Olive Gap Manual PDF

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
REGIONAL OFFICE FOR THE NEAR EAST

CAIRO, 2010
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ISBN 978-92-5-106348-4
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FAO 2009
List of Authors
Belkassem Boulouha
National Agricultural Research
Institute (INRA)
Marakesh, Morocco
Anwar Al Ibrahem
General Commission for Scientific
Agricultural Research (GCSAR)
Department of olive research
Idleb, Syria
Mohamed El-Kholy
Olive Grower & Expert
Cairo, Egypt
Costas Gregoriou
Agricultural Research Institute
Nicosia, Cyprus
Nicos Serafids
Agricultural Research Institute
Nicosia, Cyprus
Mohieddine Ksantini
Olive Tree Institute
Sfax, Tunisia
Saleh Shdiefat
National Centre for Agricultural
Research & Extension (NCARE)
Amman, Jordan
66
FOREWORD
Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) is a production approach in which the sequential decisions
taken by the producer during the production process on related issues such as what to grow, how
to prepare the soil, what plant nutrients to use, how to control weeds, pests, diseases, how to
harvests, how to sustain natural resources, protect the ecosystem, etc. With GAP, all such decisions
become subject to an analysis of the implications of the choices taken with respect to: food safety,
environment, social factors (e.g. labor) and the economics. Thus GAP is the application of available
knowledge for the sustainable production of safe, healthy food and non-food agricultural products,
in a humane manner, while achieving economic viability and social responsibility. This concept is
one of knowing, understanding, planning, measuring, recording, and managing to achieve identified
social, environmental and production goals. This requires sound and comprehensive management
strategy and the capability for responsive tactical adjustments as circumstances change, including
special market requirements. Success depends upon developing the skill and knowledge bases, on
continuous recording and analysis of performance, and the use of expert advice as required.
Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) has become an important issue for many developing countries.
The key challenge is how to make agricultural systems more sustainable in a world where food
supply chains are increasingly globalized and complex and pressures on farmers livelihoods are
strong, and where special market demands on production processes are increasing.
The FAO Regional Office for the Near East in Cairo would like to thank all olive experts of the
AARENINA Olive Network for their participation and contributions to this manual and to ARI-
Cyprus for hosting the workshop and in particular to AARINENA and GFAR for their support in
organizing the workshop. Special thanks are extended to Mr. Fawzi Taher, former Crop Production
Officer at FAOs Regional Office for the Near East and currently the Crop Production and Protection
Officer at FAOs Sub-regional Office for Central Asia, and Mr. Ibrahim Hamdan, Executive
Secretary of AARINENA, for supervising and supporting this important work. The contributions
of Mr. Costas Gregoriou, Deputy Director and Head of Production Division at the Agricultural
Research Institute in Cyprus, and Mr. Mohamed Elkholy, olive grower and expert of Egypt,
Ms. Alison Hodder, Senior Officer in the AGPC Horticulture Group and Mr. Matthew Bartlett,
environmental management policy expert, in the preparation and editing of the manual are highly
appreciated. The contributions of other AGP technical officers Mr. Theo Friedrich and Mr.
Harry Van der Wulp - in reviewing sections of the manuscript are also gratefully acknowledged.
The assistance of Ms. Heba Tokali (FAO/RNE) in following up on the production of this manual
is highly appreciated.
Dr. Saad AlOtaibi
Assistant Director General &
Regional Representative for the Near East
77
PREFACE
This manual on Good Agriculture Practices was produced by The Food & Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations, Regional Office for the Near East (FAO/RNE) in collaboration with the
Association of Agricultural Research Institutions in the Near East and North Africa (AARINENA)
& Agriculture Research Institute (ARI), Cyprus and GFAR.
A workshop on this subject was organized in Larnaca, Cyprus from 19 to 21 December 2005 and was
attended by participants from 11 countries: Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Palestine,
Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia & Yemen and most participants were members of AARINENA Olive
Network and representatives from ICARDA and ESCORENA. The workshop was mainly dedicated
to preparation and finalization of guidelines on Good Agricultural Practices for the Near East and
North Africa olive producing countries. The workshop has adapted the guidelines for participatory
on-farm research to the specific conditions of the Near East and North Africa, taking into accounts
the prevailing climatic conditions of the region.
It is envisaged that this manual, which takes a step-by step approach for each phase of olive
production, will contribute to:
a) Environmentally friendly and economically viable production of olives, ensuring that the produce
is safe to eat and that farm labour concerns are taken into consideration;
b) Improving the productivity of olive-based farming systems in the Near East and North Africa
countries on a sustainable basis;
c) Ensuring the long-term future of olive grove holdings and help growers face fluctuations in the
market.
d) Bringing farmers and facilitators together to carry out guided and collaborative olive crop
trials;
e) Bringing collaborators to a closer understanding of the crop and its interaction with the local
environment
It is hoped that the present manual will serve as a good source of information for the olive specialists
in the region as well as farmers and olive growers.
Fawzi Taher
Regional Crop Production Officer FAO/RNE
Cairo, Egypt
88
LIST OF ACRONYMS
AARINENA: Association of Agricultural Research Institutions in the Near East and North Africa.
ACSAD: The Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands
AKST: Agricultural Knowledge for Science and Technology.
BOD5/COD: Biochemical Oxygen Demand /Chemical Oxygen Demand
CDI: Controlled Deficit Irrigation.
CEC: Cation Exchange Capacity.
CIHEAM: International Center for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies.
EIL: Economic injury level.
ESCORENA: European System of Cooperative Research Networks in Agriculture.
ETL or ET: Economic threshold level.
EU: European Union.
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization.
FAO/RNE: Food and Agriculture Organization, Regional Office for Near East.
FAOSTAT: Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics.
g: Gram.
GAP: Good Agricultural Practices.
GFAR: Global Forum on Agricultural Research.
GLASOD: Global Assessment of Human Induced Soil Degradation.
Ha: Hectare
HACCP: Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System.
HDPE: High-density polyethylene
IBA: Indole Butyric Acid.
ICARDA: International Center For Agricultural Research In The Dry Areas.
ICM: Integrated Crop Management..
IGMS: Integrated Grove Management System
IOC: International Olive Council, formerly IOOC: International Olive Council
IPGRI: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute.
IPM: Integrated Pest Management.
IPNM: Integrated Pest and Nutrition Management
ISO: International Organization for Standardization
Kg: Kilogram.
99
FLO: Fair-trade Labeling Organization International system
LDPE: Low-density polyethylene
LP: Low pressure.
m: Meter
MRL: Maximum Residue Limit.
MT: Metric Tonne
MTO: Mother Tree Orchard.
NGO: Non Governmental Organization.
NPS: Non-point sources.
OC: Off-centre.
OC: Olive cake.
OVW: Olive vegetable water.
OWW: Olive Waste Water.
P.H.I: Pre-Harvest Interval.
PHPWG: Post Harvest & Processing Working Group.
ppm: parts per million
PPWG: Production and Protection Working Group.
PVC: polyvinyl chloride
R&D: Research and Development.
RDI: Regulated Deficit Irrigation.
SAN: Sustainable Agricultural Network.
SAR: Sodium Adsorption Ratio.
SECWG: Socio Economic and Commercialization Working Group
TDS: Total Dissolved Solids.
UAE: United Arab Emirates.
UB: Urea blocks.
UNEP: United Nations Environment Program.
VPD: Vapour Pressure Deficit.
WANA: West Asia North Africa.
WG: Working Group.
WHO: World Health Organization.
WTO: World Trade Organization.
10 10
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Background 14
1.2 Principles and objectives 14
1.3 Monitoring- Certification 16
1.4 Concerns of small holders 16
1.5 Role of governments or intergovernmental agencies 17
1.6 GAP and FAO 18
1.7 Training 18
1.8 Resource Materials 19
2. Constraints & Strengths of Olive Sector in WANA (AARINENA) Countries
2.1 General 21
2.2 Main constraints and future vision 22
2.2.1 Agricultural Knowledge for Science and Technology (AKST) 22
2.2.2 Natural Resources 22
2.2.3 Planting materials 23
2.2.4 Horticultural and Cultural Practices 24
2.2.5 Post-harvest handling and storage 24
2.2.6 Marketing 24
2.2.7 Future vision 25
2.3 AARINENA Olive Network 25
2.4 Olive profile in WANA (AARINENA) countries 26
2.4.1 Algeria 27
2.4.2 Cyprus 27
2.4.3 Egypt 28
2.4.4 Iran 30
2.4.5 Iraq 31
2.4.6 Jordan 31
2.4.7 Kuwait 32
2.4.8 Lebanon 32
2.4.9 Libya 32
2.4.10 Malta 33
2.4.11 Morocco 33
11 11
2.4.12 Occupied Palestinian Territory 34
2.4.13 Saudi Arabia 34
2.4.14 Syria 35
2.4.15 Tunisia 36
2.4.16 Turkey 37
2.4.17 Yemen 38
2. 5 Manual on GAP Guidelines for in WANA (AARINENA) countries 39
Chapter 3. Soil
3.1 Suitable soils for growing olives 42
3.2 Soil degradation (definition, types and causes) 42
3.3 Soil history 46
3.4 General guidelines on soil management 46
3.5 Types and causes of soil erosion 48
3.6 Selection criteria for soil cultivation systems 51
3.6.1 Traditional soil cultivation systems 51
3.6.2 Non-traditional soil cultivation systems 53
3.7 Importance of growing floor vegetation cover in row-middle 54
3.8 Cultivation systems and water retention / infiltration / evaporation 56
3.9 Productivity under different cultivation systems and associated costs 57
3.10 Soil chemical degradation 58
3.11 Conserving the chemical and biological properties of the soil: 58
3.11.1 The role of soil organisms and organic matter in sustaining soil
fertility and health 59
3.11. 2 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) 62
3.11. 3 Soil pH 64
3.12 GAP Guidelines for soil management in WANA region olive groves 67
3.12.1 Management of soil erosion and compaction with GAP Guidelines 68
3.12.2 Management of soil chemical, biological and physical properties
with GAP Guidelines 73
3.14 Pictures acknowledgment 81
12 12
Chapter 4. Water
4.1 Water perspectives of ancient civilizations 82
4.2 Olive cultivation necessity under the water situation in the (WANA) region 82
4.3 GAP Guidelines for water conservation and protection in the olive sector of
the WANA region 87
Chapter 5. Design of new groves, Germplasm (varieties) and Propagation- Nursery
5.1 General guidelines 92
5.2 Site selection 92
5.3 Choice of cultivar(s) 93
5.4 Use of pollinators 93
5.5 Planting distance, plant density and orchard layout 93
5.6 Germplasm and planting materials 94
5.7 Propagation- Nursery 96
5.7.1 Rooting of Cuttings 96
5.7.2 Rooting Hormones 97
5.7.3 Rooting Media 97
5.7.4 Rooting facilities 98
5.7.5 Hardening, Soil mixtures, Containers and other cultural practices 99
5.7.6 Grafting/budding of seedlings 100
5.8 Source of Scion Wood and Cuttings 102
5.9 Quality Standards, Legislation and Regulations for the production and Marketing
of Plant Multiplication Materials 103
Chapter 6. Tree training and pruning methods
6.1 General Principles of Olive Tree Pruning 107
6.2 Timing, tools and cuts of pruning, 108
6.3 Types of pruning 108
6.3.1 Training pruning 109
6.3.1.1 Training pruning in intensive orchards 109
6.3.2 Pruning to promote fruit production 109
6.3.3 Rejuvenation and regeneration pruning 110
6.3.4 Mechanical pruning in intensive orchards 112
13 13
Chapter 7. Irrigation
7.1 Basic background information on olive plant water relations 114
7.1.1 Adaptability of olive trees to drought 114
7.1.2 Influence of water availability on the performance of olive trees 115
7.1.3 Moisture availability in relation to fruit development & oil accumulation 119
7.1.4 Irrigation effect on the quality of olive fruits 121
7.1.5 Behaviour of the olive tree root system in relation to water availability 122
7.1.6 The general behaviour of olive trees in response to water salinity 123
7.1.6.1 A success story of two decades of an Olive Field Model using
highly saline water in irrigating olives trees 124
7.1.6.2 Effect of saline water on the physiology of olive trees 128
7.1.6.3 Potential hazards from using saline water in irrigation and related
management principles 128
7.2 Estimating water requirements of olive trees 131
7.3 Irrigation scheduling and management in olive groves 134
7.3.1 Olive grower involvement in scheduling irrigation 134
7.3.2 Principles for estimating olive tree consumptive water use rates 135
7.3.3 Developing an olive irrigation schedule 137
7.3.4 Estimating leaching requirement for saline water 142
7.3.5 Procedure for monitoring and measuring soil moisture content 142
7.4 The importance of integrated management and GAP guidelines when irrigating
olive trees 143
7.5 The most viable irrigation systems for olive groves in the WANA region 145
7.5.1 Drawbacks of traditional irrigation systems under the WANA conditions 145
7.5.2 Modern localized water saving irrigation systems for olive groves in the
WANA region 146
7.5.3 Other water saving methods suitable for irrigating olives in the WANA region 148
7.6 Factors influencing selection of micro-irrigation systems for olive groves 148
7.6.1 Features of the two main types of micro-irrigation systems 148
7.6.2 Blockage (clogging) in micro-irrigation systems 152
7.7 Irrigation GAP guidelines for olive groves 153
7.7.1 Design objectives of micro-irrigation systems 154
7.7.2 Guidelines for the design criteria of micro-irrigation systems 155
7.7.3 Guidelines for the installation of micro-irrigation system 158
14 14
7.7.4 Guidelines for the operation management of micro-irrigation system 160
7.7.5 Guidelines for maintenance management of micro-irrigation system 162
7.7.6 Clogging management in micro-irrigation system 164
7.7.7 Summary of olive grove micro-irrigation system maintenance management 167
7.7.8 General guidelines for irrigation management of olive trees when
using saline water 168
7.7.9 Specific guidelines obtained from the Egyptian long term Field Model for
irrigation management of olive trees when using highly saline water 169
7.7.10 Minimizing pollution of water sources from olive irrigation 174
Chapter 8. Fertilization
8.1 The importance of nutrients 179
8.2 Critical levels of essential elements in olive leaves 180
8.3 Nitrogen fertilization 180
8.4 Phosphorus fertilization 181
8.5 Potassium fertilization 181
8.6 Correcting deficiencies of other elements 182
8.7 Fertilization in WANA countries 182
8.7.1 Fertilization of olive trees in Syria 182
8.7.2 Fertilization of olive trees in Morocco 183
8.7.3 Fertilization of olive trees in Cyprus 184
8.7.4 Fertilization of olive trees in Jordan 184
8.7.5 Fertilization of olive trees in Egypt 185
8.7.6 Fertilization of olive trees in Libya 186
8.7.7 Fertilization of olive trees in Yemen 186
8.7.8 Fertilization of olive trees in Palestinian Occupied Territory 187
8.7.9 Fertilization of olive trees in Tunisia 187
8. 8 Organic fertilizers-Cover Crops-Green Manure 187
8. 9 Recommendations on the management of organic fertilizers 188
8.10 Fertigation/Fertirrigation 189
8.11 Fertilization / Environment 190
15 15
Chapter 9. Alternate Bearing in Olive Trees
9.1 Factors affecting alternate bearing of fruit trees in general 194
9.2 Factors affecting alternate bearing of olive trees 194
9.2.1 Cropping level -shoot length-fruiting ability 194
9.2.2 Age of trees 195
9.2.3 Maturity-harvesting 195
9.2.4 Chilling requirements 195
9.2.5 Weather Disease 196
9.2.6 Fruit thinning 196
9.2.7 Pruning 196
9.2.8 Irrigation 196
9.2.9 Fertilization 197
9.2.10 Metabolic reasons for alternation 197
Chapter 10. Weed management
10.1 General information on weed management 199
10.2 Monitoring of weeds 200
10.3 Weed management before planting 200
10.3.1 Cultivation (when chosen by the grower) 201
10.3.2 Cover Crops 201
10.3.3 Soil solarization 201
10.3.4 Flaming 201
10.3.5 Herbicides 202
10.3.5.1 Pre-emergent Herbicides 202
10.3.5.2 Post-emergent Herbicides 202
10.4 Weed management after planting 203
10.4.1 Cultivation (if used in preference to minimumtill or no till approach) 203
10.4.2 Cover Crops 203
10.4.3 Mulches 204
10.4.4 Herbicides 204
Annex 1 Catalogue with the main perennial weeds and management program 205
Annex 2 Catalogue with the main herbicide treatments in olive orchards 207
Chapter 11. Pest and disease management
11.1 General guidelines 211
11.2 Application phases of integrated pest and disease management 212
11.3 Key elements of integrated pest and disease management 213
11.3.1 Pest and disease identification 213
16 16
11.3.2 Risk assessment and monitoring 213
11.3.3 Monitoring 214
11.3.4 Economic injury level (EIL) 214
11.3.5 Action Threshold 214
11.3.6 Management 215
11.3.6.1 Pest and disease management in the nursery 215
11.3.6.2 Pest and disease management before planting 215
11.3.6.3 Pest and disease management after planting 215
11.3.6.4 Pest and disease management in Organic Olive Growing 217
11.4 Pesticide Management (use, misuse and precautions) 218
11.5 Guidelines for control of the main pests and diseases 220
11.5.1 Insects and mites 220
11.5.2 Diseases 228
11.5.3 Other 233
Chapter 12. Harvesting, Post-Harvest, Processing and Olive By-Products
12.1 Harvesting 236
12.1.1 Harvesting Time 236
12.1.2 Harvesting Methods 236
12.1.2.1 Hand Harvesting (Picking) 236
12.1.2.2 Mechanical Harvesting 237
12.1.3 Collecting 238
12.2 Post-Harvest and Processing 238
12.2.1 Transporting and Storing the Olives Prior to Processing 238
12.2.2 Processing olives to oil 239
12.2.2.1 Leaf removal and olive washing 239
12.2.2.2 Crushing 240
12.2.2.3 Mixing (Malaxation) 241
12.2.2.4 Separation of the Phases 241
12.3 Oil Storage 244
12.3.1 Filling and Packaging 246
12.3.2 Machinery Cleaning and Maintenance 246
12.4 Olive By-Products 246
12.4.1 Oil Processing By-Products 246
12.4.2 Olive Pomace 246
12.4.3 Olive Vegetative Water (OVW) or Olive Waste Water (OWW) 247
12.4.4 Olive Pruning Residues 249
12. 5 Resource Materials 251
Annex 1 List of Participants to the GAP Workshop, Larnaca, Cyprus, 19-21/12/ 2005
and Workshop agenda 252
17 17
1. Introduction
Costas Gregoriou
Agricultural Research Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus
1.1 Background
In the past twenty years, a wide array of social, environmental and quality standards, codes of
practice and certification programmes have appeared in agriculture and the food sector. Governments
and their research and extension departments have traditionally developed production guidelines
for specific commodities or systems. In developed countries, governments have also established
regulations on food safety and quality, voluntary standards on organic agriculture, and sustainability
assessment schemes. A more novel trend is the accelerated development of codes driven by the agri-
food sector and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Producer organizations have developed
codes and certification for organic production systems or programmes and other codes have been
put in place by the retail food sector, such as EurepGap. Many social and environmental standards
have been developed by NGOs, such as the Fair-trade Labeling Organization International system,
the Social Accountability standard SA8000 for working conditions on hired labourers and the SAN
(Sustainable Agricultural Network) Rainforest Alliance Sustainable Agriculture Programme. Food
quality and safety systems have also been developed, with the most well known being the Training
Manual on Food Hygiene and the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) System.
Voluntary codes and guidelines are developed when implementation of governmental or
intergovernmental standards do not fully meet societal or market needs. Voluntary standards and
certification use market incentives in order to encourage management improvements above the
minimum level required by law; to support implementation of legislation; or to suggest a framework
when formal laws may not exist. These initiatives play a complementary role alongside (inter)-
governmental regulatory frameworks or public-funded education and extension schemes. Some
certification and labelling programmes have helped secure substantial market shares for farmers,
and they sometimes affect areas that are of concern to many societies and governments, such as the
environment and labour conditions.
1.2 Principles and objectives
The concept of Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) has evolved in the context of a rapidly changing
and globalizing food economy and as a result of the concerns and commitments of a wide range
of stakeholders about food production and security, food safety and quality, and the environmental
sustainability of agriculture. These stakeholders include governments, food processing and retailing
industries, farmers, agricultural workers, NGOs and consumers, who seek to meet specific objectives
of food security, food quality, production efficiency, livelihoods and environmental benefits in both
the medium and long term.
18 18
Broadly defined, a GAP approach applies recommendations and available knowledge to addressing
environmental, economic and social sustainability for on-farm production and post-production
processes resulting in safe and healthy food and non-food agricultural products. However, the term
Good Agricultural Practice implies different meanings for different sectors. For example, GAP is
formally recognized terminology used in the international regulatory framework with associated
codes of practice to minimize or prevent the contamination of food. Additionally, the term is used to
refer to private, voluntary and non-regulatory applications that are being developed and applied in a
number of forms by governments, civil society organizations and the private sector to meet farmers
and consumers needs and specific requirements in the food chain.
The development of GAP applications in these different contexts has not taken place in a holistic
or coordinated way. From the production (supply) perspective, farmers inherently apply practices
that aim to achieve economic viability while conserving their own natural resource base and
maintaining their cultural or social values. From the demand perspective, consumers (and the
associated processors and retailers) can have concerns both about the safety and quality of the
agricultural products themselves, and also the process including good agricultural practice that
is used to produce them. Because GAP is currently generally being driven by demand-side actors,
there are a number of possible implications that must be addressed for the further development and
application of a GAP approach. A critical challenge is to ensure that the expanding use of GAP will
take into account the interests of smaller-scale producers in developing countries both for the safety,
economy and sustainability of domestic production and securing farmers livelihoods.
Additionally, several related issues must be taken into consideration, including:
a) The GAP approach, general principles and specific guidelines for integrated production
and commodity-based systems at differing scales;
b) Possible incentives for implementation of a GAP approach within the current
landscape of principles, certification, accreditation, labelling, and the modern market
context including rapid urbanization;
c) The mechanisms to address the needs and priorities of farmers, workers and vulnerable
communities in the development of GAP; and
d) The type of information exchange, capacity building and awareness raising efforts
that need to be supported to enhance the ability of farmers to meet market demands.
The GAP approach should set out the process (protocols) for the full sequence of decisions and
actions required to produce a certain crop, from land preparation to on-farm storage. Various
services of international and national institutions have specialized in making recommendations to
optimize the components of production, such as IPM for pests, IPNM for fertilizer inputs, no-tillage
based conservation agriculture for land preparation, improved varieties, new agronomic practices,
EUREPGAP for segregated markets, etc. Most of these elements can be integrated into the GAP
process.
19 19
In conclusion, the GAP process embraces actions, technologies and systems that are based on the
following four pillars:
1. Economic viability;
2. Environmental sustainability;
3. Socially acceptable land-use; and
4. Inclusive of food safety and quality dimensions.
The benefits of GAP application will accrue to:
a) small, medium and large-scale farmers, who may achieve added value for their
produce and better access to markets;
b) consumers, who will be assured of better quality and safer food, produced in sustainable
ways;
c) business and industry, which will gain profit from better products; and
d) all people, who will enjoy a better environment.
1.3 Monitoring - Certification
Monitoring and/or certification by an independent third party play a critical role in assuring the
credibility of GAPs. However, this presumes that intervention by a government or public agency
would improve quality monitoring and certification. In many developing countries, this may not
be the case given limited resources and infrastructure for monitoring. An ineffective or corrupt
regulatory system will weaken the credibility of public sector-driven GAPs. Even in more developed
countries, the cost of compliance monitoring in agriculture, particularly where it is characterised
by a large number of smaller producers, is often seen as prohibitive. A number of industry-based
monitoring schemes have been developed based on self-assessment or peer assessment. These
have the advantage of allowing groups of agricultural producers to demonstrate their environmental
credentials rather than being forced into sub-optimal arrangements through formal regulation.
1.4 Concerns of smallholders
The potential exclusion of smallholders in developing countries from GAP systems is a concern that
needs to be addressed. Strategies to avoid exclusion include:

Providing ample education and training to overcome human capital constraints;

Fostering the development of the institutional infrastructure necessary to support GAPs within a
developing country environment (e.g. third party monitoring, quality verification systems);

