional control and stability. It is The Sea King, also used by some squadrons
mounted at right angles to the main rotor to for search and rescue missions, is being replaced
counteract the torque of that system. By varying by the SH-60F Seahawk.
the pitch of the tail rotor blades, the pilot
controls yaw. By effectively tilting the entire main UH-46/CH-46 Sea Knight
rotor, the pilot determines the pitch and roll. By
simultaneously increasing the pitch on all blades The Sea Knight is another example of a
on the main rotor, the pilot causes the helicopter durable and versatile aircraft that still provides
to climb. (The pitch is essentially how large a bite valuable service more than two decades after its
of air the blades take, as distinct from aircraft first flight. Both the Navy and the Marine Corps
pitch.) have flown various versions of it. The Navy has
A transmission, which may be disengaged, used the UH/CH-46 for vertical replenishment,
connects the helicopter engines to the rotor and the Marine Corps has used the CH-46 for
shaft(s). That permits operation of the engine(s) troop transport. Both the Navy and Marine Corps
on the ground without engagement of the rotor have used the CH-46 for search and rescue (SAR).
system and a mode of flight known as auto- The Sea Knight can carry approximately 6,000
rotation. If the engines should stop while in flight, pounds of cargo in a sling beneath the fuselage.
the pilot can disengage the transmission; the The CH-46E has been modified with much more
freewheeling action of the rotor will then allow powerful engines than earlier Navy and Marine
a slower descent. Corps versions.

12-6
12-7
CH-53A/D Sea Stallion SH-60B Seahawk

The CH-53A/D assault/heavy-lift helicopter The SH-60B Seahawk is the air subsystem of
prototype first flew in 1964. A Navy aerial the LAMPS Mk III weapons system. LAMPS Mk
minesweeping version, the RH-53D, is basically III is a computer-integrated ship/helicopter
a CH-53A/D with upgraded engines and special system that increases the effectiveness of surface
minesweeping gear. combatants. It does that by providing a remote
platform for deployment of sonobuoys and
CH-53E Super Stallion torpedoes and an elevated platform for radar and
electronic support measures. It also increases
The CH-53E Super Stallion is a shipboard- effectiveness by processing magnetic anomaly
compatible helicopter. It is configured for the lift detector sensor information.
and movement of cargo and troops/passengers
internally and the lift of heavy, oversized SH-60B Seahawk helicopters provided com-
equipment externally. The Navy uses this aircraft munications relay and visual surveillance services
for six missions: vertical onboard delivery during the two-carrier battle group joint strike on
(VOD) augmentation, transfer of damaged selected terrorist-related Libyan targets in 1986.
aircraft, mobile construction support, high- The new SH-60F, designed to operate from
priority container transportation, nuclear weapons carriers, is replacing the SH-3H as the carrier
transportation, and airborne mine counter- battle group inner antisubmarine warfare zone
measures (AMCM). The Marine Corps also uses helicopter. It employs a new, longer-range active
the CH-53 for certain missions. They include dipping sonar in addition to sonobuoys to track
tactical movement of heavy weapons and equip- and attack submarines. Also incorporated are
ment, amphibious assault operations, recovery of significant improvements in reliability and
downed aircraft (to include self-retrieval), maintainability, plus vastly improved tactical
V/STOL support, and special operations. capabilities.
The great lifting capacity of the CH-53 makes
it capable of lifting some of the Marine Corps’
heavier weapons systems. It can lift systems such AIRCRAFT MODEL DESIGNATIONS
as the M-198 Howitzer and the different variants
of the new light armored vehicle (LAV). Because All aircraft have tri-service designations. A
of this lift capacity, the CH-53 provides greater given aircraft bears the same alphanumeric
assault capability. identification symbol regardless of whether the
The range payload capability of the Super Navy, Army, or Air Force uses the craft.
Stallion gives it the ability to perform special
operations in support of the rapid deployment Each basic designator consists of a letter and
force. a number. The letter specifies the basic mission
The MH-53E Sea Dragon is a multimission of the aircraft as follows:
variant of the CH-53E and has significantly
enhanced AMCM capability over the current A—Attack R—Reconnaissance
Navy RH-53D helicopter. The AMCM improve-
ments enhance the aircraft’s capability to perform B—Bomber S —Antisubmarine
utility and special missions by significantly
increasing range and navigation capability. The C—Cargo/transport T—Trainer
combined nomenclature designation of both
aircraft is the CH/MH-53E. E —Special electronic U—Utility
Weighing 73,500 pounds, the CH/MH-53E is installation
the largest helicopter in the western world. Its lift
capacity provides increased military capabilities. F —Fighter V—VTOL or STOL
It can deliver an external cargo of 16 tons within (vertical or
a 50-nautical-mile radius and can make a VOD H—Helicopter short takeoff and
of 9.8 tons within a 500-nautical-mile radius. landing
These ranges can be further extended through K—Tanker capability)
in-flight refueling with KC-130s and helicopter
in-flight refueling (HIR) with air-capable ships. O—Observation X—Research

12-8
 The number (which may consist of one, two, STRIKING FORCE
or three digits) indicates the design number of the
A strike is an attack that is intended to inflict
type of aircraft. The designator A-7 shows an
damage to, seize, or destroy an objective. A
aircraft to be the seventh attack design. If a
striking force is a force composed of appropriate
particular design is modified, another letter (A,
units needed to conduct strike, attack, or assault
B, C, etc.) follows the design number; this letter
operations.
identifies the number of the modification. For
Because of their mobility and versatile power,
example, the second A in A-6A tells us that the
naval striking forces are ideal instruments for
original design of this attack plane has been
enforcing national military policy and settling
modified one time. outbreaks of hostilities. In peacetime, the
When the original mission of an aircraft
existence of a naval striking force may serve as
changes, a mission-modification letter precedes
a stabilizing influence to inhibit the outbreak of
the basic mission symbol. These are as follows:
hostilities.
If hostilities should occur in spite of attempts
A —Attack Q –Drone
to settle international disputes by other means,
the naval striking force is available immediately.
C —Cargo/transport R —Reconnaissance
It will take prompt and decisive action to
accomplish national objectives.
D —Director (for S —Antisubmarine
Mobility is one of the greatest assets of naval
control of drones)
striking forces. It makes surprise attacks possible
from any point on the periphery of an enemy land
E —Special electronic T —Trainer
area bounded by navigable waters. The versatility
installation
of a striking force permits the use of a wide variety
of weapons systems from either distant or close
H —Search and rescue U —Utility
ranges.
K —Tanker V —Staff
AIR STRIKES
L —Cold weather W —Weather An air strike is an attempt by a group of
aircraft to inflict damage on an enemy target.
M—Missile carrier Before an air strike is made against targets
ashore, the strike planners will formulate and
Thus, if the A-4 is modified to be used as a consider a plan of attack. First they meet in the
training aircraft, its alphanumeric identification carrier intelligence center (CVIC) to view all of
becomes TA-4. the information the air intelligence officer makes
Other letters that frequently appear before a available to them. They use the latest technology
basic mission symbol or mission-modification available in the planning of their missions. One
letter are “special-use” symbols that indicate the system they use is the tactical air mission planning
special status of an aircraft. Currently, six special- system (TAMPS). It automatically performs most
use symbols are used: of the more tedious planning steps strike planners
previously did manually.
G—Permanently grounded (for ground Once the plan is complete, all pilots who will
training) take part in the actual strike attend a detailed
briefing. The briefing covers all known informa-
J —Special test, temporary (when tests are tion that might contribute to the success of the
complete, the craft will be restored to its mission. It includes enemy strength; location or
original design) probable location of the enemy; recovery of
“ s a f e ” areas; weather conditions; location of
N—Special test, permanent friendly forces; and, if possible, target priorities.
The method of delivering the attacks and the
X—Experimental stage of development weapons selected depends on several elements.
They include the construction of the target,
Y—Prototype (for design testing) whether the tactical situation calls for a day or
night attack, and the weather conditions at the
Z —Early stages of planning or development target.

12-9
 The three classes of modern tactical air-to- systems in addition to traditional naval gunfire
surface weapons are standoff outside area defense to sink disabled enemy hulks. A coordinated air
(SOAD), standoff outside point defense (SOPD), and cruise-missile strike may surprise an enemy
and close-in (CI) weapons. The range at which SAG so much that it may cause one of two results.
each specific weapon can be used most efficiently First, the surface action may become a pursuit of
determines its classification. We can assume that disorganized enemy forces. Second, the strike may
the longer a weapon’s range, the “smarter” it has slow enemy forces so that they cannot bring their
to be; the “smarter” it is, the more expensive own surface missile systems to bear upon the
(and more accurate) it becomes. Therefore, strike carrier or other essential units in the battle
planners must efficiently plan how to employ their group.
weapons supplies to avoid running out of them Special situations may require SAGs to destroy
before they can win the war! isolated or crippled enemy surface units, execute
Since weapons have become more and more a deep land strike, conduct naval gunfire
expensive, those responsible for purchasing them shore bombardment, and perform surface
have made a recent effort to make more efficient reconnaissance missions. Today’s modern surface
purchases. Classifying weapons as mentioned force can take on all these missions with or
in the previous paragraph is one way they without accompanying tactical air support.
accomplish that because it reduces the number of The deployment of Tomahawk land attack
different types available. In addition, it makes missiles (TLAMs) has turned both surface ships
everyone’s job easier because fewer types of and submarines into potent strike platforms.
weapons must be stored aboard ship and loaded These strike platforms can be widely dispersed
aboard aircraft. throughout the battle group.
While planning a strike against enemy forces, The ability to conduct covert strikes from
battle group commanders must remember to plan submarines brings a new dimension to naval
for the defense of their own ships. The air defense warfare. Future development will bring land
of a carrier battle group is formidable, built on attack cruise missiles with even longer attack
a “defense-in-depth” philosophy. Fighter aircraft ranges. We need these missiles to further disperse
carrying air-to-air weapons serve as the carrier air surface forces and still conduct strike warfare
wing’s contribution to fleet air defense. Tanker while minimizing the involvement of the carrier
aircraft from the air wing refuel the fighters. air wing.
The fighters, coordinated by ship or airborne
controllers, will either be airborne or on the FIRE SUPPORT
carrier’s catapults ready for an immediate launch,
Although often considered a phase of
depending on the tactical situation.
amphibious operations, surface forces may be
SURFACE ACTION GROUPS (SAG’S) called upon to provide gunfire support for
troops ashore. During World War II that was
The operation orders of a task force or group
accomplished primarily by a force of battleships,
commanders provide for surface action groups
cruisers, and destroyers. These forces spent hours,
(SAGs) that can perform certain missions. These
and even days, bombarding the enemy ashore to
missions include antisubmarine warfare (ASW),
try to destroy as many fortifications as possible
antisurface warfare (ASUW), and strike warfare,
before troops hit the beaches. After the landings,
to name a few. A battle plan is prepared for these
ships provided support as tactical circumstances
forces on the assumption that they will encounter
dictated. Since the enemy showed less opposition
surface action. However, such a force is usually
to landings during the Korean and Vietnam wars,
only one element of a coordinated strike by both
forces mainly provided fire support in response
air, subsurface, and surface units.
to tactical circumstances,
Surface action in the modern Navy means
As you may recall, USS New Jersey, along
much more than exchange of naval gunfire. The
with other surface ships, took part in fire-support
introduction of antiship cruise missiles, such as
missions in Beirut, Lebanon, in 1983.
the Harpoon and the Tomahawk antiship missile
(TASM), has revolutionized war at sea.
A coordinated strike against an enemy SAG
ANTIAIR WARFARE
may well include surface-, sub-, and air-launched
Harpoon missiles; surface- and sub-launched Antiair warfare (AAW) includes all measures
TASMS; and air-launched ordnance. Forces may designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of
require the use of one or more of these weapons attack by hostile aircraft or guided missiles.

12-10
Active AAW includes the use of aircraft, anti-
aircraft guns, missiles, and electronic counter-
measures. (Electronic countermeasures are
employed to jam radars, mask or monitor
electronic transmissions, confuse guidance
systems, present false targets, and the like.)
Passive AAW—measures other than active, taken
to minimize the effects of hostile air action—
involves elements such as cover, concealment, and
dispersion.
Ships and aircraft are joined in a task forma-
tion to accomplish a mission that has been
dictated by strategic necessity. An AAW forma-
tion is designed to protect a carrier, which is the
offensive striking unit of a carrier task force or
battle group.
As enemy aircraft approach in a strike against
our ships at sea, our forces may divide defensive
AAW operations into three phases occurring
successively. The first phase involves the use of
personnel and equipment to search for, find,
evaluate, and report the enemy attack force. The Figure 12-3 .-The force antiair warfare coordinator
second phase involves initial active AAW defense (FAAWC) determines the extent of the AAW area.
measures—taken while attacking aircraft are at
a considerable distance from the force. These
measures may include electronic deception; air- corresponds to the perimeter of the entire AAW
craft interception; and long-range, surface-to-air, area, is the region of search, detection, and
guided-missile fire. The third phase, close-range tracking. The destruction area is the sector (within
defense, takes place when attacking aircraft have the surveillance area) in which destruction or
penetrated near or within gun range of the main defeat of the enemy airborne threat should
body of ships being defended. Close-range defense occur. It is divided into an air-intercept and long-
measures consist of gunfire, short-range missiles, range missile zone, medium-range missile zone,
and evasive maneuvering. and gunfire/short-range missile zone. The vital
Speeds of modern aircraft and missiles require area contains the main force of ships that must
that defensive measures be taken as early as be defended.
possible at the greatest practicable distance from The AAW area usually is oriented about an
the attacking force. An AAW operation, there- AAW axis, or threat axis. The AAW axis is a true
fore, uses distant early warning aircraft, such as bearing from the vital area to the most probable
the E-2, and surface picket ships, such as guided- direction of enemy attack. Early warning aircraft
missile destroyers. Depending on the size of the and ships normally are deployed along the AAW
formation and nature of the threat, several axis. A number of factors affect the choice of an
sector antiair warfare coordinators (SAAWCs) AAW disposition. These include the submarine
may conduct operations in designated areas. threat, available ships and aircraft, fuel, amount
SAAWCs report to the force antiair warfare of protection required, and weather. Whenever
coordinator (FAAWC) who then coordinates possible, mutual support from nearby units is
defenses over the entire task force area of obtained through the overlapping of AAW areas.
responsibility. Although conventional gunfire can be effective
The FAAWC normally determines the extent in AAW, high-speed jet aircraft have made
of the antiair warfare area, which encompasses defense by gunfire a last-ditch effort. At 600 miles
the total region to be protected from enemy air per hour, an attacking aircraft is within effective
attack. Figure 12-3 maps the subdivisions of the range of a 5-inch gun for less than a minute before
AAW area. Concentric circles surround the main the plane reaches its drop point. This speed allows,
body of ships at distances determined by the at best, about 100 rounds of gunfire from one
nature of the expected attack. The circles ship. In World War II we expended an average
represent the outer perimeters of the subdivisions. of 3,000 rounds of all types to down each
The surveillance area, the outer limit of which propeller-driven aircraft.

12-11
 Defense against an air attack demands a high Missile ships may be stationed in the extended
degree of coordination between widely dispersed (outer), intermediate, or inner screen position.
units in the formation. Attacking aircraft can However, they should remain either far enough
climb to very high altitudes, or they can come in in or out to allow the CAP to operate freely. Since
just over the wave tops. No matter what their a missile ship usually is free to fire on any target
altitude, the speed of the aircraft is often super- that enters its envelope, a well-defined crossover
sonic. That means instantaneous reactions and point must be designated. A crossover point is the
quickly computed solutions are essential to range at which a target ceases to bean air intercept
the defenders. Even after attaining maximum target and becomes a surface-to-air missile target.
proficiency, a ship’s individual efforts would Air controllers must be careful to keep CAP
probably prove futile unless it were deployed in aircraft from crossing this point to prevent their
a defense-in-depth formation. Defense in depth destruction by friendly fire.
requires intensive coordination. Teamwork is then If CAP aircraft or long-range missiles do not
the order of the day, and the captain of the team stop an attack, the AAW coordinator may direct
is the AAW coordinator. the carrier(s) to launch additional interceptor air-
The AAW coordinator and staff usually craft. Interceptors remain ready for launch in
observe the entire picture on various display specified conditions of readiness as follows:
plots aboard a missile cruiser. The coordinator
maintains communications, except during some Condition One CAP: Pilots strapped in
conditions of electronic silence, with all the AAW cockpits; catapult and deck crews at
units. The coordinator also receives all “bogey” stations; and all leads to engines plugged,
(unfriendly air contact) information from the ready for immediate ignition. Reaction
detecting ship or aircraft. time limited only to the time required to
turn the carrier into the wind.
COMBAT AIR PATROL (CAP)
When an aircraft poses a definite threat, the Condition Two CAP: Aircraft ready
AAW coordinator must decide which defense to to start; pilots and deck/catapult crews
use. The first line of defense is the on-station nearby rather than on station.
combat air patrol (CAP). If the CAP is in the
Condition Three CAP: Launch capability
target area, the relative speeds of the CAP and
required within 15 minutes. Pilots in ready
target may indicate a possible intercept. In such
rooms; crews relaxing near stations.
cases, the coordinator may order the AAW unit’s
CAP air controller (aircraft or surface ship) to Condition Four CAP: Pilots and crews on
vector the CAP to the target. On-station CAP 30 minutes’ notice.
aircraft orbit at a station between the inner and
intermediate surface picket lines, roughly 30 miles Condition Five CAP: Pilots and crews free
from their controlling units. until called.
CAP can miss the target for several reasons.
Patrolling aircraft may be out of position, relative ANTISHIP MISSILE DEFENSE
speeds may work against an intercept, or poor (ASMD)
visibility and/or radar reception may make the
CAP useless. When CAP proves ineffective, The antiship missile defense (ASMD) program
the AAW coordinator may employ long-range significantly improves a ship’s capability in
missiles or launch additional interceptor aircraft. countering high-speed, low-altitude, anti ship
During CAP intercept attempts, shipboard missile threats. In attaining this defense posture,
weapons direction systems direct fire control the program requires modifications to the overall
radars aboard missile ships to the target. When ship combat system for the following purposes:
a ship is ready to engage a target with missiles,
it notifies the AAW coordinator and may order To enhance low-flyer and electronic warfare
one or more missile launches. If more than one (EW) detection capabilities
ship is prepared to assault a target with missiles, To reduce reaction times by modifying com-
the AAW coordinator must decide which ship, or mand and control functions for weapons
ships, will take part in the attack. The coordinator direction
must consider, among other factors, which ship
is in the best position for a kill and what type and To improve gun and missile system engage-
number of missiles it has aboard. ment capabilities

12-12
 In addition to these combat system improve- ships, aircraft, and submarines. The integrated
ments, on-board training devices are installed to undersea surveillance system (IUSS) is also an
support combat information center (CIC) team integral part of our ASW system. This system cues
training exercises. The ASMD program furthers our engagement forces to respond quickly to ASW
the improvements provided by the ship’s anti- tactical areas. These elements are capable of
missile integrated defense (SAMID) immediate operating independently or with each other.
program by expanding ship capabilities to counter The basic mission of antisubmarine warfare is
antiship missile threats. The ASMD program to deny the enemy the effective use of sub-
integrates additional subsystems into the combat marines. We must go beyond what we have
system. It makes use of expanded tactical data learned in the past by developing new techniques
processing techniques by providing a fully to match the expanding role of the submarine. The
automatic method of responding to particular long-range nuclear-missile capability of today’s
antiship missile threats. submarines requires that we do more than prevent
The gun weapons system supports that element submarine torpedo attacks on our shipping and
of the ship’s mission requiring offensive operation naval vessels. Instead, we must find and keep
against air, surface, and shore targets. It provides under surveillance all enemy submarines before
this support through its ability to destroy these they can reach a point within missile-launching
types of targets at ranges within the minimum- range of our coasts.
range capability of the guided-missile systems.
As in other types of warfare, successful AAW SURFACE UNITS
operations must be based in part on lessons
learned through costly experience and must be The surface ship has a greater variety of both
practiced continually. detection equipment and weapons than any other
ASW unit. A prime advantage of the surface ship
is its ability to conduct all-weather operations and
ANTISUBMARINE WARFARE to remain on station for a comparatively long time.
Our most effective ASW surface ships today are
The basic elements of the Navy’s antisub- frigates, destroyers, and cruisers equipped with
marine warfare (ASW) forces include surface SH-60B LAMPS helicopters (fig. 12-4).

109.17
Figure 12-4.-An SH-60B Seahawk helicopter in flight near the stern of a guided-missile frigate.

12-13
These ships use new and improved radar, sonar, the helicopter can listen or echo-range (determine
electronic countermeasures, and communications the location of a submarine).
systems to enhance their detection capabilities. Other methods of detection include infrared
Another major surface unit is the aircraft detection and explosive echo ranging using
carrier, with ASW aircraft embarked. A carrier sonobuoys.
can monitor midocean areas beyond the effective In all types of airborne electronic ASW
range of land-based patrol aircraft. devices, proper training of both operating and
maintenance personnel is paramount to successful
application of the equipment. Certain applications
ASW AIRCRAFT require special techniques for effective use of
sonobuoys and other sonic devices. Proper and
Aircraft have the ability to investigate distant accurate sound identification and spotting of
contacts rapidly and are relatively invulnerable snorkel targets on radarscopes are examples.
to submerged submarines. They also have the
advantages of speed, relatively long range, and
weapons-carrying capability. Therefore, they may ASW SUBMARINES
fulfill the antisubmarine mission independently
or in coordination with other types of anti- The submarine itself is perhaps the most
submarine units. effective antisubmarine vehicle. It operates in the
The three basic antisubmarine warfare aircraft same medium as the target and shares the target’s
are long-range patrol aircraft, medium-range advantages of concealment and passive detection.
carrier-based aircraft, and helicopters. We (Passive sonar depends entirely on the target’s
described some of these aircraft, primarily the noise as the sound source rather than the returned
P-3C Orion, the S-3A Viking, and the LAMPS echoes of a transmitted signal.) The submarine
III helicopters, earlier in this chapter. These can detect enemy submarines while working with
aircraft use a wide variety of electronic devices other ASW forces or while working independently.
to detect submarines. Submarines can precede carrier strike forces into
The magnetic anomaly detection (MAD) enemy waters, function as ASW screens, and operate
device is used mainly for submarine classification as minelayers. Fleet ballistic missile submarines are
purposes. Depending on the height of the aircraft used to destroy enemy targets when ordered by the
and other variables, it can detect a submarine by President of the United States.
variations in the earth’s magnetic lines of force.
Because of its limited range, MAD is unsuitable
as a device for open area searches. However, it SOUND NAVIGATION AND
is effective when used in geographically or RANGING (SONAR)
tactically defined or restricted small areas.
Aircraft normally use the MAD device to detect The use of sonar (sound navigation and ranging)
the specific location of a submarine before they is the principal method of submarine detection. We
attack it. have two types of sonar—passive and active. Sonar
Expendable sonobuoys, used with measured is an electronic device that either detects underwater
success against submarines of the last war, are sounds or transmits them. Passive sonar detects
very useful against submarines in a variety of sounds originating under water. Active sonar is an
tactical situations. Sonobuoys are tubes containing electronic device that can transmit (through the
a hydrophore and radio transmitter. As aircraft depths) a sound wave which, upon striking an
drop them into the water, the hydrophores pick object, will reflect. Submarines use passive sonar
up sounds and broadcast them to surface craft to enable them to detect noise-making objects
or aircraft. Each sonobuoy is on a slightly without transmitting a telltale ping themselves.
different frequency. An active buoy is also used To understand how sonar works, you must first
that emits a sound signal and listens for the return understand sound. Sound is the physical energy that
echo. causes the sensation of hearing. It travels in the form
Since helicopters are capable of hovering, they of waves away from the point of origin, as ripples
use a different piece of equipment. The aircraft, travel out in all directions from a pebble tossed
by means of a long cable, lowers a cylindrical into a pond. Echoes are created when sound waves
sonar transducer into the water while hovering strike objects through which they cannot travel and
over the suspected contact area. With this gear therefore bounce back to the source.

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 The substance through which sound travels is Sonar control is the ASW station that
called a medium. All types of matter are sound maintains a continuous underwater search for
mediums of varying efficiency. The denser the submarines. From the bridge, the officer of the
medium, the more rapidly sound travels through deck conns the ship, keeping other control
it. Therefore, steel is a better medium than water, stations informed of the ship’s maneuvers.
and water is a better medium than air. The combat information center is the key
Let us take a look at what happens to a sonar station for coordinating search/attack operations
impulse after it leaves the transducer (the within the ship and betweens ships and/or
transmitting device in the water). The transducer aircraft. Personnel in CIC plot, display, evaluate,
introduces the sound wave into the water by and disseminate all air, surface, and subsurface
converting the equipment’s electrical energy into contact information and recommend search plans
sound vibrations. The impulse travels at a rate to the commanding officer.
of between 4,700 and 5,300 feet per second, In modern ASW ships, the captain and the
depending on the temperature, salinity, and tactical action officer (TAO) often direct the
pressure of the water. The rate of travel of the attack from CIC. However, the CO may choose
impulse is four or five times faster than the speed to remain on the bridge. When that happens,
of sound in air. However, the hazards of travel repeaters duplicate information from CIC for the
take their toll on its speed and signal strength. captain’s use while phone talkers relay amplifying
Current, bubbles, and wakes absorb some of the information to him. That enables the captain (in
sound. As the impulse passes through foreign conjunction with the TAO in CIC) to evaluate
matter such as seaweed, silt, and animal life in critical elements of the attack from his position
the water, it scatters and becomes even weaker. on the bridge. After evaluating elements such as
As the sound wave travels away from the the target’s course and speed, the captain can then
transducer, it spreads out like a searchlight beam. authorize delivery of the necessary ASW weapons.
The further away it travels from the transducer,
the weaker it becomes.
Once the wave strikes an object such as a AMPHIBIOUS WARFARE
submarine, that portion of the impulse which is
Amphibious warfare encompasses many
at a right angle to the object reverberates toward
different types of ships, aircraft, weapons, and
the sonar receiver. Again absorption, scattering,
landing forces used in a concerted military effort
and spreading will affect the strength of the
on a hostile shore. An amphibious operation is
impulse. However, it will still signal a possible
an attack launched from the sea by naval and
target unless multiple reflections, or echoes,
landing forces. The landing forces, transported
such as reverberations, self-noise, and a high
by afloat landing craft and helicopters, may
surrounding noise level, drown it out.
include Army and Marine Corps troops. During
Multiple reflections, or echoes, can come from
such operations, both surface ships and aircraft
many sources. Sound waves bouncing off small
usually bombard the hostile shore immediately
objects such as fish or air bubbles produce small
before the landing.
echoes. Sound waves reflected from the sea
Amphibious operations are conducted to
surface and bottom also cause echoes, and the
establish a landing force on a hostile shore to do
sea mass itself causes reverberations. These
all of the following actions: to prosecute further
reverberations appear on video and audio
combat operations; to obtain a site for an
receivers. Reverberations from nearby points may
advanced naval or air base; and to deny the use
be so loud on the audio receiver that they interfere
of an area or facility to the enemy.
with, or completely mask, the returning echo from
The principle type of amphibious operation
the target.
is the amphibious assault. The amphibious assault
follows a well-defined pattern. The general
sequence consists of planning; embarkation;
SHIPBOARD ASW ORGANIZATION
rehearsal; movement to the objective; and finally,
assault and capture of the objective.
Sonar control is the major shipboard ASW
station. Other stations are the bridge, the
PLANNING
combat information center (CIC), and the ASW
weapons batteries. On most ships this organization The planning phase of an amphibious assault
is integrated into the combat systems department. reflects the collected intelligence data on enemy

12-15
forces and the territory concerned. It is designed Each item of equipment is loaded aboard in
to accomplish several tasks, including the reverse order of the priority in which it is desired
following: on the hostile beach. The combat cargo officer
of the ship and the commander of the landing
Embarkation by combat loading methods force unit to be embarked in that ship prepare
individual loading plans for each ship. The
Movement to the amphibious objective commanding officer of the ship reviews and
area, including defense against air, sub- approves the loading plan.
marine, and surface attack As soon as the ship is moored, it is in all
respects ready for loading. All landing craft have
Preassault operations (preparation of the been off-loaded, and appropriate cargo-handling
objective area), which include gaining gear has been placed in readiness. All cargo booms
and maintaining local air superiority; have been rigged as necessary to handle the
destruction of enemy forces and installa- material to be stowed in each hold. The advance
tions by naval aircraft, shipboard guns, party of troops boards the ship at the embarkation
and missiles; clearance of mines and under- port and proceeds immediately with the details of
water obstacles; reconnaissance of beaches loading. When all cargo is aboard, the remainder
by underwater demolition groups; deter- of troops embark. The ship then leaves its berth
mination of exits inland; and isolation of and proceeds to an anchorage to await the
the objective area forming of the convoy. In crowded ports with few
facilities, the ship may be loaded while at anchor
Ship-to-shore movement by which troops
by a procedure similar to that for ships which are
and their weapons, vehicles, and supplies
moored. The only difference is that all cargo and
are moved ashore by helicopters and
equipment must be moved out to the ship by
landing craft, or both
boats, barges, or other lighterage.
Clearance of beach obstacles and move-
ment inland with tank, artillery, and light REHEARSALS
and heavy vehicles
The schedule for an amphibious operation
Naval gunfire, missile, and air bombard- usually allows for one or more rehearsals carried
ment in support of the assault and the out under conditions approximating those of the
movement inland anticipated operation. All units that will take part
in the actual operation should participate in the
Landing of supplies and logistic support rehearsal. Rehearsals test the adequacy of the
buildup plans for the operation as well as the familiarity
of all echelons with the plans. They also test
Although this list of tasks is incomplete, it the timing of detailed operations, the combat
illustrates the many requirements that must be readiness of participating forces, and the
considered and resolved. An amphibious assault effectiveness of communications. If practicable,
can succeed only if it is carefully planned, rehearsals include naval gunfire and air support
organized, and timed. Planning is the responsibility with live ammunition. Unloading is carried out
of the commander and an assigned staff. It as determined during planning to the degree
demands a complete knowledge of the various needed for planners to effectively test tactical and
combat arms employed and the numerous logistic plans. Unloading tests the operation of
problems unique to an amphibious operation. the ship-to-shore movement control organization
and the functioning of the shore party and all
EMBARKATION naval components. Following each rehearsal, all
levels of command critique the exercise to
In a major amphibious operation, troops are emphasize lessons learned and to correct mistakes.
assembled at various ports with their equipment
and vehicles. Consistent with extremely detailed MOVEMENT TO THE OBJECTIVE
loading plans formulated during the planning
phase, designated ships arrive in these ports Every stage of movement of the amphibious
at specified times, ready to embark the landing task force to the objective area must be planned.
forces. That includes departure of participating ships

12-16
from their ports of embarkation; their passage at The assault phase is a time when coordination
sea; and their approach to, and arrival in, assigned of the operation is extremely critical. The
positions in the objective area. The plan must amphibious task force commander, who has
include the movement of ships through rehearsal, responsibility for the overall coordination of air
staging, and rendezvous areas. Therefore, the and naval gunfire support, preplans to the greatest
movement plan organizes the amphibious task extent possible. Delivery of unscheduled fire
force into movement groups, which proceed along support on targets of opportunity and unexpected
prescribed routes. Usually ships are assigned changes in air operations require continuous
into fast or slow movement groups, depending on and close coordination. Only through this
their sustained sea speed. Forces that may not be coordination can the amphibious task force be
a part of the amphibious task force provide assured of maximum effectiveness with a requisite
protection from air, surface, and subsurface degree of safety. The principles and procedures
attack. Carrier striking forces provide air cover of fire support coordination haven’t changed
and long-range reconnaissance. In addition, mine because of the introduction of nuclear weapons.
warfare ships perform screening duties with the However, the importance and extent of co-
help of other ships suitable for that purpose but ordination have increased because of the
with other primary functions. The safety of the magnitude of nuclear weapons effects.
amphibious ships with their embarked troops, The amphibious task force commander
equipment, and supplies is of paramount eventually shifts control of land operations to the
importance. Landing forces must arrive at the landing force commander. That happens when
objective area without critical reduction in their both commanders agree that the landing force is
combat potential. firmly established ashore and ready to assume full
responsibility for subsequent operations. The
THE ASSAULT amphibious operation is then terminated with the
amphibious task force remaining in support. The
The assault phase begins when the assault various units of the amphibious task force may
forces arrive at their assigned positions in then be used for operations in the area or
the amphibious objective area. It ends when the reembarked on the ships from which they were
mission has been accomplished. dispatched.
After all the prior planning and rehearsals and
final movement into the objective area, the assault
NAVAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS
commences. The assault phase encompasses the
following: Communications is the key to command. It
involves the transmission and reception of military
Preparation of the beach by air strikes and instructions and information; it is at once the
naval gunfire voice of command and the arm of control. It
Ship-to-shore movement of the landing makes coordinated action possible by enabling our
force by helicopters, landing craft, ships and aircraft to operate in a purposeful,
amphibious vehicles, and landing ships cooperative effort. Modern naval operations can
only be executed with effective communications
Landings in landing and drop zones and and a master battle plan. All details of the plan
on beaches by the assault elements of the must be communicated to the fighting units.
landing force Communications enables those at the highest
echelons of command to test missions, objectives,
Inland operations to unify waterborne, and enemy capability and to determine appropriate
helicopter-borne, airborne, and/or air- courses of action.
landed assault forces and to seize the Engagement in a full-scale war would allow
beachhead no time for our nation to obtain quantities
Air support and naval gunfire support of telecommunications equipment and train
throughout the assault thousands of personnel to use it. Naval tele-
communications, being a function of command,
Landing of remaining land force elements must always be in a condition of preparedness.
to conduct any operations necessary to In the event of hostilities, the operating forces
complete the accomplishment of the would depend on communications facilities in
mission existence at the time.

12-17
 A navy that operates on a worldwide scale The communications spaces provide transmitter
requires the services of a global communications and receiver service to these remote operating
network. Commanders must be able to pass the positions. Crew members communicate by speak-
word—to communicate—whenever necessary in ing into a transmitting microphone connected to
any mode. They must be able to communicate an assigned frequency.
between and among ships separated by varying
distances and from and to ships, shore stations, Although R/T is the least secure form of all
and aircraft. The ability to communicate makes radio communications, some systems may now
possible effective command and control. That, in employ cryptographic devices.
turn, ensures the responsiveness of every mobile
nerve center in the fleet to the tactical and
strategic needs and services of every other Teletype
element. A global organization of communica-
tions stations with hundreds of radio and The mental and manual actions performed by
landline circuits supports each force of ships. an operator in converting letters to Morse code
This support means a force of ships is never (and vice versa) are replaced in teletype by
out of touch with its base of operations. electrical and mechanical actions. To transmit
Orders and information affecting the successful a message, the operator types on a keyboard
outcome of the force’s mission are exchanged similar to that on a typewriter. Each key that
swiftly and accurately throughout every level is pressed feeds a sequence of signals into
of command. The direct result of reliable receiving machines causing them to type the
communications is a tightly directed fighting message automatically.
unit.
Teletype signals may be sent by landline (wire),
Naval messages are sent and received in a radio, or satellite communications systems. Both
variety of ways. The primary method is through the military services and commercial communica-
the use of electrically transmitted communica- tions companies such as Western Union use
tions; other types include visual, sound, and teletype communications.
pyrotechnic communications.
The primary shipboard use of radio teletype
(RATT) is for task-group and ship-to-shore com-
ELECTRICAL munications. Fleet broadcasts, which formerly
used high-frequency (hf) radio transmissions
Electrical communications are sent by wave exclusively, are now making use of satellite com-
propagation through the atmosphere or by munications. Automated information exchange
electrical conductors (wires) that connect the systems also use satellites, with attendant high
sending and receiving equipment. Atmospheric data rates.
propagation is potentially the least secure method
since anyone with a receiver can intercept the
transmission. However, most communications Facsimile
circuits use cryptographic devices to distort
transmissions. Recent technological improvements have made
commercial facsimile (FAX) machines a common
Speed of delivery is one reason radio is the and relatively inexpensive piece of office equip-
Navy’s most important means of communication. ment. Many commands use these to transmit
However, it is also the only effective means by urgent correspondence over standard or secure
which the activities of widespread naval forces can telephone lines. The “fuzzy” message trans-
be continuously coordinated. mission quality is exchanged for almost instan-
taneous printed copies of graphic or typewritten
documents.
Radiotelephone (R/T)
Military FAX machines are used to transmit
Radiotelephone (R/T) microphones are photographs, charts, and graphic or pictorial
installed in strategic places on ships, such as the intelligence information electronically. Signals
combat information center (CIC) and the bridge. are transmitted either by landline or by radio.

12-18
 FAX systems are not intended as replacements satellites to relay radio transmissions between
for other standard communications methods. earth terminals.
They are a useful supplemental system for rapid
communications. A typical operational link involves a satellite
and two earth terminals. One station transmits to
the satellite on a frequency called the up-link
Fleet Broadcasts frequency. The satellite amplifies the signal,
translates it to the down-link frequency, and then
Radio traffic is sent to the fleet by two transmits it back to earth where the signal is
methods: broadcast and receipt. The first is a “do picked up by the receiving terminal.
not answer” method; the second, as its name
implies, requires a receipt from addressees for The Commander, Naval Telecommunications
each message. The broadcast method allows the Command (COMNAVTELCOM), is designated
fleet to preserve radio silence, which is a the communications manager for Navy-assigned
great advantage from the standpoint of security. satellite systems. The responsibilities of the
communications manager include operating the
Civilian and naval broadcasts have some earth terminals and publishing Satellite Com-
similarity. Commercial stations in the broadcast munications Operating Procedures (NTP-2).
band transmit programs to radio receivers in the
homes in their communities. Likewise, Navy com- Commander, Naval Space Command (COM-
munications stations broadcast messages to fleet NAVSPACECOM), is the operational manager
units in their particular geographic areas. The for Navy satellites. The operational manager plans
term broadcast, in fact, originated in naval the location of spacecraft and fixed earth
communications. terminals and allocates satellite capacity, power,
bandwidth, and operating frequencies.
The resemblance between Navy commercial
stations ceases here, however. Information The Navy uses two primary SATCOM
broadcast by naval communications stations is systems:
contained in chronologically numbered messages
assigned to the ships. Fleet units copy the Ž Long-haul (long-distance) communications
messages and check the numbers to ensure they takes place via the defense satellite communica-
have a complete file of all messages they should tions system (DSCS), which is managed by the
have received. Defense Communications Agency (DCA). This
high-capacity global system uses satellites equally
Automated systems now key fleet broadcasts. spaced around the world operating on superhigh
Messages are broadcast in their order of frequencies (shf). Ships and stations located
precedence. If the automated system receives a anywhere on the earth from 70 degrees north
higher-precedence message while transmitting a latitude to 70 degrees south latitude have access
lower-precedence message, it may interrupt the to one of these satellites.
latter to transmit the higher-precedence message.
Ž The fleet satellite communications
(FLTSATCOM) system operates at ultrahigh fre-
All ships copy all messages addressed to them
quency (uhf), making possible the use of relatively
that appear on the broadcast schedule they are
low-cost terminals and simple antennas. Leased
guarding.
satellites (LEASAT) are part of this system.
Fleet broadcasts use satellites as their primary Ž FLTSATCOM provides the primary
transmission media, High-frequency (hf) radio means of Navy tactical satellite ship-shore-ship
transmission provides broadcast services to ships communications over the officer in tactical com-
that are unable to copy the satellite systems. mand information exchange subsystem (OTCIXS)
and the tactical data exchange subsystem
(TADIXS). The common user digital information
Satellite Communications exchange system (CUDIXS) and the naval
modular automated communications system
A satellite communications (SATCOM) (NAVMACS) combine to form a general-service
system is one that uses earth-orbiting vehicles or message traffic network.

12-19
 Many current satellites are programmed to be their arms through various positions to
phased out by a new generation of extremely high- represent letters, numerals, and special signs.
frequency (ehf) satellites. The military strategic Semaphore and flashing light can be used
tactical and relay (MILSTAR) system is a joint interchangeably for many purposes. Semaphore
service program expected to be operational in the is more rapid for short-distance transmission in
1990s. clear daylight and may be used to send messages
to several addresses at once if they are in
suitable positions. Because of its speed,
VISUAL semaphore is better adapted to the sending of
long messages than are other visual methods.
Visual communications are the preferred When radio silence is imposed, semaphore is
means for communicating at short range when the best substitute for handling administrative
weather conditions permit. In reliability and traffic. It is more secure than a light or radio
convenience, visual communications often are the because it provides less chance for interception
equal of radio and under certain circumstances by unauthorized persons.
are more secure than radio. For example, omni-
directional radio transmissions may be intercepted
by many undesired listeners, whereas unidirec- SOUND
tional visual signals are limited to observers
positioned along the line of sight. Sound communications systems include
Visual signaling systems include flaghoist, whistles, siren, bells, and acoustics. Ships use the
flashing light, and semaphore. first three to transmit emergency warning signals
(such as air-raid alerts) and navigational signals
prescribed by the rules of the road. In wartime,
Flaghoist ships in convoy use these three systems to
communicate with each other.
Flaghoist signaling can be a rapid and accurate An underwater sonar system called Gertrude
communications method during daylight hours. is part of acoustic submarine communications.
International alphabet flags, numbered pennants, Used primarily for hailing NATO ships, it may
and special meaning flags can coordinate tactical be used for radiotelephone or carrier-wave (c/w)
maneuvers and ships’ movements without radio transmission.
transmissions.
All sailors are expected to recognize everyday PYROTECHNICS
flags. Sailors rely on the safety and informational
messages relayed by these flags, such as “divers Pyrotechnics is the use of ammunition, flares,
in the water” or “captain’s on board,” to help or fireworks to signal a message or to illuminate
them in their daily routine. or mark targets. Most pyrotechnics for signaling
are of the “fireworks” variety. Common sources
are marine illumination cartridges, colored shell
Flashing Light bursts (parachute flares), aircraft parachute
flares, reman candles, and float-type flares.
Flashing light uses visible beams (or infrared The meaning of a pyrotechnic signal depends
light during tactical nighttime communications) on the color instead of the type of pyrotechnic
to transmit Morse Code letters through an on/off employed. The authorized use of pyrotechnics
method. Directional lights are pointed so that only for communications is, in general, limited to
the addressee can read the message. Omnidirec- emergency signals.
tional lights may be located above the ship’s
superstructure for all ships within range to copy
the message.
SUMMARY

Semaphore The preceding discussion of naval warfare

operations demonstrates that extensive planning
Semaphore is a communications medium by is required if a mission is to be successful. When
which persons signal with two hand flags, moving all of the warfare components function together,

12-20
close cooperation must be maintained between REFERENCES
them. To a large extent, that is achieved before
an operation is conducted. Joint Doctrine for Amphibious Operations, JCS
One vital element that must be present Pub 3-02, The Office of the Joint Chiefs of
throughout the operation, however, is com- Staff, Washington, D.C., 1988.
munications. All participants in an operation must
be able to communicate with each other. Naval Science for the Merchant Marine Officer,
All of these components function as members NAVEDTRA 38051, Naval Education and
of the Navy team. Trying to conduct a successful Training Program Management Support
mission without any particular one of the com- Activity, Pensacola, Fla., 1986.
ponents would be disastrous. However, when all
function together as one, our Navy can achieve Navy Fact File, 8th ed., Office of Information,
its assigned missions. Washington, D.C., 1988.