Encouraging the participation of farmer associations or co-operatives to provide a critical mass
in terms of supply, a conduit for the dissemination of information on GAPs to smallholders and
to improve the bargaining power of individual farmers vis--vis larger retailers or processors.
However, smallholders in developing countries may face serious constraints when trying to take
advantage of codes or certification systems and the increased market access or price premiums they
20 20
may deliver. Some standards only operate at wholesale and buyer level but do not lead to labelling
on the product for consumer information. Therefore, the GAP products are not differentiated from
others and there may not always be a price premium for farmers for meeting the standard, although
they have to pay for related investments or certification. Another challenge is that requirements
for traceability and quality favor large commercial farms. Also, in some countries a lack of local
certification bodies increases certification costs. The fair-trade system is especially developed to
help small producers in developing countries, but the potential benefits are curtailed by a limited
market.
Other challenges for small farmers include: large quantity requirements from modern processors or
retailers; and more demanding commercial practices (reliable accounting, logistics, strict timing).
A corollary is that government and international organizations such as FAO may need to design
interventions which address GAP adoption together with the broader range of management and
institutional support which farmers will need to meet changing market requirements for it to be
embraced on a scale to make a real difference. The cost, both in terms of changing individual farm
practices as well as in time-consuming one-on-one extension work, should not be underestimated.
1.5 Role of governments or intergovernmental agencies
Governments and/or intergovernmental agencies may assume various roles in relation to the
development of GAP-related standards and schemes. Innovative responses may need to be explored
to minimize potential trade-offs or seek synergies between food safety and quality GAPs (mainly
driven by market actors) and food security or sustainability GAPs (mainly driven by public agencies
and NGOs).
First of all, governments provide the legal environment in which voluntary schemes operate.
Governments may also legally protect the use of certain terms for product labelling. More actively,
government agencies may act directly as standard setting or accreditation bodies. Governments and
international institutions may also actively facilitate certification or support farmers to meet new
market demands. For instance, they can facilitate establishment of local certification bodies, or
support organizations advocating implementation of standards. Some governments also advocate
the establishment of subsidies or tax incentives to producers which implement specific standards;
although there is no consensus among countries as to whether these are effective, equitable and
acceptable instruments. Finally, government and international agencies may provide capacity
building to farmers, producer organizations and extension staff, and help farmers and markets better
organize to meet changing demands in food markets.
There is some confusion around the wide range of different schemes already in place in some
countries and across various industries, as well as their interaction with environmental protection
21 21
laws. Industry experience in some places has leaned toward keeping the scheme as simple as
practicable to get a critical mass of farmers involved, and then moving the whole group forward
at a manageable pace. The demonstration effect of industry leaders is also important so farmers
who doubt the benefits of such schemes can observe them first hand before taking the sometimes
daunting steps into changed agricultural practices.
Ultimately, appropriate interventions will be a matter of political choices based on the specific
national and local context, the strength and weaknesses and competitiveness of the national
agricultural sector and specific commodities.
1.6 GAP and FAO
The FAO, recognizing the importance of GAP in meeting its objectives, has developed a framework
which sets out the guiding principles of good agriculture within 11 elements of resource concerns,
disciplines and practices. These are soil, water, crop and fodder production, animal production,
animal health animal welfare, harvest and on farm processing and storage, energy and waste
management, human welfare, health and safety, and wildlife and landscape. Using this framework,
detailed management guidelines can be prepared for individual production systems within specific
agro-ecosystems. These guidelines require tactical adjustments as circumstances change.
FAO might also provide an international and neutral platform for deliberations (consultations)
between the stakeholders with the objective of developing a GAP approach, including certification
system, towards concrete implementation of sustainable agriculture and rural development.
The approach to GAPs should not be prescriptive, nor lead to the development of new international
mandatory standards or codes. On the contrary GAP should be developed and implemented on a
voluntary basis.
This initiative aims to prepare GAP Guidelines for olive cultivation in WANA (AARINENA)
countries.
1.7 Training
In order to achieve the practical objective of this initiative, which is the implementation of the
GAP approach by the farmers, appropriate and targeted training also has to be also undertaken. It is
recommended that two types of training be carried out; training for trainers and training for farmers.
The training for trainers should be targeted at private and public agriculturists, technicians and
other authorities who are either responsible or connected with olive cultivation in AARINENA
countries. Training for farmers should be available for all farmers in the region who are involved
in the cultivation of olives. The FAO has a paramount role to play in this very important issue,
along with the other actors.
22 22
This guide has been prepared in a modular form, addressing the range of key production issues
farmers would need to address in developing and implementing GAP on individual farms and
across the olive sector of the AARINENA countries. It is designed so that it can be progressively
updated and expanded over time while offering pull-out sections to support training on particular
sub-topics. It aims to provide appropriate background material on each of the sub-topics, a robust
scientific underpinning for recommended practices, as well as the GAP Guidelines themselves.
The authors see this as a major step forward in bringing a coordinated approach to GAP across
the region but would like to stress the importance of applying the recommended practices in a
manner that suits the conditions that vary across the region. Feedback on how to improve the
usefulness of these Guidelines is of course appreciated.
1.8 Resource Materials
Approaches to sustainable agriculture in European countries (EU) http://europa.eu/scadplus/
leg/en/lvb/l28101.htm.
Code of Best Agricultural Practice Nitrogen. European fertilizer Manufactures Association
EFMA. http://www.efma.org/publications/nitrogen/index.asp.
Code of Good Practice for Farm Animal Breeding and Reproduction (EU). http://europa.eu.int/
rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/06/257&type=HTML&aged=0&language=E
N&guiLanguage=en.
COLEACP 2000. The COLEACP Harmonized Framework, Europe/Africa-Caribbean-PacificLia
isonCommitteeWebsite:http://www.coleacp.org/COLEACP5,ruedeCorderieCentra,342,F
- 94586 RUNGIS CEDEX.
Cross Compliance in European countries (EU). Agriculture and Environment. http://ec.europa.
eu/agriculture/envir/index_en.htm#crosscom.
EUREPGAP. 2004. Control points and compliance criteria of Fruit and Vegetables. Version
2.1 Oct 04. Website, www..eurep.org Copyright: EUREPGAP c/o Food Plus GmbH,
Spichrnstr. 55, D-50672 Kln (Cologne), Germany.
European Union CAP reform. A long-term perspective for sustainable agriculture. http://
ec.europa.eu/agriculture/capreform/index_en.htm.
Eurostat, Olive area and olives and olive oil production, consumption imports and exports.
FAO publications and documents on GAP. 2001 Report of Technical Meeting on Good Farming
Standards- Codes of Practice to Lead the Transition to Sustainable Agriculture, Rome, 6
April 2001. PRODS PAIA. FAO Rome.
http://www.fao.org/prods/GAP/archive/gaptoleadSA_en.htm.
FAO publications and documents on GAP. 2001. Report of Technical Meeting on Good Farming
Standards- Codes of Practice to Lead the Transition to Sustainable Agriculture, Rome, 6 April
2001. PRODS PAIA, FAO Website: http://www.fao.org/prods/GAP/archive/gaptoleadSA_
en.htm.
FAO publications and documents on GAP. 2003. Development of a Framework for Good
23 23
Agricultural Practices. Rome, 31 March-4 April 2003. Committee on Agriculture,
Seventeenth Session. COAG/2003/6 Website: http://www.fao.org/prods/GAP/archive/
gapatcoag_files/cl124fao_files/Y8704e.htm.
FAO publications and documents on GAP. 2003. Report of the Expert Consultation on a
Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) Approach. 10 - 12 November 2003. Rome, Italy. FAO
Agriculture Department Report. Website: http://www.fao.org/prods/GAP/archive/final_
report_ec_gap.doc.
FAO Training Manual on improving the quality and safety of fresh fruit and vegetables: A
practical approach. Food Quality and Standard Service. Food and Nutrition Service. FAO,
Rome. Website: http://www.fao.org/es/ESN/CDfruits_en/lunch.html.
FAO/WHO Commission. 1963. Food Standards. Codex Alimentarius Website: http://www.
codexalimentarius.net/web/index_en.jsp.
FAOSTAT, Olive area and olives and olive oil production, consumption imports and
exports.
Farming Systems and Poverty. Improving farmers livelihoods in a changing world. Eds.
Dixon,J , Gulliver, A , Gibbon and Malcolm Hall ( Principal Editor) FAO and World Bank,
Rome and Washington D.C. 2001
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/003/y1860e/y1860e00.pdf.
Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), FAO http://www.fao.org/prods/GAP/gapindex_en.htm.
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HACCP. 1998 . Food Quality and Safety Systems - A Training Manual on Food Hygiene and
the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) System. Webpsite: http://www.
fao.org/docrep/W8088E/W8088E00.htm. Food Quality and Standards Service Food and
Nutrition Division , Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Integrated production systems , FAO http://www.fao.org/prods/links.asp.
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Manual on Development and Use of FAO and WHO Specifications for Pesticides. 2002. First
Edition prepared by the FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on Pesticide Specifications (JMPS)
Rome, 2002. FAO and WHO Publication.
Strategy for sustainable development in EU http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l28117.htm.
World Agriculture towards 20015/2030. Summary Report. Economic and Social Department.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.2002 http://www.fao.org/
documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/004/y3557e/y3557e00.htm.
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24 24
2. Constraints & Strengths of Olive Sector in
WANA (AARINENA) Countries
Costas Gregoriou
2.1 General
The olive tree is a major agricultural crop in WANA (AARINENA) countries and its economic
importance in this region is well recognized. Olive oil has historically been associated with
sustaining human life in many parts of the Mediterranean Basin and it has provided mankind with
essential nutrients for thousands of years. The olive tree is a symbol of peace and the fruit itself is
mentioned in the literature of many religions. Olives and olive oil are a particularly favourite food
for the Mediterranean people and have been a basic staple food in their diet. Olives and olive oil
are appreciated for their nutritional value, delicate flavor and quality.
In WANA (AARINENA) countries, olive cultivation is a crop capable of establishing a sustainable
system in subsistence agricultural areas. It thus plays an important social role in reinforcing the
subsistence-base of a large population group by encouraging settlement in rural areas versus
migration to urban centres. Thousands of families depend on the crop for the bulk of their income,
as a large number of olive groves in several countries in this region belong to small and medium-
size holders. It also provides seasonal employment for many farmers, especially women.
The AARINENA countries in alphabetical order where olive trees are cultivated are: Algeria,
Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Occupied Palestinian
Territory, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey and Yemen.
The traditional cultivation method still predominates in olive industry, in spite of the emergence of
the intensive and irrigated modern olive growing methods. Generally, traditional olive growing is
localized in the arid and semi-arid regions and the mountainous zones. In these regions/zones, olive tree
production presents the only possible livelihood and culture. The olive tree has low productivity in those
regions, but it provides a model of sustainable use of natural resources, while limiting desertification and
strengthening water and soil conservation. The olive tree is generally cultivated in compact plantations
and is sometimes mixed with other fruit trees. Plantation density varies appreciably according to the
availability of water. Orchard density also varies according to soil and climate conditions and variety.
Most frequently, 70-150 olives are planted to the hectare. Modern young olive groves are developed in
plains with higher densities.According to the FAOSTAT, in 2004/2005 the world area cultivated with
olives was 8,194,089 ha, of which 3,772,989 ha or 46.05% was in WANA (AARINENA) countries. For
the same period, world olive production was 16,162,066 MT, of which 4,044,696 MT or 25.03% was
produced in the AARINENA region. The majority of olives in WANA (AARINENA) countries are used
for olive oil production.
25 25
World olive oil production was 3,018,269 tons in 2003/2004. About 18.43% (556,354 tons) of world olive
oil production comes from WANA (ARRINENA) countries (mainly Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Morocco,
Jordan, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Algeria, Lebanon and Libya). World consumption of olive oil has
been increasing fairly steadily, and was 2,589,265 MT in 2003/2004, of which 15.36% or 397,705 MT
was consumed in the AARINENA region. For the same period AARINENA countries exported 177,336 MT
of olive oil or 14.91% of world exports and imported 31,383 MT or 2.35% of world imports.
Table olive consumption in the WANA (AARINENA) region is relatively high compared with olive
oil consumption. In 2002/2003, olive consumption in the region was 928,959 MT or 46.11% of world
consumption. For the same period table olive imports and exports in the region were 782 MT (3.58% of
world imports) and 282 MT (1.33% of world exports), respectively.
2.2 Main constraints and future vision
The main constraints on the olive sector in WANA (AARINENA) countries can be grouped as
follows:
2.2.1 Agricultural Knowledge for Science and Technology (AKST)
The number of scientists and the research & development (R&D) effort going into agriculture are
still insufficient. There is a shortage of innovative and modern technology, as well as inadequate
laboratories and equipment for research studies. Research institutions exist in many countries in the
region. Most of them, however, are fragmented and lack adequate financial support and technical
facilities. Therefore, R&D should be strengthened and coordination needs be established to bridge
the existing gap between these institutions, the farmers and the private industry.
2.2.2 Natural Resources
Managing the finite natural resources required for olive and olive oil production is one of the key
themes throughout these GAP Guidelines. Farmers know of the need to balance short-run profit
from maximizing production at the cost of longer-terms sustainability. Many understand the need
to ensure these resources are there for future generations to enjoy and utilize and that it requires
considerable effort to understand the often complex landscapes in which they live and work.Later
chapters deal with the specific approaches to balance production and environmental outcomes,
including water management, scarcity and quality, and improving water-use efficiency. Similarly,
management of soil, erosion and on-going fertility are canvassed in detail.
Managing and sustaining native biodiversity and its essential support of ecosystem function needs
to be better understood in order for the olive and olive oil sectors to survive and flourish in this
region. This is important when managing well known factors that impact on the environment such as
pollution, but all the more so as we come to grips with the need to adapt to our changing climate.
26 26
2.2.3 Planting materials
Many olive cultivars have been developed over the centuries, which differ in various ways, including
the size, colour of the fruit and the oil content. This wide range of olive biodiversity was brought
about by centuries of interaction between growers and the natural environment. Each Mediterranean
country has its own unique cultivars, and many seedling trees are cultivated. Some orchards (groves)
are hundreds of years old, and declining trees may have become re-established from root suckers,
making it impossible to tell what cultivars were originally planted.
In addition, there is considerable confusion around cultivars throughout the Mediterranean region,
where the same name may be given to similar cultivars and different names may be used for
identical cultivars. Some cultivars are found only locally where as others are spread in several
countries. The presence of so many varieties, many of which are little different, can lead to incorrect
identification.
Varietal surveys have been undertaken in almost all WANA (AARINENA) countries. These are
undertaken to determine and describe cultivated olive varieties and thus obtain information which can
be used for varietal improvement for modern olive growing as well as for distinctive characterization
of varieties specific to different olive growing regions. Morphological and phenological traits have
traditionally been used to evaluate olive cultivars. The recent development of DNA molecular
markers has led to the emergence of new genetic markers for identifying olive varieties. Micro-
satellites have already been proven to be very suitable markers for cultivar identification and identity
typing in several crop species, allowing precise discrimination of even closely related individuals.
The main objectives of these varietal surveys are that:
a) the olive biodiversity brought about by centuries of interaction between growers and
nature be documented, published and made available via the Internet;
b) erosion and desertification will be diminished in areas where social development
is strongly based almost only on olive growing, thus allowing rural populations to
remain on their lands;
c) the genetic variability not yet lost will be saved for future generations thus stopping
genetic erosion, which is a high risk everywhere in the Mediterranean Basin; and
d) the selected varieties will further enhance the cultivation of olives as a sustainable
crop in the current growing areas .
Another very important component of managing planting materials is multiplication and certification.
Modern propagation techniques, good nursery facilities as well as appropriate certification
schemes should be established for the production of high quality, healthy and true-to-type planting
materials.
27 27
2.2.4 Horticultural and Cultural Practices
Horticultural practices have a direct effect on fruit yield and quality. In many of the olive producing
countries in the region, several problems exist that affect both the yield and quality of the fruit
produced. In most of the Mediterranean countries, the management of olive oil groves is tightly
linked to tradition. When intensively farmed, the olive tree responds generously to cultural care.
In WANA (AARINENA) countries, the main topics and cultural practices addressed in subsequent
chapters of these Guidelines include:

Design of new groves, selection of variety and planting distances;

Tree training and pruning methods;

Selection and installation of modern irrigation systems and water-use efficiency;

Fertilization recommendations and management of organic fertilizers;

Fertigation/Fertirrigation;

Control of alternate bearing;

Guidelines on soil cultivation systems, erosion, and organic matter;

Weed management;

Pest and disease control and key elements of integrated pest management (fruit and oil quality
and residues);

Pesticide Management (use, misuse and precautions);

Guidelines for control of the main pests and diseases; and

Farmers health and safety.
2.2.5 Post-harvest handling and storage
Issues covered include the improvement of oil extraction plants, storage and packing facilities,
processing and preservation units for table olives as well as the introduction of modern technology.
Other matters to be considered are the by-products of oil processing and valorisation and
environmental issues.
2.2.6 Marketing
Marketing is relatively weak due to the lack of product classification, lack of marketing skills,
inadequate packaging and low consumption due the lack of awareness of the contribution of
olive oil to human health. However, it is recognized that without coordinated and comprehensive
marketing efforts, the potential benefits an agricultural industry GAP system offers will be seriously
diluted. Consumers need to know that their demands for clean green produce have been heard
and responded to. Wholesalers need to know they can continuously source and show they are
able to provide such products to consumers. And regulators need to be comforted that industry is
self-regulating the surest way in which to take control of the industrys future on its own terms.
Avoiding food health and safety crises by being proactive, such as by cooperating and working with
28 28
regulators and environmental NGOs, is preferable to responding to criticism and negative public
media campaigns as has happened for a number of agricultural industries in recent years.
2.2.7 Future vision
In conclusion, for the improvement of the olive sector in the WANA (AARINENA) countries the
following actions should be considered:
1. Strengthen research and development efforts and establish a comprehensive and robust
scientific database of cultivars;
2. Increase olive productivity through increased uptake of good agricultural practices (GAP);
3. Improve the quality of olives and olive oil to meet market demand;
4. Reduce production costs where possible through more exact application of inputs (such as
fertilizer, labour etc);
5. Increase olive oil competitiveness in the world market;
6. Demonstrate the olive industrys environmental credentials and responsiveness to consumer
preferences;
7. Increase local consumption through awareness programmes; and
8. Improve post-harvest handling, processing and storage.
2.3 AARINENA Olive Network
The Association of Agricultural Research Institutions in the Near East and North Africa (AARINENA)
was established in 1985 to strengthen cooperation among national, regional and international research
institutions and centres through the dissemination and exchange of information, experiences and
research results. Its mission is to contribute to the enhancement of agricultural and rural development
in the WANA Region. By fostering agricultural research and technology development and by
strengthening collaboration within and outside the region, AARINENA aims to achieve a greater
degree of self-reliance in food and agriculture, and to improve the nutritional well-being and overall
welfare of the people of the WANA Region while sustaining and further improving the productive
capacity of the natural resource base.
AARINENA includes five sub-regions:
1. Arabian Peninsula - (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE);
2. Maghreb - (Algeria, Libya, Malta, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia);
3. Mashreq - (Cyprus, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Syria);
4. Nile Valley & Red Sea - (Djibouti, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, Yemen) and
5. Western Asia - (Iran, Pakistan, Turkey).
The 8th General Conference of AARINENA, held in Amman, Jordan in May 2002 recommended
the establishment of a regional network for olive growers and the Executive Committee meeting
29 29
of AARINENA held in Dakar, Senegal in May 2003 recommended collaborating with the FAO
Research Network on Olives established by the European System of Cooperative-Research Networks
in Agriculture (ESCORENA) by establishing the Regional Olive Network and linking its activities
through inter-regional cooperation.
During the expert consultation meeting between olive producing countries in north and south of the
Mediterranean Region (held at the Olive Tree Institute of Sfax, Tunisia 16-18 February 2004) the
participants agreed to:
1. Create an olive tree network within the AARINENA olive producing countries;
2. Constitute three working research groups within the AARINENA Olive Network:
a) The Olive Production and Protection Group;
b) The Post-harvest, Processing and Technology Group; and
c) The Socio-economic and Commercialization Group.
3. The reinforcement of cooperation between the ESCORENA and the AARINENA;
4. The reinforcement of cooperation between these two networks and the International Olive Oil
Council (OOC), the European Union, the International Center for Advanced Mediterranean
Agronomic Studies (CIHEAM) and the FAO;
5. The forecasting of a meeting between these different international organizations in order to
implement a coordination system to avoid a possible overlap between their activities and
permitting also to rationalize their contributions concerning research and valorisation of research
findings;
6. Encourage and facilitate the mobility of researchers between the different Mediterranean
countries;
7. The reinforcement of technology transfer; and
8. Make known and valorise research findings thanks to implementation of an efficient information
system (database made up of programmes and results of research, and mechanisms of information
exchange).
2. 4 Olive profile in WANA (AARINENA) countries
Out of the 26 AARINENA countries, commercial olive cultivation exists in Turkey, Syria, Tunisia,
Morocco, Egypt, Algeria, Libya, Lebanon, Jordan, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Iran, Cyprus,
Kuwait, Yemen, Malta, and Iraq. In 2004/2005 the area cultivated with olives in the AARINENA
region was 3,772,989 ha and olive production was 4,044,696 MT. Oil production was 556,354 tons
which is equivalent to the 18.43% of the world olive oil production. Table olive consumption in
the AARINENA region is relatively high (46.11% of world consumption) compared with olive oil
consumption (15.36% of world consumption).
30 30
2.4.1 Algeria
In 2004/2005 the area cultivated with olives was 195,500 ha with 179,978 MT of olives and 27,837 MT
oil production. Algeria is not self-sufficient in olive oil and in 2004 oil imports reached 641 MT.
Main cultivars and their uses
Dual Purpose varieties Table varieties Oil varieties
Azeradj - -
Blanquette Guelma - -
Sigoise - Chemlal
Kabylie - -
Limli - -
2.4.2 Cyprus
The olive tree and its produce have played a significant role in the nutrition, economy, religious
ceremonies, habits and customs of Cypriots for centuries. In 2005 the total area under olive cultivation
in Cyprus was about 7,940 ha with about 2-2.5 million productive trees. This represented 5.3% of
the countrys cropped area. During this year olive production was 22,200 MT, equivalent to 5,600 t
of olive oil. Some 12,000 families were engaged in olive growing.
However, owing to the biennial bearing of the trees and the cultivation of the olives under rain fed
conditions, yields are extremely erratic and olive production exhibits extreme fluctuations from
year to year. In the five-year period 2001-2005 olives contributed 2.4% of total agricultural output
and their share of crop production was 4.9%.
In Cyprus the main variety cultivated is the Local or Ladoelia and its clones Klirou 2, Kato
Drys for dual-purpose and Flasou and Lythrodontas for oil, but since 1971 a number of new varieties
of olives for both table and oil production have been introduced. Although some foreign cultivars
are more productive, the farmers prefer to grow the Local variety and its clones, as they appeal
to the taste of Cypriots. It is well adapted to the climatic conditions of Cyprus and is very resistant
to drought. The main foreign variety grown in Cyprus is Koroneiki which is cultivated only for oil
production.
Production satisfies local demand for olive oil and during the last few years limited quantities have
been exported. Annual per capita consumption amounts to about 5 kg of olive oil and 8 kg of table
olives. Due primarily to the high prices of olive oil, per capita consumption of vegetable oils has
been on an upward trend and has recently reached 15 kg.
In the past, a large number of old trees were cultivated under rain fed conditions, mixed with carob
or cereals and forage crops; yields were relatively low for comparatively high production costs.
Realizing the need for lower production costs, from 1976 onwards olive growers started to establish
31 31
new, intensive olive groves using technologically improved production methods. These intensive
groves were established primarily in regions with limited quantities of good quality irrigation water,
or in areas where the poor quality of the water due to moderate salinity or high sulphates limits the
possibility of economic use for other crops. Certified propagation material produced from selected
varieties by the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment or the private sector is
used for these new olive groves.
As regards olive processing, the recent establishment of modern olive oil processing units has simplified
the production of olive oil and improved quality; the time required for processing has also been reduced
considerably.
In total about 30 small and well-dispersed processing facilities, with a maximum capacity of 200 kg per
hour, are in operation every year. In contrast, the processing, preservation and post-harvest handling
of table olives is still performed in the traditional way in the absence of units equipped with new
technology.
The Cyprus Olive Products Marketing Board was previously responsible for marketing olive products.
The main objectives of the Board were the planning and purchasing of olive oil and olives of
acceptable quality whatever the quantity at fixed prices from producers. It was the Boards role to
protect the producer by playing an active role in fixing the purchase price, taking into consideration
the cost of production, and the chemical and organoleptic characteristics of the products and to
make available top quality standardized olive oil at prices fixed by the government. Further, it took
measures to ensure that adequate quantities of olive oil were available in the country to meet local
demand, even when local production was poor.
Cyprus Government has since abolished the law providing the monopoly of olive oil marketing
in July 2003. Also, from 1 May 2004 Cyprus entered the European Union as a full member and the
marketing of olive products is under the EU common market.
2. 4. 3 Egypt
Over the last three decades the Egyptian olive agro sub-sector has seen unprecedented development.
This is exemplified in the increase of the land area cultivated with olives by 25 fold from 2,185
hectares in 1975 to 54,000 hectares in 2005. During this time Egypt started to emerge as an exporting
country especially in table olives. This development has been a result of certain measures and
factors, namely:
a) The state policy of encouraging desert land reclamation by the private sector to
create new employment opportunities, increase GDP and narrow the gap of food
production;
32 32
b) The availability of deep-well drilling equipment facilitating more efficient and
economic exploitation of new water resources from underground aquifers;
c) The development of modern irrigation techniques with reasonable investment cost,
specifically drip irrigation, which facilitate the efficient use of the limited water
resources and reduce harmful impacts when using saline water;
d) The adaptability of olives to the environmental conditions in the reclaimed areas,
especially where other fruit trees have failed to perform at great cost due to the
losses;
e) The introduction of new olive varieties, the commercial propagation from leafy
cuttings and the intensive research into olive culture;
f) The steady increase in the global consumption of olive products since the early
nineteen seventies; and
g) The huge investment in modern processing facilities for table olives and olive oil.
Almost 55% (29,700 hectares) of the current area cultivated with olives are within new reclaimed
desert locations. Most of the old historical regions in which olives have been traditionally considered
as the backbone of the domestic economy (Siwa, Fayoum, and Wadi El-Arish) have seen considerable
olive expansion from roughly 1,700 hectares to 23,750 hectares.
In 2005 the total olive production was 530,460 MT, of which 85% was used for table olives and
only 15% for oil production. The average production (MT/ha) has increased from 6.2 in 1975 to
12.6 in 2005. Egypt is the main exporting country of table olives from the AARINENA region. In
2005, the table olives exported from Egypt represented 75% of all AARINENA exports.
Most widely grown olive varieties adaptable for growing conditions in Egypt
in descending order
Name Origin Name Origin Name Origin
Picual1 Spain Ageizi Shami Egypt Koroneike Greece
Manzanillo Spain Hamed Egypt Coratina Italy
Watieken Egypt Taffahi Egypt Sebhawi Egypt
Ageizi Akks Egypt Chemlalli Tunisia
Ageizi Balady Egypt Arbiquena Spain
Kalamata Greece Marraki2 Egypt
Notes:
1. In Spain, Picual is a prominent oil variety, yet under the Egyptian growing conditions, the
fruit weight can reach up to 6-8 gm when fully black. The variety is excellent for untreated
natural black in brine and treated green in brine by alkaline lye methods.
33 33
2. Recent evaluation during the last few years of this indigenous Siwa Oasis variety revealed
that it produces a high yield of high quality oil and therefore it should, unlike the present
situation, occupy the major area of oil producing varieties in the country. This case clearly
indicates the importance of preserving indigenous varieties for future studies.
It is unfortunate that some of the Egyptian indigenous varieties, especially those in extremely
remote locations, are facing extinction simply because they are not commercially spread.
2.4.4 Iran
In Iran more than 90% of olive oil consumption is imported from other countries. A national plan
for improving the olive industry and to increase the area cultivated with olives to 600,000 ha was
initiated in 1993. At the beginning of this program there was only about 5,000 ha cultivated with
olives, mostly in traditional orchards. These orchards were limited to the Sepidrood River Basin
near the Caspian Sea and the average yield per hectare was nearly 3,000 kg. In some of the irrigated
orchards with fertile soil, crop production has risen to 10,000- 12,000 kg/ha. The area covered with
olive orchards is 100,000 ha, with 39,008 MT olive production. Most of the new orchards are under
irrigation. The average farm size is 3 ha and a few orchards are as big as 300 ha, with a new farm of
2000 ha recently established in Fars province.
Traditional orchards have a planting density of 100-156 trees/ha where as the new orchards are
more intensive and are planted on layouts of 7x7m or 6x6m.
About 60% of olive fruit is used in oil extraction and 40% for table processing. Oil mills and
table olive processing facilities belong to the private sector which buys the fruit directly from the
growers. Black table olive processing and consumption is not common in Iran.
The main cultivated variety is the native Zard variety. Its fruit has a weight of 4-5g and gives 20-
24% oil. It is suitable for dual purpose and it is resistant to cold and sensitive to verticillium.
The second most popular native cultivar is Roghani with 28% oil in fresh matter. It is an early to
medium ripening variety with a tendency to fruit drop. These two cultivars accounted more than
70% of olive acreage. They are self compatible and easily propagated by cuttings and are grown
successfully throughout the north and west provinces. The cultivar of Dezfol is well adapted to the
warm climate of the southwest regions.
Varieties grown in Iran and their uses
Zard
Dezfooli
Mari
Tokhm kabki
Shiraz
Fishomi
Roghani
34 34
2.4.5 Iraq
Iraq`s Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) is developing a national program to support olive production,
and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Agricultural
Reconstruction and Development for Iraq (ARDI) are working to support the implement the
program. Recently, ARDI received a MOA proposal to plant 30 demonstration olive orchards,
including 21,000 trees in 15 governorates. The proposed plan calls for each governorate to plant
two orchards of 2.5 hectares, requiring 700 trees per site.
In the northern governorates, olives with high oil content will be grown for processing. In the
central governorates, table olives will be grown as they are better suited to the climate, according
to USAID, and both types will be planted in southern regions. The MOA and ARDI will supervise
the project while the individual demonstration sites will be managed by local extension centre staff.
Oil produced under this program and in existing orchards will be processed in four large, Ministry
of Industry-built olive oil processing plants throughout the country.
2.4.6 Jordan
The olive tree is the most important fruit tree, by area grown in Jordan. It covers about 72% of the
total area planted with fruit trees and 36% of the total cultivated area. There are about 17 million
trees covering around 123,000 ha in the country, 81% of which are productive. The two main
producing areas are the western uplands (rain fed) in Irbid, Jerash, Ajloun, Salt, Amman, Karak
and Tafeileh Provinces, that represent about 76% of the total olive planted area and in the north
eastern (irrigated) area in the desert, which is about 24%. Jordan reached self-sufficiency in olive
and olive oil production in the year 2000 and was start exporting the surplus of olive oil which is
about 7-10,000 tons yearly. Olive fruit production reached about 162,000 tons in 2003, where 83%
of it was used for oil production, that gave about 25,000 tons.
The main native cultivars for dual purpose are Souri, Nabali and Rasie (Improved Nabali) and for
table use Nasouhi Jaba (Black) and Shami.
There are about 100 mills with about 179 lines distributed all over the country. Most of the mills
use the three-phase system and some of them a more modern two-phase system, which is known as
an ecological system. The olive mill wastes (pomace and vegetable water) and the use of other
olive by-products are very important issues in the industry, that can be useful to increase farmers
income.
The main constraints for the olive sector in Lebanon are water scarcity and low productivity per unit
area due to rainfall fluctuations from year to year, alternate bearing and mismanagement of cultural
practices.
35 35
2.4.7 Kuwait
In Kuwait olive cultivation is a new sector which is developing rapidly with an annual increase of
12.22%. In 2004/2005 the area cultivated with olives was 17 ha with 25 MT of olive production.
2.4.8 Lebanon
Olives occupy an important place in Lebanese agriculture. Close to 40% of all cultivation takes
place in North Lebanon, followed by 22% in the Nabatiyeh area. Mainly due to the uncertainty of
the climate and alternate bearing, there are large fluctuations in production from year to year. In
2004/2005 the area cultivated with olives was 57,594 ha with 142,684 MT of olives and 5,575 MT oil
production. Though accounting for only 2 to 3% of overall industrial output, it is one of the highest-
performing industries in the country. An estimated 30% of production is for fresh consumption, i.e.
table olives; whereas 70% is pressed into olive oil. In Lebanon the average consumption of oil per
capita is 2.5 kg.
The main cultivated varieties are the Soury, Baladi and Nabali. The nomination Baladi could include
many varieties such as Souri, Airouni, Chami, Smakmaki etc.
There are more than 550 oil mills, of which more than half are located in the North Lebanon region.
Though some mills operate with automatic and semi-automatic technology, 85% still use traditional
methods. Despite fluctuations in production, olive oil exports have been growing over the past few
years. From 400 metric tons in 1999, olive oil export reached 1,173 metric tons in 2004, with a
value of more than US$4.4 million. Exports are mainly destined for the North American markets,
with more than 47% going to the United States and Canada. In addition, Italy accounted for 10%,
while the UAE for 6% of Lebanese olive oil exports.
2.4.9 Libya
Expansion of olive growing in Libya in the last few years has been mainly by the private sector.
Most of the old olive plantations are mixed with other crops. However, recently farmers started to
establish solid olive plantations whenever they have irrigation water. In 2004?/2005 the area cultivated
with olives was 140,000 ha, olive production was 162,000 MT and olive oil was 8,288 MT.
Planting materials are supplied from:
Mediterranean countries (Tunisia, Italy, Spain, Morocco, Turkey and Egypt) especially during
the large expansion of agricultural development. The varieties imported are mainly for table or
dual purpose varieties with the exception of Shimlali from Tunisia;
State Nurseries; and
The private sector, which is producing the majority of the plant material needed.
Table or dual purpose varieties are the most desired by farmers. The main problem of the plant
36 36
material is the lack of mother plantations and variety identification and origin. In most cases
plant material is marketed under the general descriptions of "table olive" or "dual purpose" or "oil
olive".
There are about 210 oil processing plants spread throughout the country,of which 142 are of the
continuous system and 68 of the press type.
2.4.10 Malta
In Malta, the olive sector is decreasing at an annual rate of -8.8%. In 2004/2005 the area cultivated
with olives was only 3 ha with 1MT of olive production.
2.4.11 Morocco
Olive trees are an important fruit tree in Morocco. It covers about 55% of the total area planted with
fruit trees. There are about 50 million trees, covering around 580,000 ha in the country.
In 2004/2005 olive production was 480,000 MT, olive oil was 48,000 MT and table olives 120,000 MT.
The table olive industry is well developed and Morocco is becoming one of the main exporting
countries in the region. Oil production covers only 16% of the local needs and Morocco imports
5,533 MT of olives and the remaining demand is covered by other types of seed oils.
In Morocco there are two distinct profiles of the olive culture:
1. The traditional sector (the extensive system) where the olive orchard receives minimal cultural
practices, with a productivity of 10 kg/tree; and
2. The modern sector (the intensive system) where the trees receive optimal cultural practices
and productivity is raised to 10 MT/ha.
The geographical distribution of olive trees is as follows:
1. Mountainous area: 20,.000 ha representing 36% of production;
2. Rain fed area: 100,000 ha representing 18% of production;
3. Irrigated area: 220,000 ha representing 39% of production; and
4. Other marginal areas: 40,000 ha representing 7% of production.
The main cultivars are:
a) Moroccan Picholine (or Zitoun) - a very heterogeneous autochthonous variety that
occupies more than 96% of the olive orchards. It is a vigorous and productive variety
and is adapted in all types of soils;
b) Meslala - an autochthonous variety with limited distribution. It is a very productive
variety suitable for table olives only, because its fruits have a very low oil content;.
c) Haouzia - this variety is a selection of the variety Moroccan Picholine and Menara
in Marrakech. It is very productive, with high oil content (23%). The fruit weigh
37 37
between 3 to 5g, it is tolerant to Cycloconium oleaginum and comes very early in
production; and
d) Menara - the Menara variety is a selection of the variety Moroccan Picholine of the
Menara olive grove in Marrakech. It is very productive, with high oil content (23%),
the weight of the fruit is from 2 to 3g and comes very early in production.
2.4.12 Occupied Palestinian Territory
Olive cultivation is one of the most important sectors in Palestinian agriculture. The area cultivated
with olives has increased during the last 7 years due to the destruction of citrus orchards, the better
adaptability of olives to the higher level of saline well water, the lower requirements of the tree and
its better returns for the farmer. In the Occupied Palestinian Territory, about 63.8% of the cultivated
area is occupied by fruit trees, of which 80.1% is under olive cultivation or 51% of the total cultivated
area. Many farmers depend on olive farming for their livelihood and olive production contributes an
estimated US$27 million, or 8.3% of Agriculture Production Value.
In 2004/2005 the area cultivated with olives was 92,756 ha with 120,002 MT olive and 23,187 oil
production. Most of the old orchards and the new plantations are located in the eastern part of the
Gaza Strip. The area cultivated with olives in the West Bank is mainly dependent on rainfall while
irrigation is complementary in Gaza orchards. Water resources in Gaza and the West Bank are badly
affected due to over pumping. This practice has resulted in an increase in salinity, with an increase
in levels of chloride, nitrate and boron which are harmful for most plant species. Olive groves in
Gaza are mainly irrigated with high saline water especially from wells in the eastern part of Gaza.
Seeds of the Wild Baladi olive are used as rootstock.
Main varieties and their uses
Variety name Oil% Use
Nepali Baladi ( Souri ) 22 25% Pickling + oil
Shemlali 18 20% Oil
Nepali Improved 12 14% Pickling
Manzanillo 14 16% Pickling
K 18 18 20% Pickling + oil
2.4.13 Saudi Arabia
The olive tree has gained special importance in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), and it has
become an important product related to the economy and food security. The olive and olive oil
sector represents one of the most promising sectors in the country. During the last fifteen years
national production of olive oil has increased rapidly and there is an enormous potential for olive
oil and table olive production in the KSA, especially in the Northern region of the Kingdom due to
its climate. This has stimulated investment and the establishment of olive groves and a number of
very large projects have been established.
38 38
Plantations of olive trees started in 1980, through the import of young trees from Jordan, Turkey
and Syria. Presently, plantations cover more than 15,000 hectares and include more than 5 million
olive trees. More than 50% of olive trees are very young (< 5 year) and all the orchards are drip
irrigated. Tree spacing ranges from 5X5m (400 trees/ha) to 7X7m (204 trees/ha). These plantations
belong to agricultural development companies and to private farmers and there are now more than
8,000 units. This expansion became more important since agricultural development companies and
private farmers have been engaged in an ambitious plantation programme that was encouraged by
the favourable environmental conditions as well as by the prices consumers are willing to pay.
The Al-Jouf company, which currently has more than 600,000 trees, started planting more than
150,000 olive trees every year and has planned to reach one million trees in 2008-2009. The Al-
Watania company has plans to establish one million trees in the same period.
The Government has realized that the future sustainability of the national olive sector is linked
to the quality of the produce rather than to the quantity. Therefore, all orchards in Al-jouf and Al-
Watania companies are run according to organic agricultural techniques. Also, an olive project has
recently been launched jointly by the Ministry of Agriculture and FAO in order to improve olive
and olive oil production
2.4.14 Syria
Olive cultivation is one of the most important sectors in Syrian agriculture and represents about
10% of the total cultivated area and 65% from the total area cultivated with fruit trees. It is estimated
that 200,000 families are dependent on olive growing for their livelihood.
There are about 79 million trees (58 million in the bearing stage and the rest are very young)
covering around 544,000 ha. Olive farming is spread throughout the country regions because of its
flexibility and adaptability to the edapho-climatic conditions.In 2004/2005 olive production was
723,648 MT and 155,970 of olive oil was produced. Usually 80-85 % of olive fruit production goes
to oil extraction and the remaining 15-20% goes to table olive processing (green and black).
Processing units are largely traditional in approach. The table olive industry is not developed
compared with the increasing dynamic of the sector due to the lack of technical knowledge and
facilities in preparing the different kinds of table olive and the unavailability of good quality raw
materials according to international standards.
73% of the total area cultivated with olives and 76.2% of total production is located in the north
and west regions (Idleb, Aleppo, Lattakia and Tartous) and the remaining 27% is located in south
and middle regions. An important characteristic of the olive sector is the high percentage of young
trees. 57% (45 million trees) have an age ranging from 1 to 20 years, 38% (30 million trees) range
39 39
between 21-70 years and only 5% (4 million trees) are aged over 70. Therefore, this issue is very
important due to the rapid increase of production in the near future. It is estimated that in 2010 Syria
will have a surplus of about 85,000 MT. This phenomenon may lead to a real problem in storage
because the present capacity of appropriate storage is not sufficient.
The orchards have an average planting of about 143 trees/ha. Syria is very rich in olive genetic
resources, but only some have been selected, identified, evaluated, conserved and utilized. It is
worth mentioning that four (Zaiti, Sorani, Doebli, Khodieri) locally selected varieties form about
86% of total cultivated area in Syria.
Important local varieties in Syria, their use, distribution, oil content and the area occupied
Variety Purpose % of oil Distribution % from total area
Zaiti Oil 20-32 Northern areas 33.13
Sorani Dual 28-30
Aleppo-Idleb-
Hama-Daraa
29.4
Doebli Dual 22-24 Coastal regions 11.71
Khodieri Dual 24-26 Lattakia 10.30
Kaisi Table 18-20 Aleppo-Idleb 4.78
Abo satl Dual 9-11 Tadmor (Palmyra) 1.86
Dan Dual 18-20 Southern region 1.18
Mossabi Dual 9-11 Damascus- Daraa 0.35
Jlot Table 12-14 Damascus- Daraa 0.6
Others Dual Different parts 6.7
The olive sector in Syria suffers from two main problems; low average yield/ tree and low quality
produce.These problems are connected to farming and processing methods and are strongly
related to the underutilization of the national genetic resources, Instability of climatic conditions,
the large number of landholders with small orchards, inadequate agricultural extension services,
lack of appropriate cultural practices such as tillage, pruning, irrigation, fertilization, harvesting,
transportation and storage of olive fruit prior to milling and storage, marketing and overall standard
of olive oil all contribute to these outcomes.
2.4.15 Tunisia
The olive tree is of strategic cultural importance in Tunisia and plays a very important socio-
economic role. The area cultivated with olives occupies almost 1.6 million ha, which represents
one third of the countrys Useful Agricultural Surface (UAS). There are 60 million trees for oil
and 3 million trees for table olives, with production of 650,000 MT and 128,000 MT for olives and
olive oil, respectively.
40 40
Olive trees can valorise the poorest soils in the centre and south of the country. Indeed, almost 97%
are rain fed plantations and only 3% are irrigated. The trees of 31% of these plantations are less
than 20 years old, 54% between 20 and 70 years old and the senescence plantations represents only
15%.
Main cultivated cultivars and their uses
Chetoui,
Gerboui,
Oueslati,
Zarrazi
Chemcheli
Meski
Besbessi
Bith Hmam
Chemlali
Zalmati
Sehli
The Chemlali is the main olive oil variety located mainly in Sfax (located in the center and the
south, the Sahel, Sfax, Sidi Bouzid, Kairouan and Kasserine). Meski is the most important olive
table cultivar in Tunisia. Some foreign varieties have also been introduced in Tunisia like Picholine
and Manzanilla.
2.4.16 Turkey
Olives are grown in 36 provinces and in 2004/2005 the area cultivated with olives was 621,311 ha
which comprises 2% of agricultural land and 22% of horticultural land in Turkey. The main regions
for olives in Turkey are the Mediterranean and Aegean regions and 75% of olive orchards are on
mountainous land and only 8% is under irrigation where mostly table olives are grown. The planting
density is 166 olive trees per hectare.
New plantations have been encouraged in order to attain an optimum number of olive trees per
hectare. This initiative is a component of structural measures for regional and rural development
where climatic and agricultural conditions are suitable. In 2005 the number of olive trees was
107,100,000 and this number is increasing. Olive production was 1,140,000 MT, of which 73% of
the olives were processed for olive oil and the rest were consumed as table olives. Turkey is one of
the main exporters of table olives with a leading position in the case of black table olives. Olive oil
production was 120,500 MT of which 50% (60,706 MT) was exported.
There are about 4 million agricultural enterprises in Turkey, of which 8.1% (324,000 farms and
196,000 producers) are involved in olive production. The average farm size is 1.25 ha (75% of
the farms are smaller than 5 ha). There are about 850 olive oil processing plants with more than
270,000 tones/year capacity. However, while Turkey seems to be self-sufficient for both table olive
41 41
and olive oil production, olive oil consumption per capita has been decreasing steadily. It was 2.2
kg between 1970 and 1979, 1.3kg between 1980 and 1989 and it is currently 1 kg per capita.
Main cultivars and their uses
Cekiste(Kirma)
Celebi
Erkence
Gemlik
Memecik
Memeli
Domat
Izmir Sofralik
Uslu
Ayvalik(Mdilli, Sakram)
The main challenges for the olive sector in Turkey are the introduction of a certification system in
the multiplication of the planting materials and the application good agricultural (GAP) practices
to new technology in order to improve productivity in the old and new olive orchards. Also the
introduction of new technology in both olive oil and table olive industries is needed to help the olive
sector move forward.
2.4.17 Yemen
The olive is a newly introduced crop to Yemen and the olive industry in Yemen is in its early stages.
Olive plants were first introduced in late 1970 from Syria and Jordan and the main source of olive
germplasm and production technologies has been ACSAD (Arab Center for the Studies of Arid
Zones and Dry Lands). In 2005 the area cultivated with olives was estimated to be about 2,000 ha.
Recently olive cultivation was selected as one of the country five strategic crops to be given priority.
Therefore, rapid expansion is occurring in the targeted mountainous zone, where the trees will get
sufficient chilling and get their water requirements from the rain. In 2005 more than 10,000 trees
were distributed and planted in this area.
Many olive cultivars have been introduced and these show different levels of adaptability to the
local conditions. Some of the varieties showed promising results in some agro-climatical zones.
These are the Khodaire, Rosaiee, Kaisse, Nabali, Pecholine and Manzanillo varieties as well as other
unidentified cultivars introduced from Jordan and Syria. However signs of insufficient chilling are
apparent in many cultivars, like the Syrian Jlot, which shows inadequate flowering, poor fruit set, a
prolonged flowering period, and in some cases no flowering or fruiting at all. Efforts are underway
to introduce cultivars with low chilling requirements.
42 42
2.5 Manual on GAP Guidelines for in WANA (AARINENA) countries
Olive cultivation in the AARINENA countries has a long history. However the efforts expended
on the development of this important crop, although significant, are still insufficient and do not
fully meet their potential. In general, the product quality needs more attention through upgrading,
growing, harvesting, processing and storage technologies. Per capita consumption of olive oil is
still low, especially in high-income countries. Promotion of the benefits of olive oil consumption
needs to be intensified.
The available information indicates that the future of the development and improvement of the
competitiveness of the AARINENA country olive oil and table olives sector will continue to be
influenced by external and internal factors. The external factors concern the dynamics of the world
market (supply, demand and nutrition preferences) and the new arrangements concerning market
liberalization (WTO) negotiations and bilateral and regional agreements). The internal factors
are bound to the production and export system in the producing countries. Our objective with the
GAP Guidelines is to elaborate on the internal factors related to the production systems in order to
improve the productivity and the quality of olive oil and olive production in an economically viable,
environmentally sustainable and socially acceptable way.
Aldalas, M. 2005. Country report, Yemen. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices for
AARENINA Olive Network Member Countries. Organized by the ARI, AARINENA and
FAO/RNE, 19-21 December 2005, Larnaca, Cyprus.
Bassal, A. 2004. Country report, Lebanon. AARINENA-Olive Network 1
st
Meeting 20-22
December 2004. Marrakech-Morroco.
Boulouha, B. 2005. Country report, Morocco. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices for
Cregoriou, C. 2005. Country report, Cyprus. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices for
El Kholy, M. 2005. Country report, Egypt. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices for
Eurostat
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page?_pageid=1090,30070682,1090_33076576&_
dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL.
FAO Stat. Agricultural Data
43 43
http://search.netscape.com/ns/boomframe.jsp?query=faostat&page=1&offset=0&r
esult_url=redir%3Fsrc%3Dwebsearch%26requestId%3D91d09b601a5d575f%26cl
ickedItemRank%3D2%26userQuery%3Dfaostat%26clickedItemURN%3Dhttp%2
53A%252F%252Ffaostat.fao.org%252Ffaostat%252Fcollections%253Fversion%2
53Dext%2526hasbulk%253D0%2526subset%253Dagriculture%26invocationType
%3D-%26fromPage%3DNSCPToolbarNS%26amp%3BampTest%3D1&remove_
url=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Ffaostat.fao.org%2Ffaostat%2Fcollections%253Fversion%253Dext%
2526hasbulk%253D0%2526subset%.
Hamdan, I. 2004. Presentation for the establishment of Regional Network for olive in the Near
East And North Africa, The document was supported by GFAR and prepared by: I. Hamdan,
S. Shdiefat, S. Ayoub and Ms.A.Abu rumman and presented in the Olive Expert Consultation
Meeting, Sfax, Tunisia, 16-18 Feb.2004.
Ibrahiem, A. 2005. Country report, Syria. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices for
Khalaf, ElHadi, 2005. Country report, Libya. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices for
Markou, M. Mavrogenis, A (2002). Norm input-output data for the main crop and livestock
enterprises of Cyprus. Agricultural Economics Report 41. Agricultural Research Institute,
Nicosia, Cyprus.
Ksantini, M. 2005. Country report, Tunisia. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices for
Mutairi, S. E. A. 2005. Country report, Saudi Arabia. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices
for AARENINA Olive Network Member Countries. Organized by the ARI, AARINENA and
Navero, D.B. Cimato, A.; Fiorino, P.; Romero, L. R. ; Tuzani. A. ; Castaneda, C.; Serafini, F.;
Navas, I. T. 2000. World Catalogue of Olive Cultivars, IOOC,2000.
Ozkaya, M. T. 2004. Country report, Turkey. AARINENA-Olive Network 1st Meeting 20-22
Saad-eldin, Ikram. 2005. Country report, Egypt. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices for
Shdiefat, S. 2005. Country report, Jordan. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices for
44 44
Trigui, A. and Msallem M. 2002. Catalogue of autochtonous varieties and local types, Ed Institut
de lOlivier, IRESA- Tunisia
Turkstat, Turkish Statistics Institute
Zeinanloo, Ali Asghar. 2005. Country report, Iran. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices for
Zinada, I. Abu. 2005. Country report, Palestine. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices for
Trigui Ahmed and Monji Msallem, 2002. Catalogue of autochtonous varieties and local types, Ed
Institut de lOlivier, IRESA- Tunisia.
45 45
3. Soil
Mohamed El Kholy
Olive Grower & Expert, Sayeda Zeinab Olive Groves, Ismailia, Egypt
3.1 Suitable soils for growing olives:
Olive trees are adaptable to a wide range of soil types, some of which are too poor to support other
crops. They grow and produce well in intermediate textured, structured soils within a wide range of
pH from moderately acid to moderately alkaline (5.6 up to 8.5). Compared to other fruit trees, they
have a relatively higher need for calcium, although not quantified, and therefore they grow well in
calcareous soils. They can also tolerate high levels of boron and are moderately tolerant to saline
conditions. Where olives are grown, the soil must be well drained as their roots are very sensitive to
water logging and therefore it is not recommended to grow them in fine textured, shallow soils (e.g.
clay with a high percentage of montmorillonite).
Within the WANA region countries, it is phenomenal that olive trees are predominantly grown on
the poor and least fertile soils where other fruit trees can not survive. Thanks to their high drought
tolerance, olive trees are thriving under dry farming conditions in arid and semi-arid areas receiving
as little as 150-200 mm of annual rainfall (e.g. central and southern Tunisia). They are also grown
on historic and modern hilly stone-pitched terraces where they have a major role in soil conservation
against water and wind erosion.
3.2 Soil degradation (definition, types and causes)
FAO defines soil degradation as the loss of actual or potential productivity as a result of natural
and anthropogenic factors which reduce the productivity of the soil and its beneficial effects on
the environment. While soil degradation can be an entirely natural process, human activities often
accelerate the natural processes.
During the 20th century, it has been gradually established that irrational and uncontrolled application
of agricultural inputs, whether substances or activities, such as herbicides, pesticides, chemical
fertilizers, inappropriate tillage methods unsound irrigation practices, etc may increase yields on
the short term but in the longer term it will definitely cause degradation to the soil quality, fertility
and health followed by deterioration of its production capacity both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Therefore soil degradation caused by human activities through poor agricultural practices can
be worse, in many instances, than when soil degradation is caused by natural processes. The
establishment of GAP Guidelines can aid in conserving our soils through rationalizing human
behaviour. The Table below identifies the most common types of soil degradation and their causes
which exist in lands grown with olives in the WANA region countries.
46 46
Types of soil degradation
Type Examples
Most Important Primary Causes
(N) Natural, (HI) Human induced, (NAH) Natural accelerated by
human activities
P
h
y
s
i
c
a
l
Top soil loss
Water or wind erosion (w/w erosion); (N)
Irrational tillage and type of vegetation cover. (HI)
Emergence
of gullies
or channels
causing land
deformation
Water erosion. (N)
Compaction
Heavy grove machinery and in few instances grazing
animals, low organic mater, unbalanced use of fertilizers,
inadequate tillage.
(HI)
Crusting
formation
Physical dispersion caused by impact of raindrops or
irrigation water.
(NAH)
Chemical dispersion, which depends on the ratio of salinity
and sodicity of the irrigation water.
(HI)
Weak top soil aggregates due to low content of organic
matter.
(NAH)
Water logging
Sealing by compaction. (HI)
Downward washing of fine particles in ploughed soils
especially under heavy rain or incorrect irrigation with
irrational tillage where they stick together blocking the
natural drainage of water.
(NAH)
Incorrect irrigation management in general and when using
poor water causing salinization.
(HI)
Structure
failure
Irrational tillage. (HI)
Loss of surface aggregates stability by w/w erosion. (NAH)
Removal of flora or residue for fuel or animal feed. (HI)
Negligence in substituting depleted organic matter. (HI)
Decline in
water holding
capacity
Reduction in organic content. (NAH)
Erosion causing loss of fine clay particles. (NAH)
Crusting and compaction causing more water runoff and
consequential infiltration reduction.
(NAH)
47 47
C
h
e
m
i
c
a
l
Toxicities
Irrational application of herbicides, pesticides, fungicides
and chemical fertilizers.
(HI)
Using polluted water in irrigation. (HI)
Toxins may accumulate if soil microbial life is degraded. (NAH)
Depletion/
imbalances of
mineral nutrients
Out-leaching associated with wind or water erosion. (NAH)
In-leaching to deep soil horizons or underground water
with heavy rains or excessive irrigation.
(N)
(HI)
Crop uptake. (HI)
Changes in pH. (NAH)
Decrease in
organic matter
content
Erosion removing top soil rich in organic matter. (NAH)
Failure of farmers to replenish the soil with new organic
matter.
(HI)
Cultivation breaking down soil aggregates and exposing
organic matter to microbial activity.
(HI)
In uncovered bare soil under warm conditions and in
the presence of moisture, the decomposition process
is accelerated resulting in quick breakdown of organic
matter.
(NAH)
Size and
composition of
cation exchange
capacity (CEC)
Loss of organic matter which acts as a cation exchanger. (NAH)
Leaching of cations below the root zone by excessive
rains or irrigation.
(NAH)
Decrease or
increase in
pH (acidity or
alkalinity)
Application of fertilizers containing ammonium or urea,
irrigation with high pH water.
(HI)
The decomposition of organic matter. (NAH)
Excessive irrigation causing leaching of basic nutrients
such as calcium (Ca
2
+
), magnesium (Mg
2
+
) and
potassium ( K
+
).
(NAH)
Increase in the
soil soluble
salts content
(salinization)
Under rain-fed conditions intrusion of saline seawater
to areas lying near the sea can cause land salinization
during dry periods.
(N)
Irrigation with saline water or marginal quality water
without proper management of soils, water and
agronomic practices.
(HI)
Soil compaction. (HI)
Irrational irrigation and poor drainage. (HI)
Chemical pollution
From nearby industries carried either by air or water, or
by humans in some instances.
(HI)
48 48
B
i
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
Reduction in soil
biodiversity and
soil organisms like
algae, earthworms,
fungi, nematodes,
protozoa,
actinomycetes,
bacteria and
cyanobacteria
Loss of organic matter, increased soil acidity. (NAH)
Use of herbicides and pesticides. (HI)
Contamination by heavy metals. (HI)
Inadequate soil management practices and modern
agriculture techniques.
(HI)
Tillage which affects the composition of bacterial
communities and earthworms.
(HI)
Bare soil exposure to high summer temperatures
can decrease the soil micro-organism populations.
(NAH)
The Table in the following page indicates the status of soil degradation in olive growing areas in the
WANA countries as derived from the (GLASOD map) produced by the International Soil Reference
and Information Centre (ISRIC) in collaboration with the United Nations Environmental Program
(UNEP) and (FAO).
GLASOD Map Global Assessment of Human Induced Soil Degradation
49 49
Main Soil degradation types in olive growing areas of WANA countries
Country
Erosion Other types of soil degradation
severe
degrad-
ation7
Water Wind
L.O.M.
1
Sal.
2
Alk.
3
Acid.
4
L. CEC
5
H
CaCo3
6
Crusting
Algeria \ \ \
Cyprus \ \ \
Egypt \ \ \ 7 \ \ \ 7 \
Iran \ \ \ \ \ \
Jordan \ \ \ \ 7 \ \ \
Lebanon \ \ \ \
Libya \ \ \ \ \ 7 \
Morocco \ \ \ \
Palestinian
Occ. Terr.
\ \ \ \ \ \
Saudi
Arabia
\ \ \ \ \ \ 7 \ \
Syria \ \ \ \ \
Tunisia \ \ \ \ \ \
Turkey \ \
Yemen \ \ \ \ \
1 Low organic matter content
2 Salinity
3 Alkalinity
4 Acidity
5 Low Cation Exchange Capacity
6 High Calcium Carbonate
7 In certain areas only
3.3 Soil history
Prior to establishing an olive grove, a crucial factor to be considered is the identification of hazards
associated with soil history. Prior use of the land must be examined as it could have been used as
a garbage disposal site, as a waste management site or for mining or petroleum exploration. When
the land history indicates a high risk for chemical contamination hazards, it is highly recommended
to review the analysis of toxic substances and heavy metals in the soil as well as the proposed soil
remediation procedure to ensure soil restoration potential and environmental compliance of the
operation. Untreated soils from such contamination might be harmful for both tree growth and
human health.
3.4 General guidelines on soil management
The soils physical structure, chemical composition, and biological activity are fundamental to
sustaining crop productivity, which in turn determine soil fertility and health, characterized by the
following parameters:
Good structure and stability especially at the surface top profile rendering low erosion rates;
Homogenous texture free of hard pan lenses;
Well aerated with good drainage properties and deep root zone;
Efficient water holding capacity;