JACOB'S LADDER

A JACOB’S LADDER IS A PORTABLE LADDER MADE OF ROPE OR METAL USED

PRIMARILY TO HELP PERSONNEL BOARD SHIP. ORIGINALLY, THE JACOB’S
LADDER WAS A NETWORK OF LINE LEADING TO THE SKYSAIL ON WOODEN SHIPS.
THE NAME ALLUDES TO THE BIBLICAL JACOB REPUTED TO HAVE DREAMED OF A
LADDER THAT REACHED INTO HEAVEN.
ANYONE WHO HAS EVER TRIED CLIMBING A JACOB’S LADDER WHILE CARRYING
A SEABAG CAN APPRECIATE THE ALLUSION. IT DOES SEEM THAT THE CLIMB
IS LONG ENOUGH TO TAKE ONE INTO THE NEXT WORLD.

12-21
 CHAPTER 13

SUPPORTING ELEMENTS OF THE NAVY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the function of Civil Engineer Corps 5. Identify the function of officers of the Judge
officers. Advocate General’s Corps.

6. Describe the purpose of the Navy’s security

2. Identify the function of Supply Corps program.
officers.
7. Describe the purpose of the Naval Intelligence
Command.
3. Identify the function and composition of the
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery. 8. Describe the organization and areas of research
of the Navy’s Research and Development
4. Identify the function of Navy chaplains. Program.

SIGNIFICANT DATES SIGNIFICANT DATES

3 Feb. 1795 Congress establishes the Navy 4 Apr. 1898 Mordecai T. Endicott, the first
Supply Corps. Civil Engineer Corps officer, is
appointed Chief, Bureau of
9 Mar. 1798 George Balfour is appointed as Yards and Docks.
the first surgeon in the U.S.
Navy. 17 Jun. 1898 The Hospital Corps is estab-
lished.
30 Oct. 1799 William Balch is commissioned
as the Navy’s first chaplain. 13 May 1908 The Nurse Corps is established.

26 Feb. 1811 A congressional act provides 22 Aug. 1912 The Dental Corps is established.
Navy hospitals.
Certain supporting elements and branches of
2 Mar. 1867 Congress establishes the Civil the Navy are required to accomplish the Navy’s
Engineering Corps. mission. This chapter discusses the functions of
some of these elements and various Navy
3 Mar. 1871 Congress establishes the Pay branches. In many cases, the functions of these
Corps. supporting elements are essential to mission
accomplishment while at other times they only
9 Jun. 1880 William B. Remey, USMC, is provide assistance for particular needs. Overall,
appointed as the first Judge they fit into the team concept of the naval
Advocate General. structure.

13-1
 CIVIL ENGINEER CORPS manage these new technologies, NAVFACENG-
COM has established the Emerging Technologies
Officers of the Civil Engineer Corps (CEC), Management Office to ensure the proper research
who administer the work of the Naval Facili- and introduction of new ideas.
ties Engineering Command (NAVFACENG-
COM), are commissioned naval officers with Over the last 20 years, NAVFACENGCOM
special technical qualifications. They are engineers and the CEC have undertaken major engineering
and architects who manage the Navy’s shore accomplishments. The massive Vietnam construc-
facilities and oversee construction and main- tion program, which upgraded the entire
tenance by the shore establishment. Additionally, infrastructure of that nation, required the efforts
they command the field forces that construct of CEC officers, the naval construction force, and
advanced bases for support of Marine and Navy civilian contractors alike.
contingency operations. The geopolitical events in the Middle East in
The Commander of the Naval Facilities the early 1970s emphasized the need for a military
Engineering Command is the Chief of Civil installation in the Indian Ocean. Upon being
Engineers (that is, the head of the Corps). The tasked, NAVFACENGCOM immediately went to
commander exercises technical direction over the work to plan the construction of a joint British-
naval construction forces, generally known as the American stronghold and support facility on the
Seabees. NAVFACENGCOM also supports sepa- strategically important Diego Garcia Island. A few
rate activities of the Department of the Navy years later, this tiny island had become an
whose primary function is organizing and operational military installation complete with an
equipping the naval construct ion forces. These airfield, pier facilities, a communications station,
activities include commands and organizations and total personnel support facilities.
such as construction battalion centers.
A major element of the CEC is the con-
Recent years have seen rapid technological and struction battalions (Seabees). The primary job
management system expansion throughout the of the Seabees is to build. However, based on the
engineering world and the Department of theory that they can’t build unless they control
Defense. NAVFACENGCOM has been a leader the jobsite, all Seabees receive training in defensive
in developing advanced management systems and combat tactics. Controlling the job site involves
in adapting these systems to the latest computers. “fighting,” the second job of a Seabee, as
Examples include the Shore Facilities Planning exemplified by the Seabee motto Construimus
and Programming System, Production Manage- batuimus, meaning “We build—we fight.”
ment Systems, Base Engineering Support-
Technical Systems, Energy Monitoring and Each company in a battalion organization is
Control Systems, and Engineered Performance divided into combat platoons, squads, and fire
Standards. Many of these systems use mini- teams. A Marine Corps gunnery sergeant is
computers to increase effectiveness and pro- assigned as a military adviser and training
ductivity. specialist to the commanding officer of the
battalion.
In the area of engineering development,
NAVFACENGCOM strives to turn the most up- As a self-sustaining unit, a naval mobile
to-date technological advances into the basis for construction battalion (NMCB) must be capable
the efficient, economical construction of Navy of self-defense for a limited time. Each battalion
shore facilities. For example, the graphics design subdivision has a construction/military support
system has been installed in the design office to assignment, and everyone in the battalion fills
provide architects and engineers with a computer- a construction/military support billet. The con-
aided method of preparing plans and designs. In struction aspect, of course, predominates; the
the field of energy conservation and development, mission is to build. Platoons are organized into
NAVFACENGCOM emphasizes the conversion work crews that correspond to the weapons squad
of coal, wind, geothermal resources, and solar organization. The basic construction/military
radiation into efficient sources of energy for the support units are the work crew/rifle fire team,
Navy. Greatly concerned with environmental work crew/automatic weapons team, and the
protection, NAVFACENGCOM encourages the work crew/heavy weapons team. Figure 13-1
use of new methods of managing hazardous and illustrates the diversity of Seabee functions in
solid waste and abating all types of pollution. To Vietnam.

13-2
 134.138
Figure 13-1.-All construction battalions were committed to Vietnam. More than 50 percent of
those in the country were, or had been, engaged in providing tactical support construction to
United States and Allied forces under fire.

13-3
 THE SUPPLY CORPS Supply Corps officers serve in varying
duty assignments, ranging from supply officer
The problem of logistics in any future war, aboard a destroyer to Commander of the Naval
except limited conflicts, would exceed anything Supply Systems Command. (The Commander of
our nation has so far witnessed. The extent of the Naval Supply Systems Command is a rear
total conflict would probably be such that we admiral who also serves as the Chief of the Supply
would have to mobilize all of our economic Corps.) The Naval Supply Systems Command is
resources to engage the enemy successfully. While responsible for overall management of the Supply
today’s situation is entirely different from that Corps ashore and afloat. Disbursing and certain
faced by John Paul Jones, the basic logistics are other comptroller billets to which Supply Corps
the same as they were in Jones’ time. In arming, officers may be assigned are under the manage-
supplying, and manning his ships, Jones went ment of the Navy.
through the same processes of determination of Afloat supply officers manage the procure-
requirements, procurement, and distribution that ment, receipt, custody, stowage, and expenditure
are used today. However, his problem was not of material for ship’s use as well as food service
as extensive, and he probably didn’t think of it and ship’s store operations. They maintain stock
in such formal terms. records and inventory control and supervise
The determination of requirements is the first payment of the crew. Ashore billets manage
step in the formation of any logistics plan. It is requisitioning and local procurement, contract
a military responsibility and prerogative involving purchasing, and material inspection and receipt.
strategy and tactics. It encompasses determination They are in charge of stock management at field
of requirements for the conduct of global war as supply points, supply systems management,
well as the determination of requirements for a stowage and materials handling, and financial
small task unit engaged in a minor operation. management.
The next step is procurement. It is based upon
the determination of requirements, the production Current Corps strength is about 4,500 officers,
sources available, and those sources to be 50 percent of whom serve afloat and overseas. The
developed. In many respects it may be thought Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps program
of as the point or zone of contact between the serves as the main source of Supply Corps officer
armed forces and the civilian economy. It is input. The Naval Academy, Officer Candidate
primarily controlled by the civilian element of the School, the Limited Duty Officer Program, and
defense structure. Thus, while elements of the line officer transfers also supply the corps with
Navy Department may undertake the actual officers. While not officially members of the
details of procurement, they do so under policies Supply Corps, about 300 chief warrant officers
prescribed by and under the watchful eyes of the serve in the technical specialty of supply clerk.
Secretary of the Navy and his civilian assistants. Supply clerks are assigned to Supply Corps billets
Distribution, the last step of the logistics both afloat and ashore.
process, starts with accumulation at continental Newly commissioned Supply Corps officers,
depots and ends with delivery to the ultimate including line transferees and newly appointed
consumer. The responsibility for distribution of chief warrant supply clerks, are sent to the Navy
goods in the Navy rests on the shoulders of Supply Supply Corps School, Athens, Georgia. They
Corps officers. receive 26 weeks of intensive training in Basic
Officers of the Supply Corps are the Navy’s Supply Management and instruction in a wide
business administrators. As such, they direct the range of sophisticated management techniques,
Navy’s logistics requirements as set forth by the including automatic data processing. Upon com-
Chief of Naval Operations. They make sure these pleting the course, most corps officers receive
requirements are provided efficiently and econom- assignments to afloat billets followed by tours
ically to ships and activities around the world. ashore in the continental United States (CONUS)
They manage a supply system that furnishes well and overseas. By their third tour, typical Supply
over a million items essential to the operations of Corps officers are expected to develop a func-
ships, missiles, aircraft, and facilities. In addi- tional proficiency in one field. The field may be
tion, Supply Corps officers disburse pay and clothing and textiles, financial management, fuel
allowances of Navy personnel and manage the distribution, merchandising, procurement,
operation of food service, ship’s store, and Navy subsistence technology, system inventory
Exchange facilities. management, or transportation management.

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 Courses in Navy Exchange Management (6 Ž Care for on-the-job injuries and illnesses
weeks) and Commissary Store Management (4 of civilian employees
weeks) are conducted several times yearly at
the Navy Resale and Services Supply Office, Ž Supervision of the care and preparation for
Brooklyn, New York. A 6-month course in shipment and interment of deceased
Transportation Management conducted at the military members and of civilian personnel
Naval Supply Center, Oakland, California, covers for whom the Navy is responsible
material on terminal operations and stevedoring,
traffic management, and warehousing. Supply BUMED is headed by the Surgeon General of
Corps officers may also attend other courses of the Navy, who serves as Chief of BUMED. The
varying length conducted at both military and Chief of BUMED promotes quality health care
civilian facilities. Course subjects may range from for the patient and professional responsibility for
petroleum storage to computer systems. the patient’s well being. BUMED performs budget
Development of a functional proficiency in no formulation; provides manpower, facilities, and
way detracts from the overall opportunity of material; establishes clinical standards; and
supply officers to upgrade their professional assures total quality management.
qualifications as a naval officer. Each year The first naval hospital was opened in
approximately 100 Supply Corps officers are Portsmouth, Virginia, in 1830. In its earliest days,
selected for postgraduate training at military and the hospital was limited to a medical staff of five
civilian institutions, some at the doctorate level. men and very little equipment. The steady
Studies range from logistics and management progress made in the naval hospitalization system
sciences to law and personnel administration. since 1830 has kept pace with the rapid strides
Long-range plans for Supply Corps officers made in civilian hospital services and medical
involve their service as technoeconomists skilled education. Today, the Navy operates over 30
in the mathematical sciences, analytical methods, hospitals in the United States (4 of which are
and behavioral sciences essential to future Navy teaching hospitals) and over 100 medical clinics.
operations. A naval hospital provides relatively full
diagnostic and therapeutic services together with
bed care, nursing, and dietetic services. Because
accessibility and capacity to serve the operating
BUREAU OF MEDICINE AND forces are prime site considerations, most
SURGERY (BUMED) hospitals are located along the coastal states.
Station hospitals can offer extended care to
The Bureau of Medicine and Surgery patients, but they are smaller and more limited
(BUMED) directs the worldwide medical and in scope. A medical center provides temporary
dental services and facilities maintained by the in-patient treatment for those personnel with a
Department of the Navy. The mission of BUMED favorable prognosis for early release. A clinic is
within the national defense structure of the United designed mainly to provide examination and
States is to safeguard the health of Navy and treatment for ambulatory patients and first aid
Marine Corps personnel in the following areas: for emergency cases.
Aboard ship, the scope of medical facilities
Ž Care and treatment of sick and injured depends upon the complement of medical per-
members of the naval service and their sonnel, available space and equipment, capability
dependents of the staff, and mission of the ship. Facilities thus
range from the scantily furnished sick bay of a
Ž Training programs for BUMED personnel destroyer to one that is fully equipped aboard a
carrier. Personnel assigned vary from 2 hospital
Ž Continuing programs of medical and corpsmen on a destroyer (the senior corpsman
dental research being specially trained for independent duty) to
perhaps 40 or 50 officers and hospital corpsmen
Ž Prevention and control of diseases and on aircraft carriers.
injuries To meet the demand of Navy health care, over
3,900 physicians, 3,100 nurses, and 2,600 Medical
Ž Promotion of physical fitness of members Service Corps officers serve in the Navy. Other
in the naval service personnel who provide medical assistance include

13-5
dentists, physician’s assistants, hospital corpsmen, should use ideas, techniques, and methods that
and dental technicians, as well as a large number will help all command personnel grow spiritually
of civilians. and develop good character.
Navy chaplains have long upheld the tradition
of ensuring free exercise of religion by providing
THE CHAPLAIN CORPS moral and spiritual support and guidance. Often
chaplains devote the bulk of their efforts to
The Constitution of the United States guar- pastoral care and pastoral counseling. In giving
antees “free exercise of religion” to all its citizens. pastoral care, chaplains try to reflect the heart of
However, military personnel often find themselves God in their actions. They serve as agents through
stationed far from their traditional religious which God imparts healing, spiritual renewal,
communities. Therefore, Congress authorized the and unconditional love. In pastoral counseling,
establishment of the Navy Chaplain Corps to chaplains help personnel resolve domestic
provide for the religious needs of personnel of the problems as well as personal issues and crises. In
Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard. Com- addition, chaplains conduct regular worship
manding officers have the responsibility to ensure services; provide religious educational opportuni-
this constitutional right for each person in their ties; and perform baptisms, confirmations,
command. Navy chaplains are accountable to marriages, and other sacraments and ordinances.
their commanding officers for the pastoral care Chaplains serve at sea on a normal rotational
of personnel of all faiths. basis. Some are assigned directly to ships’
Though commissioned as an officer, the companies. Others become “circuit riders” who
chaplain is first ordained as a member of the meet the needs of those on small ships and stations
clergy in one of the religious bodies of the country. or at widely dispersed units. For example, a
The wearing of the naval uniform is believed to chaplain assigned to minister to destroyer
enhance the chaplain’s effectiveness in ministering personnel will serve many ships operating over
within and to the military organization. The great distances. Over 50 percent of the Navy
uniform, itself, indicates the chaplain’s chaplains are assigned to sea or overseas billets.
responsibility to the naval service and the Nation. In addition, Navy chaplains serve major tactical
The insignia worn, the Cross or the Tablets of the and support units of the U.S. Marine Corps.
Law, identifies a person as a chaplain. It also Approximately 20 percent of the total number of
emphasizes the chaplain’s responsibility to church active-duty chaplains are attached to Marine
and spiritual values. Corps units at any given time. Ashore, three or
Standards for appointment as a chaplain are more chaplains may be assigned to larger Navy,
high. Each appointee must be physically qualified. Marine Corps, and Coast Guard stations. Many
Each must have completed at least 120 semester of these stations have well-equipped chapels and
hours of undergraduate study in an accredited educational facilities (fig. 13-2).
college or university and a minimum of 90 Chaplains serve in commissioned grades from
semester hours in an approved theological school. lieutenant (junior grade) through captain. Their
Before the appointment can be made, the chaplain promotions are based on the same precepts and
must be duly ordained and provided with an regulations governing all other naval officer
ecclesiastical endorsement by his or her own promotions. The Chaplain Corps is directed by
church. the Chief of Chaplains, a rear admiral.
As religious leaders, chaplains advise the
commanding officer on all matters pertaining to
JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL’S
the moral, spiritual, and religious welfare of
CORPS
Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard personnel.
Chaplains always conduct divine services The American Fleet was authorized in 1775,
according to the customs, traditions, and and the Department of the Navy was established
regulations of their own church. Frequently called by an act of Congress in 1798. However, the Navy
upon to provide religious services for those of had no official legal counsel until well into the
other faiths, however, they must minister to the 19th century.
needs of people of all faiths. Their responsibilities In 1864, because of contract frauds arising
include inviting appropriate clergy aboard, under Civil War naval programs, Secretary of the
training lay readers, and providing proper Navy Gideon Welles created the position of
material and ecclesiastical support. Each chaplain Solicitor for the Navy Department. The quickly

13-6
 134.50
Figure 13-2.-On the naval base at Norfolk, Virginia, are the chapels of three faiths under one
roof. To the left is the Protestant chapel; to the right, the Catholic chapel; and connecting the
two, the Jewish chapel.

proven value of the Solicitor’s function moved served in both line and legal functions throughout
Secretary Welles to request legislative ratification the world.
of the new legal office. By the act of 2 March 1865, The idea of organizing the Navy’s uniformed
Congress established the Office of Solicitor and lawyers into a distinctive professional group
Naval Judge Advocate. performing only legal functions was first
The act of Congress on 8 June 1880 estab- considered a number of years ago. In 1945 the
lished the Office of the Judge Advocate General of Secretary of the Navy convened the McGuire
the Navy as we know it today. This legislation Committee, chaired by Matthew F. McGuire, a
placed upon the Judge Advocate General the duty prominent civilian lawyer. The committee
to “receive, revise, and have recorded the examined court-martial procedures under the
proceedings of all courts-martial, courts of inquiry, Articles for the Government of the Navy. The
and boards for the examination of officers for committee’s November 1945 report to the
retirement and promotion in the naval service, Secretary formally recommended the establish-
and to perform such other duties as have ment of a Judge Advocate General’s Corps in
heretofore been performed by the Solicitor and which officers would perform legal duties only.
Naval Judge Advocate General.” The Judge The recommendation of the McGuire Com-
Advocate General was given cognizance over all mittee prompted Secretary of the Navy James V.
legal matters, of whatever kind, that affected the Forrestal to appoint a board to look further into
interest of the Navy. the question. Headed by Arthur A. Ballantine of
Before World War II, Navy lawyers were the New York Bar, the board finished its report in
usually line officers with legal training. Their April 1946. The report concluded that World War
tours of legal duty, usually in the Office of the II had proven beyond all question the need
Judge Advocate General, alternated with tours of for a large number of lawyers to perform
line duty at sea. During the war, many lawyers legal duties on a continuous basis. However, it

13-7
 recommended the creation of a “law specialist” Since 1969 the JAG Corps has been organized
category in the restricted line. The report into four basic components: the Office of the
concluded that this category would benefit the Judge Advocate General, staff and activity judge
Navy more than the creation of a JAG corps. advocates, law centers, and a training component.
Authorized to procure 300 lawyers in June Under that organizational structure, the corps
1946, the Navy began the Law Specialist Pro- experienced problems in personnel distribution,
gram. uniformity of funding and support, and stan-
Until late 1967 many unsuccessful attempts to dardization of operations. These problems
establish a JAG Corps were made. At that time impeded the corps’ efforts to give the best service
a subcommittee of the House Armed Services it could provide.
Committee scheduled a hearing on provisions for Following an extensive study of the problems,
the establishment of a JAG Corps in the Navy. the Naval Legal Service was established in 1973.
The Judge Advocate General of the Navy pre- Its mission was to control the legal services
sented convincing testimony at the hearing. His program and provide command direction for all
testimony showed that membership in a legal Naval Legal Service activities and resources
corps would give the Navy lawyer a sense of assigned. It was also to perform other functions
professional identity and provide a potent career or tasks related to the Naval Legal Service as
incentive. directed by the Chief of Naval Operations.
The proposed legislation made the full course Headquartered in Washington, the Naval Legal
from subcommittee hearings through a receptive Service was authorized 18 offices and 15 branch
Congress to final passage within a little more than offices throughout the world.
2 months. On 8 December 1967 President Johnson Technically, Naval Legal Service offices serve
signed Public Law 90-179, which established the as legal service centers in areas that have a major
JAG Corps as a staff corps of the Navy. concentration of naval activities. Within the limits
of strength authorizations, these offices provide
Military justice is only one of the many areas
a full array of legal services to commands that
of responsibility y handled by Navy lawyers. Judge
have no judge advocate assigned. A primary
advocates provide legal advice in the fields of
purpose of the establishment of the Naval Legal
international law, admiralty, administrative law,
Service was to bring all trial and defense counsels
claims litigation, and investigations. They also
under the direct authority of the Judge Advocate
provide legal services to service members and their
General. This step made the Naval Legal Service
dependents in areas such as taxation, promotions,
independent of court-martial convening
and retirement.
authorities.
Activity in these fields and in military justice Even though it is a relatively new organization,
is constantly expanding and changing. The largest the Navy JAG Corps continues to expand. The
change, concerning expanded rights to military passage of legislation by Congress and the
people, occurred with passage of the Military increased need for legal services by Navy members
Justice Act of 1968. This act expanded the rights result in increased responsibilities for the JAG
of the accused” to receive legal counsel before Corps.
special courts-martial. It also inaugurated the use
of military judges to preside over special courts-
martial. SECURITY
JAG Corps members serve in the offices of
the Secretary of Defense; Secretary of the Although not in the same vein as some of the
Navy; Chief of Naval Operations; and the Chief supporting elements previously discussed, the
of Naval Personnel. Other offices in which they Navy’s Security program helps to prevent the
serve include the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, disclosure of sensitive information. It deserves
Chief of Naval Research, Comptroller of the careful attention by all naval personnel.
Navy, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The word security, like many other words,
Additionally, Judge advocates are assigned to has several meanings. Expressed simply, for naval
the staffs of the Navy’s various area coordinators purposes, SECURITY = PROTECTING CLAS-
to handle legal work generated within that area. SIFIED INFORMATION. Security requires
Locally, they serve on the staffs of fleet, force, active Navy support of Presidential Executive
and type commanders and at many naval bases, Order 12356 governing classifying and safe-
stations, and schools. guarding national security information.

13-8
 Classified information takes several forms. It can be considered for such release. The President
includes paper documents, automatic data pro- has determined that designated Navy officials may
cessing (ADP) storage media, telephone con- classify information only if it falls under one of
versations, microforms, circuit boards in 10 categories:
equipment, and hardware configuration briefing
charts. Regardless of the form, however, the 1. Military plans, weapons, or operations
President directs that official information shall (e.g., Navy plans to help rescue U.S.
be classified if its unauthorized disclosure can citizens captured by terrorists)
reasonably be expected to cause damage to the 2. Vulnerabilities or capabilities of systems,
national security. installations, projects, or plans relating to
The Navy’s objective of protecting classified the national security (e.g., the range of a
information requires several actions. Of these new missile)
actions, the following are some of the most 3. Foreign government information (e.g.,
important: Canadian secrets shared with the United
States with the understanding that they
Ž Clearing military and civilian personnel for will be protected)
access to classified information (personnel 4. Intelligence activities (including special
security) activities) or intelligence sources or
methods (e.g., explanation of classified
Ž Ensuring that people know security rules satellite photographs of Soviet weapons)
(security education and training) 5. Foreign relations or foreign activities of
the United States (e.g., U.S. policy for
Ž Identifying what specific information must dealing with Soviet requests to purchase
be classified (classification management) grain while arms negotiations are under
way)
Ž Notifying users how to protect classified 6. Scientific, technological, or economic
information (marking) matters relating to the national security
(e.g., research on certain aspects of the
Ž Keeping track of classified information strategic defense initiative)
(accounting and control) 7. United States government programs for
safeguarding nuclear materials or facilities
Ž Preventing unauthorized access to (e.g., not revealing information as to
classified information (physical security) whether or not a ship is carrying nuclear
weapons when it visits foreign ports)
Ž Providing a secure environment for 8. Cryptology (e.g., machines and systems
electronic processing of classified informa- for protecting United States communica-
tion and data (ADP security) tions from being compromised)
9. Confidential source (e.g., names of
Information that requires protection in the foreign newsmen who give us secret Soviet
interest of national security is classified into three plans for the evacuation of Afghanistan)
categories. These categories, in descending order 10. Other information related to the national
of importance, are Top Secret, Secret, or security that requires protection against
Confidential. A Top Secret classification is unauthorized disclosure as determined by
applied to information that, after unauthorized a Navy original classification authority
disclosure, could be expected to cause excep-
tionally grave damage to the national security. Foreign espionage against the United States
Secret applies to information that could cause is a serious and growing concern of the Secretary
serious damage to the national security. Confi- of the Navy, the Chief of Naval Operations, and
dential applies to that which could cause the Commandant of the Marine Corps. Combatt-
identifiable damage. ing it requires informed, constant, and alert
Official information and data generated and attention to procedures for safeguarding classified
used by the Navy are released to the public in large information by the active cooperation of every
quantities. Classified Navy information, however, member of the Navy. The agents of hostile
must undergo careful screening to be declassified governments and terrorists groups have amply
or to have sensitive portions removed before it demonstrated their danger to the security and

13-9
future of the United States. In recent years, After his arrest, the marine admitted to the Naval
however, disaffected U.S. citizens entrusted with Investigative Service that he made up the entire
classified information, including naval personnel, story because he enjoyed the glamour of being
have caused exceptionally grave damage to our considered a spy.
country. Several Navy officers and chief petty
officers, Navy and Marine Corps noncommis- Ž A Navy ensign was arrested after he mailed
sioned officers, and civilians have willfully and a classified electronic warfare document and two
deliberately sold secrets to foreign governments microfilm indices of key code words to a foreign
for personal financial gain. Since 1985, the so- embassy in Washington, D.C. The embassy,
called “Year of the Spy,” United States fortunately one from a friendly government,
counterintelligence has identified, prosecuted, and turned the material over to U.S. authorities along
convicted several active-duty and retired personnel with the ensign’s request for payment of $50,000.
for espionage. These espionage activities have Court testimony revealed that he wanted to sell
included the following acts of betrayal: the material to raise money for his girl friend in
another foreign country.
Ž Information sold to the Soviet Union by
a recent family network of spies provided the Ž A Marine Corps private first class who
Soviets with U.S. Navy communications and deserted his guard post at a Marine weapons
antisubmarine operational tactics. Subsequently, compound turned up at the Soviet embassy in
the Soviets arranged to obtain, through a foreign Washington, D.C. The marine offered to sell
manufacturer, restricted-technology milling unspecified military information for $500 to
equipment needed to develop more silent sub- $1,000.
marine propellers. Consequently, Soviet sub-
marines have the technical capability to reduce The United States loses thousands of pieces
their noise under water, which makes them harder of classified information each year, apparently
to detect and locate. without a trace. A simple explanation may be that
too many people in the Navy and Marine Corps
Ž A U.S. Navy ship discovered that over 100 do not follow instructions or that they ignore
classified documents were missing. It then regulations. Some of them maybe disloyal citizens
submitted a report to the Chief of Naval who pose a real or potential threat to the national
Operations (CNO) concluding that the documents defense. Regardless of the reason or motivation,
were probably destroyed by accident without they all make the foreign espionage agent’s job
being compromised. Copies of two of the easier. We may never know the full national
documents were later found among the 15 pounds security significance of many of these losses
of classified material taken by a young sailor. The because we have not been effectively controlling
sailor had planned to pass them to his father, a or accounting for all classified information. Each
Soviet spy for almost two decades. Father and son member of the Navy must become a full partner
were sent to prison. in the costly, but necessary, efforts to keep better
track of vital classified documents and equipment.
Ž A second class petty officer, with a security Only by all hands working together can we guard
clearance, telephoned the Soviet embassy in our personal safety, protect the national security,
Washington, D.C., and offered to sell classified and ensure the future of the United States of
information for $1,500. Following his conviction, America.
he told a Navy counterintelligence official that he
did this for the money.
NAVAL INTELLIGENCE
Ž An active-duty chief petty officer took
classified information home as personal study Intelligence, properly performed, can provide
material. He was apprehended and charged with a foreknowledge of important information for
possible espionage. both government and military leaders. It helps our
leaders reach sound decisions that are vital to the
Ž A Marine Corps deserter, living overseas security of a nation as well as to success in
on the charity of others, told an elaborate—but combat. It can reduce the possibility of surprise,
untrue—story. He claimed he worked for a Soviet evaluate enemy potential, and predict enemy areas
KGB agent as a spy against the United States. of operation.

13-10
 The misconception of intelligence as a mysteri- Naval Intelligence Command, responsible for
ous, glamorous, and hazardous undertaking has carrying out the intelligence mission of the Navy.
been derived principally from two sources. The When not capitalized, the term naval intelligence
first has been its “cloak and dagger” treatment refers to the material obtained, processed, and
in popular literature; the second has been the dispersed to appropriate naval authority.
natural reluctance of governments to disclose the A distinction exists between information and
inner workings oft heir intelligence organizations. intelligence. Information is the raw material and
Because of the critical nature of intelligence work, intelligence is the finished product. Information
governments have surrounded this activity with becomes intelligence after it is evaluated.
the strictest of security regulations. Thus a void In the United States Navy, the Chief of Naval
has been created in the public’s image of Operations (CNO) supervises the intelligence
intelligence work that has been filled by fictional function while the Director of Naval Intelligence
versions. (DNI) directs the total effort. The DNI carries out
While intelligence work does have its exciting the responsibilities of the CNO regarding
moments, properly understood it is very similar intelligence, cryptology, and security matters. The
to any other military staff function. Generally, DNI is the principal staff adviser to the Secretary
it is knowledge upon which a course of action may of the Navy and the CNO concerning plans,
be safely based. In its entirety, it is a vast and programming, and policy matters involving naval
complex grouping of information covering a wide intelligence. The DNI also assists and advises the
range of subjects. It includes closely interrelated CNO in exercising command over the Naval
subjects such as geography, transportation, tele- Intelligence Command, the Naval Investigative
communications, sociological factors, political Service, and the Naval Security Group Command.
conditions, economic conditions, armed forces, The Office of Naval Intelligence maintains a
technical developments, and biographical data. relatively small staff to guide and support the
Intelligence workers can make a valid “estimate functions of its headquarters. The Commander,
of a situation” only by considering each in its Naval Intelligence Command (COMNAVINT-
relation to the others. COM), controls the major portion of the func-
Since intelligence activities have three basic tions of program management and intelligence
purposes, they are divided into three functional collection, production, and dissemination.
segments: strategic intelligence, operational COMNAVINTCOM also serves as the Deputy
intelligence, and counterintelligence. Director of Naval Intelligence (DDNI) for
Strategic intelligence is used mainly by top Intelligence Production (OP-092D). The mission
echelons of command and top-level leaders in of COMNAVINTCOM is to ensure the Depart-
government as the basis for national planning and ment of the Navy fulfills its security and
policy. That is, they use it in reaching broad intelligence requirements and responsibilities.
decisions affecting the long-range security and
welfare of a nation.
Operational intelligence helps the local RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
commander decide what personnel and material
to use against an adversary. Local commanders Because of the personnel, money, and
may use some of the strategic intelligence materials involved, the research and development
information for operational purposes. However, effort in the Department of Defense (DOD) and
when executing a planned mission, local its military branches is big business. The scientific
commanders require much more detail than and military strength of the United States depends
strategic (long-range) planners. heavily on the success of a comprehensive research
Counterintelligence is designed to destroy the program.
effectiveness of the intelligence efforts of foreign DOD manages the research and development
nations. For a nation to actively collect foreign of all major military hardware/weapons systems.
intelligence about actual or potential enemies is To a lesser degree, it manages scientific study in
not enough. A nation must also protect its own fields related to long-term national security needs.
intelligence information from the prying eyes of Fields of study include the engineering, environ-
other powers. Foreign intelligence is actively at mental, biological-medical, and behavioral social
work. sciences. DOD currently authorizes about $40
The term Naval Intelligence, when capitalized, billion for research, development, test, and
refers to the organization, under the Commander, evaluation (RDT&E).

13-11
 At the top of the Navy RDT&E organization, SHIPBUILDING
the Secretary of the Navy exerts policy control.
The Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Research, Shipbuilding begins with the ship design
Engineering, and Systems (ASN/RE&S) is re- process. Four phases make up this process:
sponsible to SECNAV for management and feasibility studies, preliminary design, contract
control of Navy RDT&E matters, including design, and detail design and construction. The
monetary appropriations. process starts with a requirement for a new ship.
This requirement could be for a guided-missile
The Chief of Naval Research, who heads the
destroyer, a mine-hunting ship, an amphibious
Office of the Chief of Naval Research (OCNR),
assault ship, or a combat logistics support ship.
is a principal adviser to the ASN/RE&S. The
Feasibility studies provide alternative designs that
OCNR consists of two offices: the Office of
meet the requirement. The selected alternative
Naval Research (ONR) and the Office of Naval
design is developed into the ship preliminary
Technology (ONT). Responsible for the basic
design. The contract design phase defines the ship
research programs of the Navy, ONR manages
performance and contractual terms so that the
the Navy’s research laboratories and ONT
prospective shipbuilders can establish the cost of,
conducts the Navy’s Exploratory Development
and schedule for, ship construction. The ship-
Program.
builder develops the detail design used to build
The scope of the Navy’s research programs is the ship.
as broad as the Navy’s working environment— The research, development, test, and evalua-
from the deep ocean floor to outer space. Current tion program promotes the development of more
and continuing long-range programs include the capable and survivable ships at a reduced cost and
research of oceanography, space, advanced with reduced manning. That is accomplished by
electronics and superconductivity, neural network the integration of new and emerging technologies
computers, artificial intelligence, biotechnology, with projected ship requirements. Test and
ship and aircraft design, and weapons design. evaluation of new projects take place in
Although this list could go on and on, it should laboratories, at land-based test sites, and aboard
give you some idea about the scope of the ships. The David W. Taylor Naval Ship Research
program. and Development Center at Bethesda, Maryland,
conducts the research, development, test, and
evaluation of many hull, propulsion, electrical,
NAVAL RESEARCH LABORATORY auxiliary, and environmental protection systems.

The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) at SURFACE WEAPONS AND

Washington, D.C., is considered to be the Navy’s WEAPONS SYSTEMS
corporate laboratory. NRL facilities include more
than 130 buildings on 129 acres of land. In their The focal point for development of naval
pursuit of new knowledge for the Navy and the surface warfare weapons systems, research in
Nation, NRL scientists use more than 15 field ordnance technology, and support of naval
sites. strategic systems is the Naval Surface Warfare
Center (NSWC). The management, technical
programs, and resources of the Naval Ordnance
OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH Laboratory, White Oak, Maryland, and the Naval
Weapons Laboratory, Dahlgren, Virginia, com-
The Navy has conducted oceanographic re- bined to form this center in 1974.
search since about 1946. Over the years, as the Some of the center’s current programs are in
importance of this field of endeavor has grown, the areas of surface- and air-launched missiles,
many segments of the government and the fuzing, nuclear weapons effects, high-energy laser
scientific community have become directly engineering, antiship missile defense, aerodynamic
involved. Today, many federal agencies are and hydrodynamic research, geoballistics, astron-
involved in the Nation’s oceanographic program. autics, and geodesy. Other capabilities include
The oceanographer of the Navy coordinates the development of gun systems, torpedoes, mines,
overall program and acts as the Navy’s spokes- and advanced strategic weapons concepts.
person on oceanography with other federal, Research and development activities in the
national, and international organizations. weapons explosive area include the Naval

13-12
Explosives Development Engineering Department SHIPBOARD PERSONNEL
(NEDED) at the Naval Weapons Station, PROTECTION
Yorktown, Virginia, and the Naval Ordnance
Station at Indian Head, Maryland. Wearing the right protective equipment is the
best way for personnel to prevent injuries.
Protective equipment protects personnel from
UNDERWATER WEAPONS AND
weapons effects in hostile actions; from fire,
UNDERWATER WEAPONS SYSTEMS
smoke, and toxic effects in peacetime accidents;
and from hazardous and environmental effects
The Navy’s main research, development, test,
in the day-to-day workplace. Since the crew must
and evaluation activity for underwater combat
be able to function under all three of these
systems is the Naval Underwater Systems Center
environmental conditions, wearing protective
(NUSC) at Newport, Rhode Island. NUSC is
equipment limits their exposure.
committed to a diversity of complex technological
The following are some items of protective
research programs concerning command and
equipment that have been, or are being,
control systems, underwater weapons and targets,
developed:
weapons launchers and tubes, underwater track-
ing ranges, sonar, surveillance, ocean engineering,
and fleet readiness. In addition to its Newport
Ž The naval battle helmet, the ballistic face
shield, the naval flak vest, and laser eye protection
facilities, NUSC has a major research and
for wear during hostile actions
development laboratory complex at New London,
Connecticut.
NUSC is tasked to perform research and
ŽThe fire fighter’s helmet, antiflash and
antiexposure clothing, fire-retardant working
development of torpedo-type weapons. However,
clothing, and fire fighter’s breathing apparatus
the Naval Undersea Warfare Engineering Station
for protection in peacetime accidents
(NUWES) at Keyport, Washington, also conducts
some research and development and considerable
testing and evaluation of torpedoes. In addition,
Ž
The auto-inflatable utility life preserver
and improved clothing for both cold weather and
NUWES, Keyport, serves as the sole proofing
hazardous material handling for protection
activity for production torpedoes. Proofing
against the hazardous and environmental effects
includes a series of tests that a sample of
in the workplace
production torpedoes must pass before the
torpedoes are accepted and delivered to the fleet.
SUMMARY
NAVAL AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
All the supporting elements of the Navy
The principal field activity for the design and discussed in this chapter share a common
cradle-to-grave management of the aircraft system thread—they all work to provide support to Navy
is the Naval Air Development Center (NADC) at personnel and programs.
Warminster, Pennsylvania. The center conducts The Civil Engineer Corps oversees the
research, development, test, and evaluation of, construction of our bases and facilities. The
and life cycle support for, major naval aircraft Supply Corps provides parts, equipment, and
systems. NADC was established in 1944. Its food and disburses our pay and allowances.
capabilities were expanded substantially in 1973 BUMED strives to keep us healthy or return us
when the Naval Navigation Laboratory (NNL), to health if we are ill or injured. The Chaplain
formerly the Naval Strategic Systems Naviga- Corps attends to our spiritual and moral needs.
tion Facility, was incorporated under NADC. The Judge Advocate General’s Corps helps us
Approximately 60 percent of the research and with our legal problems. The Naval Security
development at NNL deals with navigation for Program helps to prevent the unauthorized
surface ships and submarines. The other 40 disclosure of our vital information. Naval
percent is concentrated on airborne navigational Intelligence provides us with information about
systems. NNL’s current and ongoing research and potential threats or enemies. And last but not
development projects include ring laser gyro least, the Research and Development Program of
technology, the global positioning system, and the the Navy continues to develop and improve our
joint tactical information distribution system. equipment.

13-13
 Without the services provided by these REFERENCES
members of the Navy team-, we would- not be
“Medical Department Reorganization,” Navy
able to accomplish the mission of the Navy.
Medicine 80, no. 4 (July - August 1989): 8-9.
Although it is the motto of the Supply Corps,
“Service to the fleet” applies to all of these Navy Fact File, 8th ed., Office of Information,
elements. Washington, D.C., 1988.

SCUTTLEBUTT

THE ORIGIN OF THE WORD “SCUTTLE BUTT,” WHICH IS NAUTICAL PAR-

LANCE FOR A RUMOR, COMES FROM A COMBINATION OF “SCUTTLE, ” TO MAKE
A HOLE IN THE SHIP’S SIDE CAUSING HER TO SINK, AND “BUTT,” A
CASK OR HOGSHEAD USED IN THE DAYS OF WOODEN SHIPS TO HOLD DRINK-
ING WATER; THUS THE TERM “SCUTTLEBUTT” MEANS A CASK WITH A HOLE
IN IT. “SCUTTLE” DESCRIBES WHAT MOST RUMORS ACCOMPLISH, IF NOT
TO THE SHIP, AT LEAST TO MORALE. “BUTT” DESCRIBES THE WATER
CASK WHERE MEN NATURALLY CONGREGATED, AND THAT’S WHERE MOST
RUMORS GET STARTED. THE TERMS “GALLEY YARN” AND “MESS DECK
INTELLIGENCE” ALSO MEAN THE SPREADING OF RUMORS AND MANY, OF
COURSE, START ON THE MESS DECK.

13-14
 CHAPTER 14

UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe how tradition impacts on the Marine 4. Identify the major equipment used by the
Corps. Marine Corps.

2. Identify the primary functions of the Marine 5. Identify the procurement sources for Marine
Corps. Corps officers.

3. Identify the organizational structure of the 6. Describe the professional training available to
Marine Corps. Marine Corps officers.