50 50
High soil organic matter;
High biological activity and biological diversity;
Balanced stores of available nutrients and favourable pH for olives (5.6-8.5);
Favourable soil temperature;
Low levels of soil-borne pathogens;
Low levels of toxic substances; and
Low sodium adsorption ratio (SAR).

The greatest challenge in sound soil management is to develop and implement good agricultural
practices that not only prevent soil degradation but also maintain and enhance its health and
fertility. The potential to implement these soil management practices is not only influenced by
socio-economic factors such as the incentive of economic returns, growers and farmers attitudes
and their education level and belief in a sustainable and integrated ecosystem. It is also highly
dependent on many local variables such as the type of production system (e.g. dry farming versus
irrigated and intensive versus traditional), micro-climate at the grove locality, land shape and soil
type. In the WANA region, most of the olive trees are grown on initially marginal or poor soils and
mismanagement of such soils can, unavoidably, lead in the long term to permanent loss of their
fertility.
Preventing soil degradation should aim at minimizing top soil losses, nutrients, and agrochemical
losses through erosion, run-off and out-leaching into surface water or in-leaching into ground water.
Such losses represent inefficient and unsustainable management of these resources, in addition
to their potentially deleterious off-site effects. Good soil management also seeks to enhance the
biological activity of the soil and protect surrounding natural vegetation and wildlife.
Good agricultural practices will deal with the following main soil issues:
Managing olive groves in accordance with the properties, distribution, and potential uses of the
soils and maintaining monitoring records of the inputs and outputs of each land unit managed;
Maintaining or improving soil organic matter through the use of soil-building crop rotations in
the row-middle floors of the olive grove whenever inter-planting is feasible, especially if water
resources allows such an approach. Otherwise improving soil organic matter content can be
achieved through incorporation of well composted manure (humus) and vegetation residues;
Applying appropriate mechanical and conservation tillage practices;
Maintaining soil cover to minimize erosion losses by wind and/or water; and
Applying agro-chemicals and organic and inorganic fertilizers in amounts and timing and by
methods appropriate to agronomic and environmental requirements.
51 51
3.5 Types and causes of soil erosion
Erosion which causes the loss of the top soil
is one of the main problems of agriculture all
over the world, to the extent that more than
a third of the Mediterranean agricultural areas
are affected by it. The physical removal of soil
or what is simply known as erosion is probably
the most serious type of soil degradation
and the least reversible. As derived from the
earlier Table it is obvious that erosion is the
most common degradation type in the WANA
region. Therefore this GAP manual focuses on
protection methods against erosion and provides guidelines for preventing or reversing other types
of soil degradation such as recommending growing windbreaks and adding nutrients to nutrient-
depleted soils, correcting pH through soil amendments and improving soil water holding capacity
and microbiological activity through incorporation of composted organic matter.
The main causes of erosion in the WANA olive growing countries are water and wind enhanced
by inappropriate cultural practices. It is mainly water erosion in the higher latitude countries like
Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Morocco and northern parts of Tunisia. Wind erosion is widespread as the
main cause of soil erosion in the relatively southern latitudes within the arid and semi-arid zones
where olives are grown in Egypt, Libya and some parts of Tunisia, Syria and Iran for example.
Water-caused soil erosion: depends on the amount and intensity of rainfall, land slope, soil type,
and plant cover. It involves a dual process: loosening of the soil particles as a result of the impact
of rainwater, and the transport of particles with the run-off, which also drags along new particles as
it runs downwards. This double process is affected by the cultivation system used. There is less
erosion in non-tilled soil than in tilled soil, simply because tilling destroys the soil structure and
its stability against the impact of rainfall or wind pressure. Sheet erosion and linear (gully or rill)
erosion are the two main types of water caused erosion. Even flow of water on the land surface
causes sheet erosion which removes non-aggregated light soil particles, organic matter and soluble
nutrients. Gully erosion creates channels into the soil of different cross-section shapes and depths
depending on the soil type, degree of land slope and intensity and frequency of the rain. The different
gully shapes are commonly characterized by downward cutting into the soil where the water flows
with high velocity running down the slope. Erosion-caused rills, which run downhill, looks like
many tiny scars on the face of the land deforming its top surface so that it looks like semi-curved
strips. With time and under the pressure of rain, unattended rills will turn into gullies which in some
52 52
poorly structured soils can cause wide, deep
channelling and in some cases land slides.
Water-caused soil erosion can escalate in
compacted soil generated mainly from using
machinery inside the grove. Infiltration is
drastically reduced in compacted soils and
therefore runoff and erosion are consequently
increased. Sub-soil compaction is greatly
provoked by repeated tillage to a constant
depth.
Wind erosion: the mechanism of wind erosion starts when soil particles are detached by strong
winds from the land surface and then carried away and deposited downwind. The impacts of wind
erosion depend on wind speed, frequency of its occurrence, the soil type, the landscape diversity
and the kind of plant cover. Strong winds can cause scouring around tree trunks exposing their
roots, sandblast foliage in desert environments, drift top soil particles and build-up sand dunes.
Wind erosion is very harmful to the natural environment as air and water become polluted with dust
particles, and pesticide and herbicide residues are adsorbed in the soil which is carried away. Wind
erosion has adverse negative effects on light sandy soils where olive trees are predominantly grown
in many countries of the WANA region. Traditional tillage disrupts soil stabilization to make it more
prone for wind erosion.
The diagram below indicates the most suitable methods for controlling soil erosion in olive groves
within the WANA region.
Notes: (1)
Bare soils are very vulnerable to both wind and water erosion and therefore when water
resources allow, covering the soil with vegetation in combination with rational tillage (non-
traditional-conservation) is the most efficient way to reduce erosion. These combined practices
reduce the extent and intensity of the impact of rainfall on the soil, increase the speed of rainwater
53 53
infiltration into the soil and reduces the speed of runoff. Due to their importance, these practices are
discussed in detail in the coming sub-chapter.
(2)
The main objectives of this practice are erosion protection, reducing soil moisture evaporation
and inhibiting weed growth. Mulching also increases rainfall infiltration and protects the soil from
the direct splash impact of rain. Natural mulches assist in structuring the soil through addition of
humus, protect it from extreme temperature variations and feed soil biota. Mulching materials vary
widely from synthetic black plastic UV resistant sheets to wood chips inclusive of crop residues like
hay or straw. Mulching material should preferably be of low cost to the olive grower if not produced
on his/her grove and should decompose slowly to last for several seasons and should be applied
easily without involving machinery that is not normally available in olive groves.
(3)
Windbreaks consist of densely planted
fence-like row(s) of perennial trees with a
root system and foliage that can resist strong
winds, reduce their velocity and protect
downwind agricultural lands grown with
trees, crops or vegetables.
(4)
On the Mediterranean shores, stone walling
can be considered as a living example of soil
sustainability, land reclamation and as one
of the oldest innovations in soil conservation
practices. This practice has probably led
the way to the development of terracing
techniques. Stone walls are built to reduce
both water and soil losses from sloped
terrains. The harvested soil particles inside
constructed catchments by stone walls can
result, over time, in shaping terraces. Stone
walls clear virgin lands from stones for
cultivation and at the same time reduce the
slope length.
Terraces change the face of sloped hills
into relatively flat land strips which are
constructed along natural contour lines to
minimize earth moving work. Their first
function is to increase the cultivable surface area and reduce the slope length. They reduce water
54 54
runoff and consequently erosion potential. Water losses are minimized and water percolation into
the soil is increased.
3.6 Selection criteria for soil cultivation systems
Information available today in many olive growing regions, including some countries of the WANA
region, indicates that traditional tillage is not justifiable for olive groves anymore as it increases
the cost, enhances soil erosion and, potentially, reduces yields. It is impossible and impracticable
to recommend a specific cultivation system without carrying out a preliminary study of the
characteristics of the soil and the local climate. The most suitable system is possibly a combination
of several systems, which may even entail using different systems for different plots on a single
grove, concentrating on their advantages rather than on their drawbacks.
GAP Guidelines recommend that the cultivation system selected should basically comply with the
following requirements:
a) Optimum use of rainwater being the principal constraint in olive production;
b) Maximum benefits and commercial returns from land use;
c) Conserve soil and prevent erosion;
d) Facilitate many other cultural operations, particularly harvesting; and
e) Reduce vegetation competition on water and nutrients with the olive crop.
In most countries of the WANA region where olive trees are grown, rain is the main source for
providing these trees with nourishing water. Summer months are commonly totally dry and the
rainfall is highly seasonal with almost 75 to 100% of the total annual rain falling during late autumn
and winter. In spring and summer, olive trees take in most of their water requirements from the soil,
and therefore it is essential that as much water as possible be stored in the soil. This can be achieved
by applying appropriate soil, crop and weed management techniques to reduce evaporation and deep
percolation losses. The following 2 sub-chapters briefly discuss the major cultivation systems.
3.6.1 Traditional soil cultivation systems
Growing olives in the Mediterranean is an age old traditional system of cultivation which has
been going on for thousands of years and therefore many cultural practices applied in our present
time have been inherited irrespective of their efficiency or usefulness to the environment or to the
welfare of olive farmers alike. One of these inherited practices is tillage. Within the WANA region
countries, tillage is the most common and frequent cultivation system used in olive farming, as
the farmers seek mainly to increase water trapping and retention by the soil, reduce evaporation
losses (not qualified by recent research) and finally to control weeds. Aside from these main tillage
objectives, tillage also results in some advantages and, nevertheless, some disadvantages shown in
the next page:
55 55
Advantages & disadvantages of traditional tillage
Major Advantages Major disadvantages
- Can enhance feeder root growth of olive
trees if performed at the correct timing (2-3
weeks before floral bud swelling) and at the
right location without damaging the main
anchorage roots or secondary roots.
- Help in controlling sub-surface
temperature.
- Facilitate the incorporation of olive leaf litter
and composted organic manure.
- Alleviation of surface compaction and farm
machinery track depression.
- Alleviation of surface crusts in soils low
in organic matter, high in silt and clay or
managed with inadequate irrigation and
fertilization practices.
- Break shallow hard pans.
- Stimulate potentials for soil crusting which
in turn increases water run off.
- Cause destruction of soil tilth.
- Make the top soil very vulnerable to soil
erosion in view of the forgoing impacts.
- Disturb and decrease earthworm and
microorganisms activities and populations
and consequently fertility and natural
aeration of the soil.
- Result in more loss of soil carbon.
- Open the path for downward washing of
the fine soil particles to wher e they clog
together, blocking the natural drainage of
water.
- In some cases cause rock fragments to come
to top soil surface.
- Cause impermeable plough hard pans when
performed at constant depth.
- Purchase and maintenance costs of machinery
are considerably high.
- Continuous reliance on machinery and
labour keeps operational input costs high.
Many different types of equipment are used in
tillage, the most common one widely used in
olive groves in the WANA region is the chisel
plough. It is generally used in winter and spring
to prepare the soil to allow water to infiltrate
and to eliminate small weeds. Normally this
process goes no deeper than 15-20 cm into the
soil, while disking to a depth of 15 to 25 cm is used in spring to remove large weeds thriving after
56 56
the winter rain. Finally, in summer, when the soil surface is totally dry, the land is harrowed or
raked to break up the soil and fill in cracks to reduce water evaporation. In some countries, cultural
care ends with the preparation of the soil for the olive harvest using a roller. Residual herbicides
are often used under the canopy of the trees to keep the soil free from weeds during the harvesting
season.
3.6.2 Non-traditional soil cultivation systems
With the evolution of high density olive groves during the last half century due to different agro and
socio-economic conditions, new cultural practices have been gradually researched and introduced
slowly and gradually in recent decades in olive growing areas of many countries around the world.
Among these practices are non-traditional tillage systems called conservation tillage and which
include: strip-tillage (precise or zone tillage), minimum (reduced-tillage) and no-tillage (zero tillage).
Before implementing these types of tillage in tree orchards they were first trialled in cropland and for
large-scale mechanized cereal production. Strip-tillage and minimum tillage involve tilling narrow
shallow strips with a knife-like harrow leaving the areas between the strips with undisturbed soil.
For maximum effectiveness in olive groves, all types of conservation tillage should be preferably
associated with growing a vegetation (green) cover in row-middles floors during winter / spring
and mulching it. In these tillage systems, grove native plant residues like vegetation cover, olive
leaf litter, pruning materials, or composted olive pomace generated as a by-product from olive oil
mills or other imported mulching materials are left on the soil surface to conserve soil moisture and
prevent soil erosion.
57 57
Some of the advantages and disadvantage of these non-traditional soil cultivation systems are shown
in the Table below:
Advantages & disadvantages of non-traditional tillage
Major Advantages Major disadvantages
- Reduce soil erosion rates and specifically
wind-caused as it disturbs and loosens less
of the surface soil area.
- Reduce machinery operational time, labour
requirements and consumables and thus it
save costs and energy.
- Improve yields as a result of reducing organic
matter losses and enhancing soil fertility and
below-surface soil health by conserving and
not disrupting microbiological activity.
- Preserve earthworms activities and allow
these beneficial spices to multiply. Burrows
of earthworms enhance water infiltration
and soil aeration. Fields which are tilled
by earthworm tunnelling can absorb water
at a rate 4 to 10 times that of fields lacking
worm tunnels.
- Improve soil water retention.
- More adaptable than traditional tillage on
steep slopes.
- In some instances subject to soil type and
degree of slope, conservation tillage may
substitute the need for establishing terraces.
- Facilitate easy moving of personnel on the
grove floor.
- Require increased use of herbicides and/or hand
weeding or slashing.
- Cover residues may be of value as livestock fodder
so that farmers would not mulch them leading to
more nutrient depletion from the soil especially if
the feeding animals manure is off the grove.
- Not suitable in arid regions due to rain water scarcity
which does not allow growing vegetation cover.
Under arid conditions, when water from sources
other than rain is used to irrigate the olive trees
through micro-irrigation systems, then no-tillage
in combination with adequate measures against
wind erosion would be the most suitable type for
soil protection. In this case the row-middles floor
will be free of weeds.
- In semi-arid regions (ex. Sfax in Tunisia), species
of vegetation cover should be very selective
and should not be planted densely in order not
to compete with the olive trees on the limited
available moisture stored in the soil following
minimal rainfall.
- In semi-arid regions, mulching could be a substitute
for vegetation cover.
3.7 Importance of growing floor vegetation cover in row-middles
In olive groves, the management of the row-middles is recommended to be done by floor vegetation
cover whenever possible. Generally, floor vegetation cover in tree orchards is considered as a
measure of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP). They have a multi-functional role and contribute
substantially to rational and effective grove management. The functions of vegetation cover in olive
groves are to:
58 58
Provide a nitrogen source, when leguminous plants are planted;
Provide nutrient cycling and prevent soil-born diseases by improving soil structure, promoting
soil microbiological activity and in some instances creating an unfavourable environment in the
topsoil for pests, thus reducing the need for pesticides;
Prevent loss of the fertile topsoil through erosion, thus reducing the need for nutrient input;
Decrease run-off and thus increase water absorption and storage efficiency of the soil;
Suppress weed growth and reduce herbicide application;
Increase soil organic matter and thus improve soil aggregation and porosity and increase water
holding capacity;
Stimulate and conserve beneficial insects, parasites, vertebrates and birds by providing shelter
and food which cumulatively contribute to prevention of insect pests and pathogens; and
Assist in conserving threatened and endemic plant species.