SIGNIFICANT DATES world. The United States Marine Corps has

always been in battle when the United States has
10 Nov. 1775 Continental Marines (now the been engaged in armed conflict and is still ready
Marine Corps) are established. to enter battle today. Although our ships no
longer pull alongside an enemy vessel to send men
23 Feb. 1945 The American flag is raised by over the side, today’s marine is still required to
Marines atop Mount Suribachi be prepared for hand-to-hand combat.
on Iwo Jima. Since 1975, Marine combat forces have
participated in several operations in support of
8 Mar. 1965 Marines land at Da Nang,
U.S. national policy. On 29 September 1982,
South Vietnam.
following Israel’s invasion of Lebanon, the U.S.
23 Oct. 1983 A terrorist bomb explodes in Marines landed at Beirut, Lebanon. As part of
Beirut, Lebanon, killing 241 a multinational force, the Marine Corps mission
marines. was to oversee the evacuation of Palestinians. On
23 October 1983 a lone terrorist drove an
Fighting men have been assigned to ships since explosive-laden truck into the headquarters of
the time of the Phoenicians, about five centuries Battalion Landing Team (BLT) 1/8 at Beirut
before the Christian Era. The Greeks and Remans International Airport killing 241 marines and
followed this practice, and later the British. sailors. More marines died on that day than on
Eventually, as the United States Navy started to any other since World War II.
develop, the practice continued with marines also Two days later, on 25 October, the Marines
being assigned to ships. landed on the Caribbean island of Grenada. On
Our Marines have played a vital part in our this mission Marine forces were to rescue U.S.
nation’s history, especially in times of armed students who had become endangered when a
conflict. First called the Continental Marines, they communist-led coup overthrew the Grenadian
fought in the American Revolution. Later called government. A combined force of Marines, Army
the United States Marines, they have fought in Rangers, and elements of the 82nd Airborne
World Wars and armed conflicts throughout the Division rescued 662 U.S. citizens. They also

14-1
halted Communist expansion in the Caribbean— tradition are found in the uniform, the insignia,
the first U.S. victory ever over a Marxist state. the words of the “Marines’ Hymn,” and in their
Battle, success, and victory have become a nicknames they have earned through the years.
tradition for the United States Marine Corps. The familiar emblem of the U.S. Marine
Corps—the eagle, globe, and anchor (fig. 14-2)—
MARINE CORPS TRADITION was officially adopted in 1868. It symbolizes
worldwide service in a seagoing force—the
The U.S. Marine Corps, perhaps to a greater “soldiers of the sea.” The spread eagle holds in its
degree than any other military service, shows the beak streamers that bear the Marine Corps motto,
power of pride in tradition to unify and motivate a Semper Fidelis (Always Faithful), officially
fighting force. Almost as soon as they become adopted in 1883.
members of the organization, marines learn that The “Marines’ Hymn” originated from a verse
traditions are as much a part of their equipment written by an unknown marine during the
as their pack or rifle. These traditions have been Mexican War. This verse, “From the Halls of
growing since the Continental Marines were Montezuma to the Shores of Tripoli,” became the
organized on 10 November 1775, the birth date of first verse of the hymn (fig. 14-3).
the Corps. Marine Corps tradition has many The Marine Corps march, “Semper Fidelis,”
phases: discipline, devotion to duty, leadership, was composed in 1888 by John Philip Sousa, at
loyalty, self-sacrifice, versatility, and pride in a job that time leader of the Marine Band. The band
well done (fig. 14-1). Reflections of Marine Corps played for the first presidential inauguration in

134.51
Figure 14-1.-The marines of Marine Barracks 8th and I, “the oldest post of the Corps, ” on parade
at the Marine Corps War Memorial, Arlington, Virginia. Rugged in combat, U.S. Marines on
parade present the perfect example of proper military bearing.

14-2
 To develop doctrines, tactics, techniques,
and equipment employed by landing forces
in amphibious operations

To develop the doctrines and procedures

for joint amphibious operations

The National Security Act of 1947 established

the roles and missions of the United States Marine
Corps. Today the Marine Corps stands ready to
carry out a wide variety of missions that higher
authority may assign. In addition to deploying
forces for amphibious operations, Marines train
foreign military forces and provide security for
diplomatic posts worldwide.

MARINE CORPS ORGANIZATION

Figure 14-2.-Emblem of the U.S. Marine Corps. The U.S. Marine Corps consists of not less
than three combat divisions and three aircraft
wings, and such land combat, aviation, and other
Washington in 1801. It became known as “the services as necessary to support them.
President’s own” during the early years of the The Commandant of the Marine Corps
19th century, a title it holds today. (CMC) is a Chief of Service and a permanent
Back when marines wore leather stocks or member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The CMC
collars to protect themselves from the slash of an is responsible for the administration, discipline,
enemy sword or cutlass, they were given the internal organization, training, efficiency,
nickname leatherneck. During World War I, after readiness, and total performance of the Marine
the fourth Marine brigade distinguished itself Corps. The CMC also has responsibility for the
during action at Belleau Wood, the Germans were operation of the Marine Corps’ material support
said to have referred to the marines as system. When performing these functions, the
teufelshunden (devil dogs). Commandant is responsible directly to the
Secretary of the Navy; the CMC is not a part of
the command structure of the Chief of Naval
MARINE CORPS FUNCTION Operations (CNO). A close cooperative
relationship exists, however, between the CNO,
The primary functions of the Marine Corps as the senior military officer of the Department
are as follows: of the Navy, and the CMC.

To organize, train, equip, and provide FLEET MARINE FORCE (FMF)

Fleet Marine Forces, together with
supporting air components, for service The Fleet Marine Force (FMF), which has
with the Navy fleet in the seizure or defense been in existence since 1933, comprises the main
of advanced naval bases and for the con- fighting strength of Marines assigned to the
duct of such land operations as may be operating forces of the Navy. The FMF includes
essential to the prosecution of a naval all air and ground tactical units of the Marine
campaign Corps. It is organized into two commands: Fleet
Marine Force Atlantic and Fleet Marine Force
To provide detachments and organizations Pacific.
for service on armed vessels of the Navy The primary mission of the FMF is to conduct
overseas amphibious operations for the seizure
To provide security detachments for the and defense of advanced bases as part of a naval
protection of naval property at naval campaign. The nature of this mission, therefore,
stations and bases requires that the FMF maintain a very high state

14-3
 134.144
Figure 14-3.-The first lines of the "Marines' Hymn," "From the Halls of Montezuma to the Shores of
Tripoli," commemorate, in reverse chronological, the accomplishments of the Marine Corps in
the Mexican War . . .

of readiness. Its units—which include infantry, expeditionary brigade (MEB) may number 16,500
artillery, armor, communications, engineering, and the Marine expeditionary force (MEF) may
logistics troops, and aviation organizations—must number 35,000.
be completely mobile. The FMF is the nation’s
premier force-in-readiness for all levels of conflict In late 1985 the 26th Marine amphibious unit
throughout the world. (MAU) was the first MAGTF designated special-
Marine forces within each FMF are task- operations capable (SOC). (The amphibious [MAU]
organized into Marine air-ground task forces designator changed to expeditionary [MEU] in
(MAGTFs) for deployment worldwide. The 1988 to reflect a broader scope in missions.)
MAGTF combines air and ground combat forces in Currently, all MEUs that deploy as landing forces
a highly mobile amphibious strike force under a with the Sixth and Seventh fleets are designated
single commander. All MAGTFs include three SOC. These special capabilities include short-
elements: a ground combat element, an aviation notice amphibious raids, evacuation of
combat element, and a combat service support noncombatants, search and rescue operations, and
element. MAGTFs are task-organized around the in-extremis hostage rescue. Forward-deployed
ground combat element—a battalion, regimental, MEU SOCs provide the national command
or division landing team—which may vary in size. authority with on-scene forces that can respond
For example, the Marine expeditionary unit rapidly to terrorist incidents and other crises
(MEU) numbers 1,800 marines, while the Marine worldwide.

14-4
Figure 14-3.-(Continued . . . and in the war with Barbary Powers. An official version of the Hymn was issued in 1929.

Marine Division Marine Aircraft Wing

The Marine Division is the basic ground or- The Marine aircraft wing (MAW) is the
ganization of the FMF. Organized as a combined highest-level tactical aviation command in
arms team, it includes service units needed for the FMF. Its structure makes it capable of
sustained combat. A division consists of three in- providing all types of air support required
fantry regiments; an artillery regiment; a head- in tactical air operations. Each of the exist-
quarters battalion with service, motor transport, ing wings, although varying in size, is a
military police, and communications capabilities; balanced combat force task-organized into
a reconnaissance battalion; a tank battalion; a light various aircraft groups. These groups are
armored infantry battalion; a combat engineer bat- composed of squadrons, which provide air-
talion; and an assault amphibian battalion. Each craft, support equipment, and personnel re-
infantry regiment is composed of three infantry quired to perform assigned missions. Each
battalions. An infantry battalion, the basic tactical wing has a variety of aircraft—attack, fighter
unit of the division, contains four rifle companies, attack, reconnaissance, electronic countermea-
a weapons company, and a headquarters and ser- sures, transport, and rotary wing. Depend-
vice company. Rifle companies are further divided ing on the model of the aircraft assigned,
into three platoons, each with three squads of a squadron will have from 10 to 24 air-
three fire teams, and a weapons platoon. craft.

14-5
Force Service Support Group eligible for discharge. They had performed well
(FSSG) in answering the Corps’ call to “free a man to
fight.”
The force service support group (FSSG) By Act of Congress on 12 June 1948, authority
provides sustained combat service support for the was given to enlist women in the Regular Marine
Marine Division and other force level units. Each Corps. Soon thereafter a women’s officer training
FSSG contains eight battalions that provide all detachment was set up at Quantico, Virginia,
combat-service support functions beyond the and the 3rd Recruit Training Battalion was
inherent capability of other FMF units. The FSSG activated at Parris Island for training women
is structured to support either a one-division/ recruits.
wing-configured MEF, two MEBs simultaneously, Today women marines are an integral part of
or four MEUs simultaneously. the Regular Marine Corps, providing a nucleus
that can expand rapidly in the event of mobiliza-
Marine Corps Reserve tion. Women marines serve in all noncombat
Ready to increase the manpower combat fields and are assigned to every major post and
strength of the Marine Corps by one-third in a station of the Marine Corps.
matter of weeks is the 4th Marine Division/Wing
Team of the Selected Marine Corps Reserve. This
force is organized, equipped, and trained in the MARINE CORPS EQUIPMENT
same manner as the Regular Fleet Marine Forces. The Marine Corps’ heavy equipment includes
Depending on the combat situation, 4th Marine tanks, amphibians, light armored vehicles,
Division/Wing units are capable of either artillery, missiles, and aircraft. During the 1980s,
augmenting Regular FMF units or deploying as equipment modernization programs across the
a separate division/wing team. entire spectrum of combat arms have brought
The Selected Marine Corps Reserve totals dramatic improvement in the Marine Corps’
slightly over 40,000 marines in both ground and fighting capability. Major improvements include
aviation units. Additionally, Individual Ready the AV-8B Harrier, the vertical/short takeoff and
Reservists (IRR) consist of more than 52,000 landing (V/STOL) aircraft, and the light armored
officers and enlisted marines not assigned to units. vehicle (LAV).
IRRs are trained and prepared to fill out both
Active and Reserve organizations in an TANKS
emergency.
Training programs for Reserve Marines The Marine Corps’ main battle tank is the
include realistic air-ground training one weekend M-60 medium tank. Its armament includes a
a month and 2 weeks each summer. During the 105-mm gun, a 7.62-mm machine gun, and a
latter period, Reserve and Regular units train .50-caliber machine gun. The M-60 tank weighs
together frequently, engaging in exercises that 53 tons and can travel at speeds up to 30 miles
simulate their roles in combat. per hour. It can climb 60-percent grades, scale
3-foot-high obstacles, ford 8-foot-deep streams,
WOMEN MARINES and cross 8½-foot-deep ditches.

During World War I, 305 women reservists AMPHIBIOUS ASSAULT VEHICLES

served in clerical jobs in order to free male marines (AAVS)
to fight in France. In February 1943 the Marine
Corps again called on women so that men could The Marine Corps’ current amphibious assault
be released for combat. By June 1944 the vehicle (AAV) is the LVTP-7 (landing vehicle,
authorized quota of 18,000 enlisted women tracked, personnel). It can carry either 25
marines had been met and approximately 800 combat-equipped marines or 5 tons of supplies
women Marine officers had been trained and in the amphibious assault. It can travel at speeds
assigned. up to 8.4 knots in water or 40 miles per hour on
Unlike World War I women marines, World land. The LVTP-7 can climb 60-percent grades,
War II women reservists performed over 200 breech 3-foot-high obstacles, and traverse 8-foot-
different military assignments, serving at every wide ditches.
major post and station in the United States and Other versions of AAVs include the LVTC-7
Hawaii. By July 1946 all women reservists became (command) and LVTR-7 (recovery). The LVTC-7

14-6
provides command and control during ship-to- The 8-inch, self-propelled howitzer is the
shore and subsequent operations. The LVTR-7 Marine Corps’ most accurate artillery piece. It
provides mobile repair and retrieval facilities for fires a 200-pound HE round to an effective range
disabled vehicles. of about 22,000 meters (28,000 meters with a
rocket-assisted projectile).
ARTILLERY
LIGHT ARMORED VEHICLES
(LAVs)
Marine artillery weapons consist of towed and
self-propelled howitzers and self-propelled guns. The Marine Corps began receiving LAVs in the
The M198 155-mm towed howitzer is the early 1980s. Currently, the Marine Corps has
standard artillery weapon of the Marine Corps. three light armored infantry battalions. One is
Mounted on a wheeled carriage, it fires a 97-pound stationed at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, one at
high-explosive (HE) shell to an effective range of Camp Pendleton, California, and the other is
22,000 meters (30,000 meters with a rocket- deployed in the Western Pacific (WESTPAC). The
assisted projectile). It can also fire white LAV can travel more than 70 miles per hour. It
phosphorous, illumination, smoke, antitank and contains mortar; air defense; tube-launched,
antipersonnel mines, laser-guided, chemical, and optically-tracked, wire-command (link-guided)
nuclear rounds. The CH-53E helicopter transports TOW missiles; and 25-mm chain gun variants.
the M198.
The Vietnam-era 105-mm howitzer remains in MISSILES
service with selected Regular and Reserve units.
Mounted on a wheeled carriage, it fires a 33-pound In addition to conventional ground weapons,
HE shell to an effective range of 11,400 meters. It Marines have light antiaircraft missile (LAAM)
can also fire white phosphorous, illumination, battalions. These battalions are organized and
smoke, and “beehive” (tiny darts used for repelling equipped to provide air defense for a Marine
human-wave attacks) rounds. landing force. The LAAM battalion is equipped
The 155-mm self-propelled howitzer is mounted with Hawk surface-to-air missiles, medium- and
on a tank-like body propelled by tracks. It fires a low-altitude acquisition radar, and fire control
97-pound HE shell to a maximum effective range radar. These weapons systems provide defense
of 18,000 meters (24,000 meters with a rocket- against low- and medium-altitude air attacks (fig.
assisted projectile). 14-4).

134.50
Figure 14-4.-In addition to conventional weapons, Marines use surface-to-air missiles for ground defense.

14-7
AIRCRAFT MARINE CORPS OFFICERS

Marine rotary-wing units include Marine The Marine Corps has officer procurement
attack helicopter (HMA) squadrons; light (HML), programs similar to those of the Navy. They are
medium (HMM), and heavy helicopter transport based on provisions of federal statutes as issued by
(HMH) squadrons; and experimental/special instructions from the Secretary of the Navy and
mission helicopter (HMX) squadrons. Marine the Commandant of the Marine Corps. Candidates
fixed-wing units include Marine attack (VMA), all- for appointment to a commissioned grade in the
weather attack (VHA[AW]), fighter/attack Marine Corps and Marine Corps Reserve must be
(VMFA), tactical electronic warfare (VMAQ), citizens of the United States. They must be
tactical reconnaissance (VMFP), aerial refueler/ mentally, morally, physically, and professionally
transport (VMGR), and observation (VMO) qualified and at least 20 years of age. Naval
squadrons. aviator candidates must not be over 27½ years of
age, and ground officer (exclusive of limited duty
Marine helicopters include the UH-1N Iroquois, officer and warrant officer) candidates must not be
AH-1T/W Cobra, CH-46 Sea Knight, and CH-53E over 28 years of age.
Sea Stallion. The Sea Stallion, the largest military
helicopter in the free world, has a lift capability of NAVAL ACADEMY
more than 32,000 pounds.
The Secretary of the Navy allots to the Regular
Marine fixed-wing aircraft include the F/A-18 Marine Corps each year a quota (16.6 percent at
Hornet, A-6 Intruder, A-4 Skyhawk, AV-8B present) from the current graduating class of the
Harrier (fig. 14-5), EA-6B Prowler, RF-4 Phantom, Naval Academy. Upon graduation, members
OV-10 Bronco, and the KC-130 Hercules. All whose applications for commission in the Marine
Marine aircraft, except the Hercules, can operate Corp have been approved by the Superintendent of
from aircraft carriers and expeditionary airfields the Naval Academy fill this quota. Applicants who
ashore. Helicopters and Harriers can also operate were formerly enlisted in the Marine Corps
from amphibious ships.

134.52
Figure 14-5.-The single-engine, single-seat AV-8B Harrier, used for light attack and close air
support for ground forces, executing a vertical takeoff.

14-8
or Marine Corps Reserve and those who are sons educational level prescribed by the Commandant
or daughters of career Marines receive appoint- of the Marine Corps.
ment preference.
WARRANT OFFICER
NAVAL RESERVE OFFICER
TRAINING CORPS (NROTC) Sergeants and above, with a minimum of 5
PROGRAM and a maximum of 14 years of enlisted service,
may apply for appointment to the grade of
At the beginning of their sophomore year of warrant officer, W-1, in the Marine Corps and
college, selected NROTC midshipmen may elect Marine Corps Reserve. Selections provide for
the Marine option. This option allows the advancement to warrant rank in certain admin-
midshipmen to pursue specialized courses during istration and technical fields for marines who
their last 2 years of college. Between the third and display exceptional proficiency and leadership
fourth years, Marine option personnel attend potential.
training at Officer Candidate School (OCS),
Quantico, Virginia. Upon successful completion LIMITED DUTY OFFICERS
of their college course of study, naval science
courses, and training at OCS, the midshipman is Permanent warrant officers, W-2 through
appointed a second lieutenant in the Marine Corps W-4, may be appointed to commissioned grades
or Marine Corps Reserve. (For a general discus- for limited duty in the technical field in which they
sion of the NROTC Program, see chapter 10.) are proficient. They first must have completed at
least 10 and not more than 20 years of active
PLATOON LEADERS PROGRAM service.

The Platoon Leaders Program is a Marine

Corps officer program for college students OFFICER TRAINING
attending regionally accredited colleges. Upon
successful completion of all requirements, they The Marine Corps University at Quantico,
are commissioned as second lieutenants in the Virginia, is the principal media through which
Marine Corps Reserve. Marine officers receive their formal education.
Upon entry into the Marine Corps, all second
OFFICER CANDIDATES CLASS lieutenants are sent to Basic School (fig. 14-6) for
indoctrination and instruction in fundamental
This Marine officer program is open to college military subjects. Emphasis is placed on individual
seniors and graduates. Candidates undergo 10 and crew-served infantry weapons instruction.
weeks of precommissioning training, followed by Other subjects include marksmanship, small-unit
appointment to commissioned grade. Aviation tactics, basic administration, naval law, and small-
and law options are available to males; law unit leadership. Following graduation from Basic
options are available to females. School, most officers attend a follow-on school
in their military occupational specialty (MOS)
MARINE CORPS ENLISTED before being assigned duty with the Fleet Marine
COMMISSIONING EDUCATION Force.
PROGRAM (MECEP) Once officers complete initial FMF and non-
FMF tours, they become eligible for assignment
This program is open to all qualified active- to the Amphibious Warfare School at Quantico
duty enlisted marines enrolled in an undergraduate or to another Marine or Army career-level school.
program leading to a baccalaureate degree. A Career-level instruction focuses on training
regular commission is awarded upon graduation. Marine captains for company-level command and
Noncommissioned officers of the Marine staff duties at the MEB level. Particular emphasis
Corps whose service has been meritorious may be is placed on teaching the coordinated employment
appointed to commissioned grade in the Marine of air, naval, and ground elements in amphibious
Corps Reserve. They must be serving in the operations.
Marine Corps and be recommended by their When promoted to major, Marine officers
commanding officer. They also must have become eligible for assignment to the Marine
established their mental fitness by attaining an Corps Command and Staff College. The purpose

14-9
 134.63
Figure 14-6.-The Basic School at Quantico, Virginia, teaches new lieutenants tactics, weapons, and
leadership. They spend approximately half of their training time in the field, learning combat tactics
and techniques.

of this course is to train officers in command and staff Marine Corps schools, officers may attend other
duties at the MEF level. The course extends over a service top-level schools, such as the Armed Forces
period of 9 months. It includes instruction in the Staff College, Army War College, Naval War College,
theory and nature of war, operational art, strategic Air War College, or the National Defense University.
concepts, Marine air ground task force (MAGTF)
operations, and joint operations. SUMMARY

Throughout their careers, Marine officers are Since the Marine Corps’ top priority is combat
afforded a progressive military education that includes formal schooling, command-sponsored
schooling, and professional self-study. In addition to readiness, it emphasizes physical fitness and

14-10
intensive training. Its traditional peacetime role the Secretary of Defense, Washington, D.C.,
is to serve as a force-in-readiness. The Marine 1987.
Corps has a global outlook; therefore, Marines
The United States Government Manual 1989/90,
stand ready to be deployed to any part of the
Office of the Federal Register, National
world to carry out their assigned missions.
Archives and Records Administration,
Through its traditions and training, the United
Washington, D.C., 1989.
States Marine Corps is always ready to fight for
freedom and, as the motto goes, “Semper
Fidelis.”
SUGGESTED READING
Estes, K.W., The Marine Officer’s Guide, 5th ed.,
REFERENCES Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Md., 1985.

United States Department of Defense, Functions Krulak, V.H., First to Fight: An Inside View of
of the Department of Defense and Its Major the Marine Corps, Naval Institute Press,
Components, DoD Directive 5100.1, Office of Annapolis, Md., 1984.

PORTHOLES

SOMETIMES, NOVICE SEAMEN WILL ASK, “HOW COME HOLES ON THE STARBOARD SIDE ARE
CALLED PORTHOLES INSTEAD OF STARBOARDHOLES?” MANY OLD SALTS ARE READY WITH EX-
PLANATIONS, BUT ACTUALLY THE NAME “PORTHOLE” HAS NOTHING TO DO WITH ITS LOCA-
TION. THE WORD ORIGINATED DURING THE REIGN OF HENRY VI OF ENGLAND (1485). IT
SEEMS THE GOOD KING INSISTED ON MOUNTING GUNS TOO LARGE FOR HIS SHIPS, AND
THEREFORE THE CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF SECURING THE WEAPONS ON THE FORECASTLE
AND AFTCASTLE COULD NOT BE USED.
A FRENCH SHIPBUILDER NAMED JAMES BAKER WAS COMMISSIONED TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM.
AND SOLVE IT HE DID BY PIERCING THE SHIP’S SIDES SO THE CANNON COULD BE MOUNTED
INSIDE THE FORE AND AFTER CASTLES.
THE FRENCH WORD “PORTE,” MEANING DOOR, WAS USED TO DESIGNATE THE REVOLUTION-
ARY INVENTION. “PORTE” WAS ANGLICIZED TO “PORT” AND LATER CORRUPTED TO PORT-
HOLE. EVENTUALLY, IT CAME TO MEAN ANY OPENING IN A SHIP’S SIDE WHETHER FOR
CANNON OR NOT.

14-11
 CHAPTER 15

THE NAVAL RESERVE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the historical foundation of the Naval 4. Describe the training program of the Naval
Reserve. Reserve.

2. Identify the mission of the Naval Reserve. 5. Describe the requirements for retirement from
the Naval Reserve.
3. Identify the various categories of naval re-
servists and Naval Reserve units.

During times of peace our Active Forces are HISTORY OF THE NAVAL RESERVE
sufficient to maintain national defense. During
armed conflict, however, additional trained forces The first use of a Reserve source of naval
are required to increase the Active Fleet. For such manpower took place in 1888 when Massachusetts
occasions, the Naval Reserve is ready. organized a naval battalion as part of the state
militia. By 1897 a total of 16 states had organized
The United States operates on a total force naval units as part of their state militia. Officers
policy. The total force includes all resources and men from these organizations served with the
available to perform the national defense Regular Navy during the Spanish-American War.
missions. It includes the Active and Reserve The state militia organizations sought assis-
(National Guard and Reserve) component forces; tance from the federal government. Agreeing that
civilians; and in some contingency plans, the states should receive aid, Congress approved
appropriate forces of our allies. legislation establishing a federal Naval Reserve on
3 March 1915. However, not until 19 August
The total force within the Navy encompasses 1916, with the prospect of World War I, was the
all assets, including active-duty members and the Naval Reserve Force formally organized.
ships and aircraft that make up the fleet. It also At the end of World War I, 330,000 Naval
includes the Reserve Force and hardware that will Reserve officers and personnel were on active
increase the fleet and shore establishments in a duty. By the end of World War II, over three-
national emergency or contingency. Since Naval fourths of the 3,220,000 persons on active duty
Reserve strength is directly related to the Navy’s in the Navy were members of the Naval Reserve.
inventory of ships, aircraft, and support
equipment, it is fully integrated into force strength
planning. Reservists are full partners in the naval MISSION OF THE NAVAL
establishment with a meaningful role. They serve RESERVE
as a source to whom the Active Navy can turn
quickly for added manpower and hardware. Each The Naval Reserve’s primary mission is to
reservist has the opportunity to make a real provide trained personnel to supplement the
contribution to the Navy’s mission. Active Force in war, national emergency, or when

15-1
otherwise needed. Its secondary mission is to help Naval reservists fall into one of three general
the Active Force accomplish its peacetime mission categories—Ready Reserve, Standby Reserve, or
by serving as a byproduct or an adjunct of Retired Reserve.
training.
The Navy has many early mobilization re- READY RESERVE
quirements. It must immediately add aircraft and
special units to the Active Forces and more ships The Ready Reserve consists of the Selected
to the fleet. It must increase its peacetime Reserve and the Individual Ready Reserve. The
personnel strength to wartime complement. In Ready Reserve includes those members, not on
addition, it must increase fleet support and shore- active duty, who are subject to call to Active
based activities and indoctrinate and train newly service. They may be called to Active service if
procured officers and enlisted personnel. the President declares a national emergency,
Although the nation may reactivate ships of the Congress declares war, or when otherwise
Reserve Fleet, doing so requires too much time authorized by law. Members of the Ready Reserve
in the appraisal of early mobilization require- are expected to be available for active duty
ments. immediately upon receiving orders. However, they
The Reserve Forces maintain a large portion are allowed a reasonable time between the date
of the Navy’s mission capability. For example, they are alerted or ordered to active duty and the
they are, in some cases, more skilled in riverine date they must report for duty.
warfare, mobile inshore undersea warfare, and Participation or nonparticipation in a drilling
the use of minesweepers. Personnel of the Naval program has no effect on the liability of Ready
Reserve provide the capability for quick mobiliza- reservists for recall—all are equally liable. Under
tion of the Navy. the current partial mobilization concept, however,
Those men and women who volunteer for those participating in Selected Reserve units are
military service in the Naval Reserve assume an more likely to receive involuntary orders to active
8-year military obligation. They may fulfill this duty than other reservists. Enlisted members
obligation on either active or inactive duty or serving voluntarily in the Ready Reserve must
divide their obligation between the two. The exact volunteer for a specific period. Officers execute
combination of active duty and inactive duty Ready Reserve Agreements for an indefinite
depends upon the plan under which the individual length of time.
entered the Navy. Of the three Reserve categories, only members
Current enlistment programs call for a of the Ready Reserve may receive pay for
specified period of active duty with the remainder participation in Reserve training.
of the 8-year obligation served in a Reserve status.
For example, the Active Mariner Enlistment Selected Reserve
Program requires 3 years’ active duty followed
by 5 years’ Reserve obligation. Within the Ready Reserve the Navy maintains
Selected Reserve Forces. The units and individuals
within the Selected Reserve are so essential to
COMPOSITION OF THE NAVAL initial wartime missions that they require a high
RESERVE degree of mobilization readiness. Therefore, they
must take part in active-duty training and annual
The size, composition, and deployment re- training in a pay status.
quirements of the military forces at any given time As the initial and primary source of Active
depend on this nation’s posture and goals in a Fleet augmentation, the Selected Reserve is
constantly changing world. The Ready Reserve immediately deployable upon mobilization. It
of the armed forces provides an economical way must, therefore, be continuously combat ready
to provide people who are trained to supplement and immediately responsible in times of crisis.
the Active Forces. Currently, federal law limits
the Ready Reserve of the armed forces to not Individual Ready Reserve (IRR)
more than 2,900,000 officers and enlisted
personnel. Within this total, the Navy is The Individual Ready Reserve (IRR) consists
authorized a Ready Reserve of 530,000; presently, of those members of the Ready Reserve who are
over 230,000 personnel serve in the Ready Reserve not in the Selected Reserve. Limitation of
of the Navy. available pay billets, absence of drilling units

15-2
within commuting distance, conflicting did not maintain a satisfactory level of participa-
employment, and other factors prevent some tion. The second consists of those who allowed
reservists from participating in the Selected their Ready Reserve agreement to expire while in
Reserve. Therefore, reservists affected by any of this status. The third consists of those who fit into
these factors are assigned to the IRR. both the first and second group. While in this
While assigned to the IRR, members can still Inactive status, a member may not participate in
participate in the Naval Reserve training program. training programs, earn retirement points, or be
Correspondence courses are available to both considered for promotion. Reservists transferred
officer and enlisted personnel. These reservists to the Standby Reserve-Inactive may apply for
also remain within the Navy’s mobilization reinstatement in the Ready Reserve at any time
potential. Additionally, within the limitation of within the following 3 years. Those members not
funds, personnel in the IRR who have maintained voluntarily returning to a Ready Reserve status
an Active status may participate in 12 to 14 days at the end of 3 years are discharged or transferred
of active-duty training annually. to a retired status, as appropriate.
Members on the Inactive Status List may be
STANDBY RESERVE called to active duty under the same conditions
as other members of the Standby Reserve.
The Standby Reserve consists of reservists who However, a determination must first be made that
have transferred from the Ready Reserve after adequate numbers of qualified personnel in an
fulfilling certain requirements established by law. Active status (Ready and Standby Reserve-Active)
Ready and Standby status differ mainly in the are not available.
degree of liability for recall to active duty.
Standby reservists can be ordered to active duty RETIRED RESERVE
without their consent only in the event of war or
an emergency declared by Congress or when The Retired Reserve-Inactive (USNR-RET)
otherwise authorized by law. The Navy cannot consists of reservists who are drawing retired pay
recall a Standby reservist to active duty in- or are qualified for retired pay upon reaching age
voluntarily until the Director of the Selective 60. It also includes those who are not eligible for
Service has determined the person’s availability retired pay at any time but desire service or other
for duty. requirements for voluntary assignment to the
The Standby Reserve includes the Standby Retired Reserve in recognition of their contribu-
Reserve-Active and the Standby Reserve-In- tion to their country and the United States Navy.
active. Their liability for Active service is the same as that
for the Standby Reserve.
Standby Reserve-Active
UNIT CLASSIFICATIONS
The Standby Reserve-Active consists of
reservists who have completed their active-duty Selected Reserve units are grouped into three
or Selected Reserve service obligation. They have basic categories, each with its own mission and
requested transfer to the Active status list of the mobilization element. These primary categories
Standby Reserve. Officers with at least 18 but less are supplemented by other Selected Reserve units
than 20 years’ satisfactory federal service toward and individuals of the Ready Reserve.
retired pay for nonregular service can also request In some instances units of the three primary
transfer to the Standby Reserve-Active. Addi- categories are unable to fill all authorized
tionally, key federal employees and personnel mobilization billets because of a lack of required
expecting to return to the Ready Reserve but skills within their particular geographic locations.
facing temporary personal hardships may request Additional units are organized in these areas when
assignment to the Standby Reserve-Active. the necessary skills are available. These additional
units provide a source of Selected reservists for
Standby Reserve-Inactive immediate mobilization to increase the three
primary categories. Upon mobilization, they join
The Standby Reserve-Inactive (also called the with Selected Reserve units from other locations
Inactive Status List or ISL) includes three groups at the appropriate mobilization site.
of reservists who have been screened from the In addition to the units of the Selected
Ready Reserve. The first consists of those who Reserve, volunteer units provide meaningful and

15-3
productive training. These units train qualified RESERVE TRAINING
Ready reservists who are required for full mobili-
zation but who are not members of the Selected The Selected Reserve receives ongoing training
Reserve. These personnel remain affiliated with throughout the year. The nature of the training
the Naval Reserve in an Active capacity and are depends on each reservist’s individual designator/
available for recall under public law. Volunteer rating and job skill. It also depends on the type
units train in a nonpay status and serve as a skill of unit to which the member is attached. Training
resource from which billets in the Selected Reserve takes place during unit drills and while the
can be filled. reservist is performing active duty for annual
training (AT). A drill is a period of training
Category I authorized for inactive-duty reservists, in either
a pay or nonpay status.
Category I units are those with organic equip- Members of the Selected Reserve normally
ment. Each is a self-contained unit designed to perform 48 drills each year. Each “drill” consists
provide complete capabilities upon recall; that is, of a 4-hour period. For most units, regularly
a ship, squadron, or battalion. Selected reservists scheduled drills are conducted one weekend per
fill all manpower requirements but may be com- month. This multiple drill permits a greater
bined, as in many instances, with an active-duty concentration of effort and extended involvement.
nucleus. Each unit has its own hardware, which In some instances, drilling only one evening a
it “owns and lives with,” or will use predesignated week better serves the unit’s mission or
hardware upon recall. Hardware required varies configuration.
from weapons systems, ships, and aircraft to Certain units are scheduled for inactive-duty
equipment and tools necessary for mission travel training (IDTT). During IDTT, members
performance. receive training at fleet training sites or aboard
ship.
Category II Selected individuals and units may perform
additional paid drills to maintain peak efficiency
Category II units are augmentee units for or to complete their assigned mission, or both.
Active Navy ships, squadrons, and mobile units. For example, flight crews and certain critical units
They are mission-oriented, task-performing aug- often require additional drills. The number of
mentation units with a mix of specific skills. Each regularly scheduled or additional paid drills may
unit has specific skills needed to bring an active- vary with need and the availability of funds.
duty Navy operating platform (a ship or aircraft Although not members of the Selected
squadron) up to organizational (battle) manning Reserve, Ready reservists in the IRR category and
or full complement. A Category II unit, tailored members of the Standby Reserve-Active may
to a specific ship class or aircraft squadron type, volunteer to participate in regularly scheduled
operates equipment and uses facilities of the drills. Although such members are ineligible for
parent unit. drill pay, they may earn retirement points by
taking an active part in these drills.
Category III
ACTIVE DUTY FOR ANNUAL
Category III units are augmentee units for the TRAINING (AT)
Shore Establishment. These units, similar in
character to Category II, represent the mobiliza- The careful coordination of AT with drilling
tion billets needed to meet Shore Establishment sessions provides members of the Selected Reserve
organizational manning requirements. Category with practical experience that clarifies or
III activities are geographically fixed rather than supplements other instruction. On some
mobile units. Each is tailored to strengthen a occasions, reservists may train on Active Fleet
specific type of nonplatform activity, such as a ships for a weekend, or, in some cases for 2 weeks
shipyard, air station, or staff, Category III units or more. Reservists may receive this shipboard
normally operate the equipment and use the training as an entire unit, as a team from a unit,
facilities of the mobilization activity. The or on an individual basis.
requirements of this category are as equally All members of the Selected Reserve must
important in the accomplishment of the wartime receive a minimum of 12 to 14 days of annual
mission as are the combat requirements. training. Members of the IRR may be assigned

15-4
AT on a voluntary basis. Annual training for an of the three categories of Ready Reserve
entire Selected Reserve unit is an ideal goal, units discussed earlier as well as volunteer
although it is not always possible. When the units.
members of an entire unit train together, it
enhances their ability to perform the unit’s The afloat program includes units assigned to
assigned mission. surface combatants, submarines, and service
forces. It also includes units assigned to mine
While serving on AT, Reserve units receive warfare, amphibious warfare, and inshore
training and practical experience to maintain skills undersea warfare missions.
at Active Fleet standards. Unit, team, and
individual readiness are emphasized. Important The ashore organization includes construction
team skills may be developed through combined forces as well as cargo-handling, supply, medical,
exercises that involve Reserve and Active air, dental, and security groups. It also includes units
surface, and subsurface groups in underway involved in telecommunications, law, public
operational problems and exercises. affairs, and other specialties.

Aviation Reserve squadrons designated to Naval Reserve centers serve as the primary
mobilize with their aircraft normally perform their training sites for most of the surface Reserve.
annual training at a fleet base. The fleet base is Naval Reserve units may use these activities
under the cognizance of the fleet commander to entirely for themselves or share them with other
whom the squadrons report when mobilized. military services.
During this period Reserve squadrons receive a
modified fleet operational readiness inspec- Active-duty officers and enlisted personnel
tion. serve in full-time active-duty assignments at each
Reserve center. The enlisted personnel support the
In addition to AT, all aviation squadrons various training programs and maintain the
periodically participate in fleet operational Reserve centers. They work in cooperation with
exercises alongside their Regular Navy counter- officers and petty officers of the individual drilling
parts. Special AT is granted for this purpose. This units to help them carry out the training of their
integration with fleet units combines training with own units.
actual support of fleet activities by permitting
Reserve squadrons to participate in surveillance The centers maintain equipment for training
patrols and other routine operations. in various areas (e.g., shops, radio, gunnery,
damage control). They are adding a new
In addition to AT aboard ships, many dimension to the surface training environment
possibilities exist for training ashore. Many through the installation of shipboard simulators
stations ashore offer reservists practical experience (SBSs). These trainers simulate various shipboard
or study of new procedures through formal functions (command and control, bridge, damage
instruction. control, engineering, and communications)
aboard several different ship types. Working
When required to perform AT, reservists closely with the Chief of Naval Education and
receive full pay and allowances plus travel Training, surface Reserve planners are continually
expenses. When performing AT on a voluntary upgrading the training capabilities of the Reserve
basis, reservists may or may not receive pay, centers.
travel, and allowances, depending on available
funds. However, members in the Standby A continuing challenge to the surface Reserve
Reserve-Active category perform all AT without program has been geographic distance of inland
pay or other allowances. units from fleet installations. Therefore, in
addition to improving on-site training, the Navy
and Air Force airlift reservists to their key training
SURFACE PROGRAMS platforms for inactive-duty travel training (IDTT).

Reserve surface programs include both afloat Surface planners, along with the Chief of
and ashore programs and training systems Naval Operations (CNO) and elements of the
development. Afloat and ashore programs consist Active Fleet, are identifying and developing new

15-5
and expanded missions for the Naval Reserve. The number of points earned is a factor in the
purpose of these missions is to complement total computation of retirement pay. If otherwise
force requirements. The twin goals of the surface eligible, the member may begin drawing retire-
Reserve programs are readiness and responsibility. ment pay at age 60.
In meeting these goals, the surface Reserve will
be a full and equal partner with the Active Forces Earning 35 retirement points per year satisfies
in the defense of this nation. the requirement for retirement credit because a
reservist is allowed 15 gratuitous points for
maintaining an Active status. The reservist earns
NAVAL AIR RESERVE FORCE 1 retirement point for each day of Active service
PROGRAM whether it is extended active duty or annual
training. When not on active duty, the reservist
The Naval Air Reserve Force is responsible for receives 1 retirement point for each completed
providing mission-capable, task-performing units drill. The reservist may earn additional points by
available for immediate mobilization and deploy- completing approved correspondence courses
ment. It is an operating command of the Chief prepared by the Naval Education and Training
of Naval Operations under the direction of Program Management Support Activity, other
Commander Naval Air Reserve Force. The Air Navy sources, or the other armed forces. Members
Program’s sponsor, representative, and technical receive an appropriate number of retirement
manager is the Deputy Chief of Naval Operations points for each course. When not on extended
for Air Warfare. If full or partial mobilization active duty, the member may receive a maximum
were required, the CNO would assign wings, of 60 points per year retirement credit plus those
squadrons, and units as needed to various Active received for annual training.
Fleet-type commanders. Each wing, squadron, or
unit would then become an integral part of its
command.
SUMMARY
Air Reserve squadrons normally operate their
own assigned aircraft and equipment. They are The Naval Reserve is a full partner with the
a striking example of the hardware-oriented type Active Forces. The existence of task-oriented,
of Reserve the total force Navy requires. mission-capable units has made the Naval Reserve
Squadrons are, for the most part, equipped with a vital and contributing participant in the defense
combat-deployable, fleet-compatible aircraft. A of the nation.
continuing program ensures units are re-equipped
and retrained to meet current fleet requirements As a byproduct of their training, naval
consistent with mission objectives and budgetary reservists are capable of serving side by side with
constraints. their active-duty counterparts in direct support of
the fleet. This unprecedented degree of integration
The mission, complexity of equipment, and has developed a healthy feeling of mutual support.
inherent problems in the operation and use of
systems used by the Naval Air Reserve Force Such mutual support encompasses most mis-
require extensive and continuous training. To sion areas. This integration is also a preferred
reach and maintain a high state of readiness, the method of training, since tasks performed during
Reserve Force provides training at naval air peacetime are similar to those expected at the
stations, facilities, and satellite activities (Naval outbreak of hostilities. Perhaps equally important
Air Reserve Units and Centers) throughout the is the satisfaction reservists get from training
United States. duty.

Today the total partnership between the Navy

and the Naval Reserve has made the total force
RETIREMENT POINT CREDIT concept a reality. In the years ahead the Naval
Reserve will absorb additional responsibilities.
To qualify for retired pay, a member of the Therefore, its major challenge will be to recruit,
Reserve Forces must be credited with at least 50 train, and retain the numbers and types of
retirement points a year for 20 years. The total reservists necessary to fulfill its expanding role.

15-6
Once it meets that challenge, the result is SUGGESTED READING
predictable—a ready force.
Administrative Procedures for Naval Reservists
on Inactive Duty, BUPERSINST 1001.39,
Bureau of Naval Personnel, Washington,
D.C., 1989.
REFERENCES
Mack, W.P., and T.D. Paulsen, The Naval
Navy Fact File, 8Th Ed., Office of Information, Officer’s Guide, 9th ed., Naval Institute Press,
Washington, D.C., 1988. Annapolis, Md., 1983.