These GAP Guidelines recommend vegetation cover in olive groves for their many benefits as they
provide:
Green manures;
Mulches: in this case the vegetation covers are chopped and the residues used as mulch. Mulch
minimizes water losses during the dry period and retains soil organic matter content much better
than cultivated soils. They are, however, sensitive to fire during dry periods;
Permanent crops for grazing: in this case the undisturbed soil is a big advantage, while the
danger of competition for water and nutrients between the cover crop and the olive trees is a
disadvantage. Nevertheless biodiversity and attractiveness of the landscape are increased and
food and shelter are available to beneficial organisms all year round. Furthermore the soil is
enriched with fresh manure and thus biological activity is encouraged. Economic benefits should
not be underestimated as while the costs of intervention are reduced, there are also additional
gains in terms of animal feed. On the other hand, a pre-requisite of permanent crops is the
availability of grazing animals, mainly sheep, which graze without damaging the olives.
When water is available, then vegetation cover for soil enrichment and for the intention of raising
sheep becomes an attractive supplement to olive growing. The olive grove in this case turns into an
agro-pasture system, offering society attractiveness and new landscapes.The stages for introducing
vegetation cover are first as green manure, as they have fewer risks and the growers learn gradually the
new method of top soil management. Later vegetation cover may be changed to mulch or permanent
cover, depending on the existing local conditions and water availability.
A diversity of vegetation cover must be used since a number of different soils and grove management
requirements have to be satisfied. The following criteria should be used for selecting plants as
vegetation cover:
59 59
Nutrient and water requirements;
Temperature and light requirements;
Length of biological cycle;
Requirements for improvement of soil texture and structure (shallow or deep rooting);
Requirements for soil conservation;
Susceptibility to pests and diseases;
Impedance of cultural practices (e.g. harvesting with nets spread on the ground);
Susceptibility to burning, especially in dry windy areas;
Feeding requirements of grazing animals;
Machinery types and management requirements of the selected plant species in respect of
slashing, chopping or incorporation;
For rotation of soil cover, the species and local varieties used traditionally should be preferred as
these are perfectly adapted to local or regional agro climatic conditions; and
Although legumes are not so effective in improving soil structure and water penetration, they can
contribute large amounts of nitrogen to the soil through nitrogen fixation of their roots.
3.8 Cultivation systems and water retention / infiltration / evaporation
Cultivation systems have an important influence on the balance of water in the soil and establish
major differences in overall availability for the plant. High levels of infiltration are not in themselves
sufficient, as the infiltrated water must be retained.
Olive trees grown under conservation tillage conditions can, in time, achieve greater canopy volume
than those tilled in a conventional manner, a sign of greater availability of water in the soil, which
will in return result in a major increase in yield.
The fact that there is a reduction in the speed of infiltration through the soil surface in untilled soils
due to the formation of crusts does not mean that this practice makes the soil impermeable.
On the other hand the effect of tilling is not long-lasting since fairly intense rainfall on recently
tilled soil drastically reduces the capacity of infiltration in subsequent rainfalls. At the end of a
rainy period, tilled soil does not accumulate more water than untilled soil over a period of several
years. The explanation for this is that compact and barely permeable zones (plough hard pans)
have formed from frequent tillage at a constant depth in tilled soils due to the effects of the tools
used making water infiltration even slower than on surface crust. Also, in untilled terrain, not all
the rainfall is heavy enough to produce runoff, and once the crust is wet, the speed of infiltration
increases considerably.
Superficial (less than 5 cm) tillage once a year can be sufficient to increase infiltration in untilled
soil to satisfactory levels not less than those obtained in soils under traditional tillage.
60 60
An effective method of improving infiltration is the use of vegetation cover on the soil that can
be cut down at the beginning of spring to prevent competition for water. A cereal cover crop can
substantially increase the total amount of infiltrated water during the rainy season.
Tillage has traditionally been considered to play an important role in the conservation of water
which has infiltrated into the ground, and it has been assumed that the reduction in evaporation
is due to the capillarity having been broken up as a result of this practice. However, much of the
experimental work performed in recent years fails to confirm this hypothesis. By the time the soil
has softened sufficiently for it to be tilled, most of the water loss as a result of capillarity has already
occurred. The superficial crust in non-tilled soil can reduce the speed of evaporation.
Certain types of soil have a definite tendency to form cracks when the land is not tilled, but it is also
true that these cracks appear when the water in the soil has evaporated especially in the clay soils
that have high percentage of montmorillonite. In tilled soil cracks can also develop for identical
reasons and therefore it is doubtful whether there is any real benefit to be gained from this practice,
especially considering the additional cost involved among other disadvantages.
3.9 Productivity under different cultivation systems and associated costs
Non-conventional cultivation methods like
no-tillage, reduced (minimum) tillage or strip-
tillage result in increasing olive productivity
compared with conventional tillage. In
these systems, residual herbicide is applied
underneath the canopy of the trees along the
rows and this area is left untilled, while no-
tillage or tilling of varying degrees of intensity
is performed along the row-middles.
Vegetation cover cultivation systems can also
be used either with weed cover or by sowing with fodder grasses or leguminous cover which are
very efficient in preventing erosion. One crucial condition for obtaining satisfactory results is that
there should be no competition for water and nutrients between the vegetation cover and the olive
trees. There is no reason why well-managed cover should reduce productivity.
The aforementioned cultivation systems serve two main objectives; namely keeping the grove land
free from weeds and improving olive yields.
In terms of soil maintenance costs, both in the no-tillage system with herbicides and in reduced
tillage system with vegetation cover and herbicides application along the trees rows, very little
61 61
machinery is required and the size of the tractors used can be reduced significantly as well as the
number of tractor hours which will cumulatively reduce gasoline requirements. All this usually
translates into lower input costs in favour of the farmer and means that no-tillage and reduced
tillage systems are generally cheaper than conventional tillage, in addition to the probable increase
in productivity. In these systems the basic equipment required is herbicide application equipment
which has a relatively low cost since it is possible, with certain precautions, to use the equipment
used for spraying plant health treatments.
The no-tillage method gives much higher flexibility to enter the row-middles floor in the grove with
machinery for many cultural practices such as spraying, fertilizing or harvesting. It also makes
labour movement much easier inside the grove.
3.10 Soil chemical degradation:
Soil chemical degradation can be described as an undesirable change in soil chemical properties
such as pH, size and composition of cation exchange complex, contents of organic matter, mineral
nutrients, and soluble salts. Changes in one or more of these properties often have direct or indirect
adverse effects on the chemical fertility of soils, which can lead to a decrease in soil productivity.
Soils are continually undergoing natural chemical changes as a result of weathering. The combination
of the weathering process with other factors, such as parent material, climate, biota, and topography,
are responsible for the evolution of soil diversity. The forces and factors affecting soil formation
are always operational in a manner such that a static equilibrium state is never attained. However,
the balance at any given time is highly sensitive to these factors and a new equilibrium towards soil
degradation may be the outcome when there are natural or man-made changes.
1
The most widespread types of chemical degradation in soils are an excessive decrease or increase in
pH (acidity or alkalinity), an increase in soluble salt content (salinity), a decrease in organic matter
content, and a loss of mineral nutrients through leaching or crop offtake.
1
3.11 Conserving the chemical and biological properties of the soil:
Although the biological and chemical properties of the soil are rather complex and complicated
subjects, it is important that farmers be given a minimum of the very basic scientific ideas about
these properties in order to help them in interpreting their own observations while dealing with
the soil. It also helps them be able to understand the reasons behind the negative or positive
outcomes of their own cultural practices and consequently improve their appreciation and efficient
implementation of the GAP Guidelines contained in this manual. To achieve these objectives, the
major constituents of the soil biological and chemical properties are very briefly discussed in the
following sub-sections.
1 Citation: (2005). Degradation, chemical.
Encyclopedia of Soil Science, 1 (1), Retrieved January 3, 2006, from
http://www.dekker.com/sdek/abstract~db=enc~content=a713571858
62 62
3.11.1 The role of soil organisms and organic matter in sustaining soils fertility and health
Earthworms feed on dead or decaying plant
materials or other organic matters in the
soil and redistribute the litter throughout
the topsoil layer in a form more accessible
to decomposition by soil micro-organisms.
These well known and appreciated creatures
by any farmer are among the different living
organisms in the soil which can be seen by the
naked eye like beetles, snails, slugs, ants and
termites. Other more important functioning
organisms for the soil health and fertility, but
unfortunately not highly recognized or appreciated, are of microscopic sizes (0.000001 mm) like
bacteria and fungi which constitute 75-90% of the soil biomass and are considered as the soil natural
gardeners or as some would call them, the biofertilizers. This is because they are responsible for
fertilizing the soil through decomposing and recycling organic matter particles by digesting and
transforming them into an available form of mineral nutrients required for plant growth like nitrate,
ammonium, phosphorous and sulphur.
Some soil micro-organisms are responsible for converting inorganic components from one form
to another and degrading harmful chemicals. Others produce complex chemical compounds such
as vitamins and hormones which can improve plant health and contribute to higher, healthier crop
yields. Ironically some micro-organisms are capable of decomposing residual organic herbicides
either aerobically (with oxygen) or an-aerobically (without oxygen). Among other micro-organism
species which live in the soil are algae, viruses and protozoa. When all types of micro-organisms die,
their bodies become fertilizer sources themselves, and when they are still alive some become prey
for other soil micro-organisms like nematodes that recycle them into other forms of soil nutrients.
Dead or alive; soil micro-organisms not only improve soil fertility and balance nutrients but they
also take over the tillage function through aerating, tunnelling and aggregating soil particles. It is
for this reason, that when organisms take care of certain soils they feels spongy underfoot with a
characteristic smell and lots of humus. These distinguishing properties allow us to recognise such
soils.
Except some types of bacteria, almost all soil micro-organisms need food, water and oxygen to live
and therefore their largest populations of roughly 75% live in the top 5-10 cm of well aerated and
moist soil. This soil is full of decayed plant feeder roots and organism remains and covered with
plant residues and animal litter. This wealth of organic matter secure their food needs from a carbon-
63 63
based source. In this top rich, non-eroded soil horizon, the population of micro-organisms is huge
and can range between one and ten million per each gram of soil. The exact population level and
activity depend on many climatic conditions, human induced activities and most importantly on the
soil habitat conditions like its moisture holding capacity, organic matter level and carbon type, pH,
temperature, mineral levels, salt and heavy metal contents. Under warm and wet conditions, the rate
of organic matter breakdown is fast. In cool areas the soils would normally have higher levels of
non-decomposed organic matter because it does not break down as quickly as in high temperatures.
During drought, the soil organisms shrivel and die and the soil fertility can start to degrade. Human
induced practices such as burning residues or irrational tillage which leads to soil compaction or
induces water logging can substantially reduce soil biota.
Organic matter which is beneficial for the soils biological life can be either of plant origin (straw,
hay, sawdust, wood chips, rice hulls, grape and olive pomace, fruit juice or sugarcane residues,
vegetation covers, crop residues, fallen or collected leaves, carbon ashes, etc...), or animal manure,
slurries, seaweed, fish by-products, food waste, composted or pulverized urban organic garbage,
sludge, abattoirs paunch, etc and any other materials that are derived from plants or animals as
well as micro-organisms and their excretions. The smaller the size of the organic matter, the better
it is for the decomposition process and the livelihood of the micro-organisms. Therefore shredding
olive tree prunings is recommended to enhance the decomposing process.
Untreated fresh animal manure should be handled with caution as it normally contains food
poisoning microbes. Other organic materials can, to some extent, support the growth of food-
poisoning microbes if not treated. Contamination of the olive fruits from these materials can happen
through accidental direct contact or via the soil and therefore the GAP Guidelines contained in this
manual should be implemented by olive growers in managing their groves so that they can access
the multiple benefits of these good materials without having to suffer from their drawbacks.
Like any other living community on earth, the soil community contains good and bad inhabitants.
Among the bad ones are certain micro-organisms which are pathogenic to plants and can infect
them through their roots and may cause them considerable damage (verticillium wilt in olives is an
example). However, certain soil micro-organisms which are called biopesticides are antagonistic
to these pathogens and can produce compounds that stimulate the natural defence mechanisms of
the plant and improve its resistance. The development of ongoing research will, one day and sooner
than thought, allow the efficient use of these soil micro-organisms as an alternative biological
control to chemical control.
Different types of fresh organic matter are normally characterized by large amounts of carbon in
relation to nitrogen. During composting, the soil micro-organisms use carbon mainly as fuel and
64 64
nitrogen as building material for their bodies.
Therefore the higher carbon to nitrogen ratio
in an organic matter, the longer it will take the
micro-organisms to decompose it. Ultimately
humus is produced as a result of the complex
activities of micro-organisms, their remains
and the decomposing process itself. Humus is
a dark colour and crumbly material resistant
to further decomposition. It is very complex
in its structure and is very resistant to decay,
sometimes lasting as long as 1000 years. Humus is a very important contributor to soil health and
fertility for the following reasons. it:
Improves water holding capacity as its molecule can absorb and hold large quantities of water;
Improves cation exchange capacity (CEC) as humus molecules are colloids, which are negatively
charged structures with an enormous surface area. Therefore they can attract and hold huge
quantities of positively charged elemental nutrients (cations) such as calcium, magnesium and
potassium until the plant needs them. Clays also have this capacity, but humus colloids have a
much greater CEC than clays;
Enhances absorption of organic molecules and inorganic compounds added to the soil by either
natural or unnatural means and thus provide a storehouse for plants available nutrients like
nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulphur;
Adds a glue-like binding substance that enhances the building of soil structure. The new cemented
structural aggregates of soil particles of sand, silt, clay and organic matter do not break down in
water;
Acts like a sponge in sandy soil to hold moisture and nutrients while in clay it help aggregate the
finer particles allowing for larger pore spaces, thus improving aeration and drainage;
Reduces extreme variations of surface soil temperature;
Decreases crust formation, erosion and soil compaction;
Increases infiltration, reduce water runoff and increase surface wetness and
Buffers the soil against abrupt changes in pH, contamination with pesticides and toxic heavy
metals.
For all of these reasons, organic matter should undoubtedly be regarded as the backbone or lifeblood
of a successful, safe and healthy agricultural economy. This is not only because they support soil
micro-organisms needs of food and consequently enhance soil fertility, but also because of their many
other advantages, some of which are very similar to the humus influences indicated above. Organic
matter is extremely important in sandy soils as it decreases nutrient losses caused by leaching and
also protects these soils from physical degradation. Unfortunately the failure to replenish depleted
organic matter in agriculture soils over centuries and the continuous inefficient use of fertilizers,
65 65
pesticides, herbicides and fungicides by farmers in the belief that these materials increase crop
yields, has altered the biological, chemical and physical properties of the soil. Microbial activity
has decreased, pH has been altered and soil structure, aeration, porosity and water-holding capacity
have been negatively affected. We now know that many living species are threatened with extinction
or have already vanished as a result of incorrect human attitudes towards the environment and its
ecosystems. What is less well known is that we face the same risks with the micro-organisms in our
soils. However, this can be corrected through implementing GAP Guidelines without negatively
affecting production.
Growers must appreciate that chemical fertilizers only provide some of the macro nutrient elements,
while the soils are becoming deficient in micro-nutrients and general health and fertility. A rational
combination between synthetic fertilizers, organic matter and soil conservation practices will
recover and enhance our soils physical, chemical and biological properties and improve and sustain
its productivity.
3.11. 2 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Some of the following discussion is quite technical, but it is included to provide both resource
material for extension and training work, as well as a resource for individuals to develop a greater
understanding of the science underpinning effective soil management. It provides the background
and rationale for the GAP Guidelines at the end of the chapter.
Impact and depnition: CEC has an appreciable impact on soil fertility and its acidity / alkalinity.
Therefore understanding what cation exchange capacity is all about is very important for the olive
farmers of the WANA region so that they can manage the soil of their groves effectively. In simple
terms, some of the soils inorganic and organic particles (clay and humus) are charged electrically
with negative charges. While there is a sound hypothesis about the means by which these particles
are charged, it is a mystery to many people involved with the soil, especially farmers.
The electrical charge magnitude is a function of different characteristics, among which is the
specific surface area of the charged particle. Humus particles, which are plate shaped with multiple
internal surfaces, can carry enormous negative charges due to their relatively large surface area.
Clay particles are flaky in shape and have smaller internal surfaces. For example, while a fine sand
particle measures 0.25 to 0.5 mm in diameter and the surface area of one gram of such sand particles
is approximately 45 cm
2
, clay on the other hand is <0.002 mm and approximately 8,000,000 cm
2
respectively. The surface area of one gram of humus is much higher again than that of clay. The
thin, flat plated, negatively charged particles of clay and humus are called colloids and they are
normally less than 2 microns in diameter.
All elements in the soil (some of which are essential nutrients for plant growth) are electrically
charged and are known as ions. When ions are negatively charged they are called anions (like
nitrate, chlorine, sulphate, phosphorus, boron and molybdenum). When ions are positively charged
they are known as cations (like potassium, ammonium, sodium, copper, zinc, manganese, calcium,
66 66
magnesium, iron and aluminium). Since the soil colloids are negatively charged they will, like a
magnet, electrically attract and hold (fix) positively charged cations and repel negatively charged
anions.
The magnitude of attraction and fixation of cations by the soil colloids depends on the level of
negative charge of the colloids; therefore humus colloids can hold more cations than clay colloids
can. The strength of bonding of a specific cation to the colloids depends on the number of positive
charges this cation carries. While some cations are fixed on the negatively charged soil colloids and
some are free to move in the soil solution, all anions are free to move in the soil solution. Both of
the free moving ions (cations and anions) are readily available to the plants and readily leach-able.
This is where efficient irrigation management counts. Under certain conditions an anion can form
a compound with a cation and becomes insoluble and temporarily unavailable for the plant or even
for leaching as in the case of a phosphorous anion when it binds with either an aluminium or iron
cation.
Cations held onto soil colloids can move onto the soil solution or can be replaced by other cations
which are in high concentration in the soil solution. An example of this is where hydrogen cations
released by the plants root hairs or by micro-organisms or when potassium is replaced by other
cations such as calcium or hydrogen, and vice versa. Thus the cations absorbed by the colloids
are at all times exchangeable as long as the soil is alive with micro-organisms and moisture. The
exchange efficiency is influenced, among other factors, by the number of charges the specific cation
carries as mentioned above. The Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) is a measure of the total sum of
exchangeable cations adsorbed by soil colloids, at any one time, per unit weight of soil. The higher
67 67
the CEC, the higher the negative charges of the colloids and the more cations that can be held. CEC
is expressed in mille-equivalents per 100 grams of oven-dry soil (meq/100 g). A mille-equivalent
weight is equal to 0.001 gram of hydrogen.
Since soil CEC is a measure of the soils clay or humus content, the CEC of light sandy soil poor in
clay and organic matter is consequently very low (roughly measuring 3-5 meg/100 gm) while it is
10-20 meg/100 for sandy loam or loamy sand, 30-40 meg/100 for silty clays and 50-100 meg/100
for rich organic soils. This is one reason that managing sandy soils is not an easy task.
CEC, "soil buffer capacity" and soil fertility: The importance of high CEC for plants is simply
that when free cations in the soil solution are taken-up by plants roots or lost through leaching, the
cations held onto the colloids will be released for re-supplying the soil solution. Therefore the higher
the CEC, the more consistent will be the supply and this is called the soil`s buffer capacity which
not only secures the supply of cations, but also resists changes in concentration of a nutrient or soil
pH. Therefore the likelihood of cations leaching through the soil profile decreases progressively
with increasing CEC .
On the other hand sandy soils with low CEC are often deficient in several essential nutritional
elements, which is detrimental for plant growth and development, due to the fewer sites available
to hold reserves of cations. It is also that the leaching of nutrients in these soils is very high and
therefore efficient management of both fertilizers and irrigation in sandy soils is essential for
meaningful production. For these reasons, CEC is a very good indication of the soil fertility.
Base Saturation: some cations, such as hydrogen and aluminium can be classified as acidic or acid
forming . Some other cations are classified as basic or alkaline forming, among which are calcium,
magnesium, potassium and sodium. The proportion of acids and bases within the CEC is termed the
percentage base saturation. The importance of this CEC property is that the relative proportion
of acids and bases on the exchange sites determines a soil`s pH which will drop if the number of
basic cations (Ca
++
and Mg
++
) decreases and the number of acidic cations (H
+
and Al
+++
) increases.
Adding limestone replaces acidic hydrogen and aluminium cations on the colloids surfaces with
basic calcium and magnesium cations, which increases the base saturation and raises the pH. The
availability of nutrient cations such as Ca, Mg, and K to plants increases with increasing base
saturation percentage.
3.11.3 Soil pH
Depnition: The pH of a soil indicates the strength of acidity or alkalinity in the soil solution. The
pH scale goes from 0 to 14 but the majority of agriculture productive soils fall between 4 and 11. A
pH of 7 is neutral, which is neither acid nor alkaline and when it is less than 7 it is acidic and when
it is greater than 7 it is alkaline (basic). The pH scale is logarithmic, so a difference of a unit is a
tenfold difference in acidity or alkalinity (e.g. pH 5 is ten times more acid than pH 6). Soil pH has
a dramatic influence on nutrient availability.
68 68
Generally acidic soils are to be found in regions
of high rainfall while soils in dry climate
regions tend to be alkaline. Essential nutrients
are most available at pH levels between 6.5
and 7.5 (slightly acidic to slightly alkaline).
In olive groves, problems due to alkalinity are
less commonly reported than problems due to
acidity. The soil pH level is influenced by many
factors including parent material, precipitation,
native vegetation, crops grown, soil depth,
nitrogen fertilization and soil management.
Before a soil mineral nutrient can be used by any growing plant, it must first be dissolved in the soil
solution. The solubility of the 14 soil mineral nutrients needed by plants is very much dependant on
the pH value. The solubility of minerals is harder in alkaline soils than it is in neutral or slightly acidic
soils. Phosphorous for example can be most available at a pH range centred around 7. Extremely
and strongly acid soils (pH 4.0-5.0) can have high concentrations of soluble aluminium, iron and
manganese which may be toxic to the growth of some plants.
The soil biota does not function well outside the range of pH 5 to 8 and decomposing soil organic
matter into humus slows down drastically which negatively affects soil fertility. The non-breaking
of organic matter results in nutrient tie up, particularly nitrogen.
Why soils become alkaline (a predominant case in the WAAA region) and how to manage them
following CAP Cuidlines: some soils used for growing olives in the arid and semi-arid climates of
the WANA region are slightly alkaline to highly alkaline,
with pH that range from 7.5 to 9.5. However with the tolerability of olive trees to moderately
alkaline soils, many olive groves in the region are performing satisfactorily up to pH 8.7 with
alterations in fertilizer practices to resolve nutritional problems associated with these soils. Under
one or a combination of the following factors, soils tend to become alkaline:
Limestone parent material from which these soils were formed;
Irrigating with high pH irrigation water containing bicarbonate; and/or
When aluminium and hydrogen have been predominately replaced by basic cations (calcium
Ca
+2
, magnesium Mg
+2
, potassium K
+
and sodium Na
+
) on the permanently charged cation
exchange sites;
Problems caused to plants grown in alkaline, high pH, soils arise mainly from nutrient imbalances
rather than from the direct influence of the high pH soil solution. Such problems include the
following:
69 69
Boron deficiency which might become tied by soil colloids;
The formation of insoluble iron and manganese oxides and hydroxides;
Phosphorus deficiency due to its reaction with calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate to form
insoluble calcium phosphates;
The unavailability of zinc as it combines with applied phosphate as fertilizer to form zinc
phosphate; and
Potential of molybdenum toxicity for certain sensitive crops.

Lowering the soil pH can be achieved by applying several products. These include elemental sulphur,
aluminium sulphate, iron sulphate, organic matter and humus and acidifying nitrogen fertilizers like
ammonium sulphate, diammonium phosphate (DAP), monoammonium phosphate (MAP), urea,
and ammonium nitrate. Yet for practicality, plant safety and economic return, aluminium sulphate
and iron sulphate are rarely used although they can react quicker than sulphur. Granular sulphur is
the least expensive and safest to use. Sulphur may be also used to maintain pH in the desirable range
or on soils which tend to become alkaline with management. Sulphur combines with oxygen and
water in the soil to form sulphuric acid which contributes to lowering soil pH.
Alkaline-calcareous soils are very resistant to pH change due to the buffering capacity of calcium and
magnesium carbonates. In many cases pH greater than 7.5 indicates that the free calcium carbonate
content of the soil might be high. Under these conditions lowering the pH becomes difficult and will
take longer. If the alkaline soil does not contain free lime, then it will be much easier to reduce the
pH level over a shorter period of time.
Although gypsum has little effect on soil pH, it
will yield good results when incorporated into
high pH soils where alkalinity is caused by high
bicarbonate ions or because the irrigation water
contains bicarbonate. The soluble calcium in
gypsum will react with the bicarbonate to form
insoluble calcium carbonate and the pH of the
soil is reduced.
Why soils become acidic and how to manage
them: under one or a combination of the
following factors, soils tend to become acidic:
a) Frequent leaching caused by rainwater or irrational irrigation of exchangeable basic
cations (calcium Ca
+2
, magnesium Mg
+2
, potassium K
+
and sodium Na
+
). Acidifying
cations hydrogen (H
+
) and aluminium (Al
+3
) become the primary ions in these soils;
70 70
b) The weak organic acid formed
by carbon dioxide dissolving in
water. Sources of carbon dioxide
in the soil are mainly from roots
respiration and the decomposing
process of organic matter;
c) Strong organic and inorganic
acids, such as nitric and
sulphuric acids resulting from
decaying organic matter and
oxidation of ammonium and
sulphur fertilizers.
A number of relatively inexpensive materials can be used to adjust soil acidity including ground
limestone, dolomite lime (which is high in magnesium) and other minor sources such as wood
carbon ash. The amount of lime to be applied to correct the acidity problem is influenced by several
factors like the pH level, texture and structure of the soil, CEC, amount of organic matter and finally
the nutritional needs of the plant grown on this soil. Dolomite lime not only replaces hydrogen ions
and raises soil pH, but it also provides two macronutrients namely calcium and magnesium. Lime
also reduces the potential for manganese toxicity, makes added phosphorus more available and, in
the longer term, increases the availability of nitrogen by enhancing the decomposition of organic
matter.
3.12 GAP Guidelines for soil management in WANA region olive groves
The guidelines below are recommended in order to protect the soil in olive groves of the WANA
region from degradation and to conserve and improve its health and fertility. This should, in turn,
improve its productivity leading to a better income and livelihood of the growers. All practices
mentioned in these Guidelines are supposed to be within the reach of olive growers to implement and
maintain. Nevertheless, prior to their implementation, the local and micro growing conditions must
be reviewed, evaluated and considered so that any required adjustments to the recommendations can
be incorporated. Although some measures are intended specifically for protection against a certain
type of degradation, nevertheless they might have a positive impact on other types of degradation
and therefore the recommendations can not be segregated.
Guidelines for soil cultivation as measures of erosion protection and control should not be viewed as
incompatible, since different combinations may be used. Another important aspect is the reversibility
between cultivation systems if for some reason a decision is taken to change one cultivation method
for another. A system implying tillage can be easily converted to a conservation-tillage system with
the application of herbicides. The trees usually respond to this change with a certain increase in
71 71
vigour. However when doing the reverse process some care is required, and only superficial tillage
should be performed initially, so that minimum damage is done to the roots.
3.12.1 Management of soil erosion and compaction with GAP Guidelines
Whenever conditions allow, traditional tillage systems should be substituted by non-traditional

(conservation) tillage system following one of the three methods indicated in the following
diagram:
In some soils it is necessary to handle topsoil compaction problems before switching to

conservation tillage systems.
When it is not feasible to apply conservation tillage due to local conditions, then the following
precautions should be considered if traditional tillage is performed:
The number oI annual tillage operations should be cut down to the bare minimum. More
tillage does not mean more moisture, as long as weeds are kept under control;
To be perIormed at times when it will not cause extensive water loss Irom the soil; and
Tillage depth should be changed Irom time to time to avoid sub-surIace compaction and to
prevent the formation of plough hard pans.
Among conservation tillage systems, shallow superficial tillage is the most advisable especially
when associated with a vegetation crop in the row-middles floor of the grove as it incorporates
the residues of this cover.
Herbicides should be applied to completely eliminate weeds under the tree canopies but this is
not essential in row-middles floor.
Herbicides must be applied correctly. If a weed escapes the control and turns
into a problem, hand weeding maybe the only viable option of control. On
no account should attempts be made to solve the problem by increasing the
dosage of herbicide or by unnecessarily repeating the operation.
The efficient application of herbicides is performed using equipment in

good condition, particularly if the cost of the treatment is to be kept to a
minimum.
Conservation Tillage
or
or
or or
or
Mulch cover protection
Bare soil and using pre-
emergence herbicides on
full floor
Vegetation cover in winter
Using pre-emergence
herbicides on trees row
Vegetation cover such as
Fodder grass or barely or
Cumin during autumn / winte
Vegetation legume cover such
as lupine, lintel or broad
Beans during autumn / winter
No-Tillage
With either
Strip Tillage
With either
Minimum Tillage
With either
72 72
Maintaining well-managed vegetation cover can help reduce water and wind erosion without
having negative effects on productivity. The application with low dosages of certain post-
emergent herbicides can help keep cover development down to levels which are not harmful for
the olive trees.
To improve topsoil structure and thus resist water

and wind erosion, a good mulching practice is to
spread fallen leaf litter and tree pruning materials
on the row-middles floor and mulch it in situ by a
tractor- driven shredder. If this type of shredder is
not available, then a conventional stationary shredder
can be used but this will entail more operational
costs, more work and movements inside the grove in
collecting the pruning materials and re-spreading them
again. Spreading other sources of organic matter is
also recommended. Examples include olive pomace,
olive leaves collected at the mill during cleaning or
well composted organic manure.
While establishing new olive groves in soils

vulnerable to run-off erosion when the land slope
does not exceed 7%, and in the event of planning to
grow vegetation cover during the rainy season, the
trees should be planted on mounded rows running down the slope. For row spacing of 6-8 meters
and through moving the soil of the row-middles floors sideways to the mound, the lowest point at
the centre of the row-middles should not exceed 10 cm deep from the original ground level and in
this case the height of the mound will be 20 cm from this lowest point. For row spacing of 10-12
meters the height of the mound to the lowest row-middle point should be 30 cm.
Under a vegetation cover system grown during the rainy season, it is very unlikely that water-
eroded rills will form. Under no cover, rills should
be immediately attended to in order to prevent them
from widening and developing into gullies, by
adding imported soil and smoothing the soil surface
with scratch (superficial) shallow tillage.
In areas known to be vulnerable to gully erosion

under no vegetation cover, the best control measures
in descending order are either to install dikes which
can retain the water and infiltrate it into the soil or to
73 73
install water diversion gutters to lead the water flow away from these sensitive soil areas. Dykes
or diversion gutters can be constructed from materials available locally such as loose soil, soil-
filled in sacks for better stability, stones, or any other durable and cheap materials which the
grower finds functionally fit provided that using such materials will not cause imbalances to the
environment or the ecosystem.
When olive trees are to be planted on rip lines, these rip lines should not be continuous as water
erosion or even gullies development may occur along these lines. A 2 m gap of non-ripped
ground left every 1520 m will prevent this from happening.
On very slightly sloped lands where run-off water

can not gain high speeds, dikes constructed at short
intervals perpendicular to the slope direction will
protect the soil from erosion and at the same time
harvest the water rather than losing it downhill. Soil
dikes can be stabilized by growing vegetation cover
of native drought-tolerant species.
When stones are available within the olive grove

vicinity and stone walling is a viable option to
combat erosion, the wall bottom should be retained in an excavated trench of at least 30 cm deep
and it should be wider than the top of the wall with the outer face leaning into the hillside and
the inner face being almost vertical. This is because water can build up inside the walls even for
very short times resulting in higher pressure gradient at the wall bottom. For better stability and
strength, the largest rocks should be used at the wall foundation and the outer face. If the stones
used are of high wearability like sandstone, certain protective paints can be applied to the outer
surfaces of the wall to prolong its service life.
In general, terraces are suitable on slopes up to about 50%. Flat terraces are best on narrow slopes
while downward sloped terraces are more suitable for steep land. Conservation tillage is crucial
on terraces as it ensures their long life. On the other hand traditional tillage will eventually wear
down terrace ridges leading to continuous maintenance and even the need for rebuilding.
When the soil is too wet, tillage and traffic of heavy machinery should be strictly avoided to
avoid severe compaction.
Equipment with wider tyres or dual tyres are preferred as their impact on the soil is reduced.
While driving on row-middle floors, the minimum inflation pressure recommended by the tyre
manufacturer should be maintained.
Whenever possible, the tires spans of different equipment should be the same and drivers should
follow the same tracks to avoid compacting larger areas.
Grove operations should be always combined to make fewer passes over the grove floor.
When using drip irrigation in olive groves under arid conditions where weeds are unlikely to
grow on the row-middle floor, it is advisable not to till the soil otherwise it can suffer from wind
erosion.
74 74
When using drip irrigation in olive groves under

winter rainy conditions, it is advisable to grow
vegetation cover (e.g. lupins, oats, lentils), that can
be incorporated into the soil in the spring under
either type of conservation tillage.
Establishment of woody tree windbreaks around the

periphery and within olive groves in areas frequently
under strong winds and especially in arid and semi-
arid regions has been found to be the most effective
protection of the soil from wind erosion. This is
especially the case during the early years until the
trees reach the designated maximum green coverage.
Windbreaks also conserve soil moisture as a result of
reducing wind-related evapotranspiration, reduce air
temperature, and improve pollination as a result of
reduced wind velocity inside the grove. Windbreaks
can protect the soil and the trees on the downwind
side to a distance of approximately 20-30 times their height. Olive trees are moderately resistant
to wind damage at most stages of their phenological progress and therefore the inner distances
within the grove between windbreak shelters can be in the order of 30-40 times the height of the
windbreak trees when mature. This distance might seem large but two factors must be considered
in order to mitigate the drawbacks of woody windbreak trees planted at shorter distances:
* Multiple windbreaks inside the grove decrease the overall wind velocity.
* The potential of olive trees to reduce wind velocity inside the grove and protect one another
when they establish their canopies in just a few years.

Whenever possible, planting windbreaks a year before establishing the olive grove is very
rewarding in terms of protecting the soil and the olive trees.

In areas of milder wind, windbreaks should only be located on the windward side perpendicular
to the wind direction.

Trees most suitable for windbreaks should be fast growing, have a narrow erect canopy and,
whenever possible, be of species that develop deep tap roots rather than lateral ones. They should
be suitable for producing lumber, with efficient ratios when turned into coal and adaptable to
manufacturing poles so they can create additional income in the future when thinned or pruned.
Windbreaks can be planted in single or double-rows. The normal in-row spacing is 1-1.5 m
according to the species and in case of double rows, the distance between rows should not be less
than 2 m to reduce competition. Higher density planting is not recommended as the trees grow
very thin and weak due to excessive shading and competition for nutrients.
75 75

Deciding on the in-row spacing should ensure the mature trees have adequate spacing, as this
will ensure permeability so that a certain amount of wind can pass through into the grove. An
impermeable windbreak can raise the temperature in the grove and cause turbulence.

Trees on double rows should be staggered to prevent a wind tunnelling effect which can cause
severe soil erosion and tree damage.

Whenever possible, planting an additional row of short shrubs on the outer rim of a windbreak
helps in deflecting the winds upwards and consequently increases the protection distance inside
the grove and reduces the turbulence effect.

Under arid conditions successful establishment of windbreaks will depend on supplementary
irrigation or water harvesting techniques.

Windbreaks should be always irrigated. It has been noted that some olive growers neglect to
irrigate their windbreaks once they attain a certain height and establish themselves. Under such
conditions it has been found that the olive trees in close vicinity are suffering because the woody
trees extend their roots in search for water causing increased competition.

A deep trench excavated alongside the windbreak rows can help in restricting the growth of their
roots into adjacent olive rows, yet in some cases the soil can collapse into the trench creating
further problems, so the local conditions must be assessed.

When windbreak trees mature, they must be thinned and pruned periodically to maintain their
vigour. They must be checked frequently to remove or replace diseased trees in order to maintain
them in a healthy state. Gaps in the windbreaks should not be allowed for their negative wind
tunnelling effect on the soil and the olive trees.

When the windbreak trees grow at an angle that might cause problems to the olive trees, wire
trunk girdling at the required height will
prevent their further development.

Although not yet trialled in the WANA
region, a very good practice used in some
countries is to fence the newly planted
young trees of the windbreak with UV
resistant, black nursery HDPE (High density
polyethylene) monofilament yarn cloth
which helps in quicker development and
better survival rate of trees. This practice
also protects, to great extent, the olive trees
in the early stages of the grove establishment when the windbreak trees are still small and not
capable of providing protection against wind impacts or sandblasting.

With all their advantages, windbreaks have some drawbacks and therefore it should be considered,
when local conditions allow, to remove some of the windbreak rows once the olive trees reach
maximum green coverage and are capable of protecting the soil and themselves from the winds
76 76
negative impacts. Drawbacks of windbreaks which should be recognized by olive growers are
the following:
* Their roots grow laterally (e.g. Eucalyptus) and compete with the roots of nearby olive trees
on nutrients and water;
* They shade the trees in their vicinity for long hours during the day and deprive them of efficient
photosynthesis which weakens the trees and reduce their crop both in terms of quantity and
quality;
* In their vicinity, they create a micro-climate favourable to some olive pests and diseases like
olive scale and black sooty mould; and
* When strong winds occur parallel
to the wind break, soil scouring
and erosion at the grove edges can
sometimes occur.

Some olive varieties which have a natural
erect growing tendency (e.g. Italian
Cipressino or Syrian Dan varieties) can
be used as windbreaks under mild wind
conditions.

Drifting sand dunes close to or in the
vicinity of olive groves must be planted
with drought-tolerant native shrubs.
At the end of the day, the pros and cons of establishing windbreaks should be carefully considered
against the individual circumstances of each grove.
3.12.2 Management of soil chemical, biological and physical properties with GAP Guidelines

Olive growers in the WANA region should appreciate that the key to healthy, fertile and productive
soil is to preserve and enhance its biological activity. Therefore the first soil GAP Guideline
should capture two questions asked by each olive grower for each activity or practice connected
directly or indirectly with the grove soil:
Is what I am doing conserving and enhancing the biological
activity of my olive grove soil or not, and is it good for my health?
Is it possible for me to produce more from my olive grove
while not harming its soil and sustaining it for my grandchildren?
Answering these two questions will help very much in correcting and/or eliminating many
misconducts resulting in degrading our groves soils.
77 77

When drilling water wells for irrigation on an existing olive grove
or on a land which will become an olive grove, no drilling fluid or
what is called in the industry mud should be circulated in open pits
excavated in the ground. Most commercial mud is in fact a bentonite
clay, some are oil-based and some are water-based and they are used
to help remove cuttings from the well and to form a filter cake on
the walls of the hole to protect it from collapsing until the casing is
lowered in. Mud will completely seal the soil pores if discharged or
circulated in open ground pits and will cause salinization as it normally has a high salt content.
Drilling fluids and hydrocarbons resulting during the drilling operation must be kept inside
closed tanks and containers and disposed of outside the grove premises in accordance with the
current effluent handling limitation guidelines in each country within the region.

Prevent any non-degradable materials from mixing with the soil by accident or act of negligence.
Such materials can be cigarette butts, polyethylene bags, empty pesticide containers, etc

Protect the soil from accelerated erosion this is the first step in reclaiming the degraded biological
activity of the soil. Recommendations given in the previous section should be maintained.

To plan for an efficient soil amendment
prog-ramme that satisfies the needs of
soil and olive trees, soil analysis records
should be interpreted in conjunction with
leaf analysis records. The interpretation
and recommendations should be done by a
specialized agronomist. Pruning materials
should never be burnt, especially on the
grove floor as burning kills soil micro-
organisms and burn the humus which will
lead to a loss in soil aggregate stability and
alter pH. About 90% of all biomass is lost
to the atmosphere, including all nitrogen and carbon compounds which would otherwise have
fed the soil biota. Burning not only causes the loss of a valuable organic matter source but it
also pollutes the air and damages the environment and the ecosystem. Instead shredding and
spreading the pruning material enhances its decomposition by soil micro-organisms.

Engage a specialized agronomist in diagnosing soil fertility problems and causes so he can come
up with viable recommendations. Each olive grower should keep good records for all of his/her
inputs to and outputs from the soil of the grove. Such information should include:
* Applications of synthetic fertilizers and organic or inorganic mulches and organic or inorganic
soil amendments by specifications, date, type, method of application, quantities used and
source;
* Irrigation or rainfall records; timing and quantity and quality to correlate it with fertilizer
applications and their combined impact on soil fertility and properties;
78 78
* Herbicide, pesticide and fungicide history;
* Vegetation cover crop history including type, date of planting, method of planting, areas
covered and post harvest usages; and
* Quantity of olive crop removal and an estimate of pruning materials and their usage.

Enhance soil biological activity through:
* Maintaining soil cover either by organic mulch or preferably by a living vegetation crop. Soil
micro-organisms are less active in bare soil due to reduced moisture, higher temperature and
deprivation of carbon substrates provided by organic matter.
* Frequently changing the source of organic matter, whether mulch or vegetation cover, to
enhance and secure diversified soil biota. Legume species are very beneficial as they convert
atmospheric nitrogen into soil-bound nitrogen needed for micro-organisms.
* Minimizing physical disturbance by tillage, compaction and erosion to preserve soil organisms
habitat and to prevent interruptions of their life cycling
* Improving soil moisture retention through wind breaks, conservation tillage, weed eradication
and training the olive trees with low crotches to shade the soil surface under their canopies
and thus retain moisture.
* If the grove is irrigated, avoid reaching moisture below the wilting point.
* Reducing the use of pesticides and fungicides through the implementation of IPM. Some
soil micro-organisms and some earthworms might be eliminated or negatively affected when
certain chemicals and copper accumulate in the soil from frequent application.
* Improving soil drainage to prevent water logging which encourages anaerobic bacteria that can
damage plant roots. If hard pan lenses exist
within the rhizosphere, a simple method
to improve drainage is to auger holes 4-
5 inches diameter underneath the trees
canopies to penetrate hard pans to lower
depths of permeable soil and fill these holes
with 3-5 mm gravel pebbles enclosed in
perforated cheap plastic pipes.
* Monitoring and adjusting soil pH; simply
because strongly acidic soils discourage
important micro-organisms such as
nitrogen-fixing bacteria and certain earthworms.
* Monitoring the effect of acidifying fertilizers application such as ammonium nitrate which
might reduce earthworm populations.
* Applying inorganic fertilizers in small doses only when they are phonologically needed by the
trees rather than applying them in large doses when it is convenient as excesses may destroy soil
organisms.
79 79
* Substituting some of the inorganic fertilizers with spreading aged organic manures to provide
a stable food source for soil biota. Frequent application will be required to produce significant
changes.

The grower should consult with the local extension service or with a specialist agronomist to
ensure they properly compost different organic materials, especially olive pomace, on the grove
premises or to use mill vegetation water as soil amendment,.

Using fresh animal manure for soil amending should be absolutely avoided as it can harm the
trees due to elevated ammonia levels and it further contains active health harming pathogens.
Aged manure of at least six months old or, even better, composted manure, are safer to use and
more beneficial to the trees due to higher concentrations of phosphorus and potassium. During
composting, ammonia gas is lost from fresh manure and nitrogen levels are reduced.

To minimize the risk of fruit contamination from organic materials, the following guidelines
should be followed:
* Organic materials should be only applied at times when there are is olive fruit on the trees. The
operation timing should always aim at maximizing the period between applying the organic
material and harvesting the crop.
* After spreading, the organic material should be immediately worked into the soil to minimize
contamination from wind drift or rainfall runoff. Superficial shallow incorporation is preferred
among other types of incorporation as it harms the soil organisms less in addition to its other
advantages discussed earlier.
* When stockpiling animal manure or perfor-ming composting on the grove premises, the pile
should be located downwind in a location
at least 50 m away from the nearest trees
to avoid contamination from wind drift
onto adjacent trees.
* Composting on the grove premises
should be preferably done on a concrete
slab to avoid localized salt concentrations
and pollution of underground water from
repeated composting. Records should be
kept indicating type and quantities of
any materials used in the process in addition to the implemented methods.
* Personnel who are involved in animal manure handling, composting and spreading should
wear protective clothing, minimum requirement of which is knee-high boots, gloves and
respiration protection nose filters. Personnel with open wounds under treatment or having
respiration problems should not deal with these materials.
80 80

If the available quantity of organic matter is not sufficient, then soil amending treatments should
be concentrated on the tree rows rather than thinning the treatment all over the grove floor. The
same recommendation applies to groves irrigated under arid conditions.

Incorporating organic matter into the soil should be restricted to well composted matter, i.e. humus.
The incorporation of fresh organic matter may result in many drawbacks (even if temporarily) as
follows:
* If the organic matter is incorporated when the soil is wet there might not be enough oxygen
available for the micro-organisms to decompose it;
* Chemicals released, especially acidic fumes from anaerobic decomposition, may reduce the rate
of plant growth for a short time and they might have a toxic effect on the sensitive feeder roots;
* The associated physical difficulties of incorporating large quantities of fresh organic matter
without hurting the olive trees roots. Applying humus will facilitate using less quantity to
reach the same nutritional values, or even higher, from a large quantity of the fresh matter;
* Green vegetation cover breaks down quickly and provides only a small increase in soil organic
matter levels. Deep incorporation hastens the breakdown and the disadvantages of the physical
incorporation process counteract the small benefit from the crop itself; and
* Incorporating organic matter high in carbon content like straw, saw dust or wood chips can
lead to a temporary shortage of available nitrogen for the trees, as the micro-organisms will
draw on the limited nitrogen in decomposing this high carbon content matter.

As a rule of thumb, when a soil is too sandy or high in clay, the solution to resolve associated
problems of these extreme cases is essentially the same; add organic matter and gypsum.

Avoid soil contamination with pesticides by ensuring the following as minimum requirements:
* Consider the possibility of applying IPM which may need only to be supplemented by
pesticides;
* Study the pest to be controlled so that spray only be applied at the threshold of its life cycle;
* Pesticides should be as safe as possible for the environment and the ecosystem;
* Avoid slow decomposing pesticides or those which must be used at high rates; and
* Application rates should be as recommended.

As a basic concept, improving the CEC of the soil in an olive grove can be accomplished
through protecting it from erosion, adjusting its pH and improving its humus content by slashing
vegetation cover, by adding mulch, or organic matter or compost (humus).

In sandy soils having drastically low CEC (< 2 meg/100 gm) and until its properties are improved,
fertilizers and irrigation water should be applied in small quantities but more frequently. If under
rain fed conditions, the grower should accept that the productivity of such soils will be impaired
unless both its fertility and physical structure are improved.

Ammonium fertilizers should be cautiously used on sandy soils with low CEC because if the
81 81
amount of fertilizer applied outstrips the number of spots where its cations can be adsorbed onto,
the surplus non-adsorbed cations can easily burn the tender feeder roots of the olive trees before
these non-adsorbed cations are leached.

Extension or other capacity building institutions should train olive growers on how to take soil
samples for soil reaction (pH) analysis and how to measure it in the grove as it is the easiest soil
indicator that can be measured. It is so simple that growers can acquaint themselves on using one
of a wide assortment of cheap pH measuring kits available in the market for this purpose. Even
if field tests done by the growers are not accurate, they still give an indication of any possible
changes that happen to the soil properties before it is economically too late to interfere.

Monitor and record soil reaction (pH) periodically (at least twice a year). Within existing olive
groves it is recommended to collect samples from several locations and combine them into one
sample to determine the average soil pH and to avoid variations from one spot of the grove
to another. It is also recommended to collect future samples (after amending) from the same
locations. For long-term monitoring in existing groves, samples should be taken at depths of
0-20 cm and 20-40 cm. For new sites, samples at depths of 40-60 cm should be considered as
well.

When irrigating under arid conditions from underground aquifers known to deliver significant
amounts of lime salts and/or soluble salts, soil samples should be collected more frequently to
monitor soil pH, salinity and cation balance.

When the soil pH is lower than 5 or higher than 8, it is always preferable to add organic matter
as humus because under such pH the decomposition process becomes very slow.

Application rates for pH amendments should be based on recommendations received from a
certified laboratory or a specialised agronomist after soil analyses.

Growers attempting to modify their soil pH must know that this process is usually slow and might
require repeated treatments. They should never expect quick results or attempt to intensify the
quantities of amendment materials recommended by the relevant institution or by the specialist
as such unnecessary applications can bring about
negative impacts both to the soil and the trees.

Unless modified and adjusted, compost spreaders
are generally not suitable for spreading pH
amending materials like elemental sulphur, lime
or gypsum as they cause irregular distribution
leading to localized variations in pH value
and thus variations in availability of nutrients.
Special spreaders with a regulation mechanism
should be used with these pulverized materials
82 82
to provide uniform distribution on the grove floor. Some specialized spreaders are even fitted
with tiny water sprinklers to prevent dusting.

In addition to verifying the soils pH level in alkaline-calcareous soils, it is very important to
determine the amount of total inorganic carbonate in order to know how much sulphur is required
to neutralize it.

Septic tanks within the grove premises should be constructed of water-tight material to reduce
the potential of any soil contamination. The tank should be pumped out regularly by special
trucks and emptied at proper treatment plants. No trees should be grown on or near the lateral
drain field of the septic tank. No paint, varnish, thinners, waste oil, pesticides or fertilizers should
be poured into septic tanks.

Maximum effectiveness of pH amendment applications depends on thorough mixing and repeated
incorporation into the soil. Top-dressing or spreading of the material on the surface without
working it in is not effective. The following diagram shows one of the incorporation methods
for trees grown under irrigation in arid regions where the row-middle floors do not receive water
and thus will not be treated. Alternating pH amending materials between repeated applications is
recommended.