THE WORDS OF SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE “IDLE AS A PAINTED SHIP UPON A PAINTED
OCEAN” WELL DESCRIBE A SAILING SHIP’S SITUATION WHEN IT ENTERED THE HORSE LATI-
TUDES. LOCATED NEAR THE WEST INDIES BETWEEN 30 AND 40 DEGREES NORTH LATITUDE,
THESE WATERS WERE NOTED FOR UNFAVORABLE WINDS THAT BECALMED CATTLE SHIPS HEAD-
ING FROM EUROPE TO AMERICA.
OFTEN SHIPS CARRYING HORSES WOULD HAVE TO CAST SEVERAL OVERBOARD TO CONSERVE
DRINKING WATER FOR THE REST AS THE SHIP RODE OUT THE UNFAVORABLE WINDS. BECAUSE
SO MANY HORSES AND OTHER CATTLE WERE TOSSED TO THE SEA, THE AREA CAME TO BE
KNOWN AS THE “HORSE LATITUDES.”

15-7
 CHAPTER 16

SHIPBOARD ORGANIZATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe the authority of the commanding 5. Identify the various conditions of readiness.
officer aboard Navy ships.
6. Identify the purpose of the watch, quarter, and
2. Describe the duties of the executive officer station bill.
aboard Navy ships.

3. Identify the various departments aboard most 7. Describe the purpose and contents of the
Navy ships and the duties of each department. ship’s deck log.

4. Identify the role of the department head and 8. Describe the purpose and contents of the
the division officer in the chain of command. engineering log.

The theory of ship’s organization is that ships The commanding officer’s responsibilities
should operate in peacetime with an organization include the safe navigation of the ship, condition
that can be expanded quickly without basic change and appearance of material and personnel,
when required by wartime operating conditions. stationing of trained lookouts, and preparation
A warship’s manning consists of officers and of the ship for battle. COs may delegate authority
enlisted personnel required to enable the ship to in these matters, but such delegation does not
fight the most efficiently. This theory requires that relieve them of responsibility. The officer of the
the ships group the functions and personnel to deck (OOD), for example, has the authority to
minimize the overlapping of responsibilities and run the ship; but if the ship has a collision, the
duplication of personnel within the command. CO and the OOD are both held responsible.
The ship manning document and the Standard The commanding officer must exert every
Organization and Regulations of the U.S. Navy effort to maintain the command in a state of
(OPNAVINST 3120.32B) provide guidance in the maximum effectiveness for war. The CO issues
preparation of the standard ship’s organization directions to the executive officer (XO). The XO,
for all types of ships. with the assistance of the various department
heads, prepares and conducts the exercises and
drills required to prepare the ship for battle.
COMMANDING OFFICER
During combat, the CO directs the ship to
The commanding officer (CO) has many engage the enemy and fight to the best of its ability
varied but specific duties. They are so specific that until the action is complete. The commanding
Navy Regulations devotes one entire chapter, officer’s battle station is located in a position from
consisting of nearly 90 articles, to the duties of which the CO can best direct the action. In case
the commanding officer. In general, the CO is of the loss of the ship, both custom and
responsible for the safety, well-being, and regulations require the commanding officer
efficiency of the command. to ensure personnel complete abandon ship

16-1
 procedures. All personnel should be off the ship the XO is unable to carry out the duties of the
before the commanding officer leaves the ship. office, the next senior line officer assigned to the
For centuries, the commanding officer has had ship normally assumes the duties.
complete authoritative power. With ultimate
When the crew reports that the ship is cleared
responsibility for the ship and everything
for action, the XO inspects it and receives
pertaining to it, the CO obviously requires the
readiness reports from the various department
authority to go with it. The CO must have the
heads. After confirming the ship’s readiness, the
power to enforce prompt obedience to orders to
XO then reports to the commanding officer that
maintain efficiency and discipline. As set forth
the ship is ready for action.
in the Uniform Code of Military Justice ( UCMJ),
the commanding officer has the power to impose If the captain is disabled, the immediate
limited punishment. This power to impose superior in command of the ship (squadron or
punishment is a part of command and may not group commander) designates the XO as the
be delegated. acting CO until a permanent commanding officer
The commanding officer shoulders constant can be assigned. For this reason, the XO’s battle
concern for the welfare, morale, and living station, determined by the captain, is located some
conditions of the crew. The CO receives help in distance from the captain’s—a safety measure to
these areas from an enlisted adviser known as the prevent disablement of both officers at the same
command master chief (CM/C), command senior time. After each battle, the executive officer
chief (CS/C), or command chief (CCh). A master makes a detailed report to the commanding
chief detailed by the Bureau of Naval Personnel officer.
to the command or a master chief, senior chief,
or chief petty officer appointed by the CO, as Depending on the size of the ship, the XO may
appropriate, serves as the senior enlisted adviser. have one or more assistants. Other officers are
This person has direct access to the commanding often assigned to this billet as a collateral duty.
officer. In addition, the enlisted adviser maintains Chapter 3 of Standard Organization and
contact with the master chief petty officer of the Regulations of the U.S. Navy (SORN) lists
Navy (MCPON), normally through the force or additional duties of the XO.
fleet master chief (FM/C), to ensure that ideas
and recommendations are properly transmitted.
If the commanding officer is absent, disabled,
relieved from duty, or detached without relief, the SHIPBOARD DEPARTMENTS
next senior line officer eligible for command at
sea attached to and aboard the ship assumes The shipboard departmental organization
command. In most cases, that person will be the shown in table 16-1 includes the most common
executive officer (XO). types of naval ships currently in service. Each
particular ship type uses this table to determine
the departments that must be included in its
EXECUTIVE OFFICER (XO) administrative organization. Variations should
occur only in exceptional circumstances. Most
As the next ranking line officer aboard ship, ships have five basic shipboard departments:
the executive officer serves as the aide or navigation, operations, weapons (or deck),
“executive” to the commanding officer. As such, engineering, and supply. The Chief of Naval
the XO is the direct representative of the Operations authorizes the establishment of other
commanding officer in maintaining the general departments as necessary.
efficiency of the ship. With the assistance of the
heads of departments, the XO arranges and The ship type determines the number of
coordinates all ship’s work, drills, exercises, departments included in a shipboard organization.
personnel organization, and the policing and Departments are grouped together as either
inspection of the ship. command or support departments. Except in
The XO investigates matters affecting the isolated instances, a line officer eligible to exercise
discipline and conduct of the crew and makes command in the event of the loss of superior
recommendations concerning these matters to the officers heads a command department. In aircraft
commanding officer. The XO usually approves carriers, naval aviators head the operations and
or disapproves liberty lists and leave requests. If air departments.

16-2
 Table 16-1.—Shipboard Departmental Organization

NOTES:

1. ON LAMPS/VERTREP HELO DETACHMENT SHIPS ONLY.

2. ON CGN 9/LSD 41 CLASSES ONLY.
3. CG 26, CG 47, CGN 25, CGN 36, CGN 38, DD 963, DDG-51, DDG 993, AND FFG 7 CLASS SHIPS ARE
REQUIRED TO HAVE A COMBAT SYSTEMS DEPARTMENT VICE A WEAPONS DEPARTMENT.
4. ASR 21 CLASS ONLY.
5. NUCLEAR POWERED CARRIERS WILL ALSO HAVE A REACTOR DEPARTMENT.
6. ON SMALL SHIPS WHEN A LINE OFFICER ASSUMES SUPPLY OFFICER DUTIES, HE/SHE
SHALL BECOME A DEPARTMENT HEAD.
7. ON SHIPS WITH A JUDGE ADVOCATE ASSIGNED THERE SHALL BE A LEGAL DEPARTMENT.
8. IN BB/CV/CVN/AVT THERE IS AN ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT.

16-3
WEAPONS, DECK, OR COMBAT the radar, sonar, and communications equipment
SYSTEMS DEPARTMENT on the ship. The combat information center (CIC)
is part of the operations department.
Ships whose mission is to attack using On some larger ships, the communications
ordnance (gun batteries, torpedoes, missiles, and functions, equipment, and systems may be a
so forth) have a weapons department headed by separate department.
a weapons officer. Some surface combatants with
complete combat systems and some classes of ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
submarines have a combat systems department
headed by a combat systems officer. Ships whose The engineer officer is responsible for the
offensive capabilities are not primarily related to operation, care, and maintenance of all
ordnance have a deck department headed by a propulsion and auxiliary machinery. The
first lieutenant. Aircraft carriers and some other department head is also responsible for the control
ships have a weapons or combat systems depart- of damage resulting from fire, explosion,
ment in addition to a deck department. collision, and so forth. The engineering
The weapons or combat systems officer is department provides power, lights, ventilation,
responsible for the operation, care, and heat, refrigeration, compressed air, and fresh
maintenance of the ship’s armament and the water throughout the ship.
weapons fire-control equipment. The department The engineer officer may be assigned several
head is also responsible for the care, handling, assistants, such as the main propulsion assistant,
stowage, accountability, and issue of ammunition damage control assistant, and electrical officer.
and pyrotechnics; the maintenance of magazines;
and the external security of the ship. SUPPLY DEPARTMENT
If the ship does not have an air department,
the weapons or combat systems department is Among other responsibilities, the supply
responsible for the launching and recovery of department is charged with the proper operation
assigned aircraft. of the general mess, including preparing and
If the ship does not have a deck department, serving food. The supply department operates the
the weapons department is responsible for the ship’s store, which provides personal articles for
preservation and cleanliness of the external areas the well-being of the ship’s crew, and the clothing
of the ship not assigned to other departments. It and small stores issue room, which provides
is also responsible for the operations of the paint, uniform items. The supply department includes
sail, and boatswains’ lockers; the inspection and the disbursing officer, who maintains the pay
maintenance of survival equipment; all deck records of the crew. The supply department also
seamanship operations; and the care and use of is responsible for all the ordering and receiving
deck equipment. of general stores, supplies, spare parts, and
If the ship has a deck department but not a equipment for the ship; that is, just about
weapons or combat systems department, the first everything that comes aboard the ship.
lieutenant (head of the deck department) is
responsible for the functions just described. For NAVIGATION DEPARTMENT
ships that have a combat systems department but
not a deck department, the deck functions The navigator is responsible for the safe
described are the responsibility of the operations navigation and piloting of the ship. The navigator
department. is also responsible for the operation, care, and
maintenance of navigation equipment, charts,
OPERATIONS DEPARTMENT publications, and records.

The operations department is made up of the MEDICAL/DENTAL DEPARTMENT

divisions needed to carry out various tasks. These
tasks include collecting and evaluating combat and The medical department is responsible for
operational information, conducting electronic maintaining the health of personnel of the
warfare, gathering and analyzing intelligence command.
information, repairing electronic equipment, In addition to furnishing medical care and
controlling aircraft, and forecasting weather. The treatment to ship’s personnel, the medical
operations department is usually in charge of all department conducts routine inspections to

16-4
ascertain the sanitary conditions of certain spaces. matters relating to the department. The
It inspects the ship’s messing, food service, living, department head is also responsible for the
berthing, and working spaces. administrative matters within the department. The
The medical department is also responsible for department head customarily keeps the executive
the dental care and oral health of the ship’s officer informed about all departmental matters
personnel. Normally, if no dental officer is reported to the commanding officer.
assigned on board, the medical department simply Division officers are responsible to and, in
maintains the dental records of the crew. In the general, act as assistants to department heads. The
event of a dental emergency, the medical depart- division officer is a major link in the ship’s chain
ment provides temporary treatment until the of command, particularly aboard a small ship. At
member can be sent to a dental facility. To ensure the working level, the division officer carries out
the prevention and control of dental diseases and the policies of the command and ensures the
maintain dental hygiene within the command, the division completes assigned tasks in a timely
medical department schedules periodic dental manner.
examinations for all crew members. The division officer makes frequent inspec-
Some larger ships have dental officers and tions of personnel, spaces, equipment, and
separate medical and dental departments. supplies assigned to the division. The division
officer maintains copies of all bills and orders for
AIR DEPARTMENT the division and posts those that should be posted
in conspicuous places. The division officer has the
On ships having aircraft, the air department responsibility for training personnel in the division
is responsible for aircraft handling, both on the and preparing them for battle. Just as the depart-
flight deck and the hangar deck. The department ment head reports to the executive officer and the
is also responsible for aviation fuels and aviation commanding officer, the division officer reports
administration. On aircraft carriers, the air to the department head.
department also has responsibility for the Ship’s personnel must function as a well-
catapults and arresting gear. Personnel assigned coordinated team. In addition to using the chain
to the air department also maintain the aircraft of command, each ship maintains several guides
towing gear and flight deck fire-fighting gear. to help ensure this coordination. These guides
If an air wing is attached to the command, it include the Standard Organization and Regula-
brings its own technicians and mechanics to tions of the U.S. Navy; a battle organization
maintain the wing’s aircraft. manual; and a watch, quarter, and station bill.
During flight operations, the air department These guides detail, for that particular ship, the
head, “the air boss,” controls the operations from assignment and duties of officers and enlisted
the primary flight control tower (pri-fly). personnel. For units under the ship manning
document (SMD) or the squadron manning
document (SQMD), the SMD or SQMD, as
FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION applicable, also serves as a battle organization
manual and battle bill.
Much planning coupled with over 200 years For commanding officers to prepare their
of experience has helped to mold the functional ships to fight to the best of their abilities, ships
organization of our Navy. One of the key links must have a special organization and system of
in this organization is the chain of command. We communications for battle conditions. These are
have described the roles of the commanding set forth in the battle organization manual.
officer; the executive officer; and in chapter 4, This document contains four chapters describ-
the division officer. We have also described the ing the battle organization, conditions of
functions of the various shipboard departments. readiness, battle bill, and interior communications
But how do the department heads and division systems.
officers fit into this functional organization?
The head of a department represents the
commanding officer in all matters that pertain to CONDITIONS OF READINESS
that department. A department head is responsi-
ble for and reports to the commanding officer the Several different conditions of readiness have
operational readiness of the department, the been established for battle or simulated war. The
general condition of equipment, and any other condition of readiness in effect depends on the

16-5
anticipated danger. Navy ships observe the maintains an engineer’s bell book as an adjunct
following conditions of readiness: to those logs.
Persons who keep the logs make no erasures
CONDITION I—The maximum state of in these records. Only those persons required to
readiness for battle, with the entire crew sign the record for the watch may make
at battle stations prepared for imminent corrections, additions, or changes. Persons who
action. This condition, also called general keep the logs make changes requested by
quarters (GQ), is often set for drills as well. commanding officers only if the persons consider
them correct; otherwise, commanding officers
CONDITION IAS—A variation of enter over the persons’ signature such remarks as
CONDITION I designed to meet the threat they deem appropriate.
of submarine attack.
Ship’s Deck Log
CONDITION IE—Provides temporary
relaxation of CONDITION I to enable The ship’s deck log is a complete daily record,
personnel to rest on stations and to permit by watches. It contains a description of every
designated personnel to draw and distri- circumstance and occurrence of importance or
bute action meals at their action stations. interest about the crew and the operation and
safety of the ship. It also contains a description
CONDITION II—A special watch of any circumstance or occurrence of possible
applicable to gunfire support ships for historical value. The navigator has overall
situations such as extended periods of responsibility for preparation and care of the
shore bombardment. ship’s deck log. The type of information noted
in the log includes data such as the ship’s
CONDITION III—The normal wartime operating orders; its courses, speeds, and
cruising condition when surprise attack is positions; and the state of the sea and weather.
possible. Part of the armament is manned It also includes information about damage or
and ready for immediate action. accidents to the ship or its cargo, deaths or injuries
to personnel, and changes in the status of ship’s
CONDITION IV—Provides effective ship personnel or passengers. The log also contains
and aircraft control during peacetime records of meetings or adjourning of courts-
cruising. martial and other formal boards. The log contains
reports of all routine inspections, which serves as
CONDITION V—Under this condition the
a record of whether or not such inspections were
ship is in port with no armament manned.
made. OPNAVINST 3100.7B prescribes the
manner and form in which the navigator should
WATCH, QUARTER, AND
prepare the log.
STATION BILL
The ship’s deck log serves as a chronological
record of the events occurring during each watch.
Each division officer is responsible for
It provides necessary information to the
maintaining a watch, quarter, and station bill
commanding officer and ultimately serves as a
based on the ship’s battle bill and the Standard
historical document. Accuracy in describing
Organization and Regulations of the U. S. Navy.
events recorded in a ship’s deck log is essential.
The watch, quarter, and station bill shows each
Such entries often constitute important legal
person’s name, rate, billet number, and bunk
evidence in judicial and administrative fact-
number. In addition, it shows each person’s battle
finding proceedings arising from incidents
station; watches during Conditions I, II, and III;
involving the ship or its personnel.
station or duty assignments in case of an
emergency, such as fire or man overboard; at-sea
Engineering Log
and in-port watch stations; and the cleaning
station. The engineering log is a daily record, by
watches, of important events and data about the
LOGS engineering department and the operation of the
ship’s propulsion plant. The Commander, Naval
Each ship in commission maintains a ship’s Sea Systems Command, prescribes the manner
deck log and an engineering log. Each ship also and form of preparation of the log.

16-6
Engineer’s Bell Book While names and titles may change, the
function of the chain of command will remain the
The engineer’s bell book is a chronological same on naval ships. It will continue to ensure
record of orders pertaining to the speed of the organization aboard the ship, which contributes
engines. The book contains a record of orders to the accomplishment of its mission.
affecting each shaft. It shows the time of receipt
of each order to change the propeller speed, the
meaning of the order, and the revolutions per
minute resulting from action taken in obedience REFERENCES
to that order.
Standard Organization and Regulations of the
U.S. Navy, OPNAVINST 3120.32B,
Department of the Navy, Office of the Chief
SUMMARY of Naval Operations, Washington, D.C.,
1986.
The structure of our shipboard organization
allows ships to operate safely and effectively.
Seldom do ships operate in exactly the same
manner, but all classes of ships have the same SUGGESTED READING
basic organization. As new ships and new
technologies are developed, our organizational Lee, David M., J.M. Brown, R. Morabito,
structure will be adjusted to operate them H.S. Colenda, Watch Officer’s Guide,
efficiently. 12th ed., Naval Institute Press, Annapolis,
One thing that will never change, however, is Md., 1986.
the chain of command. Someone will always be
ultimately responsible for the operation of the Mack, W.P., and T.D. Paulsen, The Naval
ship: the commanding officer. Likewise, someone Officer’s Guide, 9th ed., Naval Institute Press,
will always be assigned to assist the commanding Annapolis, Md., 1983.
officer: the executive officer. Department heads
and division officers will also be assigned areas Noel, J.V., Division Officer’s Guide, 8th ed.,
of responsibility. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Md., 1986.

LOG BOOK
TODAY ANY BOUND RECORD KEPT ON A DAILY BASIS ABOARD
SHIP IS CALLED A “LOG.” ORIGINALLY, RECORDS WERE KEPT ON
THE SAILING SHIPS BY INSCRIBING INFORMATION ONTO
SHINGLES CUT FROM LOGS AND HINGED SO THEY OPENED LIKE
BOOKS. WHEN PAPER BECAME MORE READILY AVAILABLE, “LOG
BOOKS” WERE MANUFACTURED FROM PAPER AND BOUND. SHINGLES
WERE RELEGATED TO NAVAL MUSEUMS-BUT THE SLANG TERM STUCK.

16-7
 CHAPTER 17

SHIP DESIGN AND ENGINEERING

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the major components of a ship’s 6. Describe the nuclear propulsion plant.
structure.

2. D e s c r i b e t h e u s e a n d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f 7 . Describe the damage control organization on

Navy ships.
compartments of a ship.

3. Describe the conventional steam turbine 8. Identify the types of fires and their primary
propulsion plant. extinguishing agents.
4. Describe the diesel propulsion plant.
9. Describe the importance of preventive damage
5. Describe the gas turbine propulsion plant. control.

SIGNIFICANT DATES Looking at two different types of Navy ships,

you might notice several differences. Upon closer
17 Apr. 1866 $5,000 appropriated by Con- comparison, however, you might also notice many
gress to test the use of petro- similarities. All use compartmentation to increase
leum oil as fuel for ships’ their ability to remain afloat in case they suffer
boilers. damage. All use some type of propulsion plant
and provide their own electrical power. They also
9 Nov. 1880 First steam-powered ship to use similar damage control equipment and
circle globe, USS Ticonderoga, procedures.
ends cruise begun on 7 Dec. In this chapter we will look at some of the
1878. similarities and differences of Navy ships. We will
18 Dec. 1929 First use of a ship (USS also give a brief overview of the various types of
Lexington) to furnish electrical propulsion plants used by these ships. Lastly, we
power for a major city takes will look at one of the most important areas
place at Tacoma, Washington, shipboard personnel have to deal with—damage
when that city suffers a power control.
failure.

17 Jan. 1955 World’s first atomic submarine,

USS Nautilus, sweeps into SHIP’S BASIC STRUCTURE
Long Island Sound at start
of maiden voyage, signaling The major components of a ship’s structure
back to New London, Con- include the plating, keel, framing, bulkheads, and
necticut, “Underway on nuclear decks. Each plays a part in creating a ship from
power . . .” a mass of steel.

17-1
PLATING rounded bilges. This shape is partially, although not
entirely, responsible for the high speed of these ships.
A ship is structurally a box girder. Shell
plating forms the sides and bottom of the box Individual shell plates are usually
girder, and the weather deck forms the top. The rectangular in shape; the short sides are referred to
point where the weather deck (main and as the ends, and the long sides are called edges. End
forecastle decks) and the side plating meet is joints are known as butts and edge joints as seams.
called the deck edge or gunwale (pronounced Plates are joined together at the butts to form long
gun-ul). The location where the bottom plating strips of plating running lengthwise; these fore-and-
and the side plating meet is called the bilge. aft rows of plating are called strakes. The uppermost
Usually the bottom is rounded into the side of side strake, at the gunwale, is known as the sheer
the ship to some degree; this rounding is called strake. It is thicker than most strakes since it must
the turn of the bilge. withstand high stresses at these corners as the ship
bends over wave crests. The outer weather-deck
Most merchant ships, aircraft carriers, and strake, known as the stringer strake, also contributes
auxiliary ships have a boxlike midship section with to the strength of the hull. The shell plating, together
vertical sides and a flat bottom, as shown in figure with the weather deck, forms the watertight envelope
17-1. High-speed ships such as destroyers and of the ship. The internal structural members of the
cruisers, however, have rising bottoms and broad, hull reinforce the watertight capacity of the hull.

Figure 17-1.—The ship’s basic structure.

17-2
KEEL farther apart. Ships built by this method are
known as longitudinally framed ships. Most naval
Another structural member of a ship is the ships are built this way. The plating loaded on
keel, which runs the length of the ship’s bottom the short edges of longitudinally framed ships has
from the stem to the stern post. It acts as a a higher buckling strength to resist the loads.
backbone, performing a function similar to that Therefore, although the construction for longi-
of the human spine. The keel of a metal ship does tudinally framed ships is the more difficult
not project below the bottom as does the fin keel method, ships built by this method are stronger
of a sailboat, but lies entirely within the ship. It for a given weight.
consists of plates and angles built into an I-beam
shape. The lower flange of the I-beam structure
is the flat plate keel that forms the center strake BULKHEADS
of the bottom plating. The web of the I beam is
the center vertical keel. The height of the center The interior of the ship is divided into
vertical keel varies from about 2 feet in small ships compartments either by vertical bulkheads (walls),
to nearly 7 feet in large ships. The upper flange which are watertight, or joiner bulkheads, which
of the I beam is called the rider plate. If the vessel are not watertight. Structural bulkheads, which
is fitted with an inner bottom, the rider plate are watertight, also divide the ship into compart-
forms the center strake of the inner bottom plat- ments but give the ship contour, shape, rigidity,
ing. At the ends of the vessel, the keel is joined and strength as well. They may be transverse
to the stem and stern posts, which complete the bulkheads extending athwartships or longitudinal
backbone. The keel accepts the major portion of bulkheads extending fore and aft. They not only
load during dry-docking of the ship. subdivide the ship, but tie the shell plating,
framing, and decks together in a rigid structure.
FRAMING Transverse bulkheads are numbered to correspond
with the transverse frames at which they are
Two sets of stiffening members called frames located.
help the shell plating resist the pressure of water,
wind, and waves. Transverse frames extend from
the keel outward around the turn of the bilge and DECKS
up the sides like the ribs of the human skeleton.
Closely spaced along the length of the ship, they The compartments of a ship are further
define the form of the ship. Longitudinal, also divided by a series of decks and platforms into
called longitudinal frames or stringers, run parallel tiers. The floor of a ship’s compartment is
to the keel along the bottom, bilge, and side normally called the deck, and the ceiling is called
plating. They tie the transverse frames and the overhead.
bulkheads together along the length of the ship. The decks of most ships consist of rectangular
When two sets of frames intersect, openings steel plates, similar to the shell plating, joined into
in one set must be cut to make way for the other. strakes. The plates in the outermost strake of deck
Those which are not cut are known as continuous plating, called stringer plates, are connected to the
frames. When smaller frames butt into larger shell plating. Transverse and longitudinal deck
frames without being continuous, they are called beams and deck girders on the underside of the
intercostal frames. Therefore, ship construction deck strengthen the deck plating. These beams and
requires two methods of framing. One method girders usually consist of I beams or T beams
uses continuous transverse riblike frames with fastened to the shell frames by triangular steel
intercostal longitudinal between them or brackets. Decks above the waterline usually are
sufficient plating thickness to eliminate arched (cambered) so that they are higher at
longitudinal members altogether. In this method the centerline. The camber aids in drainage of
the transverse frames are spaced about every 2 feet water.
along the length of the ship. Ships built by this The name of a deck depends on its position
method are known as transversely framed vessels. in the ship and its use or function. Decks
Most merchant cargo ships and wooden ships are extending from side to side and from stem to stern
built in this fashion. The alternate method uses are complete decks; decks occurring only in
many continuous longitudinals along the length certain portions of the vessel are partial decks.
of the ship with the transverse frames spaced The uppermost complete deck is the main deck.

17-3
The complete decks below the main deck (fig. 17-2) also known as the 03 level and the flight deck as the
are the second deck, third deck, and so forth. 04 level.
Partial decks that do not extend continuously from
bow to stern have special names, such as the COMPARTMENTATION
following:
A cargo ship has only a few decks, and its
Forecastle deck: A partial deck above the main deck bulkheads are widely spaced. The resulting
at the bow. It is used primarily on merchant ships compartments are identified by their primary purpose,
and is designated the 01 level on naval ships. such as cargo holds. In some cases, cargo holds are large
enough to accommodate many tons of cargo. Passenger
Upper deck: Above the main deck from the bow to ships have smaller holds, the remainder of the space
abaft amidships on merchant ships. It is referred to being divided by decks and bulkheads into smaller living
in naval ships as the 01 level. Succeeding levels above compartments for passengers. Naval ships are usually
are named the 02 level, 03 level, and so forth. more extensive y compartmented than merchant ships.
Their watertight compartmentation is more than a
Poop deck: Above the main deck in the stern, usually matter of dividing or segregating various activities
only in merchant ships. It is designated the 01 level aboard ship. The ability of a naval ship to withstand
on naval ships. damage depends largely upon its compartmentation. In
case of damage, the watertight boundaries of the
Platform deck: Below the lowest complete deck. compartments restrict floodwaters and stand as a
Platforms are numbered downward, such as first barrier between them and the undamaged portion of the
platform, second platform, and so on. vessel. Extensive compartmentation lessens the amount
of seawater that will enter the vessel through a rupture
Miscellaneous working platforms or flats in its shell plating.
consisting of gratings are located in the machinery
spaces. These platforms aid in the access to and Watertight Integrity
operation of the ship’s propulsion equipment.
If a compartment is not watertight, it is
In addition to the foregoing nomenclature, useless as a flood barrier. The quality of
some decks are known by names describing their use watertightness is known as watertight integrity. The
or function. In aircraft carriers the uppermost greater the watertight integrity of a compartment,
complete deck is the flight deck, and the deck the more effectively it limits flooding. The battle to
immediately below it is the gallery deck. The main maintain the watertight integrity of the ship as a
deck is known as the hangar deck. The levels or whole is a complicated and never-ceasing one. Many
decks above the hangar (main) deck are called the 01 members of a ship’s crew spend hours patrolling and
level (first level above the hangar) and the 02 level inspecting the ship to maintain its watertight
(second level above the hangar), The gallery deck is integrity and keep it in battle trim.

Figure 17-2.—Decks and platforms divide the ship into tiers of compartments.

17-4
 Countless holes pierce watertight compart- below, number 3; and so forth. If a compartment
ments to accommodate doors and hatches; water, extends down to the shell of the ship, the number
steam, oil and air piping; electrical cables; assigned the bottom compartment is used. The
ventilation ducts; and other necessary utilities. first horizontal division above the main deck is
Each hole is plugged by a stuffing tube, a pipe number 01, the second above 02, and so on. The
spool, or some other device to prevent water from deck number, indicating its vertical position
leaking in and around piping and cables. Piping within the ship, becomes the first part of the
and ventilation ducts are equipped with cutoff compartment number.
valves or other closures at each main bulkhead
so that they can be closed off if ruptured. Ships FRAME NUMBER. —The frame number at
enforce rigid restrictions against opening the foremost bulkhead of the enclosing boundary
watertight doors or hatches during action or in of a compartment is its frame location number.
dangerous waters. A ship must take all of these When a forward boundary lies between frames,
“defense” precautions to ensure its full fighting the frame number forward is used. Fractional
capability. numbers are used only when frame spacing
The main transverse watertight bulkheads exceeds 4 feet.
contain no access doors or hatches below the
damage control deck. The damage control deck RELATION TO CENTERLINE. —Compart-
is the lowest deck that permits fore-and-aft access, ments through which the centerline of the ship
and that access is by watertight doors. The passes carry the number 0 in the third part of the
damage control deck is usually the first deck compartment number. Compartments located
below the main deck. completely to starboard of the centerline have odd
numbers; those completely to port bear even
Compartment Numbering System numbers. Two or more compartments that have
the same deck and frame number and are entirely
This chapter does not discuss the numbering starboard or entirely port of the centerline have
system for compartments of ships built before consecutively higher odd or even numbers, as the
1949. However, if you are stationed aboard one case may be. They are numbered from the
of these ships, you will be required to learn that centerline outboard. For example, the first
numbering system as part of your damage control compartment outboard of the centerline to
qualification. starboard is 1; the second, 3; and so on. Similarly,
In ships built after March 1949, each compart- the first compartment outboard of the centerline
ment number indicates that compartment’s deck to port is 2; the second, 4; and so on.
number, frame number, relation to the centerline
of the ship, and usage. A hyphen separates the COMPARTMENT USAGE. —The fourth
numbers and letters representing each type of and last part of the compartment number is a
information. The following is an example of a capital letter that identifies the assigned primary
common compartment number and what each usage of the compartment. Since most ships do
part of the number represents: not consider a secondary usage of compartments,
they identify them by a single letter only.
3-75-4-M However, dry and liquid cargo ships do not follow
this practice. These ships use a double-letter
3-third deck identification to designate compartments assigned
75-forward boundary at or immediately to cargo carrying. Ships assign letter
abaft of frame 75 identifications as follows:

4-second compartment outboard of CL to Letter and Category Types of Spaces

port
M—ammunition compartment A—Dry stowage Storerooms, issue
rooms, refrigerated
We will now explain how each part of the spaces
compartment number is assigned.
C—Ship control and Plotting rooms, CIC,
DECK NUMBER. —The main deck is deck fire control operating radio, radar, sonar
number 1. The first deck or horizontal division spaces operating spaces, pilot-
below the main deck is number 2; the second house

17-5
E—Engineering spaces Main propulsion each with its own advantages and disadvan-
spaces; pump, genera- tages:
tor, and windlass
rooms Ž Conventional steam turbines

F—Oil stowage Fuel oil, diesel oil, and Ž Diesel engines

lubricating oil tanks
Ž Gas turbines
G—Gasoline stowage Gasoline tank com-
partments, cofferdams,
Ž Nuclear power plants
trunks, and pump
CONVENTIONAL STEAM TURBINES
rooms
The substance that operates a conventional
J—JP-5 tanks Aircraft fuel stowage steam turbine plant is steam. The plant produces
steam (generation phase) to drive the turbines
K—Chemicals and Stowage of chemicals (expansion phase). It then condenses the steam
dangerous and semisafe and dan- (condensation phase) and reuses it (feed phase)
materials gerous materials, ex- to make steam again, as shown in figure 17-3.
cept oil and gasoline One of the advantages of the steam propulsion
tanks plant is that it is a high-power system with the
ability to propel combatant ships at high speeds.
L—Living spaces Berthing and messing Another advantage is that ships can use it for a
spaces, medical and variety of auxiliary services, such as laundry and
dental areas, and galley operations and hot water heaters.
passageways Disadvantages include its bulkiness and the
complication of the system. It is the slowest of
M—Ammunition Stowage and handling the plants used as far as preparations for
underway operations. Additionally, it consists of
a relatively large number of operating stations,
T—Vertical access
requiring higher manning.
trunks
Lets look at each of these four phases a little
closer.
V—Voids Cofferdam compart-
ments, o t h e r t h a n Generation
gasoline; void wing
compartments Steam is generated in the boiler. Naval
propulsion boilers operate at 600 psi or 1,200 psi.
W—Water stowage Compartments storing A pressure-temperature relationship exists in the
water, including bilge, generation phase. At higher pressures, water must
sump, and peak tanks be heated to a higher temperature before the water
will boil and produce steam. At 600 psi the boiling
Q—Spaces not other- Ship’s offices, laundry temperature is 489°F. At 1,200 psi the boiling
wise covered rooms, galleys, pan- temperature is 567°F.
tries, and wiring trunks In the pressure vessel of the boiler, steam
cannot be further heated unless all the water is
The double letters AA, FF, and GG identify first boiled. Having some water in the boiler is
spaces used to carry cargo. necessary to ensure heat flow and to prevent the
boiler tubes from melting.
As steam is drawn from the steam drum, it
first passes through separators to remove
PROPULSION PLANTS moisture. It then passes through the superheater,
which further heats the steam to a higher tem-
All ships require a means of propulsion. Navy perature. Superheated steam has more energy per
ships use four types of propulsion plants, unit mass for conversion to mechanical energy.

17-6
 Figure 17-3.—Energy relationships in the basic propulsion cycle of conventional steam-driven ships.

Since superheated steam is dry, it causes less Condensation

corrosion of piping and machinery.
As the steam leaves, or exhausts through, the
For auxiliary purposes, some steam is turbine, it is condensed so that the feedwater may be
desuperheated by passing through the desuperheater reused. One boiler can generate 150,000 pounds of
piping located in the steam drum. The superheated steam per hour. If the feedwater were not recovered,
steam is then ready for use to drive the turbine. the system would require an enormously large
evaporator to produce the required feedwater.
Expansion As the steam exhausts into the main con-
denser, seawater passes through tubes in the
In the expansion phase the thermal energy of condenser. The cool seawater cools the steam to the
the steam is converted to mechanical energy in the point of condensation. The condenser operates at a
turbines. Turbines use nozzles to convert the higher vacuum, which helps this process and increases the
pressure of the steam into a high velocity. The kinetic efficiency of the system.
energy of the steam is then transferred to the turbine The condensate pump takes a suction from
blading, creating the mechanical energy of the the main condenser hot well and delivers the
turbine rotor. That, in turn, through the reduction condensate (condensed steam) into the condensate
gears, turns the propellers. piping system and the air ejector condenser. The

17-7
air ejector condenser removes the air and fuel-air mixture ignites, combustion occurs. The
noncondensable gases from the condensate before hot combustion gases then expand and enter the
they enter the deaerating feed tank (DFT). turbine. This turbine is similar in design and
theory to that of the conventional steam turbine.
Feed Approximately 75 percent of the power developed
by the turbine is used to drive the compressor and
The feed phase starts in the DFT. The DFT accessory systems. The remaining power is used
preheats the feedwater and removes dissolved as engine output.
gases. The dissolved gases, if not removed, will The shaft of a gas turbine ship rotates in one
cause erosion and deterioration of the boiler direction only. An external method of reversing
tubes. the direction of travel of the ship is required to
The main feed booster pump and main feed propel the ship forward or backward. This
pump increase the feedwater pressure to a pressure problem is overcome by the reversible pitch
greater than the operating pressure of the boiler. propeller. As the shaft turns in one direction, the
The increased pressure ensures a flow of feedwater ship is propelled forward or backward by a change
through the boiler. That brings us back to the in the propeller pitch.
point where we started. Thus, the system is a Because of the high rotational speed and high
closed system. temperatures of the gas turbine, operational
parameters must be closely monitored. Auto-
DIESEL ENGINES mated central operating systems have been
developed to monitor those parameters, thus
Diesel engines are the favored means of power keeping the manning level low.
for medium and light vessels. They are relatively Two disadvantages of gas turbines are that the
low-cost power plants to produce, are reliable, and engine must be removed for overhaul and that it
have a high fuel-efficiency rate. They can also be needs a high volume of air for operation.
started from a cold-plant condition and rapidly However, these two disadvantages complement
brought on line. each other because the engine can be removed
The cycle of operation for diesel engines starts through the large ducts needed to accommodate
with the intake of air. Next the air is compressed. the high volume of air.
Following compression, combustion occurs. The Gas turbines are becoming the preferred
combustion produces a rapid expansion of gases propulsion plant for several ship types. They are
in the cylinder. This downward expansion is the very light and compact and offer a high-power
power stroke of the cylinder. As the waste gases plant that is relatively inexpensive to build. They
exhaust, new air intake occurs to start the cycle are as fuel efficient as a conventional steam plant.
over again.
Each cycle causes the pistons within the NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
cylinders to reciprocate. The rotary motion of the
pistons, connected to the crankshaft, drives the Nuclear power plants are very similar to
propellers. conventional steam turbine plants. The major
Among the disadvantages are the frequent difference is that a nuclear reactor replaces the
overhaul and periodic maintenance requirements boiler as the device that generates steam.
and the power limitations of the engines. Diesels Submarines are ideally suited for a nuclear
cannot develop enough power to meet the high- power plant because their reactor does not need
speed requirement of combatant ships. a supply of air from the atmosphere. Before the
advent of nuclear power, submarines ran on
GAS TURBINES motors charged by d.c. batteries when submerged.
When surfaced, diesel engines supplied power for
In gas turbines, as in diesel engines, the the submarine and recharged the batteries. The
working substance is air. They are open systems; charge of the batteries limited the endurance of
that means the air passes through the engine once the submerged submarine. Nuclear power plants
and is discharged back to the atmosphere. enable submarines to remain submerged for
Air is drawn into the compressor from the extended periods.
atmosphere. The compressor raises the pressure Nuclear reactors transfer the energy emitted
of the air and discharges it to the combustion by the fission of radioactive material into thermal
chamber, where fuel is admitted. Here, as the energy. A primary and a secondary system (or

17-8
loop) generate steam. Water in the primary loop (fig. requires the efforts of all hands in
17-4) is heated but not converted to steam. The water establishing and maintaining material
in the primary loop flows from the reactor to a heat readiness conditions. (Material readiness
exchanger called the steam generator. Here, the means all equipment aboard ship is available
high-temperature, high-- pressure water in the and in a working condition to combat any
primary loop heats the water in the secondary loop emergency.) The battle phase starts after a
until it becomes steam. The water in the primary loop ship has received damage and must restore its
then returns to the react or by the primary coolant offensive and defensive capabilities. All hands
pump. The steam generated in the secondary loop, must be trained in both phases if the ship is to
which is not superheated, goes to the turbine. This achieve its damage control objectives.
portion of the secondary loop uses a condenser and a
feed pump similar to the conventional steam turbine When properly carried out, the first or
plant. initial action taken helps reduce and confine any
The nuclear power plant has two primary ad- damage received. Strict use of compartment
vantages— infrequent fueling requirements and no checkoff lists ensures the full protection offered
need for combustion air. The ability of the plant to by each material readiness condition.
operate without combustion air, as previously
mentioned, makes it ideal for use in submarines. The Once the ship has been damaged, the
nuclear power plant is, however, expensive to build ship’s DC organization is responsible for
and extremely heavy; it requires highly trained restoring the ship to as near normal operation as
personnel for its operation. possible. The ship’s engineer officer is
responsible for the operational readiness of the
DAMAGE CONTROL DC organization. Under the engineer officer the
damage control assistant (DCA) coordinates the
An area of engineering that should by no efforts of repair parties in the control of damage.
means be considered secondary is damage control These efforts include controlling the ship’s
(DC). Damage control is an all-hands evolution on stability; fighting fires; repairing damage; and
Navy ships that can never be overemphasized. using chemical, biological, and radiological
(CBR) defense measures. The DCA also ensures
DAMAGE CONTROL ORGANIZATION that the crew receives training in all damage
control evolutions. In some instances, the DCA
Damage control is divided into two phases- and the engineer officer may be the same
administrative and battle. The administrative phase person.

Figure 17-4.—Naval nuclear power propulsion plant.

17-9
Damage Control Central Additionally, aircraft carriers and ships
equipped for helicopter operations have crash and
The primary purpose of damage control
salvage teams and personnel trained to repair
central (DCC) is to determine the condition of the
damaged aviation fuel piping systems. Carriers
ship and the corrective action to be taken. DCC
also have an ordnance disposal team.
makes this determination by collecting and
comparing reports from the various repair
The specific purpose of each repair party
stations.
depends on its area of responsibility. Each repair
The DCA is assigned to damage control
party must be able to perform the following
central, the nerve center and directing force of the
functions:
entire damage control organization. Representa-
tives of various shipboard divisions are also
1. Make repairs to electrical and sound-
assigned to DCC.
powered telephone circuits, and rig casualty
Reports from repair parties are carefully
power
checked. This information enables DCC to initiate
immediate action to isolate damaged systems and 2. Give first aid and transport injured
to make emergency repairs in the most effective personnel to battle dressing stations
manner. Under the direction of the DCA, graphic without seriously reducing the party’s
records of the damage are made on various damage control capabilities
damage control diagrams and status boards as 3. Detect, identify, and measure radiation
reports are received. For example, reports on dose and dose rate intensities; decon-
flooding are recorded, as they come in, on a status
taminate the affected areas of nuclear,
board that indicates liquid distribution (fuel and
biological, and chemical attacks
water) before the damage occurred. With this
information, the stability and buoyancy of the 4. Identify, control, and extinguish all types
ship can be estimated and the necessary corrective of fires
measures can be taken. 5. Evaluate and report correctly the extent of
If damage control central is destroyed or is for damage in the repair party’s area of
other reasons unable to retain control, designated responsibility
repair stations take over the responsibilities of
damage control central. 6. Control flooding
7. Make repairs to various piping systems
Repair Parties
8. Be familiar with all damage control fittings
All ships have at least one repair party; most
in their assigned areas, such as watertight
have three or more. Each party has an officer,
doors, hatches, scuttles, ventilation
a chief petty officer, or a senior petty officer in
systems, and various valves
charge. This person is called the repair locker
leader or repair party leader. The makeup of each
On large ships each party is subdivided into
repair party depends upon the type of ship, the
several units and assigned to the various sectors
section of the ship assigned to the repair party,
of the repair party’s area of responsibility. That
and the number of personnel available. The
speeds up inspections and reduces the chances of
following chart lists the repair parties and their
an entire repair party’s becoming a casualty. Each
assigned areas of responsibility:
unit establishes patrols, normally consisting of
Repair Party Location or Function three persons who determine material conditions
in their sectors. These patrols report to their repair
Repair 1 Main deck repair party headquarters, which, in turn, reports to
Repair 2 Forward repair DCC. When all hands are on board, major emer-
Repair 3 After repair gencies are met with the crew at general quarters.
In port, with all hands not on board, each duty
Repair 4 Amidship repair section has a duty in-port fire party and a rescue
Repair 5 Propulsion repair and assistance detail. If any emergency arises, all
Repair 6 Ordnance personnel not assigned specific duties fall in at
quarters. These personnel are then available to
Repair 7 Gallery deck and island structure assist the duty in-port fire party and the rescue
Repair 8 Electronics and assistance detail.