Under semi-arid or winter rain conditions, the
application (spreading / incorporation) of the
pH amending material should be done after
the first rain when the soil dries out slightly to
avoid dusting in dry soil as well as compaction
in wet soil.

When performing a long-term programme to
adjust the soil pH it is highly recommended to
routinely perform soil testing to ensure that no nutritional imbalances are taking place during the
process and to handle the situation accordingly.

When using drip irrigation under arid or
semiarid conditions, no bunds (dikes) should be
constructed around the trees as their narrow top
surfaces accumulate harmful salts by capillary
tension of the irrigation water, followed by
quick evaporation from the relatively small
surface areas of the bunds leaving high salts
concentration behind.
83 83
Alloway, B.J. 1990. Heavy Metals in Soils. Blackie and Son Ltd., London, UK.
Cameron, K., M.H. Beare, R.P. McLaren, and H. Di. 1998. Selecting physical chemical, and
biological indicators of soil quality for degraded or polluted soils. Proceedings of 16
th
World
Congress of Soil Science. Scientihc registration No. 2516. Symposium No. 37. Aug. 20-26,
1998. Montpellier, France.
Civantos, Lopez-Villalta, L.et al. 1996. Production techniques. Olive Encyclopaedia.p.147-194.
International Olive Oil Council, Principe ae Jergara 154, 28002, Maaria, Spain.
Edwards, Clive A., and P.J. Bohlen. 1996. Biology ana Ecology of Earthworms. Chapman ana
Hall, New York.
El-Swaify, S.A., Moldenhauer, W.C. and Lo, A. (eds). Soil Erosion and Conservation. Proceedings
of the international conference hela in Honolulu, Hawaii, January 16-22, 1983. Ankeny,
Iowa. Soil Conservation Society of America, 1985.
FAO (Food and Agriculture). 1991. Issues and Perspectives in Sustainable Agriculture and Rural
Development. Main aocument No.1 DAO/Netherlanas Conference ana Agriculture ana
Environment. SHertogenbosch, the Netherlanas. April 15-19, 1991. FAO, Rome
Finkel, H.J., Finkel, M., and Naveh, Z. (eas.). Semi-aria Soil & Water Conservation. Boca Raton,
Floriaa. CRC Press, 1986.
Follet, R.F. and Stewarts, B.A. (eds.). Soil Erosion ana Proauctivity. Maaison, Wisconsin.
American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, ana Soil Science Society
of America, 1985.
Joint commission on rural reconstruction. Soil Conservation Handbook, rev. ed. Taipei (Taiwan):
Food and Fertilizer Technology Center, 1987.
MacDicken, K.G. and Vergara, N.T. Agroforestry: Classihcation ana Management. New York.
Wiley, 1989.
http://soils.usda.gov/sqi/concepts/soil_biology/index.html
Moldenhauer, W.C. and Hudson, N.W. (eds). Conservation Farming on Steep Lands. Proceedings
of international workshop, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 22-27 March 1987. Ankey, Iowa. Soil ana
Water Conservation Society, 1988.
National Resources Conservation Soils (NRCS), United States Department of Agriculture.
http://soils.usda.gov/sqi/concepts/soil_biology/index.html
Pastor M. 1991. Non-tillage and other methods of reduced tillage in olive cultivation Olivae No.
35. 35-49.
Pastor, M. and Castro, J. 1995. Soil management systems and erosion. Olivae No.59. 64-74.
Pontikis, k.(1981). Olive Handbook. Karampelopoulos Edition. Athens, Greece.
Residual Herbicides, Degradation, and Recropping Intervals. Kansas State University Agricultural
Experiment Station ana Cooperative Extension Service.
Samuel L. Tisdale, Werner L. Nelson and James D. Beaton 1990. Soil Fertility and Fertilzers.
ISBN 0-02-946760-8 Fourth edition
Schiechtl, H.M., and Michaelson, T. FAO Watershed Management Field Manual; Vegetative and
84 84
Soil Treatment Measures. FAO Conservation Guide 13/1. Rome (Italy): Food and Agriculture
organization of the United Nations, 1985.
Steiner, K.G. 1996. Causes of Soil Degradation and Development Approaches to Sustainable Soil
Management. (English version by Richara Williams). CTZ, Margraf Jerlag, Weilersheim,
Germany.
Soil biological fertility: A key to sustainable land use in agriculture (2003), edited by Lyn Abbott
& Daniel Murphy. NSWDPI.
Tiller, K.G. 1992. Urban soil contamination in Australia. Australian J. Soil Research 30. 937-
957.
Tubeileh, A.; Bruggeman A. and Turkelboom, F. 2004. Growing Olives and other tree species in
marginal dry environments. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
(ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria. Jit106pp. En.
United Nations. Food and Agriculture Organization. Guidelines for Watershed Management. FAO
Conservation Guiae No. 1. Rome (Italy). FAO, 1977.
US Department of Agriculture, Soil Biology Unit. Jan 2004. Soil biology and land.
Weber, F.R. with Stoney, C. Reforestation in Arid Lands. Arlington, Virginia: Volunteers in
Technical Assistance, 1986.
Western Fertilizer Handbook, sixth edition, ISBN 0-8134-2122-5. Produced by: Soil Improvement
Committee, California Fertilizer Association.
3.14 Pictures acknowledgment
All pictures taken in Tunisia have been provided by Mohieddine Ksantini, Olive tree Institute,
Sfax, Tunisia in a power point presentation Tunisia Country Profile Report on Olive during
FAO-AARINENA Workshop on Olive GAP, ARI - Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources
and Environment of Cyprus 19-21 December 2005.
All other pictures in this chapter have been provided by M. El-Kholy.
85 85
4. Water
Mohamed El Kholy
Olive Grower & Expert, Sayeda Zeinab Olive Groves, Ismailia, Egypt
4.1 Water perspectives of ancient civilizations
The ancient civilizations that arose and flourished around the Mediterranean Basin expressed, with
their deep wisdom, the indispensable value of water for the survival of humankind. The Roman
Empire had developed a legal theory known as the doctrine of the public trust. 1he doctrine
rests primarily on the principle that certain resources like air, sea, water and forests have such a
great importance to people as a whole, that it would be entirely unjustiped to make them objects
of private ownership. The ancient Egyptians followed the 42 commandments of Maàt which
indicated that happiness in the afterlife was dependent on the deceased`s having led a virtuous life
on earth. These texts are considered as the world`s oldest sources of moral and spiritual instruction
that have never been surpassed. Among these commandments were those related to protecting water
resources; I have not turned back water at its springtide, nor stemmed the flow of running water.
"I have not broken water channels". "I have never polluted the water, nor have I laid waste to
the land".
In our present times we should implement the principles and teachings of our ancestors as practical
guidelines to moral and spiritual excellence, to develop our communities and to produce our food
while at the same time protecting and sustaining our natural resources and environment.
Water is not only a source of life but it is also a source of conflict and trouble in many regions around
the world specifically in the West Asia/North Africa (WANA) region where the politics of water are
probably of greater concern than anywhere else in the world. In history many wars were fought and
many conflicts among nations and neighbours were created because of the desire for sovereignty
over water. For example the King of Persia, in the 5th century B.C., demanded from the Athenians
Land and Water. This meant total capitulation because the two resources are fundamental for
life and intrinsically bounded together. On the other hand history has also witnessed countless
innovations, new methods and devices for harnessing and distributing water which have all led to
our present micro-irrigation system.
4.2 Olive cultivation necessity under the water situation in the (WANA) region
The West Asia/North Africa region (WANA) is the most water scarce region on earth and faces a
huge threat of water shortage. Most countries of the region are located under harsh arid or semi-
arid climatic conditions with sparse, erratic and poorly distributed seasonal rainfall during winter;
therefore the rural economies are highly dependant on dry-land farming of which olives makes up
the major proportion of tree crops. Most of the large aquifers in the region are either non-renewable
86 86
or renewable at relatively small annual rates. The few main rivers which exist within the region
like the Nile and Euphrates originate beyond its boundary. The severely limited water resources
as well as other natural resources of the region are under the stress of high population growth rate
of 3.6% compared to the worlds average of 1.7%. Although approximately 80% of the available
water resources are utilized in agriculture, nevertheless this sector is the one which is hampered by
water shortage and consequently the food security of the region is at great risk. By the year 2025 it
is anticipated that 8-15% of the water will be diverted from agriculture.
The average annual per capita renewable supplies of water in WANA countries are below 1500 m
3
,
well below the world average of about 7000 m
3
. This level has fallen from 3500 m
3
in 1960 and is
expected to fall to less than 700 m
3
by the year 2025. In 1990, only eight of the 23 WANA countries
had per capita water availability of more than 1000 m
3
, the threshold for the water-poverty level,
(Theib Y. Oweis, 2004). In fact, the 1000 m
3
level looks ample for countries like Jordan, where the
annual per capita share has dropped to less than 200 m
3
, (Margat and Vallae, 1999).
The water scarcity in the WANA region is aggravated by the following factors:

Misuse of the available limited water resources as a result of poor public awareness, specifically
farmers, on water conservation;

Overexploitation and incremental demand by rapid population growth and expanding irrigated
agriculture which in all are exceeding the amount of renewable supply;

Long term climatic changes exemplified in longer and more frequent periods of drought;

Degradation of water resource quality caused by pollution pressure of wastes from industrial,
human and agriculture activities. Polluting the water is so damaging to our day-to-day life, to our
health, cultural and economic wellbeing. Clean water is also crucial for agriculture to produce safe
food;

Salt water intrusion of underground aquifers as a result of irrational abstraction. Such intrusion can
be either due to seepage from the sea or from other aquifers which are laterally and/or vertically
interconnected or due to slow rates of fresh water recharge resulting in dominance of fossil saline
water;

Mismanagement of water resources, especially rainwater which is lost in many instances due to
poor capture and inefficient utilization; and

The competitive high demands for water from the consumers of different development sectors.
Under these conditions of severe water scarcity and in view of the hardiness and drought tolerance
of the olive, its cultivation in many countries of the region has been considered for centuries as
the backbone of agricultural export economics. It is projected that olives will continue to play
this important role in the long term future, especially when microbiology and genetic engineering
succeed in developing varieties with reduced water requirements.
87 87
The critical water situation in the (WANA) region requires actions to be undertaken as well as
setting new regulations to save water, minimize water losses and improve water management.
There is an increasing concern about water conservation, protecting water resources from pollution,
increasing water resources through the use of marginal brackish water and recycling of both waste
and drainage water and the effective and efficient utilization of water in all sectors, especially
agriculture as the main user.
The regional olive sector can take certain positive actions to respond to the negative impacts of
the water crisis focusing on the concerns mentioned above. These actions should be mobilized on
different levels so that water can be utilized in the most efficient manner to reach a sustainable olive
agricultural sector for maximum gain and highest commercial returns per unit of utilized water.
Such actions are set out below:

Researchers, scientists and extension officers should concentrate their efforts to research, develop
and disseminate:
* New olive varieties which are more drought tolerant and others more adaptable to poor quality
water to allow exploitation of saline underground aquifers;
* Techniques aiming at reducing water input requirements in the processing of table olive and olive
oil;
* Methods for recycling and reuse, in olive grove irrigation, of all types of water effluent from
olive processing plants;
* Define water requirements of newly cultivated olive trees from planting to first commercial
bearing age, specifically the role of rational irrigation in minimizing this period. Most
available researches of water requirements deal with producing olive trees and many growers
of irrigated olives use speculation or a trial and error approach before their trees enter into
production; a situation which might be causing the loss of tremendous amounts of water and
additional costs to the growers;
* Practical solutions and techniques which can be implemented by olive growers to minimize
water losses, to improve water-use efficiency and commercial effectiveness of water in olive
irrigation which should maintain sustainable levels of yield and quality; and
* Safe applications that will affect neither the environment nor humans when using treated
sewage water for irrigating olive oil varieties and not table olive varieties. Picual oil from
olives grown in three regions and irrigated with treated sewage water was free of heavy
metals but flesh residues after oil extraction were polluted with Pb, Cd and Ni with high
concentrations (0.55, 0.188 and 0.022 mg/Kg) over the permissible level, (Said Hegazi et al.
2004).
88 88

Applying GAP Guidelines by growers will protect water resources from non-point source (NPS)
pollution, which is defined as all sort of small and diffuse pollution caused to soils and water
bodies and is hard to track back to definitive sources, such as run-off or leaching of agricultural
fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, urban seepage and run-off and air pollution depositions.
Main groups of agriculture management practices
which Contribute in NPS pollution and/ or protection of water resources
Practice Level of potential protection by olive growers
Tillage High potential: apply conservation tillage (refer to soil chapter)
Erosion, sediment,
runoff and leaching
control
High potential: through cultivation, vegetation cover ,mulching, windbreaks,
structural works,Improving soil organic matter content and minimizing surface
compaction.(refer to soil chapter)
Crop nutrient
management
High potential: apply small doses of fertilizers at The right physiological progress
stages, avoid concentrated N, utilize fertigation, proper storage and handling of
agrochemicals. (refer to fertilization chapter)
Pest and weed
management
High potential: apply IPM and proper storage and handling of pesticides and
herbicides. (refer to pest& disease control and weed management chapters)
Irrigation water
management
High potential: use micro-irrigation systems.
Conservation buffers
Low potential: only if groves are close to surfaceWater sources and in this case public
authorities must take the lead unless the source is private and located on the grove.
Grazing management
Low potential: only if livestock (mostly sheep) are grazing under olive trees and
the grove is close to surface water. (refer to GAP guidelines of this chapter)
Animal feeding
operations
No potential: an activity which is unlikely practiced in olive groves.
M.El-kholy 2006 c

Olive growers in the WANA region have many excellent indigenous experiences in managing
olive trees, nevertheless they must address some of the practices which do not sustain our resources
or are not environmentally friendly. One of these unsustainable practices is the over-application
of fertilizers which is common under dry olive farming. To make sure that fertilizer is diluted
in the soil solution, many olive growers attempt to place excessive quantities of fertilizer at the
beginning of the rainy season. These quantities normally exceed the trees needs, especially
given the trees are not actively growing during this period and large amounts of fertilizer will
be destined to leaching and run-off to reach and pollute water tables, aquifers and surface water
bodies.
Nitrate, the common form of nitrogen in soils is negatively charged and therefore it is repelled
by the negatively charged soil particles and provides the worst case of leached nutrients to water
bodies.
On the other hand Phosphorus is the nutrient of most concern for run-off into surface water
sources causing nutrient imbalances which stimulate algal growth endangering fish because of
limited oxygen and nutrients. When this water is used in micro-irrigation systems, it must be
filtered to prevent clogging.
89 89

The area of irrigated olives is very small and relatively new when compared with centuries
of dry-land olive farming. This means olive irrigation techniques fall under less accumulated
experience and it is very likely that many olive growers are applying water inefficiently and
probably exceeding the commercial water threshold requirement. Therefore olive growers should
apply GAP Guidelines to conserve and sustain water in accordance with guidelines outlined in
this Manual under the Irrigation Chapter 7.

Since over 90% of the olives in the region are grown under dry-farming conditions, all concerned
stakeholders including olive growers and relevant governmental bodies should improve rainwater
harvesting techniques to minimize water losses. The following diagram indicates the different
methods of water harvesting which are applied in the (WANA) region. Some of these methods
are successful indigenous inheritance which should be disseminated between the countries of
the region of similar conditions where olive cultivation depends mainly on rainfall. Detailed
information about these water harvesting methods is available at http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/
aglw/wh/docs/Oweis.doc (Rainwater Harvesting for Alleviating Water Scarcity in the Drier
Environments of West Asia and North Africa by Theib Y. Oweis).
Classification of rainwater harvesting systems (After, Theib Y .Oweis 2004)
Water harvesting methods
Small pits
Contour riages
Meskat
Runoff Strips
Small farm reservoirs
Waai bea Cultivations
Jessour
Water- spreaaing
Cisterns
Large bunas,Tabia
Hillsiae conauits
Hafaer, Tanks
ana Liman
on-farm systems Rooftop Systems
Small runoff
Basins (Negarim)
Contour- bench
Terraces
SEMICERCULAR/
TRAPEZOIDA BUNDS
Inter-row systems
Wadi-bed Systems Off-wadi Systems
Macro catchement
methods
Micro - catchment
methods
90 90
4.3 GAP Guidelines for water conservation and protection in the olive sector of the WANA
region

For rain-fed olive groves, improve rainwater harvesting efficiency through applying the
appropriate choice from one of the techniques discussed in the diagram above.

Conserving rainfall through effective infiltration will be drastically improved through applying
soil GAP Guidelines of Chapter 2 which
are related to conservation tillage, surface
crusting and compaction prevention,
covering the soil with vegetation or mulch
and alleviating organic matter content.
Soils high in organic matter content are less
vulnerable to leaching.

For their poor application efficiency, furrow,
basin and flood irrigation of olive groves should be avoided and replaced with modern localized
irrigation techniques like drip and mini-sprinkler methods.

For irrigated olive groves, improve water use efficiency by applying regulated deficit irrigation
methods and by adopting techniques which monitor climatic conditions, the trees status and soil
moisture in order to accurately schedule irrigation.

In fully irrigated olive groves, a fundamental
means of conserving water, through
minimizing wastes, is a well designed,
properly installed, adequately maintained
and professionally managed irrigation
system.

Promote vertical infiltration of rainwater in
olive groves through planting the trees on
the contour lines or on terraces as they will
act as barriers slowing down the speed of
run-off and consequently improve moisture
retention.

Irrigation and canopy spraying for whatever reason should be avoided during the middle of the
day, especially during the summer months. It should also be avoided in high winds in order to
minimize evaporation losses and consequent concentration of salts which might reach water
bodies through in-leaching or run-off with heavy rains.

Night-time irrigation can substantially improve water utilization efficiencies and conserve water.
For example a sprinkler system operating at 70% efficiency during the middle of the day may
91 91
operate as high as 80-85% efficiency at night. This is especially so under the climatic conditions
of the WANA region countries where nights are not windy, and there is a big fluctuation between
day and night temperatures during the summer which can be in the range of 37- 40 C to 20 - 24
C respectively.

Abstraction from water wells should not exceed the limits set out by the local authorizing
institutions in order not to exceed the sustainable capacity of the reservoir or cause increased
water salinization.

Water quality of wells and the well static
level should be tested regularly (at least
once a year) and a record kept on file at the
grove to help in anticipating and analyzing
future changes and finding early solutions
to problems.

Water well-heads should be elevated above
the surrounding ground and protected by
a concrete pad to prevent pollutants or
contaminated run-off from entering the well
which will act in this case as a polluting
conduit to the aquifer. The annulus between
the well casing and the water delivery pipe
should also be covered to prevent any undesirable materials from reaching the underground
water. The cover should be also vermin proof. Any fertigation agrochemicals for immediate use
should be staked on a concrete platform isolated with anti-corrosive paint.

The water well casing protruding above the concrete pad should be checked regularly to ensure
that it is intact and that there are no openings or cracks.

Diesel driven engines should never be
located in close vicinity to water wells as
with time they will become a contamination
hazard for the under-ground water and the
soil. The flooring of the area surrounding
engines where service, fuelling and
maintenance is performed should be
covered in chemical resistant impermeable
concrete.

As a general rule of thumb, wells drilled
uphill are less vulnerable to contamination
than those drilled downhill.
92 92

Unused water wells should be fully sealed. This can be done by welding a blind steel flange to
the casing or grouting the well-head completely.

Fertigation facilities should be located at a safe distance of at least 100 meters from surface water
resources (ponds, lakes, rivers, on-grove holding dams, etc).

Surface water used for irrigation in olive groves should be tested at shorter intervals than water
from wells to ensure freedom of pollutants, heavy metals and pathogens.

Minimize (NPS) pollution from olive groves to surface and underground water resources
through:
* Avoiding applications of any fertilizer that may have a high potential for leaching;
* Avoiding over-application of fertilizers in general and specifically nitrogen fertilizers, manure,
compost or other organic material containing nitrogen at rates in excess of the trees growth
requirements especially when the trees are relatively inactive during fall. Any excess fertilizer
will be lost to leaching and run-off, causing pollution to water sources. (for details of fertilizers
optimization refer to the Fertilization Chapter 8);
* Avoiding applying fertilizer inputs which might become mineralized when the trees are not
actively taking up and using nutrients. Traditional tillage during Fall or early Spring stimulates
nitrogen mineralization;
* Avoiding premature leaching of agro-chemicals applied to the soil through application at
areas of highest fibrous root density under the canopy;
* Avoiding repeated applications of organic soil amendments or fertilizers without monitoring
for an excess build-up of soil fertility over and above the trees requirements;
* Avoiding strictly the application of compost or fertilizers of any sort to sloping land without
immediate incorporation;
* Avoiding excessive irrigation following soil incorporation of compost or fertilizers. Some
growers intentionally follow this wrong practice in the strong belief that it assists roots
absorption. In general, water application at inappropriate times or in excessive quantities
is not only a waste but it also promotes water source pollution and nutrient losses resulting
in nutritional deficiencies in the trees and additional costs to the grower in applying more
fertilizer.
* Avoiding storing, mixing, filling, injecting or applying agro-chemicals near open water bodies
and wells. Mixing and filling should be done on an anti-acid concrete slab and all remains
properly removed. Provisions should also be made to contain any spills which might occur;
* Avoiding disposing of unwanted or surplus agro-chemicals into water resources. Burning
or burying should also be avoided as with time they will seep into underground water.
Disposal of such materials should be in accordance with the local regulations or in the worst
scenario returned to the supplier who should be knowledgeable through his license on proper
disposal;
93 93
* Avoiding the application of pesticides or herbicides during or after heavy rain or when heavy
rain is anticipated as excess water can cause leaching and run-off. Application of all agro-
chemicals should also be avoided when wind could carry them into water bodies;
* Avoiding emptying or rinsing pesticide or herbicide application equipment into water
sources;
* Avoiding backflow of irrigation water to the water source when utilizing fertigation. Injection
systems should be provided with appropriate check valves and anti-siphon devices to prevent
fertilizers and chemicals from flowing into water bodies; and
* Avoiding any fuel leakages from on-farm machinery or in specific from stationary storage
tanks.

During the early years of the olive grove establishment, especially under micro-irrigation and
hot dry climate where fungal diseases are not a threat, the trees should be trained with low skirts
(crotches) as much as practically possible to shade the soil thus reducing evaporation losses.
Once the trees reach maturity and the maximum green coverage allotted to them is attained, the
evaporation losses will be automatically and relatively reduced due to the large ground surface
being shaded by the trees.

Tanks containing liquid agro-chemicals or gasoline should be frequently inspected for leaks and
corrosion and nozzles should be locked when not in use. Such tanks should be contained within
dikes with impermeable walls and floors to contain the full tank volume in case of breakage, spill
or leak to prevent leaching or run-off into water sources. A small fuel leak from a tank of only
one drop per second can amount to 900 litres in a year. Just a few litres of gasoline can seriously
pollute the water table underlying the grove through vertical leaching and consequently harm the
trees indirectly or directly if moved into the grove soil with run-off.

Storehouses of agro-chemicals should be located at a safe distance (a minimum 100 m) from any
water source. Local regulations should be adhered to if more stringent.

Composting of fresh manure should be located away from any water source. A safe distance of
at least 50 m or as set by the local regulation, whichever is larger, should be respected.

Manure or compost piles should be staked on concrete pads to reduce leaching and pollution to
underground water sources.

When irrigating with saline water which requires frequent heavier irrigation to leach salts beyond
the root zone, always time the leaching to coincide with periods of low residual soil nitrate.

Conservation tillage can reduce herbicide run-off by up to 70%.

Access to nearby water resources by sheep or other livestock, which might be grazing within
olive groves, should be prohibited or at least reduced.