17-10
FIRE AND FIRE FIGHTING should NEVER be used. If at all possible, electri-
cal power to the equipment should be secured.
Fire is a constant threat aboard ship. 4. Class D fires involve metals, such as
Personnel must take all possible measures to magnesium, sodium, and titanium. These metals
prevent a fire or, if one is started, to extinguish are used in the manufacture of certain parts of
it quickly. Fires have several causes: spontaneous aircraft, missiles, electronic components, and
combustion, carelessness, hits by enemy shells, or other equipment. A typical example is the
a collision. If the fire is not controlled quickly, magnesium aircraft parachute flare. This flare
it could cause more damage than the initial burns at a temperature above 4000°F with a
casualty and could cause the loss of the ship. brilliancy of 2 million candlepower. Since water
Fighting fires is primarily handled by repair coming in contact with burning magnesium
parties. However, you must learn all you can produces highly explosive hydrogen gas, a solid
about fire fighting so that you will know what to water stream should NEVER be used on this type
do if called upon. of fire. However, low-velocity fog can put out the
Fires are classified into four types based on fire in a matter of seconds with little danger.
the type of material burning and the fire-fighting Jettisoning the burning object overboard is
agents and methods required to extinguish the fire: another method.
1. Class A fires involve solid materials that Despite the most carefully observed safety
leave an ash, such as wood, cloth, and paper. precautions, a fire may still occur. If you discover
Water is the primary means of extinguishing class a fire, report it immediately so that fire-fighting
A fires. Carbon dioxide (C02) may be used on operations can be started. The efforts of even one
small fires, but not on explosives. The flames of person may contain the fire until the arrival of
a large fire usually must first be knocked down the fire party. If the fire threatens to get out of
(cooled) with fog. The material, particularly control, try to prevent it from spreading. Secure
mattresses and similar articles, is then broken up all doors, hatches, and other openings in the fire
with a solid stream for further cooling. area, including ventilation ducts, to confine the
2. Class B fires involve flammable liquids fire within a specific boundary. You can establish
such as oil, gasoline, and paint. The best a primary fire boundary by cooling all bulkheads,
extinguishing agent for class B fires is aqueous decks, and overheads surrounding the fire area.
film forming foam (AFFF). Another good Always ensure dewatering equipment (pumps) is
extinguishing agent is Halon. Halon systems are ready for immediate use in case of a fire. The
being installed for combating class B and C fires. amount of water used for fighting the fire and
For small fires, or in a confined space like a paint for cooling purposes may cause a serious ship
locker, CO2 is a good extinguisher. For large fires, stability problem.
other agents such as a water fog or foam must
be used. A solid water stream should NEVER be PREVENTIVE DAMAGE CONTROL
used on a class B fire. The stream will simply
Naval ships are designed to resist accidental
penetrate the flammable liquid’s surface, with no
and battle damage. Damage-resistant features
cooling effect, and scatter the liquid, thus
include structural strength, watertight compart-
spreading the fire.
mentation, stability, and buoyancy. Maintaining
Class B fires involve the three temperature these features and a high state of material and
levels of flash point, fire point, and ignition point. personnel readiness before damage does more to
A small spark may be all that is needed for save the ship than any measures taken after
ignition. Fire will flash across a surface, but will damage. Ninety percent of the damage control
not continue to burn; however, the flash may be needed to save a ship takes place before damage
hot enough to ignite some other material or to and only 10 percent after the damage.
injure personnel. The division damage control petty officer
(DCPO) is one person in the DC organization who
3. Class C fires are those associated with helps to ensure that preventive damage control
electrical or electronic equipment. The primary measures have been taken. The DCPO oversees
extinguishing agent is CO 2, but high-velocity fog the maintenance of divisional DC equipment and
may be used as a last resort. Foam should not be also assists in training divisional personnel in DC.
used as it will damage the equipment and may Always keep in mind that damage control is
present a shock hazard. A solid water stream an all-hands evolution. The best way to defend

17-11
against damage is to prevent it. If damage occurs, REFERENCES
however, all hands must be trained in damage
Basic Military Requirements, N A V E D T R A
control procedures to prevent the loss of the ship.
12043, Naval Education and Training
Program Management Support Activity,
SUMMARY Pensacola, Fla., 1992.
In this chapter we introduced you to the major Principles of Naval Engineering, NAVPERS
structural components of ships and how they 10788-B1, Bureau of Naval Personnel, Navy
affect the watertight integrity of the ship. We also Department, Washington, D.C., 1970.
explained the system of numbering ship
compartments.
The four primary propulsion plants used by SUGGESTED READING
the Navy are the conventional steam turbine,
Bland, D. A., A. E. Bock, and D. J. Richardson,
diesel engine, gas turbine, and nuclear power
Introduction to Naval Engineering, 2d ed.,
plant. We discussed the advantages and dis-
Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Md., 1985.
advantages of each type.
Last but not least, we talked about damage Felger, D. G., Engineering for the Officer of the
control. Once again, remember that damage Deck, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Md.,
control is an all-hands evolution. 1979.

KNOT

THE TERM “KNOT” OR “NAUTICAL MILE” IS USED WORLD WIDE TO

DENOTE A SHIP’S SPEED THROUGH WATER. TODAY, WE MEASURE KNOTS
WITH ELECTRONIC DEVICES, BUT 200 YEARS AGO SUCH DEVICES WERE
UNKNOWN. INGENIOUS MARINERS DEVISED A SPEED MEASURING DEVICE
BOTH EASY TO USE AND RELIABLE: THE “ LOG LINE. ” FROM THIS
METHOD WE GET THE TERM “KNOT. ”
THE LOG LINE WAS A LENGTH OF TWINE MARKED AT 47.33-FOOT
INTERVALS BY COLORED KNOTS. AT ONE END WAS FASTENED A LOG
CHIP; IT WAS SHAPED LIKE THE SECTOR OF A CIRCLE AND WEIGHT-
ED AT THE ROUNDED END WITH LEAD. WHEN THROWN OVER THE STERN,
IT WOULD FLOAT POINTING UPWARD AND WOULD REMAIN RELATIVELY
STATIONARY. THE LOG LINE WAS ALLOWED TO RUN FREE OVER THE
SIDE FOR 28 SECONDS AND THEN HAULED ON BOARD. KNOTS THAT HAD
PASSED OVER THE SIDE WERE COUNTED. IN THIS WAY THE SHIP’S
SPEED WAS MEASURED.

17-12
 CHAPTER 18

EXTERNAL EQUIPMENT OF SHIPS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the ground tackle used on Navy 3. Identify various equipment used on the bridge of
ships. Navy ships.

2. Identify the boats and survival equipment 4. State the purpose of antennas and radar on Navy
used on Navy ships. ships.

The external equipment of a ship differs

according to ship type. For example, a guided-missile
cruiser (CG) might have guns, missiles, torpedoes,
and a close-in weapons system (CIWS). However, a
tank landing ship (LST) may only have guns and the
CIWS for armament. The LST has bow ramps and a
stern gate, but the CG doesn’t. Both ships have
similar ground tackle, boats, and survival gear.
In this chapter we will look at some of the
ground tackle used on Navy ships. We will also
identify some of the boats, survival gear, bridge
equipment, and other various gear used on Navy
ships.

GROUND TACKLE

Ground tackle is the equipment ships use in

anchoring and mooring with anchors. It includes
anchors; anchor cables and chains; and associated
equipment, such as chain stoppers, bending shackles,
outboard swivel shots, and detachable links. Figure
18-1 shows a typical ground tackle arrangement on a
forecastle.

ANCHORS
Figure 18-1.—Typical ground tackle and chain
Anchors can be defined by their stowage stowage.
locations aboard ship or by their type of
construction. Bower anchors are carried on the

18-1
bow and are secured (housed) in the hawsepipe. ANCHOR WINDLASSES
Stern anchors are carried on the stern. On
landing ships and craft, stern anchors are used The Navy uses two types of anchor
to assist them in pulling away from beaches. windlasses for lifting the ship’s anchor. Most
The most common types of anchors used combatant ships use the vertical shaft type (fig. 18-
aboard ship are the stockless and the 1). Amphibious and auxiliary ships use the
lightweight (or stock in crown). The two anchors horizontal shaft type. Both types are equipped with
shown in figure 18-2 are of Navy design. The wildcats, which engage the link of the anchor
stockless types are used chiefly as bow anchors chain. The wildcat may be disengaged when the
(bowers) on most Navy ships. Originally, the capstan (vertical type) or the gypsy heads
lightweight types were used only on small boats (horizontal type) are used for handling lines or
and as stern anchors on landing ships and craft. wire.
Recently, however, they have made their
appearance as bowers for several types of
vessels. BOATS AND SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

Some ships carry boats used to transport

ANCHOR CHAIN personnel. These boats can be used for routine or
survival purposes. Another type of boat, the
Modern Navy anchor chains consist of lifeboat, is used strictly for survival purposes.
studded links of high-strength steel. (Studs are
crosspieces of metal forged or welded in the BOATS
center of the links to prevent the chain from
kinking.) The chains are made up of 15-fathom The term boat refers to a noncommissioned
(90-foot) sections called standard shots. The waterborne vessel that is not designated as a
number of shots per chain depends on the size of service craft. A boat is capable of limited
the ship. Shots are secured together by independent operation. Officer and personnel
detachable links that can be readily boats, motor whaleboats, and utility boats fit into
disassembled whenever the chain must be this group. Boats carried aboard ship that can be
broken. hoisted from and lowered into the water are known
as ship’s boats.
STOWING CHAIN
LIFEBOATS AND LIFE RAFTS
As the chain comes aboard, it passes
A warship does not have room for all the
along the deck on metal flash plates, over the
powerboats needed to transport the entire crew in
wildcat, and down into the chain locker, as
a survival situation. At sea, a power boat is usually
shown in figure 18-1. Its bitter end is secured to
difficult, and sometimes impossible, to launch
a ring bolt on the bulkhead of the chain locker.
rapidly. For these reasons, the Navy has spent
time and expense developing efficient lifeboats
other than powerboats.
Several types of inflatable lifeboats or life
rafts are used by the Navy. Each boat or raft is
stocked with enough survival equipment to support
the number of survivors the boat was designed to
carry. The survival gear includes a canopy, a sea
anchor, a lifeline, boarding line, a rain-catcher
tube, air hand pumps, paddles, sponges, a repair
kit for patching leaks, and a floatable knife. The
Mk 6 Mod 1 inflatable life raft also carries desalter
kits for turning seawater into freshwater. In the
survival kits are food rations, sea marker dye, a
flashlight, batteries, a signal mirror, a whistle, a
first-aid kit, a distress signal kit, and containers of
freshwater. The survival kits in the Mk 6 25-man
life raft can sustain 25 people for 5 days on regular
rations. The general arrangement of the Mk 6 life
Figure 18-2.—Anchor types. raft is shown in figure 18-3.

18-2
18-3
SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT BRIDGE EQUIPMENT

All ships carry various types of survival The bridge is the primary control station
equipment in addition to boats and life rafts. One aboard ship. Located on the bridge are the items
of these items of survival gear is the life preserver. used to control the movement of the ship. Other
The Navy uses two types of life preservers—the items used to ensure the safe navigation of the
inherently buoyant type and the inflatable type. ship, such as the compass, radar repeaters, and
Most ships carry both types. They are stowed in status boards, are also located on the bridge.
various locations around the ship so that all
personnel have access to them. HELM

Another item along the same line is the life The helm on a ship (fig. 18-4) is the equivalent
ring. It is inherently buoyant and has a strobe of the steering wheel on a car. The helmsman
light attached to it. Often located near the life ring turns the helm to keep the ship on a desired
is a smoke float. In the event of a man overboard, course or to turn the ship. When the helm is
both the life ring and the smoke float should be turned, the mechanical input of turning the helm
thrown near the person. is converted

7.133
Figure 18-4.-A typical helm console.

18-4
to an electrical signal. This electrical signal is then in figure 18-5, is actually two instruments in
transmitted to the steering engine, usually located one—the engine-order telegraph and the engine-
near the stern of the ship. Here the electrical revolution indicator.
signal is received by the steering engine, where it
is converted to a mechanical input to move the
rudder. The movement of the rudder causes the Engine-Order Telegraph
ship to move in the desired direction.
The engine-order telegraph communicates
The ship is normally steered from the helm on speed orders to the engine room. It has duplicate
the bridge. If that part of the ship should sustain dials divided into sectors for flank, full, standard,
any kind of damage, the steering can be shifted to 2/3, and 1/3 speed ahead and 1/3, 2/3, and full
other locations, such as after steering. speed back. A hand lever fitted with an indicator
travels over the circumference of the circular face
LEE HELM of the instrument. When the handle is moved to
the required speed sector, the engine room com-
The lee helm of a ship could be compared to the plies with the order immediately. The engine room
gas pedal of a car. The lee helm, which can be seen notifies the bridge that it has complied with the

134.54
Figure 18-5.-An interior view of the bridge of USS Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN-69). The box-like
console in the left foreground of the figure is the lee helm; it includes the engine-order
telegraph, which is the cylinder-shaped component, fitted with a hand lever, showing a
circular-faced dial divided into sectors.

18-5
order by moving an answering pointer into the The number of revolutions per minute required
same sector as the requesting pointer from the to travel at the various speeds (in knots) is
bridge. calculated in advance and is posted on a table near
the lee helm.
Engine-Revolution Indicator
On older ships the helm and the lee helm are
Near the engine-order telegraph, you normally located in different consoles, usually near each
will find another device, the engine-revolution other. On newer ships, however, a ship-control
indicator (fig. 18-6). console houses all the equipment for steering the
ship and for controlling its speed in one central
On the face of this instrument are three small location. Additionally, on some ships you will find
windows with two rows of numbers in each lighting, steering, and general-alarm controls
window. The lower row of numbers is set housed in the ship-control console.
individually by three hand knobs located directly
below the windows. For example, if 110 shaft
revolutions per minute is required for a ship to COMPASSES
proceed at 15 knots, the lee helmsman would
indicate the numbers 1, 1, and 0 in the lower row The best known and most widely used naviga-
of numbers. These lower numbers give a visual tional instrument is the compass. Without it,
indication of the shaft revolutions ordered by the precise information on headings and directions
conning officer to the engine room. Through would be almost impossible to obtain. Compasses
electrical transmission, corresponding numbers were used even before the days of Columbus, and
appear on a similar instrument in the engine they remain indispensable to today’s Navy.
room(s). In the engine room(s), these orders are
receipted and acknowledged when the engine- A compass is an instrument that indicates the
room instrument is set on the same settings. Once fixed point or direction of north. It allows you to
again this indication is transmitted back to the judge all other directions by this fixed point to
bridge electrically and is shown on the upper row determine the direction in which you are heading.
of numbers. Thus, the lee helmsman is able to
report to the conning officer the receipt of the The Navy uses two main types of compasses:
order for engine speed and see that the order is gyroscopic and magnetic. The gyrocompass
being carried out. operates on the principle that a rapidly spinning
object is balanced at its center of gravity, much as
a spinning top stands on its point. The
gyrocompass is designed to point toward true
north, although it may have a slight mechanical
error (for which an allowance is made). On the
other hand, the magnetic compass is controlled
primarily by the magnetic properties of the earth;
therefore, it tends to point toward the magnetic
north pole.

GYROCOMPASS

The gyrocompass is unaffected by magnetic

influence. When in proper working order, it points
constantly to the true rather than the magnetic
north pole.

The gyrocompass may have a slight mechani-

7.122 cal error of 1 or 2 degrees, but the error is
Figure 18-6.-Engine revolution indicator. computed easily. Since the error remains constant

18-6
for any heading, it doesn’t interfere with the antennas are used to electronically search the sea
instrument’s practical value. and sky to detect objects beyond visual range.
They are also used as navigational aids and for
Most shipboard installations consist of one or fire control purposes.
more master gyros located in close proximity to
the steering station. The indications of the gyro The function of a receiving antenna is to
are transmitted electrically to repeaters located on intercept a portion of the electromagnetic wave
the bridge wings, at conning stations, and at other emitted by a transmitting antenna. The function
necessary points. of a transmitting antenna is to convert the radio
frequency fed to it by a high-voltage generator
Despite the excellence of the gyro mechanism, into an electromagnetic wave that may be
the magnetic compass (NOT the gyro) is standard propagated to distant points. Radar antennas both
equipment aboard ships. Since the gyrocompass transmit and receive; some communication
is powered by electricity, it would be useless if the antennas also have that capability.
ship experienced a power loss. The gyrocompass
is also an extremely complicated, expensive, and Whatever their purpose, antennas are located
delicate instrument that is subject to mechanical so that they receive the least possible amount of
failure. Some gyros, for instance, become erratic interference from each other and from the ship’s
after a ship makes a series of sharp turns at high structure. Most of the masts, stacks, and other
speeds. For this reason, the magnetic compass structures abovedeck are grounded to the ship’s
remains the reliable standby. It constantly checks hull and, through the hull, to the water. For an
the performance of the gyrocompass and stands antenna to obtain adequate coverage, it must be
ready at all times to take over if the gyrocompass installed so that the electromagnetic radiation
fails. pattern from grounded structures causes mini-
mum distortion. Radar antennas usually rotate
and are normally mounted on platforms.
MAGNETIC COMPASS
Also associated with the radar are radar
The magnetic compass, which is the standard repeaters. While not actually a radar, they receive
compass on Navy ships, operates through the input from a radar. They are located in different
magnetic attraction of the earth itself. areas from the radar, such as on the bridge or in
the combat information center.
The magnetic compass is located in the pilot-
house. It consists of a magnetized compass needle Some typical shipboard communication
attached to a circular compass card that is usually antennas include wire, whip, and high-frequency
7 1/2 inches in diameter. Although the card antennas. Wire and whip antennas are designed
appears to move, it actually remains stationary to operate through frequencies in the medium to
while pointing to the earth’s magnetic pole. In high range. Ships need various types of antennas
reality, the ship is moving under the compass to ensure their use of the widest possible range
card. of available frequencies consistent with available
space.
For the magnetic compass to give reliable
service, it must be properly installed, maintained,
and protected from disturbing magnetic
influences. SUMMARY

In this chapter you have learned about various

external equipment found aboard naval ships.
COMMUNICATION AND RADAR Any ship, no matter what its mission, must be
ANTENNAS capable of mooring or anchoring. Hence, all ships
must have ground tackle.
From an operational standpoint, communica-
tion and radar antennas are a vital part of a ship’s Hopes are that survival equipment will never
equipment. The communication antennas provide be needed; however, all ships must have
us with command and control capability. Radar appropriate survival gear available.

18-7
 Although each ship class has a different bridge REFERENCES
design with different equipment, all have a bridge
in which the movement of the ship is controlled.
Basic Military Requirements, N A V E D T R A
Just as each ship is run by the bridge watch team,
officers in tactical command must be able to 12043, Naval Education and Training
communicate their orders to all ships assigned. Program Management Support Activity,
For this purpose, communication and radar Pensacola, Fla., 1992.
antennas are placed on all naval ships.
Entire books could be written on many of the Seaman, NAVEDTRA 10120-J, Naval Education
pieces of equipment found on a ship. This chapter and Training Program Management Support
has exposed you to only a few of them. Activity, Pensacola, Fla., 1986.

CROW’S NEST
THE CROW (THE BIRD, NOT THE RATING BADGE) WAS AN
ESSENTIAL PART OF THE EARLY SAILORS’ NAVIGATION
EQUIPMENT. THESE LAND -LUBBING FOWL WERE CARRIED ON
BOARD TO HELP THE NAVIGATOR DETERMINE WHERE THE CLOSEST
LAND LAY WHEN THE WEATHER PREVENTED SIGHTING THE SHORE
VISUALLY. IN CASES OF POOR VISIBILITY, A CROW WAS
RELEASED AND THE NAVIGATOR PLOTTED A COURSE CORRESPOND-
ING WITH THAT OF THE BIRD’S, BECAUSE IT INVARIABLY
HEADED TOWARD LAND.
THE CROW’S NEST WAS SITUATED HIGH IN THE MAIN MAST
WHERE THE LOOKOUT STOOD HIS WATCH. OFTEN, HE SHARED
THIS LOFTY PERCH WITH A CROW OR TWO SINCE THE CROWS’
CAGES WERE KEPT THERE: HENCE THE “CROW’S NEST.”

18-8
 CHAPTER 19

VESSEL TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe the terms used to identify Navy ships. 3. Describe the roles of various types of naval
ships.
2. Identify the ships included in the warship
category. 4. Describe the purpose and use of underway
replenishment in the Navy.

SIGNIFICANT DATES the designation—it indicates this type of ship is

a multipurpose aircraft carrier. The ship’s
9 Sep. 1841 Congress authorizes the first identifying or hull number (59) is a general
iron ship in the U.S. Navy. indication of the number of ships of the same type
that have been built. (Gaps occur in the sequence
17 Oct. 1888 The keel is laid and construction of numbers of most types because of the cancella-
begun on the battleship Maine. tion of shipbuilding orders.) A ship’s hull number
never changes unless its designation also changes,
16 Dec. 1907 The first fleet of warships to and it doesn’t always change then.
circle the globe, the Great White
Fleet, leaves Hampton Roads, SHIP SIZE
Virginia. The size of a ship usually is given in terms of
its displacement in long tons. Displacement means
20 Mar. 1922 The first aircraft carrier, USS the weight of the volume of water that the ship
Langley, is commissioned. displaces when afloat; in other words, the weight
of a ship by itself. The Navy uses full load
The purpose of this chapter is to acquaint you displacement, which describes the condition of the
with the major classes of ships operated by the ship complete and ready to deploy. All weights
Navy. We will describe the major types of ships given in this chapter are full load displacement
and give their characteristics and missions. unless otherwise noted.
Before describing the ship types, however, we
must give some background information about SHIP ARMAMENT
ships in general. We must also explain some of
the terminology associated with ships. Armament describes the offensive weapons a
ship carries: guns, rockets, guided missiles, and
planes.
SHIP IDENTIFICATION
SHIP ARMOR
Each Navy ship is identified by name and Armor means protective armor: special steel
designation. In USS Forrestal (CV-59), for installed along the sides of the ship, on a deck,
example, USS means United States ship. CV is and on some gun mounts and turrets.

19-1
SHIP SPEED as we go along. The warship category includes the
following:
The speed of a ship is stated in knots, 1. Aircraft carriers
a knot being 1 nautical mile per hour. When 2. Surface combatants
a ship travels at 20 nautical miles an hour, a. Battleships
its speed is said to be 20 knots (but never b. Cruisers
20 knots per hour). A statute (or land) mile c. Destroyers
is 5,280 feet. A nautical mile is about 6,080 d. Frigates
feet, or roughly 2,000 yards. A ship traveling 3. Submarines
at 20 knots is, therefore, traveling at the
rate of about 23 miles per hour. Aircraft Carriers
Aircraft carriers are of three kinds:
SHIP CLASS multipurpose aircraft carriers (CVs), multipurpose
aircraft carriers (nuclear propulsion) (CVNs), and
training carriers (AVTs).
Ships are said to be of a particular class. Do The job of the CV or CVN is to carry, launch,
not confuse this characteristic with type, which retrieve, and handle combat aircraft quickly and
is shown by a ship’s designation. The Forrestal, effectively. The aircraft carrier can approach the
for example, was the first of several aircraft enemy at high speed, launch planes for the attack
carriers of the same general advanced type and and recover them, and retire before its position
configuration to be completed. The next three can be determined. The aircraft carrier is an
carriers completed after the Forrestal were of the excellent long-range offensive weapon that is the
same type and class. Later multipurpose aircraft center of the modern naval task force or task
carriers (CVs) or multipurpose aircraft carriers group. Figure 19-1 shows a Nimitz-class carrier.
(nuclear propulsion) (CVNs) of other types were Carriers built before 1950 displace from 33,000
different classes (such as the Kitty Hawk class and to 51,000 tons. Those built in the 1950s (Forrestal-
the Nimitz class). class) displace 60,000 tons. The Nimitz-class
nuclear-powered CVNs displace about 93,400 tons
(combat load). You can see that as new carriers
SHIP CATEGORIES are built, they become heavier and, in general,
larger.
Ships of the U.S. Navy are divided into four The wartime complement (including the CAG,
categories: combatant ships, auxiliary ships, or carrier air group) of each new carrier is about
combatant craft, and support craft. Tables 19-1 6,000, including officers and enlisted personnel-
and 19-2 show the classifications of naval ships an increase of from 500 to 1,000 persons over the
and craft. older ships. The CVs operate from 70 to 100
planes, depending on the size and type of aircraft.
Flight decks are roughly 1,000 feet long and from
200 to 250 feet wide. In addition to planes,
COMBATANT SHIPS armament consists of various types of guided
missiles.
Carriers have angled flight decks and steam
Combatant ships, depending on size and type, catapults and are able to launch and recover
may have missions other than simply ‘‘slugg- planes simultaneously. They have a large hangar
ing it out” with an enemy ship. Combatant deck for plane stowage, four deck-edge elevators
ships are of two types: warships and other to rapidly move aircraft between the hangar and
combatants. flight decks, extensive repair shops, storerooms,
and fast-fueling equipment. They are noted for
their speed (all carriers can proceed at over 30
WARSHIPS knots), endurance, plane-carrying capacity, and
maintenance capability. They are also noted for
Most warships are built primarily to attack an their sea-keeping ability (ability to successfully and
enemy with gunfire, missiles, or other weapons. safely execute a mission at sea despite adverse
There are exceptions, however, which you will see environmental factors).

19-2
19-3
19-4
 134.107
Figure 19-1.-Aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN-69) under way with embarked aircraft.

134.108
Figure 19-2.-USS Iowa (BB-61) firing its no. 2 turret.

Surface Combatants gunfire support for amphibious landings in both

the Pacific and European theaters—only their
Surface combatant ships are battleships, large-caliber guns could knock out heavily
cruisers, destroyers, and frigates. reinforced gun emplacements. They also provided
gunfire support in the Korean War. The New
BATTLESHIPS. —Battleships (BBs) partici- Jersey was activated for a short period of service
pated in few surface engagements in World War during the Vietnam War and was then
II. However, with their large number of decommissioned. Today, four, BBs, the Iowa (fig
antiaircraft guns, they proved to be excellent 19-2), New Jersey, Missouri, and Wisconsin, are in
support ships in carrier task forces. They provided active service.

19-5
 The United States traditionally named battle- destroyer-type names. Other cruisers, beginning with
ships after states. Since our nation is unlikely to the CGN-36, are named after states. The CG-47-class
build any more battleships, it now gives state names cruisers are named after revolutionary war battles.
to cruisers, such as the California (CGN-36), and
submarines (SSBNs), such as the Ohio and the DESTROYERS. —Destroyers (DDs) and guided-
Michigan. missiles destroyers (DDGs) are multi-purpose ships
that are useful in almost any kind of naval operation.
CRUISERS. —Cruisers are medium-sized, They are fast ships with a variety of armament, but
general-utility ships. They have a large cruising little or no armor. For protection, they depend on
range and are capable of high speeds (over 30 knots). their speed and mobility. Their displacement varies
They serve as protective screens against surface and from about 4,500 tons to 7,800 tons.
air attacks and also provide gunfire support for land
operations. Because of modern high-performance The principal mission of destroyers is to operate
aircraft and guided missiles, the cruisers in service offensively and defensively against submarines and
today are designed to carry guided missiles. The two surface ships and to take defensive action against air
basic types of cruisers are the guided-missile cruiser attacks. They also provide gunfire support for
(CG) and guided-missile cruiser (nuclear propulsion) amphibious assaults and perform patrol, search, and
(CGN). Cruisers displace about 10,000 to 21,500 tons. rescue missions.
The CG carries guns as well as missiles. The CG-47
class (fig. 19-3) is the first to employ vertical launch The destroyer’s armament consists of 5-inch guns
missile tubes and the shipboard integrated AAW and a variety of antisubmarine weapons, such as
combat weapons system (Aegis). CGNs are the same torpedoes, antisubmarine rockets (ASROCs), and
as the CGs except that their main engines are Terrier and Tartar missiles.
nuclear powered.
Traditionally, destroyers have been named after
At one time cruisers were named after cities; but officers and enlisted personnel of the Navy and
after the completion of the Long Beach (CGN-9), the Marine Corps and Secretaries of the Navy. Because
names of cities were assigned to newly constructed destroyers make up the Navy’s largest group of si-
auxiliary ships (AOEs/AORs/ AFSs). The names of milar types of ships, we will mention only a few to
cities are also given to attack submarines, beginning give you some idea of the several types and classes.
with the Los Angeles (SSN-688) class. Several active
cruisers, formerly classified as guided-missile frigates The Navy’s destroyer of the future is the Arleigh
and named after Navy and Marine Corps personnel Burke class (DDG-51) (fig. 19-4). The all-steel
and Secretaries of the Navy, have retained their construction of the DDG-51 is designed

134.109
Figure 19-3.-USS Lake Champlain (CG-57) under way during sea trials.

19-6
from the keel up for survivability. It incorporates weapons system and the vertical launch system
many damage control features resulting form (VLS).
lessons learned during the Falkland Islands Destroyers of the Spruance class (fig 19-5)
conflict and from the accidental attack on USS displace 7,800 tons fully loaded. Each of these
Stark. These destroyers also employ the Aegis ships has to 5”/54-caliber guns, one missile

134.110
Figure 19-4.-Newly commissioned guided-missile destroyer USS Arleigh Burke (DDG-51).

134.189
Figure 19-5.-USS Spruance (DD-963).

19-7
launcher for Sea Sparrow missiles, one ASROC Frigates resemble destroyers in appearance;
launcher, and two Mk 32 triple-torpedo tubes. but they are slower, have only a single screw, and
They also have full helicopter facilities to carry less armament. FFs have grown in size from
accommodate the light airborne multipurpose about 1,500 tons displacement to over 4,000 tons,
system (LAMPS). The Spruance-class destroyers as in the Knox class (FF-1052). Their armament
were the first large U.S. warships to use gas- varies from class to class. The Oliver Hazard
turbine propulsion. The propulsion system was Perry (FFG-7) class (fig. 19-7.) has a single 76-mm,
selected because of its smaller space requirements, 62-caliber, dual-purpose gun; a 20-mm
rapid replacement capability, and cold-start Vulcan/Phalanx rapid-fire gun; a single launcher
capability. (The engines can go from “cold iron” to for Harpoon missiles; two SH-2H LAMPS
full power in 12 minutes.) helicopters; and two Mk 32 triple-torpedo tubes.
Guided-missile destroyers (DDGs) of the Coontz The Knox class (fig. 19-8) has one Sea Sparrow
class were formerly designated frigates. They missile launcher, one 5"/54-caliber gun, one 20-
displace 5,800 tons fully loaded. Each of these mm Vulcan/Phalanx gun, one ASROC launcher,
ships has one 5"/54-caliber gun mount, one twin- and four MK 32 fixed torpedo tubes. The Knox
Terrier surface-to-air launcher, one ASROC class also has facilities for one SH-2H LAMPS
launcher, and two Mk 32 triple-torpedo tubes. helicopter.
DDGs of the Charles F. Adams class (fig. 19-6)
are considered excellent multipurpose ships. They Submarines
displace 4,500 tons fully loaded. Each ship has one
ASROC launcher, two Mk 32 triple-torpedo tube The basic designation SS indicates a submarine
mounts, and two 5"/54-caliber gun mounts. Some that is a conventional (diesel-powered) ship. The
of the ships are equipped with one twin- or one letter N following the basic designation (SSN)
single-Tartar surface-to-air missile launcher. A indicates a submarine with nuclear propulsion.
few of the ships have one multiple-Chaparral The letter B (SSB) indicates a submarine with
missile launcher. ballistic missiles and nonnuclear propulsion. The
letters BN (SSBN) indicate a submarine with
ballistic missiles and nuclear propulsion.
FRIGATES. —The U.S. Navy adopted the The mission of nuclear attack submarines
classification “frigate” (FF) for ships used for open- (SSNs) is to locate and destroy enemy ships and
ocean escort and patrol. When they were submarines. They also act as scouts, deliver
developed during World War II, frigates were supplies and personnel to locations in enemy
classified as destroyer escorts (Des). territory, and perform rescue missions. Fleet

3.77
Figure 19-6.-Guided-missile destroyer USS Goldsborough (DDG-20) of the Charles F. Adams class.

19-8
 134.111
Figure 19-7.-Guided-missile frigate USS Wadsworth (FFG-9) of the Oliver Hazard Perry class.

134.87
Figure 19-8.-Frigate USS Alywin (FF-1081) of the Knox class firing ASROC. 134.87

19-9
ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) deliver ballistic In July 1960 USS George Washington (SSBN-598)
missile attacks against assigned targets from either a successfully launched, for the first time, a Polaris
submerged or surfaced condition. Nuclear propulsion guided missile from under water. This shot radically
has turned the submersible ship into a true changed the old concept of submarine warfare, which
submarine that no longer requires frequent was simply to sink enemy ships or submarines with
replenishment of fuel and supplies. (Examples: (1) torpedoes. Now nuclear-powered, high-speed
The Nautilus, our first SSN, steamed over 62,000 submarines are able to cruise for months at a time.
miles without refueling; (2) during a test, the Seawolf They can launch an effective attack against targets
remained submerged for 60 days; (3) the Triton on shore while remaining virtually immune to
traveled around the globe under water, remaining retaliation. All sub-marines now being built have
submerged for 83 days.) The submarine’s crew does nuclear propulsion.
not depend on the earth’s atmosphere for air. Units of The oldest SSBNs are being decommissioned or
air-revitalization equipment clean the air converted to fulfill SSN duties. Other SSBNs are
continuously. Electrolytic oxygen generators permit being converted to carry Trident missiles. The newest
the submarine to extract its own oxygen from SSBN class, the Ohio class, carries Trident II
seawater. missiles. The Ohio class is the largest undersea

134.112
Figure 19-9.-Two Ohio-class SSBNs under construction and a Los Angeles-class SSN being
launched.

19-10
craft developed by the Navy. It displaces 16,600 to PATROL COMBATANTS. —Patrol combatants
18,700 tons. The size of the Trident submarine is fall into two categories: patrol combatant (PG) and
dictated by the larger size missile required for ranges guided-missile patrol combatant (hydrofoil) (PHM).
of 4,000 to 6,000 miles and the larger reactor plant The patrol combatant was developed because of
required to drive the ship. The submarine has 24 increased emphasis on counterinsurgency and
tubes for the Trident II missile and 4 torpedo tubes unconventional warfare operations. The PG is
located in the bow. designed for good sea-keeping qualities, long
A nuclear-powered attack submarine, like that of endurance, a high payload, and high speed
the Sturgeon class, displaces 3,800 to 4,700 tons and capabilities. Although the PG is not a torpedo boat, it
has four torpedo tubes. The new Los Angeles-class can operate in shallow coastal waters and is capable
fast-attack submarines displace about 7,000 tons and of combating coastal shipping as well as enemy
have four torpedo tubes. Notice in figure 19-9 how torpedo boats.
much larger the SSBN is than the SSN. You can also The main propulsion plant of the gunboat uses a
see the bow of a second Los Angeles-class SSN at the combination of diesel and gas (turbine) (CODAG).
top right of the figure. Although possessing different This combination achieves the greatest possible fuel
missions, both are super-powered submarines. economy and maximum endurance time on station.
Early submarines were named after marine life. Two diesel engines drive the twin propellers during
The first SSBNs, however, were given names of maneuvering and cruising speeds, the gunboat’s
persons well known in American history, like George normal operating condition. When high speeds are
Washington, Patrick Henry, and Lafayette. needed, the diesels are declutched and the gas
New fast-attack submarines (SSNs) are named turbine is clutched to the propeller shafts for speeds
after American cities—like the Los Angeles, Baton over 40 knots.
Rouge, and Memphis. The Tridents (SSBNs) are The PG is constructed of aluminum and fiberglass,
being named after American states-like the Ohio and is 165 feet long, has a beam of 24 feet, and displaces
the Michigan. 225 to 245 tons. Its armament consists of one 3"/50-
caliber gun, one 40-mm gun, and four 50-caliber twin
Other Combatants machine guns.
The newer patrol combatant ships are guided-
Other ships classified as combatants are patrol missile patrol combatant (hydrofoil) ships (PHM).
combatant ships, amphibious warfare ships, and mine Figure 19-10 shows the first of the class,
warfare ships.

134.190
Figure 19-10.-Uss Pegasus (PHM-1), a patrol hydrofoil missile ship.

19-11
USS Pegasus. These ships can operate in all and communications systems of the Wasp will
weather conditions and can move in heavy seas allow it to serve as a command post.
with a stability that is usually found only in much
larger ships. The Pegasus-class PHM displaces Wasp Class Data
231 tons; is 131 feet long and 28 feet wide; and
carries a crew of 21, including officers and enlisted Displacement 40,533 tons
personnel. It is designed for strike, patrol, and
surveillance missions. Its armament consists of a Length 844 feet
rapid-fire, 76-mm gun and an 8-tube Harpoon
ship-to-ship missile launcher. Beam 106 feet

AMPHIBIOUS ASSAULT SHIPS. —Am- Draft 28 feet

phibious assault ships (general purpose) (LHAs)
and amphibious assault ships (multipurpose) Shaft horsepower 70,000
(LHDs) can embark, deploy, and land a Marine
battalion landing team. They can use helicopters, Aircraft 33
landing craft, amphibious vehicles, and
combinations of these methods. Accommodations 1,321
The newest class of amphibious assault ships is
the Wasp class. The USS Wasp (LHD-1), shown in Troops 1,894
figure 19-11, is the largest amphibious ship in the
world. It combines many of the features of other Also falling under the category of an
amphibious ships into a single ship. The electronic amphibious assault ship is the Tarawa-class LHA.

134.113
Figure 19-11.-Artist’s conception of USS Wasp (LHD-1).

19-12
This LHA combines many of the features of other Another amphibious assault ship (LPH)
amphibious ships into a single platform, as does designed to embark, transport, and land marines
the LHD. Both the LHD and the LHA carry NATO by means of transport helicopters is the Iwo Jima
Sea Sparrow missiles and the 20-mm Vulcan class (fig. 19-1 2). When not used in an amphibious
Phalanx close-in weapon system (CIWS). role, LPHs have the capability of assisting in
antisubmarine warfare.

Tarawa Class Data Iwo Jima Class Data

Displacement 39,300 tons Displacement 18,000 tons

Length 778 feet Length 602 feet

Beam 106 feet Beam 84 feet

Draft 27.5 feet Draft 29 feet

Shaft horsepower 70,000 Shaft horsepower 22,000

Aircraft 30 Helicopters 20 CH-46s

Accommodations 800 Accommodations 1,075

Troops 1,825 Officers/troops 143/1,581

13.86
Figure 19-12.-Amphibious assault ship USS Guam (LPH-9).

19-13
 AMPHIBIOUS TRANSPORT DOCK SHIPS. Accommodations 474
—The amphibious transport dock (LPD) (fig. 19-
13) achieved a long-sought goal of transporting Officers/troops 73/888
troops and their equipment in the same ship. With
facilities for operating eight helicopters, the LPD AMPHIBIOUS CARGO SHIPS. —Amphib-
frequently serves as a satellite to the LPH during ious cargo ships (LKAs) carry large quantities of
vertical assault operations. the material and equipment needed to launch an
The LPD eliminates the difficulty of off-loading amphibious attack. Such items include guns,
landing craft over the side by transporting them provisions, jeeps, trucks, and tanks. Cargo
internally and launching them through an capacity is over 5,000 tons, or about 300 vehicles of
opening in the stern. Craft can be launched while various types. These ships are combat-loaded,
the ship is under way or dead in the water. The which means the cargo is placed aboard in the
deck over the well that carries the landing craft reverse order of off-loading to allow for rapid
provides a platform for six large helicopters. This removal of material that will be needed first. The
deck permits the landing of troops by air as well as ship’s own landing craft deliver supplies, plus a
by landing craft. limited number of troops, to the beach. USS
Charleston (LKA-113) is shown in figure 19-14.

Austin Class Data DOCK LANDING SHIPS. —Dock landing

ships (LSDs) can transport and launch a variety of
loaded amphibious craft and vehicles plus a
Displacement 16,900 tons limited number of troops. They can provide limited
docking and repair services to small ships and
Length 570 feet craft and are equipped to refuel helicopters
operating from the ship’s helicopter landing
Beam 105 feet platform. The LSD has, between its wing walls, a
well over 300 feet long and about 50 feet wide.
Draft 21.5 feet Before the craft are launched, the LSD is ballasted
down and the well is flooded; the craft are then
Shaft horsepower 24,000 moved out under their own power. The LSD 28

3.87
Figure 19-13.-Amphibious transport dock ship USS Austin (LPD-4).

19-14
 3.81
Figure 19-14.-Amphibious cargo ship USS Charleston (LKA-113).

and 36 classes can transport 18 LCM-6 boats plus landing craft and has two helicopter operating
the ship’s allowance of 4 landing craft. They have spots.
one helicopter operating spot, which is capable of
handling a CH-53 helicopter. The Whidbey Island TANK LANDING SHIPS. —Tank landing
class LSD (fig 19-15) can accommodate four air ships (LSTs) were a World War II development
cushion landing craft (LCAC) or conventional used successfully for transporting troops, tanks,

134.114
Figure 19-15.-Dock landing ship USS Germantown (LSD-42).

19-15
preloaded vehicles, ammunition, fuel, and all sorts of deck. Another ramp from the main deck to the tank
supplies. LSTs built after the war were of the same deck enabled vehicles to reach the main deck under
general design but were larger and faster. They had their own power. One of the added features in the
certain added features that enabled them to carry out postwar design is a turntable in the forward part of
their missions more effectively than those built before the tank deck. The turntable allows vehicles to turn
the war. without a great deal of maneuvering. Another feature
Bow doors and a bow ramp on LSTs of the World is booms and winches mounted on the main deck
War II era gave access to a huge hold called the tank forward of the deckhouse to aid cargo handling.

134.191
Figure 19-16.-Tank landing ship USS Newport (LST-1179).

134.195
Figure 19-17.-USS Mount Whitney (LCC-20).

19-16
 The first LST of a revolutionary new design, Blue Ridge Class Data
USS Newport (LST- 1179) (fig. 19-16), was com-
missioned in June of 1969. This was the first U.S. Displacement 17,100 tons
Navy combat vessel equipped with a bow thruster
(side propulsion unit) to aid in maneuvering. Length 620 feet
The Newport is the fastest and largest LST
ever built. The new design features a clipper bow, Beam 108 feet
an extended bow ramp instead of bow doors, and a
rounded bottom. The tank deck is connected to the Draft 29 feet
main deck by a ramp forward of the bridge. Stern
doors allow easy loading and unloading of cargo Shaft horsepower 22,000
and troops. Vehicle stowage is 500 tons. The
stowage area is 19,000 square feet, 5,000 more Accommodations 775
than previous LSTs.
These ships can transport and land amphibious Troops 150
vehicles, tanks, combat vehicles, and equipment in
amphibious assaults. In addition, they can
transport and launch a pontoon cause-way section
in the amphibious objective area. MINE SWEEPERS. —The Navy’s newest
mine-sweeping ship class, the Avenger, represents
AMPHIBIOUS COMMAND SHIPS. —An a revolutionary concept in mine warfare. These
amphibious command ship (LCC) can serve simul- ships are designed as mine hunter/killers capable
taneously as a command ship for an amphibious of performing reconnaissance, classification, and
task force, a landing force, and air support neutralization of moored and bottom mines.
commanders during amphibious operations. It These ships operate the remotely piloted,
provides accommodations and command and tethered Mine Neutralization System (MNS). This
communications facilities for the various system combines sonar and video capability with
commanders and their staffs. This ship has the cable cutters and a mine-detonating device (a
most modern and capable command facilities releasable, remotely controlled explosive).
afloat. At this time, only two ships of this type,
USS Blue Ridge and USS Mount Whitney (fig. 19- Using the MNS, an operator aboard the mine
17), are in commission. countermeasures (MCM) ship (fig. 19-18) can

134.115
Figure 19-18 .-USS Avenger (MCM-1), the lead ship of its class.

19-17
maneuver within visual range of a suspected mine. replenishment: connected and vertical. They may
The operator can then use the closed-circuit use both methods simultaneously.
television aboard the MNS to visually identify the The connected replenishment (CONREP)
object. If the object is identified as a bottom mine, method uses lines rigged between ships to transfer
a detonating charge can be placed nearby for personnel and lines or hoses rigged between ships
subsequent destruction. If the object proves to be to transfer commodities. The vertical replenish-
a moored mine, the cable can be cut, allowing the ment (VERTREP) method employs helicopters to
mine to float to the surface for subsequent transfer personnel and cargo (except fuel).
destruction. Transferring fuel is called fueling (or refueling)
The United States has current plans to produce at sea (FAS). Transferring cargo is called
14 ships of the Avenger class. The Naval Reserve replenishment at sea (RAS).
Force operates most of the older minesweeping Replenishing consists of a certain amount of
ships. dead time on the part of the combat ship. During
this time the ship is preparing to go alongside the
AUXILIARY AND SUPPORT SHIPS replenishing ship, connecting lines, replenishing,
breaking away upon completion, and returning
The effectiveness of a fleet depends to a great to station. The fewer replenishing “stops” a ship
extent on its quantity and type of auxiliary ships. has to make, the less time it remains off station.
These ships back up the fighting forces with The process of replenishing a ship under way
supporting services that keep the fleet operating. proceeds more quickly if the replenishing vessel
The supporting services furnish, when needed, is a multiple-product delivery ship, which carries
vital supplies such as fuel, ammunition, repair several types of commodities.
parts, and food. The part auxiliary ships play in Lets look now at some of the replenishment
time of war is not as highly publicized as that of ships used by the Navy.
combat ant ships. However, auxiliary ships fight
just as hard as combatant ships in providing their AMMUNITION SHIPS. —Ammunition ships
services to the fleet. (AEs) operate with replenishment groups to
The type of service an auxiliary provides deliver ammunition and missiles to the fleet at sea.
determines its classification. The initial letter in Ships of the Kilauea class (fig. 19-19) are 564 feet
each designation is an A. An AD is a destroyer long and 81 feet wide, draw 26 feet of water, and
tender, while an AS is a submarine tender. An displace 18,000 tons. At first glance, these figures
AO is an oiler, and an AOR is a replenishment sound unimpressive; but when compared to
oiler. An AE is an ammunition (explosives) supply World War II AEs, they are a substantial
ship, while an AOE is a multiple-product fast improvement in cargo capacity, cargo handling,
combat support ship. An AFS is a combat stores and speed. Their design incorporates a mechanical
ship; an AR, a repair ship; and an AG, a handling system for more rapid loading and off-
miscellaneous category that includes a variety of loading of ammunition. A tension highline system
ships. is built into the design, along with new, improved
electrohydraulic cargo winches for replenishment
Replenishment-at-Sea Ships at sea.

In peacetime Navy ships must often remain OILERS. —Oilers (AOs), carrying Navy fuel
at sea for long periods; in wartime the fleet usually oil and other petroleum products, operate with
operates far from bases of support. Therefore, replenishment groups and deliver their cargo to
ships require some means of resupply to remain ships at sea. Oilers can service ships on both sides
fully capable of carrying out the Navy’s mission simultaneously.
and other assigned tasks. This broad operational
requirement is met by underway replenishment The number of Navy-manned fleet oilers has
(UNREP). UNREP has maintained fleets over- diminished as more and more civilian-manned
seas, such as the Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean Military Sealift Command ships have assumed
Sea, during peacetime for many years. responsibilities for supplying the fleet. The Navy
Underway replenishment refers to all methods is converting all five of the Cimarron-class oilers
of transferring fuel, munitions, supplies, and (fig. 19-20) into “jumbo” oilers. The AO jumbo
personnel from one vessel to another while ships program is designed to increase the 120,000-barrel
are under way. Ships use two general methods of fuel capacity of these ships to 150,000 barrels. It

19-18
 134.197
Figure 19-19.-USS Butte (AE-27).

134.116
Figure 19-20.-USS Monongahela (AO-178) under way on the Mississippi River.

will also give them the capability of carrying 600 munitions, 200 tons of dry stores, and 100 tons of
tons of cargo ammunition. refrigerate stores.

The Wichita-class replenishment oilers (AORs) COMBAT STORES SHIPS. —Combat stores
are capable of multiproduct delivery. They can ships (AFSs) provide within a single hull the triple
carry 160,000 barrels of fuel, 600 tons of logistic capability of a stores issues

19-19
ship, a refrigerator ship, and an aviation supply The AOE (fig. 19-22) is a multiple-product ship
ship. that can transfer missiles, conventional
ammunition, fuel, and general and refrigerated
The AFS (fig. 19-21) is designed for high-speed cargo to other ships at sea.
replenishment operations. Built-in materials-
handling equipment, consisting of elevators, The AOE combines in one large ship the
vertical tray lift conveyors, and pallet conveyors, functions of three major service force ships—oiler,
provide for the rapid breakout of cargo. Forklift ammunition ship, and combat store ship. The deck
trucks and pallet trucks are used for horizontal layout and cargo-handling equipment of the AOE
movement of cargo to the replenishment stations. allow it to service the smallest patrol craft or the
largest carrier.
In addition to the conventional replenishment
rigging, constant-tension highline transfer The design of the AOE includes a helicopter
systems are available to all transfer stations. flight deck capable of supporting three Sea Knight
Large free-deck areas provide space for pre- helicopters. The use of helicopters in replenishing
positioning loads destined for receiving ships. A has several advantages. It enables the transfer of
helicopter platform and hangar for launching and provisions faster than a receiving ship can stow
servicing two helicopters add the capability of them away. It also enables the transfer of highly
vertical replenishment. perishable commodities without the risk of
defrosting or spoilage. In addition it makes
FAST COMBAT SUPPORT SHIPS. —Fast possible the replenishment of a ship that may be
combat support ships (AOEs) are the largest and 40 or 50 miles away.
most powerful auxiliary ships in the Navy. Unlike
other replenishment ships, the AOE is designed to The AOE is larger than other UNREP ships. It
operate as an integral force, rather than as a unit has 15 replenishment stations, each capable of
of an underway replenishment group. transferring a load of cargo to a ship alongside

134.199
Figure 19-21.-USS San Jose (AFS-7).

19-20
 134.198
Figure 19-22 .-A multiple-product AOE conducting underway replenishment.

in 90 seconds. On a normal UNREP operation In wartime the function of material support

(carrier to port, destroyer to starboard), the deck ships is to operate in advance areas and restore
force can transfer 300 tons of cargo per hour. The the fleet to fighting trim after suffering battle or
AOE carries over 5 million gallons of petroleum other damage. In peacetime their function may be
products, 1,600 tons of ammunition, and 500 tons less apparent, since a shipyard or some other
of dry and refrigerated stores in addition to permanent base could do the work of these ships
miscellaneous general cargo and mail. as efficiently. However, the Navy must maintain a
nucleus of ships and personnel ready for any
Material Support Ships emergency.

Material support ships include repair ships

(ARs), destroyer tenders (ADs), and submarine
tenders (ASs). These ships provide repair and SUMMARY
maintenance functions that are beyond the capa-
bilities of other ships’ facilities or personnel. They The U.S. Navy has hundreds of vessels ranging
are floating shops with skilled workers from small tugboats to huge aircraft carriers. You
representing a wide variety of mechanical and cannot be expected to know all of the
electrical trades. These ships supply parts and the characteristics of each one, but you should be able
personnel to install them and skilled workers who to recognize the type of ship you see and have an
can repair many delicate optical and navigational understanding of its mission.
instruments. They also provide personnel who can
do underwater cutting and welding, engine and In this chapter you have been introduced to
hull repairs, machine work, and electronic and many of the ship types operated by the Navy. You
electrical repairs. These ships have foundries, have also been given some of the characteristics of
forges, and many types of machine tools. They these ships, including size, armament, manning,
have instrument shops, carpentry shops, boat and various other features. This information
shops, and boat-engine shops. They also have should enable you to differentiate between the
medical and dental facilities. different ship types and characteristics.

19-21
 REFERENCES SUGGESTED READING

Naval Science for the Merchant Marine Officer,

NAVEDTRA 38051, Naval Education and Moore, John, Jane’s Fighting Ships, 1990-91,
Training Program Management Support Jane’s Publishing, Inc., New York, 1990.
Activity, Pensacola, Fla., 1986.
Polman, Norman, The Ships and Aircraft of the
Navy Fact File, 9th ed., Office of Information, U.S. Fleet, 14th ed., Naval Institute Press,
Washington, D.C., 1989. Annapolis, Md., 1987.

SMOKING LAMP
SEA DOGS WHO SAILED THE WOODEN SHIPS ENDURED HARDSHIPS THAT SAILORS
TODAY NEVER SUFFER. CRAMPED QUARTERS, POOR UNPALATABLE FOOD, BAD
LIGHTING, AND BOREDOM WERE HARD FACTS OF SEA LIFE. BUT PERHAPS A MORE
FRUSTRATING PROBLEM WAS GETTING FIRE TO KINDLE A CIGAR OR PIPE
TOBACCO AFTER A HARD DAY’S WORK.
MATCHES WERE SCARCE AND UNRELIABLE, YET SMOKING CONTRIBUTED
POSITIVELY TO THE MORALE OF THE CREW; SO OIL LAMPS WERE HUNG IN THE
FO’C’SLE AND USED AS MATCHES. SMOKING WAS RESTRICTED TO CERTAIN TIMES
OF THE DAY BY THE BOS’UN’S. WHEN IT WAS ALLOWED, THE “SMOKING LAMPS”
WERE “LIGHTED” AND THE MEN RELAXED WITH THEIR TOBACCO.
FIRE WAS, AND STILL IS, THE GREAT ENEMY OF SHIPS AT SEA. THE
SMOKING LAMP WAS CENTRALLY LOCATED FOR THE CONVENIENCE OF ALL AND WAS
THE ONLY AUTHORIZED LIGHT ABOARD. IT WAS A PRACTICAL WAY OF KEEPING
OPEN FLAMES AWAY FROM THE MAGAZINES AND OTHER STORAGE AREAS.
IN TODAY’S NAVY THE SMOKING LAMPS HAVE DISAPPRED, BUT THE WORDS
“SMOKING LAMP IS LIGHTED IN ALL AUTHORIZED SPACES” REMAINS -- A CARRY-
OVER FROM OUR PAST.

19-22
 CHAPTER 20

NAVAL WEAPONS SYSTEMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Identify the gunnery systems used on Navy 6. Identify the air-to-air missiles used by the
ships. Navy.

2. Describe the purpose of gun fire control

7. Identify the air-to-ground missiles used by the
equipment.
Navy.
3. Identify the antiair warfare (AAW) missiles
used by the Navy. 8. Identify various airborne weapons used by the
Navy.
4. Identify the cruise missiles used by the Navy.
5. Identify the antisubmarine warfare (ASW) 9. Identify the Navy’s nuclear weapons capa-
weapons used by the Navy. bility.

Before the discovery of gunpowder, naval be a guided missile, gun projectile, rocket,
battles were fought with row-galley tactics. In torpedo, or depth charge.
general, two methods were employed. A galley To deliver the weapon accurately, we must
could maneuver near the enemy vessel and attempt know the location, direction of travel, and the
to ram it, overturn it, board it by grappling hooks, velocity of the target. Since many air targets now
or shave off its oars by a close run. An alternative travel faster than sound, they must be engaged
procedure was to catapult flaming sulphur, pitch, at great distances. A weapon is most effective
niter, or oil onto the enemy ship; row away; and when used as part of a ship’s or aircraft’s weapons
watch the fire. Although crossbows and shipborne system against such targets.
spring- or torsion-powered artillery did allow A weapons system includes the following:
some battle action before actual ship-to-ship
contact, the ram was the main weapon. Speed and 1. Units that detect, locate, and identify the
maneuverability were the best defenses. target
Today, however, weapons systems are 2. Units that direct or aim a delivery unit (for
extremely complex. They include both the weapon example, gun or guided-missile fire control
and the fire control equipment used with the radar)
weapon. 3. Units that deliver or initiate the delivery of
Fire control entails problem solving: the the weapon to the target (for example,
problem of destroying a target with the armament missile battery, gun battery)
of your ship or aircraft. Solutions must be found 4. Units termed weapons that destroy the
for the three types of targets: surface, subsurface, target when in contact with it or near it
and air targets. The effective use of any weapons
system requires the delivery of a destructive device While this serves as a brief overview of
to a target. The destructive device (weapon) could a weapons system, let’s look a little deeper

20-1
at some of the systems and equipment the Navy 5"/54
uses.
The 5"/54 Mk 42 is an automatic dual-purpose
(DP) gun carried by most frigates (FFs), destroyers
GUNS (DDs), and guided-missile cruisers (CGs) built in
the 1950s and 1960s. Depending on the class of
The gun is the Navy’s oldest and most fre- ship, the weapons maybe located on one, two, or
quently used piece of ordnance equipment. three single mounts. The gun has an effective
Modern improvements in the construction of guns range of 24,500 yards and fires 70-pound shells at
and ammunition have revolutionized gunnery by a rate of 32 rounds per minute.
increasing the destructive power and maximum The Mk 45 (fig. 20-1) provides destroyers and
range of this weapon. During the revolutionary large ships with an all-weather capability for
war, American ships fought at ranges of only support of amphibious operations. It also provides
several hundred yards. Using inaccurate cast-iron them with an all-weather capability for delivery of
guns without sights, they threw solid shots that rapid and accurate naval gunfire against surface
usually failed to penetrate. Modern guns hurl craft, aircraft, and shore targets. It is a shielded,
explosive shells that may weigh up to 2,700 single-barrel, fully automatic gun that fires 5"/54
pounds. The range of the largest (16-inch) gun semifixed ammunition. Total installation weight
now in service exceeds 24 miles. This gun can varies from 49,000 to 54,000 pounds, depending on
destroy a ship or some other target with only one the installation configuration. The DD-963, DDG-
of its projectiles. 993, LHA-1, CGN-36,
Naval guns, exclusive of small arms, are
classified according to size, type of ammunition
used, and method of fire.
Large guns are usually mounted in turrets,
boxlike structures of armor enclosing the breech
end of two or three guns. The turret rotates within
and on top of a barbette, a fixed circular tube of
armor extending down to the armored decks. The
barbette encloses the ammunition-handling rooms,
hoists, and gun-laying machinery of the turret.
Smaller guns are housed in two types of gun
mounts: open and closed. The latter type
resembles a turret but does not have an armored
barbette.
The mounts or turrets of all naval guns except
the smallest are trained (rotated in the deck
plane), and the guns are elevated by electric or
electric-hydraulic power drives. The power drives,
which are usually automatic, move the gun to a
position designated by a fire control system.
The following sections briefly describe some of
the gunnery systems used by the Navy.

16"/50

The 16"/50 turret-mounted gun is the only

major-caliber weapon in the fleet today. Installed
only on battleships, it can fire a 2,700-pound
projectile a distance of 24 miles.
Although it has a low firing rate (2 rounds per 134.202
minute), the 16" projectile is quite destructive. Figure 20-1.-Mk 45 5"/54.

20-2
CGN-38, and CG-47 classes of ships carry the CLOSE-IN WEAPON SYSTEM (CIWS)
Mk 45.
The close-in weapon system (CIWS) was
developed to provide the fleet with a close-range,
5"/38 hard defense against antiship cruise missiles,
fixed-wing aircraft, and surface targets. The
The 5"/38 semiautomatic DP gun was the system is an automatic, fast-reaction, computer-
mainstay of the U.S. Navy from 1939 until the late controlled radar with a rapid-fire 20-millimeter
1960s. Single or twin mounts made up the gun. It combines a single-mount fire control
secondary batteries on early cruisers and radar and a six-barrel Gatling gun that fires
battleships. One or two single mounts are now the depleted-uranium projectiles at a rate of 3,000
main battery of the older DDs, FFs, and guided- rounds per minute. Its projectiles are 2.5 times
missile frigates (FFGs). The twin mounts are the heavier than those made of steel. The system
secondary gun battery on battleships (BBs). For has a high-kill probability. This system is
short periods, an efficient gun crew can get off 15 suitable for installation on most ships as a single
rounds per minute for single mounts and 30 unit. It permits smaller ships to have a degree of
rounds per minute for single twin mounts. The self-protection never before possible. (See fig.
projectile weighs 55 pounds and has an effective 20-2.)
range of 18,000 yards.
GUN FIRE CONTROL EQUIPMENT
3"/50
Gun fire control equipment must solve a
The dual-purpose, semiautomatic 3"/50 difficult problem. It must direct the guns to hit
gun was planned during World War II. The
enemy’s use of combat suicide planes and dive
bombers prompted the need for rapid-fire
weapons having a larger explosive projectile
than 40-mm guns. Although the 3"/50 gun was
not produced in time for wartime service, it
proved to be a very effective gun. Becoming
standard throughout much of the fleet, it
replaced the 40-mm twin and quadruple
mounts on all combat ships. Most of the
mounts installed were open twin mounts;
however, a few single mounts were installed.
The 3"/50 fires 45 rounds per minute per
barrel and has a range of 14,200 yards. A few
of these mounts remain on major combatant
ships, but most are found on auxiliary and
amphibious landing ships.

76-MM/62

The Mk 75 76-mm/62-caliber, rapid-fire,

dual-purpose gun mount was developed in the
late 1960s to combat increased aircraft target
speeds and the cruise missile threat. Because
of its light weight, it is suitable for
installation on the new guided-missile frigates
and missile hydrofoil boats. It is a water-
cooled single mount with a rate of fire of 85
rounds per minute and a maximum range of
17,800 yards. The gunhouse, which is not
manned, requires only three handlers to
reload the magazine. Figure 20-2.—Close-in weapon system (CIWS).

20-3
a moving target with a projectile that takes a con- All naval ships now use gun fire control
siderable length of time to arrive at its destination. equipment.
Accordingly, the gun cannot be aimed at the point
where the target is when detected. It must be
aimed at the point where the target will be when
the projectile gets there; that is, the predicted SURFACE-LAUNCHED ANTIAIR
position of the target. Furthermore, the path of WARFARE (AAW) MISSILES
the projectile is not a straight line but is curved
by gravity. Wind, variations in atmospheric den- The Navy uses surface-launched missiles both
sity, and other forces also affect the path of the as offensive and defensive weapons. Surface-
projectile. In addition, the guns and the fire launched missiles are used to destroy surface,
control equipment are mounted on a ship that is land, and air targets. The following sections
rolling, pitching, and moving through water. briefly describe some of the Navy’s surface-
The fire control equipment that solves this launched missiles.
problem is usually known as a gun fire control In an antiair warfare (AAW) operation,
system. Each battery frequently has more than guided missiles are the second line of defense. The
one of these systems. The whole battery may be first line of defense is aircraft. The AAW missiles
controlled by one system or may be broken down in the Navy’s current inventory include the
into smaller groups, each controlled by a separate Standard and Sea Sparrow missiles.
system.
A gun fire control system generally consists
of two parts, one above deck and the other below STANDARD
deck in a protected position. The above-deck
portion consists principally of a gun director that The Standard family of missiles is one of the
acts as the eyes of the battery. It is trained and most reliable in the Navy’s inventory. Entering
elevated so that its optics and radar are always the fleet more than a decade ago, it replaced the
directed toward the target, thus establishing a line Tartar and Terrier missiles. The Standard missile
of sight. Directors vary in size and complexity. can be used against missiles, aircraft, and ships.
Some are large rotating structures with complex
electrical driving equipment while others are Some of the older guided-missile destroyers
small, hand-operated devices. (DDGs) and the Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates
Introduction of radar into the fire control use the SM-1(MR) as a medium-range defense
system has greatly enhanced its flexibility and weapon. The SM-2(MR) is a medium-range
accuracy. Radar provides more accurate range as defense weapon for Ticonderoga-class Aegis
well as target direction data that is almost as good cruisers, California- and Virginia-class cruisers,
as the best optics. Arleigh Burke-class destroyers, and Kidd-class
The below-deck components of the system destroyers.
usually consist of a computer and other related Characteristics of the SM-1(MR) and
equipment, although the computer is sometimes SM-2(MR) missiles:
part of the director. The computer receives data
about target coordinates from the director and/or Length: 14 feet, 7 inches
radar. It uses built-in data about the wind, motion
of the ship, atmosphere, and the projectile path. Diameter: 13.5 inches
It then computes this data into orders needed for
the guns to aim properly to hit the target. These Wing span: 3 feet, 6 inches
orders are transmitted directly to the train and
elevation power drives of the gun mounts or Weight: SM-1-1,100 pounds;
turrets. SM-2-1,380 pounds
Computers make use of complex electrical and
mechanical components to perform continuous Range: More than 15 nautical miles
complex calculations. Some are entirely mechani-
cal, with quantities represented by positions of The SM-2(ER) is an extended-range area
shafts; others are electromechanical, with defense weapon for the Leahy, Belnap,
quantities represented by both positions and Bainbridge, Truxton, and Long Beach classes of
voltages. cruisers.

20-4
 Characteristics of the SM-2(ER) missiles: The United States did not start development of
a similar weapon until 1971. At that time the
Length: 26 feet, 2 inches United States realized our Navy did not have the
benefit of an equal weapon against ships equipped
Diameter: 13.5 inches with antiship missiles. This led to the development
of the Harpoon cruise missile. Further research
Wing span: 5 feet, 2 inches eventually led to the development of the
Tomahawk cruise missile.
Weight: 2,980 pounds HARPOON

Range: More than 30 nautical miles The Harpoon (fig. 20-3) is a medium-range,
rocket-boosted, turbo-sustained, antiship cruise
SPARROW

The AIM/RIM-74 is a much-improved and

highly successful air-to-air and surface-to-air
version of the Sparrow missile. It has considerably
greater invulnerability to electronic counter-
measures (ECM) and better target-tracking
capability. The fifth operational missile of the
Sparrow family, it can be employed against
attacking aircraft at all tactical speeds and
altitudes in all weather. With folding wings and
clipped tail fins, it is compatible with the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Sea Sparrow
launcher. Entering the Navy’s inventory in 1983,
this latest version of the Sparrow family continues
to be one of the Navy’s most heavily procured
missiles.
Characteristics of the Sparrow:

Length: 12 feet

Diameter: 8 inches

Wing span: 3 feet, 4 inches

Weight: 510 pounds

Speed: More than 2,660 miles per hour

Range: More than 30 nautical miles

CRUISE MISSILES

Since World War II the U.S. Navy has relied

upon carrier aircraft to maintain sea control.
Other navies, not having the money for carriers,
developed antiship missiles. These missiles were
first used successfully by the Egyptians to sink the
Israeli destroyer Elath in 1967. The battle opened 134.53
a new era in naval warfare. Any nation with a Figure 20-3.-Harpoon missile being launched
relatively modest investment could successfully from a canister launcher aboard USS Leahy
challenge the most powerful naval forces. (CG-16).

20-5
missile. Its primary mission is to destroy hostile (TERCOM) guidance system. The TERCOM
surface targets such as combatants, surfaced system compares a stored map reference with the
submarines, or other vessels. The Harpoon can be actual terrain to determine the missile’s position.
launched from surface ships, submarines, or If necessary, it then makes a course correction to
aircraft (without the rocket booster). guide the missile to the target.
It was introduced in the fleet on ships and sub- The antiship version has a modified Harpoon
marines in 1977 and on the P-3 series aircraft in cruise missile guidance system. This system
1979. The Harpoon is being improved to add range permits the launching and flying of the Tomahawk
and to decrease altitude in its sea-skimming mode. in the general direction of an enemy ship at low
The Harpoon was used effectively in attacks on altitudes. At a programmed distance, the missile
Libyan targets in the Gulf of Sidra in 1986. The begins an active radar search to seek, acquire, and
Navy is now developing a new infrared Harpoon hit the target ship.
variant called the Standoff Land Attack missile Tomahawk is a highly survivable weapon
(SLAM). against predicted hostile defense systems. Radar
Characteristics of the Harpoon: detection of the Tomahawk is difficult because the
missile has a very small cross section and can fly
Length: 15 feet (surface/submarine- at extremely low altitudes. Similarly, infrared
launched); 12 feet, 7 inches (air- detection is difficult because the turbofan engine
launched) emits a low level of heat.
Characteristics of the Tomahawk:
Diameter: 14 inches
Length: 20 feet, 6 inches (with booster)
Wing span: 3 feet (with booster fins and wings)
Diameter: 20.4 inches
TOMAHAWK
Wing span: 8 feet, 9 inches
The Tomahawk (fig. 20-4) is an all-weather
submarine/surface-combatant-launched, long- Weight: 3,200 pounds (with booster)
range, subsonic, antiship or land-attack cruise
missile. It can be conventionally armed for Speed: About 550 miles per hour
antisurface warfare and conventionally and
nuclear armed for land-attack versions. After Range: Land-attack, nuclear warhead
launch, a solid-propellant rocket booster propels —1,350 nautical miles Land-
the missile until a small turbofan engine takes attack, conventional war-
over for the cruise portion of the flight. head— 600 nautical miles
The land-attack version of the Tomahawk has Antiship configuration-250
an inertial and terrain contour-matching nautical miles

134.54
Figure 20-4.-The first fully guided Tomahawk cruise missile in flight after being launched from
an A-6 Intruder aircraft.

20-6
 SUBMARINE-LAUNCHED MISSILES TRIDENT II (D-5)

The Trident II (D-5) (fig. 20-5) is the sixth-

Fleet ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) generation member of the U.S. Navy’s Fleet
carry the missiles the United States uses to ensure Ballistic Missile Program that started in 1956.
it has a second-strike capability in case of nuclear Since then, the Polaris (A-1, A-2, and A-3),
war. As discussed in chapter 11, SSBNs makeup Poseidon (C-3), and Trident I (C-4) have served as
one leg of the TRIAD. These submarines carry the a significant deterrent to nuclear aggression.
Trident (C-4 and D-5) missiles. Some of the older The Trident II is a three-stage, solid-propellant,
submarines carry the Poseidon (C-3) missiles. inertially guided ballistic missile with a range of
Submarines are also capable of launching the more than 4,000 nautical miles (4,600 statute
Harpoon and Tomahawk cruise missiles discussed miles). A considerable increase in payload . . was
previously in this chapter. incorporated into the Trident II. This was

134.55
Figure 20-5.—Trident 11 (D-5) missile.

20-7
done by encasement of the first two stages in epoxied TRIDENT I (C-4)
graphite and the third stage in the filament-wound
Kevlar. The range of the missile was also increased The Trident I (C-4), first deployed in 1979,
by the aerospike, a telescoping outward extension will remain on patrol until phased out in the late
that reduces frontal drag by about 50 percent. The 1990s. This missile was designed to have the same
new Trident and Ohio classes of submarines carry 24 dimensions as the Poseidon (C-3) missile. This
Trident II missiles that can be launched under water enabled the existing Poseidon submarines as well as
or on the surface. the newer Trident submarines to use the Trident I.
Upon firing, the Trident II is ejected by the Trident I has a range almost double that of the
pressure of expanding gas within the launch tube. Poseidon. It uses a three-stage, solid-fuel rocket
When the missile reaches the proper distance from instead of the two-stage, solid-fuel rocket used by the
the submarine, the first-stage motor ignites, the Poseidon.
aerospike extends, and the boost stage begins. After Characteristics of the Trident I:
about 65 seconds the first-stage motor and interstage
separate from the missile. This allows the second- Length: 34 feet
stage motor to ignite and continue the boost phase for
approximately 65 seconds. With separation, the third Diameter: 74 inches
stage burns for nearly 40 seconds, concluding the
boost phase. At this point the missile is traveling Weight: 73,000 pounds
more than 20,000 feet per second (13,600 mph). The
post-boost control system provides thrust and control Range: 4,000 nautical miles
to the equipment sec-t ion until all reentry bodies
have been deployed. POSEIDON (C-3)
Characteristics of the Trident II:
The Poseidon (C-3) missile, though being
Length: 44 feet phased out, is still in active use in the Navy. The
Poseidon was the fourth missile in the Navy’s Fleet
Diameter: 83 inches Ballistic Missile Program. The physical dimensions of
the Poseidon are identical to the Trident 1. The key
Weight: 130,000 pounds differences are in weight, range, propulsion, and
warhead, all of which were improved in the Trident I
Range: Over 4,000 nautical miles missile.

3.111
Figure 20-6.—An F/A-18 Hornet With Sidewinders missiles.

20-8
 Characteristics of the Poseidon: Sidewinder

Length: 34 feet The Sidewinder air-to-air missile (fig. 20-6) is a

short-range, dogfight missile used by all Navy
Diameter: 74 inches fighters and attack aircraft against hostile
aircraft.
Weight: 65,000 pounds The Sidewinder is one of the oldest, least
expensive, and most successful missiles in the
Range: 2,500 nautical miles entire U.S. weapons inventory. The prototype of
this heat-seeking missile was fired more than 30
AIRBORNE WEAPONS years ago; since then various versions of it have
been produced for more than 27 nations. The
In today’s high-performance aircraft, the trend is latest version has a significantly improved
toward versatility by means of rockets; bombs; missiles; infrared countermeasure capability.
and, in some aircraft, guns. The Navy’s Research and Characteristics of the Sidewinder:
Development team is constantly seeking ways to
improve existing airborne weapons while working Length: 9 feet, 5 inches
simultaneously on new weapons. This section briefly
describes some of the existing airborne weapons. Diameter: 5 inches

AIR-TO-AIR MISSILES Wing span: 2 feet, 1 inch

The Navy uses four air-to-air missiles. These Weight: 195 pounds
missiles include the Sparrow, Sidewinder,
Phoenix, and AMRAAM. Speed: More than 1,900 miles per hour

Sparrow Range: More than 3.5 nautical miles

Although earlier described as a surface-to-air Phoenix

missile, the Sparrow missile is also used as an air-to-
air missile. In this role, it provides Navy fighter The Phoenix missile (fig. 20-7) is an all-
aircraft with air superiority in a hostile environment. weather air-to-air missile designed to destroy

134.56
Figure 20-7.—Two AIM-54A Phoenix missiles mounted on the undercarriage of an F-14A Tomcat aircraft.

20-9
multiple hostile air targets at great range. The AMRAAM
Phoenix missile was introduced into the fleet
with the F-14A aircraft and AN/AWG-9 weapons The advanced medium-range air-to-air missile
control system in 1974. The AN/AWG-9 system is (AMRAAM) (fig. 20-8) is an all-weather, radar-
capable of long-range tracking of multiple guided, beyond-visual-range missile. It is designed to
hostile air targets. It can launch up to six provide launch-and-leave capability as well as
missiles against six targets simultaneously. In multiple-target engagement capability. The
addition to the great range of the Phoenix AMRAAM missile, a follow-on to the Sparrow missile,
missile, it has excellent intercept capability is used by F-14 and F/A-18 aircraft. It is faster,
against high-speed maneuvering targets at both smaller, lighter, and better able to attack at a lower
high and low altitudes. altitude than the Sparrow. With AMRAAM, the pilot
Characteristics of the Phoenix: can aim and fire several missiles at multiple targets
simultaneously.
Length: 13 feet Characteristics of AMRAAM:

Diameter: 15 inches Length: 12 feet

Wing span: 3 feet Diameter: 7 inches

Weight: 1,024 pounds Wing span: 13 inches

Speed: More than 3,040 miles per Weight: 335 pounds

hour
Speed: More than 760 miles per hour
Range: More than 104 nautical
miles Range: More than 35 nautical miles

134.57
Figure 20-8.—An AIM-120A advanced medium-range air-to-air missile (AMRAAM) being readied for
loading on an F/A-18A Hornet aircraft.

20-10
AIR-TO-GROUND MISSILES minute in the GUNHI position and 4,000 rounds
per minute in the GUNLOW position. The AV-8B
The Navy is currently developing two new air- Harrier uses a similar 25-mm gun.
to-ground missiles, the Tacit Rainbow missile, and
the IR Maverick missile. However, these missiles
are not yet operational. Air-to-ground missiles in Aircraft Rockets and Bombs
current inventory include the Harpoon and Harm
missiles. The Navy is currently developing new rockets
and bombs to meet today’s operational re-
Harpoon quirements. The new advanced rocket system
will provide a high volume of air-to-ground
The Harpoon missile discussed previously in fire from standoff ranges against a broad
this chapter under surface-to-surface missiles can target spectrum. The new advanced bomb family
also be used as an air-to-ground missile. Many (ABF) will provide two bombs to meet the
naval aircraft are capable of carrying the general-purpose bombing requirements for
Harpoon. increased blast, fragmentation, and penetra-
tion effects. The ABF will replace the Mk
Harm 80-series bomb with a 500-pound-class bomb
optimized for blast fragmentation and a 1,000-
The Harm missile was designed to destroy or pound-class bomb with improved penetration
suppress enemy electronic emitters. It was capabilities.
designed especially to suppress those associated
with radar sites used to direct antiaircraft guns
and surface-to-air missiles. Harm is a high-speed
antiradiation missile that succeeds the Shrike and ANTISUBMARINE WARFARE
Arm missiles as the Navy’s primary defense- WEAPONS
suppression air-to-surface missile. The Harm
missile proved effective against Libyan targets in The Navy’s primary operational weapons
the Gulf of Sidra in 1986. are (1) antisubmarine rockets (ASROCs), (2)
Characteristics of Harm: submarine rockets (SUBROCs), and (3) tor-
pedoes.
Length: 13 feet, 8 inches

Diameter: 10 inches ASROC

Wing span: 3 feet, 8 inches The ASROC missile is a subsonic, shipboard-

launched, solid-fuel, rocket-propelled, anti-
Weight: 807 pounds submarine ballistic projectile. The missile has two
configurations-one with a depth charge and one
Speed: More than 760 miles per hour with a torpedo.

Range: More than 50 nautical miles The purpose of the ASROC is the destruction
of submarines at long ranges. To achieve this, it
OTHER AIRBORNE WEAPONS delivers a torpedo or nuclear depth charge through
the air to a specific point in the water. From
Other airborne weapons used by naval aircraft that point, it can either attack under the most
include 20-mm guns, rockets, and bombs. favorable circumstances or have the submarine
within its lethal radius. Because of its stand-
20-mm Guns off range, the ASROC enables the antisub-
marine warfare (ASW) ship to launch its weapons
The only 20-mm gun now used by operational before the submarine discovers it is under
fleet aircraft is the internally mounted, six-barrel, attack.
M61A1 20-mm gun. It has an electrically
controlled and hydraulically operated ammunition ASROC launchers are installed in FFs, DDs,
drum. The gun fires at a rate of 6,000 rounds per DDGs, and CGs. On most ships, the launcher is

20-11
a boxlike device containing eight cells, as shown in depth, where the warhead explodes. The target may
figure 20-9, each containing a missile. be a surface ship as well as a submarine. The
SUBROC system can fire missiles in rapid succes-
SUBROC sion, an important defense against enemy tactics.
SUBROC systems are installed in the Permit,
The SUBROC, an antisubmarine rocket with Sturgeon, and Los Angeles classes of attack
a nuclear warhead, is launched from a submarine submarines (SSNs).
torpedo tube by conventional methods. After
clearing the submarine, a rocket motor ignites and TORPEDOES
propels the weapon upward and out of the water.
An inertial guidance system then directs the A torpedo can be launched from submarines,
SUBROC toward its target. At a predetermined surface ships, or aircraft. The two primary torpedoes
range, the motor and depth bomb separate, the in the Navy inventory are the Mk 46 and the Mk 48.
latter continuing toward the target area. Upon A new Mk 48 advanced capability (ADCAP) and Mk
reentry into the water, the bomb sinks to a preset 50 torpedo are being phased into the fleet.

Mk 46

The Mk 46 torpedo is a lightweight ASW

torpedo designed to attack high-performance
submarines. The Mk 46 torpedo is presently
identified as the NATO standard torpedo. Since
introduction of the Mk 46 in 1967, navies of several
other countries have acquired it. The Mk 46 torpedo
is designed to be launched from surface combatant
torpedo tubes, ASROC missiles, and fixed- and
rotary-wing aircraft.

Mk 48 and Mk 48 Advanced
Capability (ADCAP)

The Mk 48 torpedo is carried by all Navy

attack and ballistic missile submarines. The improved
version—the Mk 48 ADCAP—is carried by the SSN
688 and SSN 637 classes of attack submarines. The
Mk 48 ADCAP will also be used by the Seawolf-class
attack submarines and Ohio-class ballistic missile
submarines.
These torpedoes enable U.S. submarines to
sink hostile surface ships or submarines in the
presence or absence of torpedo countermeasures.
The design of both of these weapons enables them
to combat fast, deep-diving nuclear submarines
and high-performance surface ships. Both
torpedoes can operate with or without wire
guidance and use active and/or passive homing.
When launched they execute preprogrammed
target-search, acquisition, and attack procedures.
Both will conduct multiple reattacks in the
unlikely event they miss the target.
The Mk 48 has been operational in the U.S.
Navy since 1972. The Mk 48 ADCAP became
operational in 1988 and was approved for full
production in 1989. The ADCAP has significantly
15.106 increased capabilities over the Mk 48. These
capabilities allow its employment against the most
Figure 20-9.—The ASROC cellular launcher. advanced Soviet submarines.

20-12
 Characteristics of the Mk 48 and the Mk 48 fuze, firing set, radar, and power supply, maybe
ADCAP: required to makeup the complete nuclear weapon.
Because of the radioactive mushroom-type
Length: 19 feet cloud resulting from a nuclear bomb, the deploy-
ing aircraft crew must be protected once a bomb
Diameter: 21 inches is dropped. A safe separation time is provided
by two methods. One is the use of a timing
Weight: 3,434 pounds (Mk 48) 3,695 mechanism inserted in the bomb to delay
pounds (ADCAP)
detonation. The second is the use of a parachute
More than 28 knots to slow the bomb (retarded free-fall bomb). Either
Speed:
method allows the aircraft to reach a point of
Range: More than 5 nautical miles safety before weapon detonation.

Depth: More than 1,200 feet

AEGIS WEAPONS SYSTEM
Mk 50 Torpedo
Any discussion of the Navy’s weapons systems
The Mk 50 torpedo is an advanced, light- would not be complete without a look at the
weight torpedo for use against the faster, deeper- shipboard integrated AAW combat weapons
diving, and more sophisticated submarines being system (Aegis). For more than 40 years, the U.S.
developed and operated by the Soviet Union. The Navy has developed systems and tactics to protect
Mk 50 can be launched from all ASW aircraft and itself from air attacks. Since the end of World
from torpedo tubes aboard surface combatant War II, several generations of antiship missiles
ships. The Mk 50 uses an active/passive acoustic have emerged as an air threat to the fleet. The first
homing guidance system. The Mk 50 is being combatant ship sunk by one of these missiles was
phased in to replace the Mk 46 torpedo as the an Israeli destroyer, hit by a Soviet-built missile
fleet’s lightweight torpedo. in October 1967. The threat posed by such
Characteristics of the Mk 50: weapons was reconfirmed as recently as April
1988. At that time two Iranian surface combatants
Length: 9 feet, 4 inches
fired on U.S. Navy ships and aircraft in the
Diameter: 12.75 inches Persian Gulf. The resulting exchange of antiship
missiles led to the destruction of an Iranian frigate
Weight: 750 pounds and corvette by U.S.-built Harpoon missiles.
Modern antiship missiles can be launched several
Speed: More than 40 knots hundred miles away. Air, surface, and subsurface
launches can be coordinated so that the missiles
arrive on target almost simultaneously. Some
NUCLEAR WEAPONS cruise missiles have both nuclear and conventional
variants.
The United States has pursued a policy of The U.S. Navy’s defense against this threat
making the fewest number of nuclear weapons has continued to rely on the winning strategy of
cover as wide a range of military applications as defense in depth. Guns were replaced in the late
possible. This capability is achieved by planned fifties by the first generation of guided missiles
interchangeability. Nuclear warheads can be in our ships and aircraft. These missiles continued
employed with rockets, torpedoes, missiles, and to perform well until the late sixties. By that time,
depth bombs by use of adaptational kits. Several we realized our reaction time, firepower, and
Navy weapons (ASROC, for instance) have both operational availability in all environments did not
conventional and nuclear capability. match the threat. The Navy then started a com-
The primary air-launched nuclear weapon is, prehensive engineering development program to
of course, the nuclear bomb, of which little can meet an operational requirement for an advanced
be said regarding specific characteristics. Major surface missile system (ASMS). ASMS was
operational components and nuclear components renamed the Aegis weapons system (after the
contained in a basic assembly are considered part mythological shield of Zeus) in December 1969.
of the bomb. A complete stockpiled weapon, Based on the latest technology—particularly
however, may consist of more than one package. in digital computers and radar-signal process-
The reason is additional assemblies, such as the ing—the Aegis weapons system was designed as

20-13
 a total weapons system, from detection to kill. “Ticonderoga provided to the Eastern
The heart of the system is an advanced, automatic Mediterranean Task Force an impressive new
detect-and-track, multifunction phased-array tactical dimension which included 100 percent
radar-the AN/SPY-1. This high-power (4 mega- weapon system availability and a coherent air
watt) radar can perform search, track, and missile- picture allowing the antiair warfare coordinator
guidance functions simultaneously with a track (AAWC) (embarked in Ticonderoga) to manage,
capacity of well over 100 targets. After several rather than react to a difficult situation.”
years of development and land-based testing, the Since 1983 additional Aegis cruisers have
first Engineering Development Model (EDM-1) joined USS Ticonderoga in the fleet. The 27th and
was installed in the test ship, USS Norton Sound final CG-47-class cruiser will be commissioned in
(AVM 1) in 1973. Within weeks the Aegis 1994.
weapons system had successfully engaged the most The commissioning of USS Bunker Hill
difficult targets possible in extremely demanding (CG-52) opened a new era in surface warfare as
antiair warfare scenarios intended to stress it to the first Aegis ship outfitted with the vertical
its limit. launching system (VLS). This system allowed
The Aegis weapons system is the most capable greater missile selection, firepower, and
surface-launched missile system the Navy has ever survivability. The improved SPY-1B radar went
put to sea. It can defeat an extremely wide range to sea in USS Princeton (CG-59), ushering in
of targets from wave top to directly overhead. It another advance in Aegis capabilities.
is extremely capable against antiship cruise In 1980 the preliminary plans for a smaller
missiles and manned aircraft flying in all speed ship with Aegis capabilities were studied. Because
ranges from subsonic to supersonic. The Aegis is of advanced technology, we can now build an
effective in all environmental conditions. It has Aegis weapons system compatible with a smaller
both all-weather capability and outstanding ship while maintaining the multimission capability
abilities in chaff and jamming environments. vital to modern surface forces. As a result, a
The computer-based command-decision ele- contract was awarded in 1985 for construction of
ment is the core of the Aegis weapons system. It the first DDG-51-class ship.
is this interface that makes the Aegis capable of The lead ship of the DDG-51 class bears the
simultaneous operations against a multimission name of a living person—the legendary Admiral
threat: antiair, antisurface, and antisubmarine Arleigh “31-knot” Burke. He was the most famous
warfare. This combat system can also be used for destroyerman of World War II. Admiral Burke
overall force coordination. has attended each design phase of the DDG-51
The Aegis weapons system brings a revolu- and observed its keel laying in Bath, Maine.
tionary multimission combat capability to the The DDG-51s will be built in cycles, which
U.S. Navy. Aegis-equipped ships are capable of allows incorporation of technological advances
engaging and defeating enemy aircraft, missiles, during construction. This allows for “forward-
submarines, and surface ships. Aegis-equipped fitting” technology rather than very expensive
ships are key elements in modern carrier and “back-fitting” technology during scheduled
battleship battle groups. overhauls. In other words, this allows for
Several shipboard applications were studied advanced planning to prevent costly changes after
before the design of the first Aegis ships was the completion of the ship. CG-47-class cruisers
chosen. The design chosen was based on the are also constructed by this method.
hull and machinery designs of Spruance-class The surface Navy’s Aegis ships provide area
destroyers. Originally identified as a guided- defense for the battle group as well as a clear air
missile destroyer (DDG-47), the class was redesig- picture for more effective deployment of F-14 and
nated a guided-missile cruiser. The first ship of the F/A-18 aircraft. At present, the Aegis weapons
class, USS Ticonderoga (CG-47), was christened system enables fighter aircraft to concentrate more
by Mrs. Nancy Reagan on Armed Forces Day on the outer air battle while cruisers and
1981 and commissioned on 23 January 1983. destroyers concentrate on battle group area
USS Ticonderoga deployed to the Mediter- defense. Technological advances in missile and
ranean with the USS Independence battle group computer battle management systems will soon
in October 1983. It supplied outstanding air permit Aegis-equipped ships to join carrier air
defense coverage to our ships off the coast of assets in outer air defense. The highly accurate
Lebanon. Commenting on the ship’s perfor- firing of Aegis will result in a decrease of asset
mance, the Chief of Naval Operations said, expenditures.

20-14
 As long as our Navy must steam “in harm’s Many weapons are capable of being used by
way” to carry out its assigned missions, it will different types of ships and aircraft. This practice
require a formidable antiair warfare capability. is also cost effective. During periods of budget
The Aegis weapons system gives surface AAW reductions, this policy just makes good sense.
forces a decided edge against the sophisticated One fact about our weapons and weapons
modern air threat. Planned upgrades to standard systems, however, will always remain constant—
missiles and evolving improvements to the Aegis the Navy will always use every resource available
weapons system promise the fleet an extremely to meet any threat.
capable AAW system well into the 21st century.

REFERENCES
SUMMARY
To meet present and future threats, the Navy Naval Science for the Merchant Marine Officer,
develops new weapons systems and improves NAVEDTRA 38051, Naval Education and
existing systems. It often develops new weapons Training Program Management Support
with physical characteristics similar to their Activity, Pensacola, Fla., 1986.
predecessors to preclude designing a new system.
This practice has the advantage of being both cost Navy Fact File, 9th ed., Office of Information,
effective and time saving. Washington, D.C., 1989.

DEVIL TO PAY

T0DAY THE EXPRESSION “DEVIL TO PAY” IS USED PRIMARILY AS A MEANS OF

CONVEYING AN UNPLEASANT AND IMPENDING HAPPENING. ORIGINALLY, THIS EX-
PRESSION DENOTED THE SPECIFIC TASK ABOARD SHIP OF CAULK THE THE SHIP'S
LONGEST SEAM.
THE “DEVIL” WAS THE LONGEST SEAM ON THE WOODEN SHIP, AND CAULKING
WAS DONE WITH “PAY” OR PITCH. THIS GRUELING TASK OF PAYING THE DEVIL
WAS DESPISED BY EVERY SEAMAN, AND THE EXPRESSION CAME TO DENOTE ANY
UNPLEASANT TASK.

20-15
 APPENDIX I

GLOSSARY
Upon entering a new occupation, a person AGROUND —When any part of a ship or
usually is faced with a need to learn the boat is resting on the bottom. A ship runs aground
vocabulary of the trade to understand and be or goes aground.
understood by his or her co-workers. The Navy,
especially, has a language all its own. AHOY —A hail or demand for attention, as
This glossary is printed for your convenience. “Boat a h o y . ”
You may notice the absence of some common
Navy terms, as the glossary is not intended to be ALEE —In the direction toward which the
all-inclusive. wind is blowing; downwind.
Naval Weapons Publication 3 (Revision E),
Naval Terminology, is an excellent source of ALIVE —Lively, energetic.
information for the definitions of naval terms and
acronyms. ALL FAST —Tied or lashed down as
necessary.
AA —Abbreviation for antiaircraft.
ALL HANDS —The entire ship’s company.
ABAFT —Farther aft, as “Abaft the beam.”
ALOFT —Generally speaking, any area above
the highest deck.
ABEAM —On a relative bearing of 90 degrees
(abeam to starboard) or 270 degrees (abeam to ALONGSIDE —By the side of the pier or ship.
port).
AMIDSHIPS —An indefinite area midway
ABOARD —In or on a ship. Extended to use between the bow and the stern. Rudder amidships
ashore, as aboard a naval station. means that the rudder is in line with the ship’s
centerline.
ABREAST —Same as abeam.
ANCHOR —(1) Any device used to make a
ACCOMMODATION LADDER —A ladder floating body fast to the bottom. (2) The act of
suspended over and inclining down the side of a so making fast. (3) The act of securing or fixing
ship to enable people to board the ship from the lower end of a guy or stay or the lower end
boats. of a shore.

ADRIFT —Loose from moorings and out of ANCHORAGE —An area designated to be
control. Applied to anything that is lost, out of used by ships for anchoring.
hand, or left lying about.
ANCHOR BALL —A black circular shape
AFT —Toward the stern. Not as specific as hoisted to indicate that the ship is anchored.
abaft.
ANCHOR BUOY —A small float secured to
AFTER —That which is farthest aft, as after the anchor by a light line to mark the position of
fireroom. the anchor.

AFTERNOON WATCH —The 1200 to 1600 ANCHOR CABLE —The line, wire, or chain
watch. that attaches a vessel to its anchor.

AI-1
 ANCHOR WATCH —A group of persons BARNACLES —Small shellfish that are found
available to the OOD during the night for such attached to bottoms of vessels, pilings, and other
duties as heaving in or paying out the cable. submerged structures.

ANNUNCIATOR —A device, usually elec- BATTEN —(1) A long strip of steel wedged
tromechanical, used to indicate or transmit against the edges of tarpaulins on a hatch to make
information. See Engine Order Telegraph. the hatch watertight. (2) Removable wood or steel
members used in a ship’s holds to keep cargo from
ARMAMENT —The weapons of a ship. shifting.

ARMORED DECK —A deck, below the main BATTEN DOWN —The act of applying
deck, that provides added protection to vital battens to a hatch. Extended to mean the closing
spaces. of any watertight fixture.

ASTERN —Directly behind a ship. BATTLE LANTERN —A battery-powered

lantern for emergency use.
ATHWART —Across; at right angles to.
BEAM —(1) The extreme breadth of a vessel.
AUXILIARY —(1) Extra, or secondary, as (2) A transverse frame supporting a deck.
auxiliary engine. (2) A vessel whose mission is to
BEAR —The act of locating a particular point,
supply or support the combatant forces.
or bearing, as “The lighthouse bears 0 4 5
degrees.”
AVAST —Stop, as “Avast heaving.”
BEAR A HAND —(1) Provide assistance, as
AYE AYE —Reply to a command or order,
“Bear a hand with rigging this stage.” (2) Ex-
meaning “I understand and will obey.”
pedite, as in “Bear a hand with readiness for sea
reports.”
BACK —(1) Togo backwards. (2) Act of the
wind in changing direction counterclockwise. BEARING —The direction of an object from
an observer, measured in degrees clockwise from
BACKSTAY —Piece of standing rigging a reference point. True bearing is the angular
leading aft. difference between lines drawn from the observer
to true north and to the object; magnetic bearing
BAIL —(1) To rid a boat of water by dipping is the direction of the object measured on a
it out. (2) A rigid member affording support at magnetic compass; relative bearing is the angle
two end points, as the bail (handle) of a bucket between the ship’s head and the object.
or the support for an accommodation ladder.
BECKET —(1) An eye for securing one end of
BALLAST —Weight (solid or liquid) loaded a line to a block. (2) A rope eye on a cargo net,
into a ship to increase stability. (3) Shortened form of becket bend.

BAR —A long, narrow shoal across a harbor BECKET BEND —A knot used to tie two lines
entrance. together.

BARBETTE —A heavily armored cylinder BELAY —(1) To secure a line to a fixed point,
extended downward from a gun turret to the (2) Order to disregard a previous order or to stop
lowest armored deck to provide protection to the an action, as “Belay the last order,” or “Belay
turret below the gunhouse and the projectile- and the small talk.”
powder-handling crews.
BELOW —Downward, beneath, or beyond
BARGE —(1) A blunt-ended, flat-bottomed, something, as to lay below; below the flight deck;
waterborne craft, usually non-self-propelled, below the horizon.
used to haul supplies or garbage. (2) A type of
motorboat assigned for the personal use of a flag BEND —To join two lines together; the type
officer. of knot so used.

AI-2
 BERTH —(1) Bunk. (2) Duty assignment. BOATSWAIN’S LOCKER —A compartment,
(3) Mooring space assigned to a ship. usually forward, where line and other equipment
used by the deck force are stowed.
BIGHT —The middle part of a line, or a loop
in a line. BOLLARD —A strong, cylindrical upright
fixture on a pier to which a ship’s mooring lines
BILGE —(1) Bottom of the hull near the keel. are secured.
(2) To fail an examination. (3) Bilge water is foul
water, so to apply that term to something implies BOOM —A spar used for hoisting loads;
it is worthless. usually movable.

BILGE KEEL — A keel attached to the outside BOOT TOPPING —Black paint applied to a
of a ship’s hull, near the turn of the bilge, to ship’s sides along the waterline.
reduce rolling.
BOW —The forward end of a ship or boat.
BILLET —Place or duty to which one is
BOW HOOK —Member of a boat’s crew
assigned.
whose station is forward.
BINNACLE —Stand containing a magnetic BREAK OFF —To walk away with a line or
compass. run a line in, let go, return to the point from which
the line is being hauled, take a new hold, and walk
BINNACLE LIST —List of persons excused
away again.
from duty because of illness.
BREAK OUT —To bring out supplies or
BITT —Cylindrical upright fixture to which equipment from a storage space.
mooring or towing lines are secured aboard ship.
BREAST LINE —Mooring line leading from
BITTER END —The free end of a line. the ship to the pier at right angles to the ship.

BLOCK —A frame containing a pulley, called BRIDGE —Area in the superstructure from
a sheave, around which a line (known as a fall) which a ship is operated. See Conn.
is attached.
BRIDLE —A span of rope, chain, or wire with
BLOCK AND TACKLE —See Purchase. both ends secured and the strain taken on the
midpart.
BOARD —(1) The act of going aboard a
vessel. (2) A group of persons meeting for a BRIG —Naval term for jail.
specific purpose, as an investigation board.
BROACH TO —To get crosswise (without
BOAT —A small craft capable of being power) to the direction of wave travel; particularly
dangerous near a beach.
carried aboard a ship.
BROAD —Wide, as broad in the beam.
BOAT BOOM —A spar rigged out from the
side of an anchored or moored ship to which boats BROAD ON THE BOW —Halfway between
are tied when not in use. dead ahead and abeam.

BOAT FALLS —Tackle used to hoist and BROAD ON THE QUARTER —Halfway
lower a boat in davits. between abeam and astern.

BOATHOOK —A staff having a hook at one BROADSIDE —(1) The act of firing all main
end. Used for fending a boat off, hooking a line, battery guns to one side at once. (2) Sidewise, as
etc. “The current carried the ship broadside toward
the beach.” Broadside to is to have the side
BOATSWAIN’S CHAIR —A seat attached to toward something, as “The ship hit the pier
a gantline for hoisting a person aloft. broadside to.”

AI-3
 BROW —Navy term for gangplank. Used as CHAFING GEAR —Material used to protect
a crosswalk from one ship to another and from lines from excessive wear.
a ship to a pier.
CHAIN LOCKER —Space where anchor
BULKHEAD —A vertical partition in a ship; chain is stowed.
never called a wall.
CHAIN MARKINGS —A series of turns of
BULKHEADING —Complaining or grumbling wire and stripes of paint on certain links of each
with the intention of being overheard by seniors. anchor chain. They show the scope or amount of
chain that has run out.
BULLNOSE —A closed chock at the bow.
CHAINS —Area (a platform on large ships)
BULWARK —Solid barrier along the edges of where the leadsman stands when taking soundings
the weather deck that serves as a protection with the hand lead.
against bad weather.
CHART —Nautical counterpart of a road
BUOY —An anchored float used as an aid to map, showing land configuration, water depths,
navigation or to mark the location of an object. and aids to navigation.

CABIN —Living compartment of a ship’s CHECK —(1) To slow or ease. (2) To pay out
commanding officer. just enough line to prevent its parting when under
a strain, as to check a line. (3) To investigate or
CABLE —A line, wire, or chain that connects examine something.
a ship to its anchor.
CHEEK —One of the sides of a block.
CAISSON —Gate at the end of a dry dock that
keeps out the water. CHOCK —Deck fitting through which mooring
lines are led.
CALL —(1) The boatswain’s pipe. (2) A signal
sounded on the boatswain’s pipe. CHOW —Food.
CAMEL —Large timber or rectangular struc-
CHRONOMETER —An accurate clock used
ture used as a fender between a ship and the pier.
in navigation.
CAN BUOY —A navigational buoy, cylindrical
CHURCH PENNANT —A blue and white
in shape, that marks the port side of a channel
pennant flown above the ensign during church
from seaward; odd-numbered and painted green.
services on board a Navy ship.
CANOPY —A cover fitted over part of a boat.
CLAMP DOWN —To sprinkle the deck with
CAPSTAN —That part of a vertical shaft water and dry it with a swab.
windlass around which a working line is passed;
used for heaving in anchors and hawsers. CLEAT —A metal casting with two projecting
arms to which a line is belayed.
CARRICK BEND —A knot used for joining
two lines. The single carrick bend is seldom used COAMING —Bulwark around a hatch opening.
because it jams tight; instead, a double carrick
bend is used, particularly for bending towing COFFERDAM —A void between compartments
hawsers together. or tanks of a ship for purposes of insulation.

CARRY AWAY —To break loose, as “The COIL —To lay down a line in circular turns
rough seas carried away the lifelines.” piled loosely on top of one another.

CAULK —The act of stuffing the seams COLLISION BULKHEAD —A bulkhead,

between wooden planking with oakum for water- stronger than normal, located forward to control
tightness. flooding in the event of a head-on collision.

AI-4
 COLORS —(1) The Rational ensign. (2) The DEEP SIX —To throw something overboard.
ceremony of raising and lowering the ensign.
DIP —The act of lowering a flag partway
COMBATANT SHIP —A ship whose primary down the staff as a salute to, or in reply to a salute
mission is combat. from, another ship.

COMMISSION PENNANT —A long, narrow DISTANCE LINE —A line stretched between

pennant with stars and stripes; flown only aboard two ships engaged in replenishment or transfer
a commissioned ship. operations under way. The line is marked at
20-foot intervals to aid the conning officer in
COMPANIONWAY —Deck opening giving maintaining station.
access to a ladder (includes the ladder).
DIVISION —(1) A main subdivision of a
COMPARTMENT —Interior space (room) in ship’s crew (1st, E, G, etc.). (2) An organization
a ship. composed of two or more ships of the same type.

COMPLETE DECK —Any deck that extends DOCK —Commonly refers to any pier or
the length of a ship from side to side. wharf; but, strictly speaking, it refers only to the
space alongside a pier or in dry dock.
CONN —Station, usually on the bridge, from
which a ship is controlled; the act of controlling DOG —(1) A lever or a bolt and thumbscrews
the ship’s movements. used for securing a watertight door. (2) The act
of dividing a 4-hour watch into 2-hour watches.
COURSE —A ship’s desired direction of
travel, not to be confused with heading, which DOG DOWN —To set the dogs on a water-
is the direction in which the bow is pointed at any
tight door.
given instant.
DOG WATCH —The 1600 to 1800 and 1800
COVER —(1) To protect. (2) A shelter.
to 2000 watches.
(3) Headgear, and the act of donning same.
DOLPHIN —(1) A cluster of piles at the end
COXSWAIN —Enlisted person in charge of
of a pier. (2) A porpoise.
a boat.

DARKEN SHIP —To turn off all external DOUBLE UP —To double mooring lines for
lights and close all openings through which lights extra strength.
could be seen from outside the ship.
DRAFT —The vertical distance from the keel
DAVITS —A crane or mechanical arms that to the waterline.
project over the side of a ship and are used to
lower or hoist a boat in or out of the water. DRAFT MARKS —The figures fastened to the
stem and stern, the lower edges of which indicate
DEAD AHEAD —Directly ahead; a relative the draft of the ship.
bearing of 000 degrees. Dead astern is 180 degrees
relative. DRIFT —The speed at which a ship is pushed
off course by wind and current.
DEAD IN THE WATER —Said of a ship that
has stopped and has no way on, or no movement DROGUE —See Sea Anchor.
through the water.
DRY DOCK —A dock from which the water
DECK —Horizontal planking or plating that may be removed for the purpose of inspecting or
divides a ship into layers. working on a ship’s bottom; it may be either
floating or built into the shore.
DECK SEAMANSHIP —The upkeep and
operation of all deck equipment. EASE —To relax, to slack.

AI-5
 EASE HER —Reduce the amount of rudder FLAG OFFICER —An officer of the rank of
the ship is carrying. commodore or higher.

EBB, EBB TIDE, ON THE EBB —A falling FLAGSTAFF —Vertical staff at the stern to
tide. which the ensign is hoisted when moored or at
anchor.
EIGHT O’CLOCK REPORTS —Reports
received shortly before 2000 by the executive FLAT —Partial deck (often a grating) to
officer from the heads of departments. provide walking and working surfaces; used
extensively in engineering spaces.
ENGINE-ORDER TELEGRAPH —Electro-
mechanical device that transmits orders to the FLEET —An organization of ships, aircraft,
engine room concerning the speed of the engines. Marine forces, and shore-based fleet activities,
all under one commander, for the purpose of
ENSIGN —(1) The national flag. (2) The conducting major operations.
lowest grade of commissioned officer.
FLOOD —(1) To fill a space with water.
EYES —The most forward part of the (2) A rising tide.
forecastle.
FOGY —(Pronounced fo-gee.) A longevity
FAIRLEAD —A device, usually a block, for pay increase.
leading a line around a corner.

FAIRWAY —Thoroughfare for a ship. FORE —Forward.

FALL —A line, wire, or chain rove on a FORE AND AFT —The entire length of a
purchase. ship, as in “Sweep down fore and aft.”

FANTAIL —The after end of the main deck. FORECASTLE —(Pronounced fok-sul.)
Forward section of the main deck, generally
FATHOM —Unit of measurement equal to a extending from the stem aft to just abaft the
depth of 6 feet. anchor windlass.

FENDER —A cushioning device hung over the FOREMAST —First mast aft from the bow.
side of a ship to prevent contact between the ship
and the pier or another ship. FORENOON WATCH —The 0800 to 1200
watch.
FID —A long, tapered, wooden tool used to
open the strands of a line for splicing.
FORESTAY —A stay leading forward.
FIELD DAY —A day devoted to general
FOUL —(1) Entangled, as “The lines are foul
cleaning, usually in preparation for an inspection.
of each other.” (2) Stormy.
FIREMAIN —Piping system to which fire
hydrants are connected. FOUNDER —To sink because of being over-
whelmed by the sea.
FIRST WATCH —The 2000 to 2400 watch.
Also called evening watch. FRAME —The athwartship strength member
of a ship’s hull.
FIRST CALL —A routine call sounded as a
warning signal for roll call formations and many FRAPPING LINES —Lines passed around
other ceremonies; also sounded 5 minutes before boat falls to steady the boat when hoisting or
morning and evening colors. lowering.

FISHHOOK —A broken end of wire protruding FREEBOARD —Vertical distance from

from a wire rope. waterline to weather deck.

AI-6
 GAFF —A light spar set at an angle from the HASH MARK —Service stripe; a red, blue, or
upper part of a mast, from which the ensign is gold diagonal stripe across the left sleeve of an
flown when a ship is under way. enlisted person’s jumper or coat; each stripe
indicates 4 years’ service.
GALLEY —Space where food is prepared.
Never called a kitchen. HATCH —A square or rectangular access in
a deck.
GANGWAY —(1) The opening in a bulwark
or lifeline to provide access to a brow or an HAUL —To pull in or heave on a line by hand.
accommodation ladder. (2) Given as an order, it
means “Clear the way.” HAUL OFF —Changing a vessel’s course to
keep clear of another vessel.
GANTLINE —Line used for hoisting and
lowering a boatswain’s chair. HAWSEPIPE —Opening through which the
anchor cable runs from the deck out through the
GENERAL ALARM —A sound signal of a side of the ship.
pulsating ringing tone used only on board ship
for calling all hands to general quarters. HAWSER —Any heavy wire or line used for
towing or mooring.
GENERAL QUARTERS —The condition of
full readiness for battle. HEAD —(1) The upper end of a lower
mast boom. (2) Compartment containing toilet
GIG —Boat assigned for the commanding facilities. (3) Ship’s bow.
officer’s personal use.
HEADING —The direction toward which the
GIRDER —A longitudinal supporting a deck.
ship is pointing at any instant.
GRANNY KNOT —A bungled square knot.
HEAVE —To throw.
GRAPNEL —A small, four-armed anchor
used to recover objects in the water. HEAVE AROUND —(1) The act of hauling
in a line, usually by means of a capstan or winch.
GRIPE —Device for securing a boat at its (2) General term for “Get to work.”
davits or in a cradle.
HEAVE IN —Take in line or cable.
GROUND TACKLE —Equipment used in
anchoring or mooring with anchors. HEAVE OUT AND TRICE UP —Announce-
ment given at reveille to persons sleeping in
GUNWALE —(Pronounced gunnel.) The upper hammocks. It meant, “Get up and lash up your
edge of the sides of a ship. hammocks.” This term now applies to ships
equipped with bunks.
GUY —A line used to steady a spar or boom.
HEAVE TO —Stopping or reducing headway
HALF DECK —A partial deck below the main
of a vessel just enough to maintain steerageway.
deck.

HALYARD —A light line used to hoist a flag HEAVING LINE —A line with a weight at
or pennant. one end that is heaved across an intervening space
for the purpose of passing over a heavier line.
HAND —A ship’s crew member.
HELM —Mechanical device used to turn the
HANDSOMELY —Slowly and carefully. rudder; usually a wheel aboard ship; a lever in
boats.
HARD OVER —Condition of a rudder that
has been turned to the maximum possible rudder HELMSMAN —Person who steers the ship by
angle. turning the helm.

AI-7
 HIGHLINE —The line stretched between the JACKSTAFF —Vertical spar at the stem to
ships under way on which a trolley block travels which the jack is hoisted.
back and forth for transfer of material and
personnel. JACKSTAY —Any horizontal line or wire for
the support of articles (such as seabags).
HITCH —(1) Used to bend a line to or around
a ring or cylindrical object. (2) Common term for JACOB’S LADDER —A portable rope or
an enlistment. wire ladder.

HOLD —Large cargo stowage space aboard JETTY —A structure built out from shore to
ship. influence water currents or to protect a harbor
or pier.
HOLDING BULKHEAD —The innermost of
a series of bulkheads that form the tanks and JUMP SHIP —The act of deserting a ship.
voids of the torpedo protection system.
JURY RIG —Any makeshift device or appara-
HOLIDAY —Space on a painted surface that tus.
the painter neglected to cover.
KAPOK —Material used to stuff life jackets
HOOK —Familiar term for the anchor. and other lifesaving apparatus.

HORN —One of the projections of a cleat. KEDGE —(1) A small anchor. (2) The act of
moving a ship by hauling it ahead by heaving in
HOUSE —The act of two-blocking (pulling up on a line to a laid-out anchor.
tight) an anchor in its hawsepipe.
KEEL —The lowermost longitudinal strength
HULL —The shell, or plating, of a ship from member from which the frames and plating rise.
keel to gunwale.
KEEL BLOCK —One of a series of blocks
HULL DOWN —Refers to a ship that is so far along a dry-dock bed; used to support the keel
over the horizon that only its superstructure or of a vessel in dry dock,
top hamper is visible.
KEELSON —That part of a boat’s keel located
INBOARD —Toward the centerline. inside the boat.
INHAUL LINE —Line used to haul the trolley
KING POST —One of a pair of short, strong
back to the delivering ship during highline
uprights used to support the cargo booms of cargo
transfers.
vessels.
INLET —A narrow strip of sea extending
KING SPOKE —Spoke on the steering wheel
into the land.
that is upright when the rudder is amidships;
INNER BOTTOM —The inside bottom in a usually distinctively marked, as with a Turk’s
system of double bottoms. head.

INSHORE —Close to the shore. KNOCK OFF —Quit working.

IRISH PENNANT —Loose, untidy end of line KNOT —(1) A unit of measurement of speed
left adrift. Also called deadman or cow’s tail, equal to one nautical mile (6,080 feet) per hour.
(2) A collective term for hitches and bends.
ISLAND —Superstructure on starboard side
of the flight deck of an aircraft carrier. LADDER —A shipboard flight of steps.

JACK —Starred blue flag (representing the LANDING CRAFT —Vessel especially
union of the ensign) flown at the jackstaff of a designed for landing troops and equipment
commissioned ship not under way. directly on a beach.

AI-8
 LANDING SHIP —A large seagoing ship LIFE BUOY —A buoyant ring or some other
designed for landing large numbers of personnel floating device, except a life jacket or life belt,
and heavy equipment directly on a beach. designed to support a person in the water.

LANYARD —(1) Any short line used as a LIFE JACKET —A buoyant, sleeveless jacket
handle or as a means for operating some piece designed to support a person in the water;
of equipment. (2) A line used to attach an article different from a life belt, which fits only around
to a person, as a pistol lanyard. the waist.

LASH —To secure an object by turns of line, LIFELINE —(1) In general, the lines erected
wire, or chain. around the edges of weather decks. Specifically,
the topmost line. From top to bottom, the lines
LASHING —Line, wire, or chain used to lash are named lifeline, housing line, and footrope.
an article. (2) A safety line bent to a person going over the
side or aloft.
LASH-UP —An uncomplimentary term applied
to a rig, device, or system meaning it is in disorder. LIGHTEN SHIP —To make a ship lighter by
For example, “What a lash-up they have there.” removing weight.

LAUNCH —(1 ) To float a vessel off the ways LIGHT SHIP —The act of dispensing with
in a building yard, (2) A power boat, usually over blackout precautions.
30 feet long.
LINE —Any rope that is not wire rope.
LAY —(1) To go to a specific place, such as
“Lay aloft.” (2) To put something down, as to LOG —(1) A ship’s speedometer. (2) The act
lay tile. (3) The direction of twist of the strands of a ship in making a certain speed, as “The ship
in a line or wire. logged 20 knots.” (3) Book or ledger in which data
or events occurring during a watch are recorded.
LEAD LINE —A narrow block of lead
weighing from 7 to 14 pounds attached to a LOOK ALIVE —Admonishment meaning “be
marked line. Used by leadsman to determine alert” or “move faster.”
depth of water.
LOOKOUT —Person stationed topside as a
LEADSMAN —Person who uses the lead line. formal watch who reports all objects sighted and
sounds heard to the OOD.
LEE —An area sheltered from the wind;
downwind. LOOM —The glow seen in the sky from a light
that is below the horizon.
LEE HELMSMAN —A spare helmsman who
usually operates the annunciator. Formerly LUBBER’S LINE —Line engraved on the
referred to the helmsman who stood on the lee inside of a compass bowl, representing the ship’s
side of the wheel. head, by which the ship’s course is steered.

LEE SHORE —A shore that is leeward of the LUCKY BAG —Locker, under the charge of
ship. the master-at-arms, used to stow gear found adrift
and deserters’ effects.
LEEWARD —(Pronounced loo-urd). Side of
the ship opposite the direction from which the MAGAZINE —Compartment used for the
wind is blowing. stowage of ammunition.

LIBERTY —Permission to be absent from a MAIN DECK —The uppermost complete

ship or station for a short time. deck.

LIE OFF —To heave to at some distance from MAINMAST —Second mast aft from the
shore. bow.

AI-9
 MAN —To assume a station, as to man a gun. MUSTER —(1) A roll call. (2) The act of
assembling for a roll call.
MAN-O-WAR —See Combatant Ship.
NEST —(1) Two or more boats stowed one
MARLINE —Two-strand, left-laid, tarred within the other. (2) Two or more ships moored
hemp. alongside each other.

MARLINESPHCE —Tapered steel tool used to NOTHING TO THE RIGHT (LEFT) —Order
open the strands of wire for splicing. given to the helmsman not to allow the ship to
come to right (left) of the course because of some
MARLINESPIKE SEAMANSHIP —The art danger lying on that side of the course.
of caring for and handling all types of line and
wire. NUN BUOY —A navigational buoy, conical
in shape, that marks the starboard side of a
MASTER-AT-ARMS —A member of a ship’s channel from seaward. Even numbered and
police force. painted red.

MASTHEAD LIGHT —A 20-point, white OAKUM —Tarred hemp fiber used to caulk
running light located in the fore part of the ship; seams in wooden decks and boats.
it may or may not be on the foremast.
OOD — Officer of the deck.
MATE —A shipmate; another sailor.
OFFSHORE —Some distance off the shore,
MEET HER —Slow the swing of a ship by
as contrasted to inshore.
putting on opposite rudder.
ON THE BEACH —Ashore; also applied to
MESS —(1) Meal. (2) Place where meals are
a sailor who is assigned to shore duty or is
eaten, as mess hall. (3) A group of personnel who
unemployed, retired, or otherwise detached from
take meals together, as the officers’ mess.
sea duty.
MESSENGER —(1) A line used to haul
another heavier line across an intervening space. OUTBOARD —Away from the centerline.
(2) One who delivers messages.
OVERBOARD —Over the side.
MIDWATCH —The watch that begins at 0000
and ends at 0400. OVERHAND KNOT —Simplest of all knots;
made by passing one end of a line once around
MIND YOUR RUDDER —An order to the its standing part.
helmsman to steer the proper course.
OVERHAUL —(1) To repair or recondition.
MONKEY FIST —A complicated knot worked (2) To overtake another vessel.
into the end of a heaving line to provide weight.
OVERHEAD —The underside of a deck
MOOR —(1) To anchor, using two anchors. forming the ceiling of the compartment below;
(2) To make fast to a mooring buoy. (3) To make never called a ceiling.
fast to a pier or another ship.
PAINTER —Line used to make a boat fast by
MOORING BUOY —A large, anchored float its bow. When used under way, the painter causes
to which a ship may moor. the boat to swing out from the side of the
ship.
MORNING WATCH —The 0400 to 0800
watch. PARCEL —The act of wrapping a line with
narrow canvas strips to provide waterproofing or
MOTOR WHALEBOAT —A double-ended to build up a symmetrical shape for further
powerboat. covering.

AI-10
 PARTY —A group having a common tempo- PYROTECHNICS —Ammunition containing
rary assignment or purpose, as working party, chemicals that produce smoke or a brilliant light
line-handling party, liberty party. when burning; used for signaling or for
illumination.
PASSAGEWAY —A corridor used for interior
horizontal movement aboard ship, QUARTER —Area between dead astern and
either beam.
PAY —Monthly salary.
QUARTERDECK —Deck area designated by
PAY OUT —To feed out, or lengthen, a line. the commanding officer as the place to carry out
official functions; the station of the OOD in port.
PELORUS —A gyrocompass repeater used to
QUARTERMASTER —An enlisted assistant
take bearings.
to the navigator.
PIER —Structure extending from land out into
QUARTERS —(1) Stations for shipboard
the water to provide a mooring for vessels.
evolutions, as general quarters, fire quarters,
quarters for muster. (2) Living spaces.
PIER HEAD —Seaward end of a pier.
QUAY —(Pronounced key.) A solid structure
PIGSTICK —Small staff from which the along a bank used for loading and off-loading
commission pennant is flown. vessels.

PILOTHOUSE —Enclosure on the bridge that RADAR —A device that uses reflected radio
houses the main steering controls. waves to detect objects.

PILOTING —Branch of the science of naviga- RANGE —(1) The distance of an object from
tion in which positions are determined by an observer. (2) An aid to navigation consisting
reference to visible objects on the surface or by of two objects in line. (3) A water area designated
soundings. for a particular purpose, as a gunnery range.

PIPE —The act of sounding a particular call RAT GUARD —A hinged metal disk secured
on the boatswain’s pipe. to a mooring line to prevent rats from crossing
the line into the ship.
PITCH —Vertical rise and fall of a ship’s bow
caused by head or following seas. RAT-TAILED STOPPER —A braided tapering
line used on boat falls, mooring lines, etc.
PLAIN WHIPPING —A whipping made with-
out using a palm and needle. REDUCER —Fitting applied to a fire hydrant
to permit the attachment of a hose of smaller
POLLIWOG —A person who has never crossed diameter than the hydrant outlet.
the equator.
REEF —An underwater ledge rising abruptly
PORT —To the left of the centerline when from the floor of the ocean.
facing forward.
REEVE —To thread a line through a pulley.
PROTECTIVE DECK —See Armored Deck.
RELIEF —Person assigned to assume the
PROW —That part of the stem (bow) above duties of another.
the waterline.
RELIEVE —(1) To take the place of another.
PURCHASE —A machine that is a combina- (2) To ease the strain on a line.
tion of one or more blocks rove with a line or
wire. When rove with chain, it is called a chain RIDE —A ship at anchor rides to its anchor
fall. as it swings on the chain attached to the anchor.

AI-11
 RIDING LIGHT —Light required to be shown SEA —(1) The ocean in general. (2) The overall
by a vessel at anchor. undulations of the surface; individually they are
called waves, but as a whole they are referred to
RIG —To set up any device or equipment, as as seas. A ship takes a big sea, not a wave, over
rig a stage over the side. the bow.

RIGGING —Wires, ropes, and other lines SEA ANCHOR —A device streamed from the
used to support masts and other topside structures bow of a vessel for the purpose of holding it
and to maneuver cargo. Standing rigging is used end-on to the sea.
to support a ship’s masts; running rigging is
used to hoist or otherwise move equipment. SEAMANSHIP —(1) The art or skill of
handling a vessel. (2) Skill in the use of deck
RISER —A pipe leading from the firemain to equipment, boat handling, and the care and use
fireplugs on upper deck levels. of line and wire.
ROLLER CHOCK —A mooring chock that
SEAWORTHY —A vessel capable of with-
contains a roller for reducing friction.
standing normal heavy weather.
ROPE —General reference to both fiber and
wire rope. Fiber rope usually is referred to as line; SECOND DECK —First complete deck below
wire rope is called rope, wire rope, or just wire. the main deck.

ROPE YARN SUNDAY —Free time given SECURE —(1) To make fast, as to secure a
during a workday (usually an afternoon) to allow line to a cleat, (2) To cease, as to secure from fire
personnel to take care of personal business. drill.

RUDDER —Device attached to a ship’s stern SERVICE FORCE —The organization pro-
that controls the ship’s direction of travel. viding logistic support to the combatant forces.
RUNNER —A purchase containing one single-
SET —The direction toward which a ship is
sheave movable block.
pushed by the effects of wind and current. See
RUNNING BOWLINE —A slipknot made by Drift.
tying a small bowline around a line’s own standing
part. SET UP —To tighten up, with particular
reference to dogs and turnbuckles.
RUNNING LIGHTS —Navigational lights
required to be shown at night by a vessel under SHAKE A LEG —An admonishment to move
way. faster.

SACK —Bunk. SHAKE DOWN —The training of a new crew

to develop efficiency in operating a ship.
SCUPPER —The waterway along the gunwales.

SCUTTLE —(1) Round, watertight opening in SHEAVE —Pulley in a block around which
a hatch. (2) The act of deliberately sinking a the fall (line) runs.
vessel.
SHEER STRAKE —The uppermost strake in
SCUTTLEBUTT —(1) Originally a ship’s a ship’s side plating.
water barrel (called a butt), which was tapped
(scuttled) by the insertion of a spigot from which SHEET BEND —Same as Becket Bend.
the crew drew their drinking water; now applied
to any drinking fountain. (2) In the old days the SHELL —A vessel’s hull plating from the keel
scuttlebutt was a place for personnel to exchange to the main deck; also called skin.
views and news when they gathered to draw their
water; hence, the term scuttlebutt is applied to any SHELLBACK —A person who has crossed the
rumor. equator.

AI-12
 SHIFT —(1) The act of the wind in changing SMALL CRAFT —Any less-than-ship-sized
direction. (2) The act of moving a rudder with vessel.
angle on it to the same angle on the opposite side.
SMALL STORES —Personal needs for sailors,
SHIFT COLORS —To change the arrange- such as articles of clothing.
ment of the colors upon getting under way or
coming to moorings. SMART —Snappy, seamanlike, shipshape.

SHIP —(1) Any large seagoing vessel capable SNAKING —Netting stretched between the
of extended independent operation. (2) To take gunwales and footrope (see Lifeline) to prevent
on water unintentionally. objects from going over the side.

SHIP OVER —To reenlist in the Navy. SNUB —The act of suddenly checking a line
that is running out under a strain.
SHIPSHAPE —Neat, clean, taut, in fine
shape. SOPA —Abbreviation for senior officer present
afloat.
SHOAL —Similar to a reef, but more gradual
in its rise from the floor of the ocean. SOUND —(1) To determine the depth of
water. (2) The act of a whale or similar creature
SHORE —(1) The land in general, but usually in diving deep. (3) A body of water between the
refers to that part adjacent to the water. (2) A mainland and a large coastal island.
timber used in damage control to brace bulkheads
and decks. SPANNER —A wrench used for tightening
couplings on a fire hose.
SHROUD —A line or wire that provides
athwartship support for a mast. SPAR —A long cylindrical member of wood
or metal, tapered at the ends; usually attached to
SICK BAY —Shipboard space used as a a mast for use as a boom or for the attachment
hospital. of equipment such as signal halyards. See Boat
Boom; Yardarm.
SIDE BOY —One of a group of seamen who
form two ranks at the gangway as part of the SPAR BUOY —A buoy shaped like a spar.
ceremonies conducted for visiting officials. Usually indicates special areas, such as a quarantine
anchorage (yellow) or normal anchorage (white),
SIDE LIGHT —One of the required running
but may be used to indicate a channel (painted
lights. The starboard side light is green and the
red or green, as appropriate).
port side light is red.

SIDE PORT —A watertight opening in a SPECIAL SEA DETAIL —Personnel aboard

ship assigned special duties connected with leaving
ship’s side that is used as a doorway.
and entering port.
SIGHT —(1) To see for the first time, as to
sight a ship on the horizon. (2) A celestial SPLICE —The act of intertwining strands of
observation. lines or wires to join them together or to make
an eye; the joint so made.
SKYLARK —To engage in irresponsible horse-
play. SPRING —A mooring line that leads forward
(or aft) at an angle from ship to pier. Its purpose
SLACK —(1) To allow a line to run out. is to check the fore and aft movement of the ship.
(2) Having little or no discipline, as a slack ship.
SPRING LAY —Wire rope in which each
SLIP —(1) To free a ship of its anchor by strand consists partly of wire and partly of
disconnecting the cable or by allowing its bitter tarred hemp or similar fiber.
end to run out. (2) A narrow space between two
piers, or the space between two rows of piles that SQUADRON —Two or more divisions of
guide a ferryboat into its berth. ships or aircraft.

AI-13
 SQUARE AWAY —Put in proper order; STERNPOST —The after vertical extension of
make things shipshape. the keel.

SQUARE KNOT —Simple knot used for STERN SHEETS —The after passenger space
bending two lines together or for bending a line in an open boat.
to itself.
STOP —A short line attached to the edge of
STACK —Shipboard chimney. an awning, boat cover, etc.; used to lash the cover
to a support.
STANCHIONS —Vertical posts used for
supporting decks; smaller, similar posts used for STOW —To store or pack articles or cargo in
supporting lifelines, awnings, etc. a space.

STAND BY —To “prepare for” or “make STRAKE —Fore-and-aft strip of plating in the
shell or in a deck.
ready to.”
STRAND —(1) One of the main subdivisions
STANDING LIGHTS —Red night-lights
of a line or wire. (2) The act of a vessel in going
throughout the interior of a ship.
aground.
STANDING PART —The main part of a line, STRINGER —(1) A longitudinal frame pro-
as distinguished from its ends. viding strength to a ship’s sides. (2) A long timber
between piles at the edge of a pier.
STARBOARD —Direction to the right of the
centerline as one faces forward. STRUCTURAL BULKHEAD —Transverse-
strength bulkhead that forms a watertight
STATEROOM —A living compartment for an boundary.
officer or for a small number of officers.
SUPERSTRUCTURE —The ship’s structure
STATION —(1) An individual’s place of duty. above the main deck, exclusive of top-hamper.
(2) Position of a ship in formation, (3) Location
of persons and equipment having a specific SWAB —Same as, but never referred to as, a
purpose, as a gun control station. (4) Order to mop.
assume a post of duty, as “Station the special sea
and anchor detail.” SWAMP —The filling of an open boat with
water taken over the side.
STAY —Any piece of standing rigging, except
a shroud, providing support only. TACKLE —See Purchase.

STEADY (STEADY SO) (STEADY AS YOU TAFFRAIL —The rail around the stern of a
GO) (STEADY AS SHE GOES) —Order to the ship or boat.
helmsman to steer the ship on the course it is
heading at the time the order is given. TARPAULIN —Canvas used as a cover,

STEM —The forward vertical extension of the TAUT —(1) Under tension, as a taut rope.
keel. (2) A high state of discipline and efficiency, as
a taut ship.
STERN —The aftermost part of a vessel,
TENDER —(1) One who serves as a pre-
STERN HOOK —Member of a boat’s crew cautionary standby, as the line tender for a diver.
whose station is aft. (2) An auxiliary vessel that acts as a support ship
for other ships, as a destroyer tender.
STERN LIGHT —White navigation light that
can be seen only from astern to 6 points on either THREEFOLD PURCHASE —A tackle con-
quarter (total of 12 points, or 135 degrees). taining two three-sheave blocks.

AI-14
 THWART —Plank set athwartships just below WARDROOM —Officers’ messing compart-
the gunwales in an open boat; acts as a seat and ment.
provides support to the sides.
WATCH —(1) One of the periods (usually
TOPSIDE —Generally refers to weather 4 hours) into which a day is divided. (2) A
decks. particular duty, as lifebuoy watch. (3) The act of
a buoy or other marker in indicating the position
TRANSVERSE FRAME —Structural member of a sunken object.
that extends outward from the keel and upward
to the main deck. WATERTIGHT INTEGRITY —A ship’s degree
of resistance to flooding.
TRICE UP —To secure bunks by hauling them
up and hanging them off (securing them) on their WAY —(1) Horizontal motion of a floating
chains. body. (2) Launching track in a shipbuilding yard.

TRUNK —The uppermost tip of a mast. WEATHER DECK —Any deck exposed to the
elements.
TURNBUCKLE —Device for setting up a
tension, as in a lifeline, by turning a buckle into WET DOCK —A basin formed, by the con-
which two eyebolts are threaded. struction of barriers with gates, in a harbor
of great tidal ranges to prevent ships from
TURN OF THE BILGE —Where the side being stranded during low tides. Ships enter
meets the bottom. the basin at high tide, the gates are closed,
and the water is retained in the basin when the
TURN IN —(1) Retire to bed. (2) Return tide ebbs.
articles to the issue room.
WHARF —Similar to a quay, but constructed
TURN OUT —(1) Get out of bed. (2) Order
in the fashion of a pier.
out a working party or other groups, as to turn
out the guard.
WHIPPING —Binding on the end of a line or
wire to prevent unraveling.
TURN TO —Start working.
WILDCAT —That portion of a windlass
UP ALL LATE BUNKS —An order to per-
which engages the links of the anchor chain so
sonnel entitled to sleep after reveille to get up.
that the anchor can be heaved in.
UPPER DECK —The first deck above the
main deck. WINDWARD —Toward the direction from
which the wind is blowing.
VEER —(1) To allow a line, wire, or chain to
run out by its own weight. (2) To swerve. (3) Act YARD —Spar set athwartships across the
of the wind in changing direction clockwise. upper part of a mast.

VOID —An empty tank. YARDARM —The port or starboard half of

the horizontal crosspiece of the mast that is either
WAIST —The amidships section of the main the port or starboard yardarm.
deck.
YAW —The act of a vessel when its heading
WAKE —Trail left by a vessel, or other is thrown wide of its course by a force from
object, moving through the water. astern, such as a heavy following sea.

AI-15
 APPENDIX II

NAVAL TERMS AND CUSTOMS

Persons entering a new profession must learn This appendix describes many of the customs,
the vocabulary peculiar to that profession to terms, or expressions that form our nautical
understand and make themselves understood by language.
their associates. The Navy, too, has its own
vocabulary, containing unique expressions for
many commonplace terms. You will soon realize ANCHOR WATCH
that the language of the sea has a great deal of
merit. You will come to understand that, under Years ago ships were equipped with anchor
certain circumstances, a word or a few words have cables of hempen rope and oil-burning riding
a precise meaning or require a certain sequence lights. While the ship was riding at anchor, special
of actions. You will notice that the use of such care was taken to see that these lamps were not
words will eliminate the need to accompany an extinguished, that the cables did not part, and that
order with extended explanatory details. When the the ship did not drag its anchor. The watch
proper order is given, the desired response is responsible for this particular duty was designated
obtained. the anchor watch. The anchor watch, as a sea
You will notice, too, that when a chance for term, is still retained although the duties of the
confusion exists, a strange, new term may be watch have changed considerably since the old
substituted for an old, familiar one. For example, days. Today, the anchor watch is a detail of
the word stop may be used in orders for the ship’s personnel on deck at night safeguarding the vessel
engines but never for the anchor windlass or for when at anchor.
the helm. An officer conning a ship issues many
different orders when a ship is getting under way,
mooring, or anchoring. Yet, when couched in BELLS
proper, seaman-like language, the orders are
understood and are carried out by the proper Certain words and expressions preserve for us
individual or group. To stop all the engines, to old customs, as in the instance of bells struck
stop the swing of the ship, or to stop the anchor aboard ship. They are not primarily intended to
windlass, the conning officer gives the order “All replace clocks for telling time. But they do tell
engines stop, ” “Meet her,” or “Avast heaving.” clock time by measuring the periods when certain
These terms leave no chance for confusion. The members of the crew are standing watch.
person on the engine-order telegraph rings up
stop, the steersman puts the rudder over, or the This custom started with the hourglass—which
proper talker relays the order, “Avast heaving,” really wasn’t an hourglass but a half-hour glass.
to the anchor detail on the forecastle. The quartermaster on watch turned the glass at
An order or a term may have its origin in the end of his first half-hour and struck the bell
antiquity, or it may have been recently coined; one time. He then struck the bell an additional
but that is not important. What is important is stroke at the end of each half-hour after that.
that the expression conveys, in as few words as At the end of 4 hours, he would strike the bell
possible, an exact meaning with little or no chance eight times, signaling the completion of his watch
for confusion. Those that fit this requirement live and the beginning of the next 4-hour watch. So
on as long as there is need for them; those that it went during the six watches of the 24 hours,
do not are soon replaced. ending at midnight. While the hourglass has long
It behooves you to learn and use this language been out of date, the bells are still used aboard
because it is a necessary tool of your trade. ship.

AII-1
BILGE BOATSWAIN’S PIPE

Bilge usually refers to the bottom of the The boatswain’s pipe is an article of great
ship or, more correctly, to the curved part of the antiquity. Originally employed to “call the
ship’s hull. It also has another connotation. stroke” in ancient row galleys, it became, in the
Midshipmen who are dropped from school for early English Navy, a badge of office and of
academic reasons are said to be “bilged.” Thus, honor. Later the pipe became the distinctive
when used as a verb, the term means to be emblem of the boatswain and his mates. Today
dropped out of the bottom—in this case the boatswain’s mates use the pipe when the “word
bottom of the class. is passed,” when officers are piped over the side,
and so forth.
BINNACLE LIST
BRIG
The binnacle list gets its name from the
old nautical practice of placing the sick list on the Lord Nelson used a brig (a type of sailing ship)
binnacle (stand containing ship’s compass). It was in battle for removing prisoners from his ships;
placed there each morning so that it would be hence, prisons at sea came to be known as brigs.
readily available for the captain. The modern
binnacle list contains the names of personnel
BUMBOAT
suffering minor complaints that preclude their
employment on strenuous duty. Today the sick
The bumboat is a boat employed by civilians
list contains the names of personnel who are
to carry salable provisions, vegetables, and small
hospitalized.
merchandise to ships. The term may have been
derived from “boom-boat,” indicating boats
BITTER END permitted to lie at the ships’ booms.

Bitter end was originally the turn of a cable’s

CARRY ON
end around the bitts. It now refers to the end of
the chain cable secured in the chain locker or the
In the days of sail, the officer of the deck
loose end of a line. In all cases the inboard end
constantly kept a weather eye on the slightest
is referred to as the bitter end.
change in wind so that sail could be reefed or
added as necessary to ensure the fastest headway.
BLUEJACKET Whenever a good breeze came along, the order
to “carry on” would be given. It meant to hoist
Uniforms first adopted for the Royal Navy every bit of canvas the yards could carry. Pity the
included a short, blue jacket. No universal poor sailor whose weather eye failed him and
uniform was prescribed for U.S. Navy enlisted allowed the ship to be caught partially reefed when
personnel until the 1850s. Therefore, in the early a good breeze arrived.
days of that century, many men unofficially wore Through the centuries the term’s connotation
the blue jacket of the Royal Navy. Enlisted has changed somewhat. Today, the Bluejackets
personnel are sometimes referred to as blue- Manual defines carry on as an order to resume
jackets. The term white hat is used to refer to work; work not so grueling as two centuries ago.
Navy enlisted personnel below the rate of chief
petty officer.
CAULK

BOATSWAIN Caulk, commonly mispronounced “cork,”

means to pack a seam in the planking of a ship.
Boatswain is pronounced bo’-sun. Swain or When caulking wooden ships in dry dock,
swein is the Saxon word for servant or boy. In workmen usually had to lie on their backs
our Navy, boatswain refers to a warrant or petty underneath the hull. In this position it was not
officer in charge of the deck crew. It also refers difficult to fall asleep. Hence, to “take a caulk”
to those responsible for the maintenance of the or to “caulk off” is the sailors’ expression for
ship’s hull and external equipment. sleeping or taking a nap.

AII-2
CHAINS Early in the 19th century, women and those
other than the clergy and high officials began to
On many sailing ships, shrouds supporting the take part in the ceremony of launching ships.
masts were secured to links of chain attached to Today the ceremony usually consists in the
the ships’ sides. To get a better lead for the naming of the vessel by a sponsor and the
shrouds and to keep them from bearing on the breaking of a bottle of wine against the ship’s bow
bulwarks, a ship’s leadsman led the chains up as it slides into the water. People have been known
around thick planks jutting from the ship’s sides. to miss the ship entirely; so today the bottle is
These planks made convenient platforms from secured by a lanyard to the bow of the ship—as
which the leadsman could heave the lead, and the a safety measure for spectators.
leadsman was “in the chains.” Later, as now,
shrouds were secured on deck inboard of bulwarks
or lifelines. Special platforms were built for the COMMISSION PENNANT
leadsman, but the term chains was retained.
The origin of the commission pennant is said
CHARLIE NOBLE to date back to the 17th century. When the Dutch
were fighting the English, Admiral Tromp hoisted
The term Charlie Noble refers to the galley a broom at his ship’s masthead to indicate his
smoke pipe. While its origin is obscure, it is intention to sweep the English from the sea. The
generally believed to have been derived from the gesture was soon answered by the English admiral
British merchant skipper, Charlie Noble, who who hoisted a horsewhip to indicate his intention
demanded a high polish on the galley funnel. His to chastise the Dutch. The British carried out
bright copper galley funnel became well known the admiral’s boast. Ever since, a narrow pennant
in the ports he visited. has symbolized the original horsewhip as the
distinctive mark of a vessel of war.
CHEWING THE FAT The commission pennant, as it is called today,
is blue at the hoist, with a union of seven white
“God made the vittles, but the devil made the stars; it is red and white at the fly, in two
cook,” was a popular saying used by seafaring horizontal stripes. The number of stars has no
men in the last century when salted beef was staple special significance but was arbitrarily selected as
diet aboard ship. providing the most suitable display. The pennant
This tough, cured beef, suitable only for long is flown at the main by vessels not carrying flag
voyages when nothing else was as cheap or would officers. A vessel carrying an admiral, a squadron
keep as well, required prolonged chewing to make commander, a group commander, or a high-
it edible. Since men often chewed one chunk for ranking civil official flies that person’s personal
hours, just as if it were chewing gum, they flag or command pennant in lieu of the com-
referred to this practice as chewing the fat. mission pennant.
Today this term is used to describe a conversation.
CONN
CHIT
To conn means to control, or direct by
This term refers to almost any sort of paper rudder and engine order telegraph, the movements
used in everyday business transactions. Derived of a ship. When someone has the conn, it indicates
from the old East India Company and the hindu that person is the one and only person who can
word chitti.
give orders to the wheel and engine order
telegraph at any one time. The exact derivation
CHRISTENING A SHIP of the word conn is not known.
Launching ceremonies have had a religious
significance from the earliest days. The christening COXSWAIN (COCKSWAIN)
ceremony originated as an appeasement to the
gods of the elements. In some countries as recently This term is derived from “cock,” a small
as a hundred years ago, a launching frequently boat, and “swain,” a servant. It signifies an
resembled a baptismal ceremony and was per- enlisted person in charge of a boat in the absence
formed by priests. of a line officer. Pronounced cox’-un.

AII-3
CROSSING THE LINE DITTY BAGS

The boisterous ceremonies of crossing the line A ditty bag (or box) was originally called a
(equator) are so ancient that their derivation has “ditto bag” because it contained at least two of
been lost. It is said that this custom had its origin everything: two needles, two spools of thread, two
in offerings to pacify the deities of the sea by buttons, and so forth. With the passing of years,
mariners who thought that gods and goddesses the “ditto” was dropped in favor of “ditty” and
controlled the elements. remains so today.
Today when naval ships cross the equator, Before World War I, the Navy issued ditty
those members of the crew (called “polliwogs”) boxes made of wood and styled after foot lockers.
who have never before crossed the line are These boxes carried the personal gear and some
initiated by the more experienced members of the clothes of the sailor.
crew (called “shellbacks”). The usual formula is Today the ditty bag is still issued to recruits.
for the shellbacks to attire themselves in strange It contains a sewing kit, toiletry articles, and
costumes representing Neptune, Amphitrite, and personal items such as writing paper and pens.
other mythological gods and goddesses of the sea.
A court is held among Neptune’s subjects, and DUNGAREES
the novices are summoned to trial. The fate
administered to each is in the nature of ridicule, In the past dungaree referred to a coarse kind
such as a parade of the person’s particular of fabric worn by the poorer class of people and
idiosyncrasies and a caricature of the person’s also used for tents and sail. We find it hard to
foibles. The victim is usually lathered with some picture our favorite pair of dungarees flying from
frightful concoction, shaved with a wooden razor, the mast of a sailing ship. However, in the early
and ducked backward into a tank of water. The days of sailing ships, sailors often made both their
victim is then issued a certificate, signed by working clothes and hammock out of discarded
Neptunus Rex, documenting the fact that the sail cloth.
person has crossed the line and is now a full- The cloth used then wasn’t as well woven as
fledged “shellback.” that of today, nor was it dyed blue; but it served
the purpose. Dungarees worn by sailors of the
Continental navy were cut directly from old sails.
CUT OF HIS JIB
The dungarees remained tan in color, just as they
had been when filled with wind.
The nationality of the early sailing ships was
After battles, the captains of both the
frequently determined by the shape or cut of their
American and British navies reported more sail
jib sails. Use of the phrase as applied to man
lost in battle than actually was the case. This
originally referred to his nose—which, like the jib,
practice provided the crew with cloth to mend
is the first feature of its wearer to come into view.
their hammocks and make new clothes. Since the
Ultimately it was extended to describe a man’s
cloth was called dungaree, clothes made from the
general appearance.
fabric were called by the same name.

DIPPING THE ENSIGN EYES OF THE SHIP

Dipping the flag in salute is a relic of an old- In the early days the bows of ships usually
time custom of merchant vessels. These vessels were carved to resemble heads of mythological
were required not only to heave to when monsters or patrons. The fore part of the ship was
approaching a warship on the high seas, but also called the “head.” The term eyes of the ship was
to clew up all their canvas to indicate the ship’s derived from the eyes of the figures carved on the
honesty and willingness to be searched. Since bow.
delays resulted, the rule of dipping the flag
was authorized in later years as a timesaving FLAG AT HALF-MAST
substitute. Ships of the U.S. Navy return such
salutes dip for dip, except for dips rendered by During times of mourning in old sailing days,
ships under the flag of nations not formally ships displayed loose, suspended yards and slack
recognized by the United States. No ship of our rigging. The ships purposely exhibited this lax
Navy initiates a dip. appearance to show that grief was so great that

AII-4
keeping things shipshape was impossible. Today Whatever theory we use to explain the origin
the half-roasting of the colors is a survival of the of geedunk, it doesn’t alter the fact that Navy
days when a slovenly appearance characterized people enjoy the treats associated with this term.
mourning on shipboard.
GROG
FORECASTLE
Admiral Edward Vernon of the Royal Navy
Forecastle is pronounced “focsul.” In the days is responsible for the term grog. He was in the
of Columbus, ships were fitted with castle-like habit of walking the deck of his flagship in a
eminences fore and aft. While both structures boatcloak of grogram cloth. That habit suggested
have disappeared, the term forecastle, referring a nickname for the popular flag officer, and
to the same general part of the ship as the original Admiral Vernon came to be known affectionately
“forward castle,” still remains. as “Old Grog.” In 1740 he introduced West
Indian rum aboard ship by having a mixture of
rum and water served as a ration to the crew. It
GANGWAY was intended as a preventive against fevers, which
so often decimated expeditions to the West
The word gangway is taken from the anglo- Indies. This innovation was received with
saxon word gang, meaning to go, make a passage enthusiasm by the men on the flagship Burford,
in, or cut out (or cut through). It is commonly who promptly named the beverage after their
used as an order to sailors to stand aside or to illustrious leader.
stand clear. Forty years later verses were composed on the
cruiser Berwick that bespeak the popularity of the
GEEDUNK officer and the drink; the last two stanzas are as
follows:
To most sailors the word geedunk means ice
cream, candy, potato chips, and other assorted A mighty bowl on deck he drew,
snacks or even the place where they can be And filled it to the brink;
purchased. No one, however, knows for certain Such drank the Burford’s gallant crew,
where the term originated; there are several And such the gods shall drink.
plausible theories: The sacred robe which Vernon wore
Was drenched within the same;
In the 1920s a comic strip character named And hence his virtues guard our shore,
Harold Term and his friends spent a great And grog derives its name.
amount of time at Pop’s candy store. The
store’s name was the Sugar Bowl, but GUNDECKING
Harold and company always called it the
geedunk for reasons never explained. In the modern Navy, falsifying reports,
records, and the like is often referred to as
The Chinese word meaning a place of gundecking. The origin of the term is somewhat
idleness sounds something like “gee obscure, but at the risk of gundecking, here are
dung.” two plausible explanations for its modern usage.
The deck below the upper deck on British
“Geedunk” is the sound made by a sailing ships-of-war was called the gun deck,
vending machine when it dispenses a soft although it carried no guns. This false deck may
drink in a cup. have been constructed to deceive enemies as to
the amount of armament carried; thus, the gun
It maybe derived from the German word deck was a falsification.
tunk meaning to dip or sop either in gravy A more plausible explanation may stem from
or coffee. Dunking was a common practice shortcuts taken by early midshipmen when doing
in days when bread, not always obtained their navigation lessons. Each midshipman was
fresh, needed a bit of “tunking” to soften supposed to take sun lines at noon and star sights
it. The “ge” is a German unaccented at night and then go below to the gun deck, work
prefix denoting repetition. In time it may out their calculations, and show them to the
have changed from getunk to geedunk. navigator.

AII-5
 Certain of these young men, however, had a youngsters of the British Navy who acted as
special formula for getting the correct answers. messengers, carrying orders from officers aft to
They would note the noon or last position on the the men forward. These lads, who continuously
quarterdeck traverse aboard and determine the passed back and forth amidships, were regarded
approximate current position by dead reckoning as apprentice officers. The ancient term has
plotting. Armed with this information, they survived, and today officer candidates at
proceeded to the gun deck to “gundeck” their Annapolis (and other midshipmen’s schools) are
navigation homework by simply working called midshipmen.
backwards from the dead reckoning position.
PIPING THE SIDE
HAWSER
To the new officer the custom of piping the
Hawser is a heavy line of hemp, used for
side, a heritage from the British Navy, seems one
mooring and towing. It was formerly used as
of the strangest of all naval customs. It originated
anchor cable (before chains). It is derived from
in the days of sail when captains visiting one
the French hausser, meaning “to haul.”
another at sea were hoisted on board in a net or
basket if rough weather prevented the use of
HEAD
ladders. Piping was necessary in setting taut and
hoisting away the cargo net or basket containing
The ship’s lavatory is called the head because
the boarding officer. Thus, we acquired the
these facilities in the old days were located in the
custom of piping the officer alongside and over
forward part of the ship.
the gangway.
The officer of the deck ordinarily summoned
LASHING BROOM TO MASTHEAD
from the crew several hands to assist the visitor
in making the landing on deck. If he were young,
A popular custom in the U.S. Navy is that of
a lieutenant perhaps, two men were required to
lashing a broom to the masthead of a ship when
help him; if older, a commander perchance,
it has participated in a complete victory over an
having increased his girth as well as his grade
enemy force. The broom signifies the ship’s ability
through the years, he might require four. If,
to sweep the seas. (A ship making the highest
however, he happened to be a captain or an
gunnery or engineering record in the fleet also
admiral, he may have required six or eight to
displays a broom.) As noted earlier for his unusual
enable him to secure a stable footing. Thus, there
display of victory, Admiral Tromp originated this
came about the custom of having “side boys”
custom (see Commission Pennant).
to meet officers. When the custom became a
regulation courtesy, the side was similarly attended
LUCKY BAG
upon their departure.
Formerly, a lucky bag was a bag in which
personal possessions that had been left adrift were QUARTERDECK
stored. Today, the term refers to any storage area
for loose gear picked up by the master-at-arms There is evidence that the marked respect paid
force. the quarterdeck aboard ship today had its origin
many hundreds of years ago. In the days of Greek
MAST and Roman sea power, obeisances were made to
the pagan altar, which was placed aft. Later the
The term captain’s mast, or merely mast, same respect was paid the shrines of the Virgin
derives from early sailing days when naval justice similarly located. Still later the “King’s colors,”
proceedings were held on the weather deck near which were a symbol of church and state
the ship’s mainmast. combined, became the object of respect. One is
impressed with the thought that the quarterdeck
MIDSHIPMEN has always been the honored part of the ship. It
retains its “sanctity” today. (The name poop deck
In early days the crew was quartered in the derives from the Latin word puppis, a name given
forecastle, while officers lived in the aftercastle. the sacred deck where the pupi or doll images of
The title “midshipmen” was originally given to the deities were placed.)

AII-6
ROPE YARN SUNDAY SICK BAY

On the day the tailor boarded a sailing ship Admiral Horatio Nelson, who was responsible
in port, the crew knocked off early, broke out for many British naval customs, forerunners of
rope yarn, and mended clothes and hammocks. our own, originated the term sick berth in his
One afternoon per week at sea, usually a order to the Mediterranean fleet in 1798. In a line-
Wednesday, was reserved for mending. Since it of-battle ship, the sick berth was placed in the
was an afternoon for rest from the usual chores, bow. When round bows were introduced in 1811,
much like Sunday, it was dubbed rope yarn the sick berth, keeping its same position, found
Sunday. itself in a bay (semicircular indentation). Thus,
The Navy adhered to the custom up to the in 1813 the British began the use of the term sick
years immediately after World War II; men used bay. It is customary today for officers to remove
Wednesday afternoon for personal errands like their caps when entering sick bay. It maybe that
picking up their laundry and getting haircuts. this custom stems from the early sailing days when
They paid back the time by working half a day men were not admitted to sick bay until they were
on Saturdays. about ready for “slipping the cable” (dying).
Today, uniforms require less attention, so rope
yarn Sunday has been turned to other purposes— SKYLARK
mainly early liberty or a time for catching up on
sleep. Some, however, still adhere to tradition by To skylark is to be inattentive or engage in
breaking out the ditty bag for an afternoon of horseplay, usually when one is supposed to be
uniform PMS. working. The term came about when young
sailors would climb to the skysail yardarms and
SALLY SHIP slide down the stays.
Sally ship was not a ship but a method of
loosing a vessel run aground from the mud STARBOARD AND PORT
holding it fast. In the days before sophisticated
navigation equipment, ships ran aground much In the old Viking ships, ships were steered by
more often than today. A grounded ship could means of a heavy board secured to the right side
be freed with little or no hull damage if it could of the ship. Therefore, the right side of the vessel
be rocked out of its muddy predicament. (looking forward) was called the “steerboard”
To free the ship, the order was given to “sally side. Loading was avoided from that side because
ship.” The crew gathered in a line along one side of the possibility of damaging the steering gear.
and then ran back and forth athwartships from Gradually the term steerboard was corrupted to
port to starboard until the vessel began to roll. starboard.
Often the rolling broke the suction of the mud The left side of these old ships (the place of
so that the ship could be pulled free and gotten loading) was called the “load board” side. This
under way. finally became “larboard.” Because “starboard”
and “larboard” sounded so much alike, the term
SHIP’S HUSBAND port was substituted in the United States Navy for
larboard. A General Order (18 February 1846)
Sometimes when a ship is heading for the reads: “It having been repeatedly represented to
yards, an old salt says that she is going to her the Department that confusion arises from the use
husband now, which causes novices to wonder of the words ‘Larboard’ and ‘Starboard’ in
what he’s talking about. A ship’s husband was consequence of their similarity of sound, the
once a widely used term describing the man in word ‘Port’ is hereafter to be substituted for
charge of the shipyard responsible for the repair Larboard.” (Perhaps the term port was used
of a particular ship. It was not uncommon to hear because, as ships became larger and rose higher
the sailors of creaking ships lament, “Ah, she’s in the water, loading took place through openings
been a good ship, lads, but she’s needing her in the sides called “ports.”)
husband now.”
In the course of a ship’s life, she may have SUNDOWNER
had more than one husband; but this had little
bearing upon her true affections. Tradition has A sundowner is a harsh disciplinarian. The
it, her love was saved solely for her sailors. term is derived from the practice of strict captains

AII-7
in the early days who ordered all hands to be to commence their rounds (this signal survives in
aboard by sunset. the Navy as “first call”), while “last post” was
sounded when they had reached the end of their
rounds (this signal survives as our present
TAR
“tattoo”). The “first call” is sounded 10 minutes
before “taps”; “tattoo,” 5 minutes before
Sailors once covered their clothes with tar or
“taps. “ “Taps” is the signal for lights out.
oil to make them waterproof; hence, the nickname
often applied to mariners.
TONNAGE

TATTOO Today tonnage refers to a ship’s displacement

in the water or the gross pounds of cargo it is
Tattoo is derived from the old clutch term capable of carrying. In the days of sail, tonnage
taptoe, meaning the time to close the taps was spelled “tunnage” and referred to the number
or taverns. At the appointed hours, drummers of “tuns” a ship could carry. A “tun” was a
marched from post to post in the town, beating barrel normally used for transporting wine, and
their drums. “First post” was the signal given tunnage specified the number of barrels that
when they had taken their place and were ready would fit into the ship’s hold.

AII-8
 INDEX
A C

Aircraft, 12-2 to 12-14 Ceremonies, honors, anniversaries, and solem-

fixed wing, 12-2 to 12-6 nities, 8-1 to 8-13
rotary wing, 12-6 to 12-8 ceremonies for national holidays, 8-11
Amphibious warfare, 12-15 to 12-17 change-of-command ceremony, 8-13
Anchors, 18-1 to 18-2 funerals, 8-12
ANZUS Security Treaty, 1-20 gun salutes, 8-3 to 8-6
Armed Forces of the United States, 11-1 to honors to national anthems and national
11-17 ensigns, 8-1 to 8-3
Assistance programs, 3-19 to 3-20 national holidays, 8-10 to 8-11
Casualty Assistance Calls Program, 3-19 passing honors, 8-6 to 8-7
Family Services Centers, 3-19 ship commissioning ceremony, 8-12 to
legal assistance, 3-19 8-13
Navy chaplains, 3-20 ships passing the USS Arizona memorial,
Navy Mutual Aid Association, 3-19 to 8-11 to 8-12
3-20 ships passing Washington’s Tomb, 8-11
Navy Relief Society, 3-19 special ceremonies, anniversaries, and
Aviation Officer Candidate School, 10-10 solemnities, 8-10 to 8-13
Awards and medals, 9-20 to 9-26 Chaplain Corps, 13-6
marksmanship, 9-22 Chief of Naval Operations, 11-11 to 11-14
military societies and other organizations, Civil Engineer Corps, 13-2
9-23 Close-in weapon system (CIWS), 20-3
order of precedence, 9-20 to 9-22 Coast Guard, 11-9 to 11-11
wearing of, 9-23 to 9-26 Code of Conduct, 5-11 to 5-13
Combat information center watch officer
(CICWO), 4-3
Combatant ships, 19-2 to 19-21
B auxiliary and support ships, 19-18 to
19-21
Benefits, 3-17 to 3-22 warships, 19-2 to 19-18
assistance programs, 3-19 to 3-20 Command duty officer (CDO), 4-4
commissary and exchange privileges, 3-18 Commander in Chief, 11-3
dependent schooling, 3-18 to 3-19 Commissary and exchange privileges, 3-18
medical and dental care, 3-17 to 3-18 Compasses, 18-6 to 18-7
officers’ mess, 3-19 Courts-martial, 6-28
retirement, 3-20 to 3-21
survivor’s, 3-21 to 3-22
Boats and survival equipment, 18-2 to 18-4 D
Breast insignia and identification badges, 9-18 Damage control, 17-9 to 17-12
to 9-19 damage control central, 17-10
Bridge equipment, 18-4 to 18-6 fire and fire fighting, 17-11
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery (BUMED), organization, 17-9 to 17-10
13-5 to 13-6 preventive, 17-11 to 17-12

INDEX-1
Department of Defense (DOD), 11-4 F
Department of the Air Force, 11-8 to 11-9
Fire and fire fighting, 17-11
Department of the Army, 11-8
Flag display, 8-7 to 8-10
Department of the Navy, 11-11 to 11-17 afloat pennant, 8-10
Chief of Naval Operations, 11-11 to commands ashore, 8-9
11-14 dipping the national ensign, 8-9
Navy Department, 11-11 dress and full-dress ship, 8-10
Departments, shipboard, 16-2 to 16-5 ensign and union jack, 8-9
Discipline and leadership, 5-1 to 5-14 ensign in boats, 8-9
insignia for boats, 8-9 to 8-10
leadership qualities, 5-3 to 5-7
Fleet Marine Force (FMF), 14-3 to 14-6
punishment, 5-3 Fraternization, 5-9
Division officers, 4-5 to 4-7
inspections, 4-5 to 4-6
qualifications 4-6 to 4-7 G
training, 4-6
Ground tackle, 18-1 to 18-2
Gun salutes, 8-3 to 8-6
returning, 8-5 to 8-6
E to senior officer present, 8-5
by ships and stations, 8-3
Educational institutions, 10-1 to 10-12 to officers and officials, 8-6
Aviation Officer Candidate School, 10-10 Guns, 20-2 to 20-4
Naval Postgraduate School, 10-10
Naval War College, 10-11 to 10-12
H
Officer Candidate School, 10-9 to 10-10
Uniformed Services University of the Helm, 18-4 to 18-5
Health Sciences, 10-10 to 10-11 Honors and ceremonies, 8-1 to 8-13
United States Naval Academy, 10-1 to gun salutes, 8-3 to 8-6
10-8 honors to national anthems and national
Engineering officer of the watch (EOOW), 4-3 ensigns, 8-1 to 8-3
to 4-4 passing honors, 8-6 to 8-7
Enlisted personnel, 9-11 to 9-19 special ceremonies, anniversaries, and
rates and ratings, 9-11 to 9-13 solemnities, 8-10 to 8-13
uniforms, 9-13 to 9-18
Equal opportunity, 5-8
Equipment, shipboard, 18-1 to 18-7 I
boats and survival, 18-2 to 18-4 Insignia and awards, 9-5 to 9-27
bridge, 18-4 to 18-6 breast insignia and identification badges,
compasses, 18-6 to 18-7 9-18 to 9-19
external, 18-1 to 18-7 medals and awards, 9-20 to 9-26
ground tackle, 18-1 to 18-2 Intelligence, 13-10 to 13-11
Etiquette, 7-1 to 7-11 International ties, 1-19 to 1-21
between juniors and seniors, 7-2 to 7-4 ANZUS Security Treaty, 1-20
between officers and enlisted persons, 7-4 North Atlantic Treaty Organization
to 7-5 (NATO), 1-20 to 1-21
boat, 7-10 Rio Treaty, 1-20
conduct in foreign countries, 7-10 to 7-11
forms of address, 7-5 to 7-7
J
quarterdeck, 7-7 to 7-8
social calls, 7-10 Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), 11-6 to 11-8
wardroom, 7-8 to 7-10 Judge Advocate General’s Corps, 13-6 to 13-8

INDEX-2
K Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps, 10-8 to
10-9
Korean conflict, 1-8 to 1-9 eligibility requirements, 10-9
Naval War College, 10-11 to 10-12
Navy Leader Development Program (NAVLEAD),
5-13 to 5-14
M
Navy Regulations, 6-1 to 6-6
Nonjudicial punishment, 6-26 to 6-28
Marine Corps, 14-1 to 14-10
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO),
equipment, 14-6 to 14-8
1-20 to 1-21
Fleet Marine Force (FMF), 14-3 to 14-6
Nuclear deterrence, 11-4 to 11-5
Marine Corps Enlisted Commissioning
Nuclear weapons, 20-13
Education Program, (MECEP), 14-9
officer training, 14-9 to 14-10
officers, 14-8 to 14-9
O
organization, 14-3 to 14-6
women in, 14-6
Officer Candidate School, 10-9 to 10-10
Master chief petty officer of the Navy, 11-14
Officer of the deck, 4-2 to 4-3, 4-4 to 4-5
Medals and awards, 9-20 to 9-26
in port, 4-4 to 4-5
marksmanship, 9-22
underway, 4-2 to 4-3
military societies and other organizations,
Officer procurement programs, 3-3 to 3-4
9-23
Chief Warrant Officer (CWO) Program,
order of precedence, 9-20 to 9-22
3-3 to 3-4
wearing of, 9-23 to 9-26
Enlisted Commissioning Program (ECP),
Medical and dental care, 3-17 to 3-18
3-4
Military courtesy, 7-1 to 7-18
Limited Duty Officer (LDO) Program,
3-4
Naval Aviation Cadet (NAVCAD) Pro-
N gram, 3-3
Officers, 3-1 to 3-22
National Security Council, 11-3 appointment process, 10-7 to 10-8
Naval Air Reserve Force Program, 15-6 fitness reports, 3-8 to 3-11
Naval aviation, 12-1 to 12-15 grades and titles, 9-2 to 9-5
antiair warfare, 12-10 to 12-13 mess, 3-19
antisubmarine warfare, 12-13 to 12-15 microfiche, 3-4 to 3-7
fixed-wing aircraft, 12-2 to 12-6 promotions, 3-12 to 3-16
rotary-wing aircraft, 12-6 to 12-8 record, 3-4 to 3-11
Naval heroes, 2-1 to 2-28 service record, 3-7 to 3-8
of the American Revolution, 2-1 to 2-4 uniforms and corps devices, 9-5 to 9-8
of the Civil War, 2-11 to 2-14
of the Korean conflict, 2-22
of the Persian Gulf, 2-24 to 2-28 P
of the Spanish-American War, 2-14
of the Vietnam conflict, 2-22 to 2-24 Parenting, single, 5-8 to 5-9
of the War of 1812, 2-8 to 2-11 Passing honors, 8-6 to 8-7
of the War with France, 2-5 to 2-7 between ships, 8-6
of the War with Tripoli, 2-7 to 2-8 by crew at quarters on entering or leaving
of World War I, 2-15 to 2-17 port, 8-7
of World War II, 2-17 to 2-22 dispensing with, 8-7
Naval Postgraduate School, 10-10 sequence in rendering a, 8-7
Naval presence, 1-14 to officials and officers embarked in
Naval Reserve, 15-1 to 15-6 boats, 8-6
composition of, 15-2 to 15-4 Pay and allowances, 3-16 to 3-17
Naval Air Reserve Force Program, 15-6 allowances, 3-16 to 3-17
training, 15-4 to 15-6 basic, special, and incentive pay, 3-16

INDEX-3
Persian Gulf, 1-9 to 1-10, 2-24 to 2-28 Standard Organization and Regulations of the
Power projection, 1-14 U.S. Navy (SORN), 6-28 to 6-31
Propulsion plants, 17-6 to 17-9 Armed Forces Identification Cards and
leave papers, 6-29
leave and liberty, 6-30
R Strategic deterrence, 1-13
Supply Corps, 13-4 to 13-5
Rates and ratings, 9-11 to 9-13
Survivor’s benefits, 3-21 to 3-22
Research and development, 13-11 to 13-13
Retirement, 3-20 to 3-21
benefits, 3-21
Rio Treaty, 1-20 T

Telecommunications, 12-17 to 12-20

S
Salute, 7-11 to 7-18
U
formal occasions requiring, 7-16 to 7-18
proper manner of rendering, 7-11 to 7-12
U.S. Navy Regulations, 6-1 to 6-6
when not to, 7-15 to 7-16
Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ),
when to, 7-12 to 7-15
6-6 to 6-28
Sea control, 1-13 to 1-14
courts-martial, 6-28
Sea Power, 1-1 to 1-21
nonjudicial punishment, 6-26 to 6-28
during Civil War, 1-4 to 1-5
Uniformed Services University of the Health
during Korean conflict, 1-8 to 1-9
Sciences, 10-10 to 10-11
during Persian Gulf, 1-9 to 1-10
Uniforms, 9-5 to 9-11, 9-13 to 9-18, 9-26 to
during Vietnam conflict, 1-9
9-27
during World War I, 1-6
enlisted personnel, 9-13 to 9-18
during World War II, 1-6 to 1-8
mail-order uniforms, 9-27
history of, 1-2 to 1-5
modifications authorized, 9-26 to 9-27
in modern times, 1-5 to 1-10
officer personnel, 9-5 to 9-11
in the defeat of the spanish armada, 1-3
United States Naval Academy, 10-1 to 10-8
of the Continental navy, 1-3 to 1-4
appointment process, 10-7 to 10-8
Secretary of Defense (SECDEF), 11-4
Security, 13-8 to 13-10
Sexual harassment, 5-10
Sexual responsibility, 5-10 V
Shipboard organization, 16-1 to 16-7
functional, 16-5 to 16-7 Vietnam conflict, 1-9, 2-22 to 2-24
logs, 16-6 to 16-7
shipboard departments, 16-2 to 16-5
watch, quarter, and station bill, 16-6 W
Ships, 17-1 to 17-12, 19-1 to 19-21
basic structure of, 17-1 to 17-6 Warfare, 12-10 to 12-17
combatant, 19-2 to 19-21 amphibious 12-15 to 12-17
compartmentation, 17-4 to 17-6 antiair, 12-10 to 12-13
damage control, 17-9 to 17-12 antisubmarine, 12-13 to 12-15
design and engineering, 17-1 to 17-12 Watch, quarter, and station bill, 16-6
identification of, 19-1 to 19-2 Watch standing, 4-2 to 4-5
propulsion plants, 17-6 to 17-9 combat information center watch officer
types and characteristics of, 19-1 to 19-21 (CICWO), 4-3
watertight integrity of, 17-4 to 17-5 command duty officer (CDO), 4-4
Soviets’, 1-14 to 1-21 engineering officer of the watch (EOOW),
international ties, 1-19 to 1-21 4-3 to 4-4
navy, 1-16 to 1-19 officer of the deck in port, 4-4 to 4-5
navy personnel, 1-17 to 1-19 officer of the deck underway, 4-2 to 4-3

INDEX-4
Watertight integrity, 17-4 to 17-5 Weapons systems—Continued
Weapons systems, 20-1 to 20-15 submarine-launched missiles, 20-7 to 20-9
Aegis, 20-13 to 20-15 surface-launched antiair warfare (AAW)
airborne, 20-9 to 20-10 missiles, 20-4 to 20-6
antisubmarine warfare, 20-11 to 20-13 Women, 2-29 to 2-31, 14-6
close-in weapons system (CIWS), 20-3 in the Marines, 14-6
guns, 20-2 to 20-4 in the Navy, 2-29 to 2-31
nuclear, 20-13 Waves, 2-29 to 2-31

INDEX-5