Treated waste water derived from sewerage and/or industrial facilities should not be used in
irrigating olive trees unless tested and confirmed by a certifying authority to ensure that the
94 94
quality of such water is in full compliance with the WHO published Guidelines for the Safe Use
of Wastewater and Excreta in Agriculture - 1989. Regular analysis records for both the inlet
water quality and the residues in olive fruits should be kept on the grove premises.
Ayers, R.S. and D.W. Westcot. 1989. Water quality for agriculture. FAO Irrigation and Drainage
Paper 29 Rev. 1. FAO, Rome, Italy. 174p.
El-Beltagy A. 2000. Strategic Options for Alleviating Conflicts over Water in Dry Areas. Paper
presentea at the Crawfora Funa Sixth Conference on. 'Fooa, Water ana Wars. Security in a
Worla of Conict,` 15 August 2000, Canberra, Australia. ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria.
Civantos, Lopez-Villalta, L.et al. 1996. Production techniques. Olive Encyclopaeaia.p.147-194.
Hegazi, E. S. and Hegazi, A. A. 2004. Accumulation of heavy metals in olive fruit flesh and in oil.
Egyptian Journal. Appl. Sci. Jolume 19. 331-337.
Margat, J. and Vallae, D., 1999. Water Resources and Uses in the Mediterranean Countries:
Figures and facts. Blue Plan, UNEP- Regional Activity Center.
Theib Y. Oweis (2004): Rainwater Harvesting for Alleviating Water Scarcity in the Drier
Environments of West Asia and North Africa. For presentation at the International Workshop
on Water Harvesting and Sustainable Agriculture, September 7
th
, 2004, Moscow , Russia.
http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/wh/docs/Oweis.doc
Thornton Jeffrey A. Assessment and control of non-point source pollution of aquatic ecosystems:
a practical approach. UNESCO; New York, USA: Parthenon Pub. Group, 1999.
Touzani, A. and Papandreou Th. 2001. Water management and irrigation of olive orchards.
Proceeaings of the International Course on water management ana irrigation of olive
orcharas. Limassol, Cyprus, April, 2000.
4.5 Pictures acknowledgment
All pictures in this chapter have been provided by M. El-Kholy.
95 95
5. Design of New Groves, Germplasm (Varieties) and Propagation - Nursery
Belkassem Boulouha
National Agricultural Research Institute (INRA), Marakesh, Morocco
Costas Gregoriou
5.1 General guidelines
The design of a new grove should bear in mind the functions of an olive grove which will operate under
GAP and the contribution the groves make in the rural area and the environment. The first function
is agronomic: the grove should be established for optimum production and maximum quality. The
second is ecological: the grove should conserve the natural environment and landscape. The third
function is socio-economic: the grove should not create unhealthy working conditions for the growers,
but should maintain sufficient income and employment for them, in addition to economically vital rural
communities. Finally, it should provide healthy and safe olive products to consumers. Consideration
of the above functions can help to design a sustainable olive grove.
The design of the grove and its initial management are of critical importance to avoiding future
problems. If these initial steps are not done correctly, imbalances may be created, promoting harmful
instead of beneficial organisms and preventing the satisfactory development of the trees.
The landscape must be assessed in order to determine the microclimate and its favourable and
unfavourable characteristics related to parameters like humidity, aeration and shading. These
parameters should be taken into consideration as they affect the physiological condition of the trees
and the development of beneficial and harmful species. New orchards should be designed to give
maximum revenue and to take maximum advantage of the natural and technical resources available. It
is at this stage, designing the grove, which a viable production structure has to be established, based on
favourable soil and climatic conditions which can be corrected by providing additional water through
irrigation and additional nutrients through fertilization.The main factors to be taken into consideration
in designing and establishing a new olive orchard are discussed in the following sub-chapters
5.2 Site selection
The olive tree is cultivated in a large range of soils where it shows an extraordinary capacity for
adaptation, with a variable expression of its production potential.
1. Physical soil characteristics: See Soil Chapter 3;
2. Soil chemicals and characteristics:
a) pH: between 5.5 to 8.5;
b) Salt: Not to be higher than 4ds/m for the saturated extract electric conductivity (CE );
c) Chlorides: 10-25 moles/l;
d) Sodium (exchangeable Na rate below 15%); and
e) Boron content of higher than 2ppm.
96 96
3. Water availability:
a) Annual rainfall; and
b) The groundwater resources and the level of the water table.
4. Climatic limitations:
a) Temperature in the winter (not below -8C, better under 0C)
b) The capacity for chilling of around 400 hours
5.3 Choice of cultivar(s)
The selection of olive varieties should be made not only according to yield but also to criteria such as:

Weather requirements and adaptation to the microclimate of the area;

Resistance to insect pests and pathogens that occur in the area;

Nutrient and water requirements related to their availability in the area;

The product quality requirements of consumers and the market;

Ease of harvesting;

Tree vigour for managing plant density; and

Where planting more than one variety, the varieties must be compatible for the best pollination outcome.
A single variety is never used in large orchards. It is more practical to use at least 3 cultivars with a
progressive ripening season in order to rationalize farming and allow a harvesting programme that
uses labor and machinery over a longer period. The risk due to meteorological events and variations
in bearing from year-to-year is also reduced. Also there is an increase in productivity due to cross-
pollination.
5. 4 Use of pollinators
Low yield problems may arise in orchards with cultivars that are not totally self-compatible or are
not compatible if there are no pollinators.
Also, in years when pollination takes place at high temperatures, a high rate of sterility can be
observed in single-variety orchards; this can be corrected using effective pollinators. Cross-
pollination is essential in varieties with anomalies in their reproductive organs and it can help to
reduce the percentage of the parthenocarpic fruits.
When designing an orchard, it is often wise to combine two or three infertile varieties with similar
flowering periods, to ensure there are pollinators available.
5.5 Planting distance, plant density and orchard layout
Planting density varies widely with soil, rainfall, variety and cultural practices, ranging from 17
trees/ha (Sfax area, Tunisia) to 500 trees/ha (in highly intensive irrigated groves).
When water and nutrients are available in sufficient quantities, light can also be a restricting factor
affecting yield and quality. It is essential that trees should have a maximum leaf surface receiving as
much sunlight as possible. This can be achieved through correct plant density, optimum positioning
of plants on the plot and appropriate training and fruit production pruning.
97 97
Regarding the spacing of planting, the later development of the trees should be taken into
consideration to avoid unwanted outcomes such as shading, insufficient air movement, competition
for water and nutrients, insufficient sunlight interception, difficulties in using machinery, especially
for the management of the grove floors. The spacing of trees is particularly important for plant
protection and for the levels of insect pests and diseases in ecological groves.
The design of the grove and its initial management are of critical importance for avoiding these
problems. If not done correctly, imbalances may be created, promoting harmful instead of beneficial
organisms and preventing the optimum development of the trees.
Another main restricting factor is the availability of water. In dry farming, tree density affects the
volume of soil from which the roots can extract water and nutrients. In traditional olive growing,
widely-spaced planting patterns almost always have densities below 100 olive trees per hectare.
On the other hand, low densities have been used in extremely arid regions such as in Sfax, where
rainfall is below 200 mm/year, with a planting pattern of 24mx24m. In rainy regions or irrigated
areas high-density plantations are traditional, such as those in Sierra de Gata-Las Hurdes (Spain)
where, with rainfall levels of above 700mm, orchard densities exceed 300 olive trees/hectare.
In dry farming the main restricting factor is water availability and to a lesser degree the soil. Thus,
the lower the rainfall, and poorer and shallower the soil, the greater the tree spacing should be.
According to the rainfall of the area, the irrigated and non-irrigated conditions, the soil structure of
the grove and the cultural practices applied various planting distances are recommended below:
Proposal Density Water resources
Below 100 trees/ha
100 trees/ha
200 trees/ha
250 trees/ha
300 trees/ha
Rain fed
200-300 mm
300-400 mm
400-500 mm
500-600 mm
600-700 mm
600 trees/ha or more Irrigated
5.6 Germplasm and planting materials
In the WANA countries there is a wide range of olive biodiversity which was brought about by
centuries of interaction between growers and nature. Each Mediterranean country has its own
unique cultivars. Some cultivars are found only locally where as others have spread to several
countries. The advantages of local planting materials apart from productivity are the adaptation
to local edapho-climatic conditions, the resistance or tolerance to biotic and abiotic factors and the
adaptability to the preference of local consumers.
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The varieties presented in the following table are the main indigenous (autochthonous) varieties
cultivated in the WANA countries and are well adapted to the edapho-climatic conditions of the
countries of origin.
Cultivated autochthonous (germplasm) olive varieties in WANA countries
Oil varieties Table varieties Dual purpose varieties Country
Meslala Haouzia
Menara
Picholine Marocaine
Morocco
Chemlali Sfax
Chemlali Zarzis
Chetoui Tounes,
Chemcheli Gafsa
Oueslati
Zalmati Zarzis
Indouri Jerba
Sehli Gafsa
Meski Tounis
Besbessi
Bith Hmam
Gerboui,
Zarrazi Zarzis
Barouni
Chemleli
Chetoui
Queslati
Tunisia
Sebhawi
Marraki
Ageizi Shami
Hamed
Taffahi
Ageizi Akks
Ageizi Balady
Watieken Egypt
Nasouhi (Black)
Shami
Souri
Nabali Baladi
Rasie (Improved Nabali)
Jordan
Soury
Baladi
Nabali
Lebanon
Shemlali Nepali Improved Nepali Baladi (Souri)
K 18
Occ. Palestinian
Territories
Roghani Mari
Tokhm kabki
Shiraz
Fishomi
Zard
Dezfooli
Iran
Zaity Kaisi
Abo satl
Jlot
Sorani
Doebli
Khodieri
Dan
Mossabi
Syria
Klirou No. 2
Kato Drys
Ladoelia
Flasou
Lithrodontas
Cyprus
Chemlali
Zalmati
Sehli
Meski
Besbessi
Bith Hmam
Chetoui,
Gerboui,
Oueslati,
Zarrazi
Chemcheli
Turkey
Chemlal de Kabylie
Limli
Azeradj
Blanquette de Guelma
Sigoise
Algeria
The other olive growing WANA countries, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Yemen, don`t have any
native varieties and use various Mediterranean varieties.
99 99
5.7 Propagation - Nursery
Another very important component of the olive sector is the multiplication and certification of
planting materials. The traditional methods used for olive multiplication since ancient times are the
purely asexual method of propagation (using suckers or cuttings) and later on the method of grafting
seedlings. The main techniques which are now used commercially for olive propagation are rooting
of cuttings and grafting of seedlings.
5.7.1 Rooting of Cuttings
The advantage of this technique is the fast multiplication capacity of the easy rooting varieties. The
type of cuttings used is hardwood, 15 cm long and 1 cm diameter which are taken from mature
shoots (maximum one year old) of the mother tree.
Handling of cuttings and factors affecting their rooting for rooting (Post-removal)
Labelling and recording: This is an important action to avoid mixing of varieties.
Handling: In order to minimize water loss from stems, they should be transferred to the propagation
facility as soon as possible. The stem tissues should not be bruised as the damaged area is a source
of disease. Nursery staff need to be trained in grading and sorting the cuttings and in the use of tools
in order to guarantee the quality of work, speed and for human and plant safety.
Cutting characteristics and guidelines for successful rooting:
1. The cuttings should be selected from vigorous wood of the current years growth that contains
a high level of food reserves. One of the most important factors for rooting is the sufficient
carbohydrate reserves in the shoots. Well matured cuttings from the current seasons growth
with short internodes are preferred. Cuttings that are too succulent, pithy and low in stored
carbohydrates should be discarded;
2. The mother plants should be pruned back hard every winter to maintain vigor and quality of
cuttings;
3. The cuttings should be long enough to provide economical use of the shoots, easy handling,
and possess sufficient food reserves to support rooting, establishment and production of a
plant of the desired shape and quality. The length and the diameter of the cutting should
be determined largely by the species/cultivar rooted and the propagation facilities. Cuttings
usually have 0.8 to 1cm diameter and 15-20 cm length;
4. Remove sufficient leaves so that the lower leaves are not in contact with the rooting media
and to also prevent drying. Only two pairs of leaves should be left in each cutting;
5. Cuts must always be clean, without any fringing and tearing. The slant must always allow the
rainwater to run off it;
6. Polarity: the cuttings have to be the correct way up, that is the proximal end (nearest the crown
or junction of roots and shoots) to base, and the distal end (nearest the shoot tip) upwards
7. Application of rooting hormones, particularly when applied in solution, can significantly improve
results;
100 100
8. The cuttings can be placed in the rooting media either at 600 angle or in a vertical position
and one third of their length should remain under the rooting media in order to test the rooting
ability of the cuttings in the two positions; and
9. Using a mist propagation unit under protected facilities is recommended.
5.7.2 Rooting Hormones.
Rooting hormones should be applied to the base of cuttings to increase overall rooting percentages,
hasten root initiation, increase the number and quality of roots and encourage uniformity of rooting.
The most widely used hormone is Indole Butyric Acid (IBA) and the most common method used for
application is to quickly dip the base of cuttings for 3-5 seconds in a 3000 ppm IBA solution.
5.7.3 Rooting Media:
One of the most important criteria for the successful rooting of cuttings is a reliable rooting medium.
Criteria to consider when selecting a rooting medium are:
a) Cost;
b) Quality (particle size, freedom from silt, salt, weed, seeds, diseases, pH 5.5-6.5);
c) Physical Structure: (a) ability to support the cutting (b) easy sticking of the cuttings
(c) adequate aeration;
d) Mixing - the ability to be easily mixed; and
e) Standardization - every attempt should be made to standardize the mix.
Major Constituents (Components) for Rooting Media:
a) Peat - peat is the material most commonly used;
b) Bark - there has been increasing interest in recent years in the use of shredded or
pulverized bark;
c) Sawdust - this is another by-
product formed during the
processing of forestry products;
d) Fine and coarse sands;
e) Perlite - it may be used alone, but
is best to mix with other rooting
media;
f) Loam - mainly used for rooting
open-ground hardwood cuttings;
and
g) Other local plant by-products.
101 101
Recommended Rooting Media Compounds and Ratios
COMPONENT RATIOS
Sands *(a) 1 pt peat moss (b) 2 pts peat moss
1 pt sand 1 pt sand
*(c) 1 pt peat moss
1 pt fine sand
1 pt crushed coarse sand
Perlite *(a) 1 pt peat moss (b) 2 pts peat moss
1 pt perlite 1 pt perlite
*(c) 1 pt peat moss
2 pts perlite
Bark *(a) 1 pt peat moss (b) 1 pt peat moss
1 pt perlite 1 pt sand
1 pt bark 1 pt bark
*(c) 1 pt peat moss
1 pt bark
Sawdust (a) 1 pt peat moss (b) 1 pt peat moss
1 pt sand 1 pt perlite
1 pt sawdust 1 pt sawdust
Loam (a) 1 pt peat moss (b) 3 pts peat
1 pt perlite 2 pts sand
1 pt loam 1 pt loam
*Media particularly suitable for a mist propagation unit.
5.7.4 Rooting facilities
Propagation facilities such as greenhouses and mist propagation units offer controlled environments,
can enhance the rooting capacity and provide satisfactory growth and development for olive plants.
Cuttings need to remain in the mist propagation units for about three months in order to develop
roots. These are then transplanted in pots and placed in a shade house for a period of one to two
months for hardening. The plants should then remain in the nursery for another six months in order
to obtain the appropriate training and size.
Olive plants should be trained in nurseries with a single trunk with no low shoots in order to facilitate
training in the orchard. Single-trunk olive trees should be grown in nurseries with 2 or 3 branches
about lm above the ground to facilitate full mechanization. These scaffold branches and secondary
branches should form a free vase shape requiring just light pruning during the first few years.
Mist propagation units (Mist house)
102 102
Plastic-covered greenhouses are the most widely used type of facility in which mist systems are
installed, either over a bench or floor area. The same greenhouses can be used for both rooting of
cuttings and for raising seedlings and grafted / budded plants. Glass greenhouses can also be used
as mist propagation units but these are more expensive structures.
Besides cost, three particularly important aspects should be considered for selecting the misting
equipment. These are: the efficiency of the mist nozzles in providing a fine and even distribution
pattern with no excessive overlap; the efficiency of the automatic control system that controls
the amount and frequency of misting over the cuttings; and proper water filtering to reduce the
possibility of blockages. Other factors to be
considered are:
1. Temperature. The optimum rooting
medium temperature should run at 18-
21C. The optimum ambient temperature
should range from 21 to 26C. Air
temperatures in excess of 30C should
be avoided.
2. Humidity. It is important to keep the
cuttings turgid during the period from
collection until they are well rooted in
the propagation facility. Recommended
humidity is close to saturation (>80%)
3. Light. Light acts by its intensity, length and its quality on the photosynthetic activity of the
leaves of the cutting and the synthesis of rooting promoters. The recommended lighting of
5000 to 10000 lux will activate rooting of the olive tree cuttings.
5.7.5 Hardening, soil mixtures, containers and other cultural practices
Weaning or hardening is a crucial procedure for plant propagation. For this treatment shade houses
are used to provide outdoor shade and protect container grown plants from high temperatures and
strong light intensities. Shade-nets can effectively cut solar radiation to different degrees depending
upon the mesh of the nets. Woven green plastic materials are widely used. Different densities of
materials are available that allow shading from 40% up to 70%.
103 103
Soil mixtures / potting composts: This is one of the most important elements for the successful
germination, growth of seedlings, development of grafted / budded plants and rooted cuttings. The
main criteria to consider when selecting a rooting medium are: cost, particle size, freedom from silt,
salt, weed/seeds, diseases, pH 5.5-6.5, and adequate aeration.
Recommended potting soil medium is: 1 part of organic matter (manure or peatmoss), 1part loam
and 1 part sand.
Containers: For fruit trees it is recommended
to use black plastic bags 35cm high and
20cm wide with holes for drainage, instead of
transparent, small plastic bags.
Other cultural practices such as staking, proper
irrigation and fertilization, and effective weed,
pest and disease control are essential for
obtaining high quality planting material.
For media sterilization, solar energy can
be used by covering the soil mixture with
transparent plastic polyethylene sheet for at least 10 to 12 days. Before covering the media adequate
moisture must be ensured.
Recommended types of fertilizers are the Slow Release (Osmocote-type) fertilizers (6, 9, 12, 18
months) with N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, enriched with fritted trace elements.
5.7.6 Grafting/budding of seedlings
This technique is used in olive varieties with a low rooting percentage
in cuttings. However it requires more space and longer time periods
for plant production. The main rootstock sources are seedlings of wild
or cultivated olive varieties. The operator must be skilled in grafting,
therefore training and subsequent practice is very important. Correct
and efficient equipment and materials are required, appropriate to
the type of grafting to be carried out (knife, tying materials etc).
The rootstock and scion should be true-to-name and compatible.
The correct time of the year is important (when the cambium of the
rootstock must be active).
104 104
Scion/rootstock characteristics and guidelines for successful grafting/budding:
1. The rootstock should be in its active growth stage i.e. time of budding and grafting is important.
Best periods are April-May and August September. The rootstock should be 9 to 18 months-
old.
2. The appropriate time to collect the scion-wood is at the active growth stage of the mother
plant.
3. The rootstock (seedling) must be healthy (free from diseases and insects), vigorous, with
straight trunk, have smooth texture and clean bark, thickness of 0.6-1cm diameter with a well
developed root system.
4. Unsprouted or dormant healthy buds should be collected for budding. Buds that are too young or
too old should not be used. The best buds are usually those in the middle and basal portions of the
shoot.
5. To avoid drying, the collected graft sticks should be wrapped in a wet clean cloth and put in a
polyethylene bag.
6. The buds should not be removed from the bud stick prior to budding operation..
7. The cut should be done first on the rootstock and then the bud from the stick. They should
then be immediately placed inside the bark of the rootstock for better results.
8. The final cut of the scion should be done according to the shape and size of the cut made in the
rootstock.
9. The point of budding/grafting must be at least 15cm above the ground.
10.The rootstock-scion union should be wrapped with grafting and budding tape in such a way
that no air and water can enter into the wound part.
11.Unwrapping of the wound should be done after the rootstock-scion union is completed,
usually after three weeks.
12.The upright growth of the scion is enhanced by removing lateral branches or the buds
developed below the rootstock-scion union.
The after-care of grafts is also a significant factor of success and must include attention to the
following:
1. Correct environmental factors (temperature, humidity, shading, ventilation);
2. Prevention of drying out of the cut surfaces (tying materials, tie-in properly);
3. Prevention of pest and disease infection;
4. The tying-in material must be removed in 3 to 4 weeks after grafting/budding, otherwise
it will bite into the plant tissue if retained too long and cause constriction as the stem girth
increases;
5. Irrigation-Fertilization (Fertigation);
105 105
6. Weed Control - use black polyethylene on the ground to avoid weeds;
7. Caning and tying-in to give further support to the graft union and the scion growth in order to
avoid bent stems;
8. Shading for hardening-off (weaning-off); and
9. Proper training of the grafted/budded plants in the nursery facilities with a single trunk and 2
or 3 branches about l m above the ground.
5.8 Source of scion wood and cuttings
The stock plants from where the scion wood
and cuttings are taken can be divided into two
categories:
Pre-basic plantations. The stock plants are
grown in the ground or in specific containers
(50 litres) under protection in screen houses
in order to avoid any infection from pests,
diseases and viruses. These plants provide
healthy materials to the mother tree orchards
and to the nurseries.
Mother Tree Orchard (MTO) Permanent stock
plants are grown in the open ground without protection. The MTO is an essential part of each and
every plant nursery because it is the source of high quality, healthy and true-to-type propagating
materials (scion wood and cuttings). In the MTO proper cultural practices such as pruning, irrigation,
fertilization, weed control and pest and disease control must be applied. Labelling is also very
important.
Heavy pruning and more N relative to P and K should be applied because it encourages vigour, thus
increases the number and improves the rooting of cuttings. It regulates the growth (flushes) and
encourages the scion-wood to be at the correct stage and shapes the trees so that it is easy to collect
scion wood and cuttings.
In MTOs the following should be taken into consideration:
a) The mother plant must be genetically stable and true-to-type (genetically identical).
It may be selected from existing stock or collected from well-known and recognized
sources;
b) The trees must be maintained in a good condition by applying the proper cultural
practices such as irrigation, fertilization, mulching and weed, pest and disease
control;
106 106
c) The age of the mother tree should not be too old or too young, and be established with
closer spacing for shoot and bud collection;
d) Heavy pruning and more N relative to P and K should be applied to stimulate shoot
growth, as the new vegetative growth is the main part of the tree used for propagation
of planting material; and
e) Pruning must be done with tools sterilized in a dilute household bleach solution
(diluted 1 part to 4 parts water so as to contain 1% sodium hypochlorite (NaClO))
to avoid mechanical transmission of virus disease. Tools should be washed in clean
water before using them.
5.9 Quality Standards, Legislation and Regulations for the production and Marketing of Plant
Multiplication Materials.
There is a need to develop and establish in each country suitable institutional arrangements for
registration of nurseries and quality control for assuring quality standards. The set up of standard
criteria to be fulfilled and establishment of a law and regulations to ensure the application of those
criteria are essential and strongly recommended for production and marketing of healthy and high
quality plant multiplication material.
General Characteristics of high quality planting material:
1. True-to-type;
2. Free of pests and diseases;
3. Vigorous;
4. Straight trunk;
5. Smooth and clean bark of stem;
6. The union should be strong and free from cracks;
7. No suckers growing from the rootstock;
8. The root system of the seedling must be well developed and spread in all directions;
9. Small white roots visible around the side of the root ball are good sign, but thick roots spiralling
around the base of root ball are a bad sign;
10.Container should not be split and weed growth on the surface should not be allowed;
11.Canopy should be well developed with 35- evenly-spaced branches;
12.The reproductive organs like inflorescences/flowers should not be allowed at nursery level;
and
13.Proper labelling.
107 107
5.10 Resource Materials:
Note: Pictures have been provided by C. Gregoriou, International Olive Oil Council and the
World Wide Web.
Alvarez, G.J.R. 1999. Olive cultivation and ecology: the situation in Spain. Olivae, No 78: 41-
49.
Bartolozzi, F., Cerquaglia, F., Coppari, L. and Fontanazza, G. 2002. Frost tolerance induced by
cold acclimation in olive (Olea europaea) l. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:473-477.
Bassal, A. 2004. Country report, Lebanon. AARINENA-Olive Network 1
st
Meeting 20-22
Ben Rouina, B., Trigui, A. and Boukhris, M. 2002. Effect of the climate and the soil conditions
on crops performance of the Chemlali de Sfax olive trees. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS)
586:285-289.
Bongi, G. and Palliotti, A. 1994. Olive. Handbook of environmental physiology of fruit crops,
Volume I. Temperature Crops. Edited by Bruce Schaffer and Pater C. Andersen. 1994 CRC
Press. Inc., pp 166-187.
Boulouha, B. 1986. Selection clonale de la Picholine Marocaine. Olea, 17.
Briccoli Bati, C., Filippucci, B. and Monardo, D. 2002. Bioclimatology of olive: effects of climatic
conditions on flower biology. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:493-496.
Cimato, A. (1990). Effect of agronomic factors on virgin olive oil quality. Olivae, 31, 20-31.
International Olive Oil Council, Principe de Vergara 154, 28002, Madrid, Spain.
Fernandes Serrano, J.M., Serrano, M.C. and Amaral, E. 2002. Effect of different hormone
treatments on rooting of olea europaea cv. Galega vulgar cuttings. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS)
586:875-877.
Fiorino, P. et. al. 1996. Agronomique techniques and characteristics of olive oil. Olive
Encyclopaedia.p. 197-222. International Olive Oil Council, Principe de Vergara 154, 28002,
Madrid, Spain.
Fontanazza, G. et al. 1996. Genetic aspects and propagation techniques for intensive cultivation.
World Olive Encyclopaedia. p.113-144. International Olive Oil Council, Principe de Vergara
154, 28002, Madrid, Spain.
108 108
Fontanazza, G.; Rugini, E. 1977. Effect of leaves and bud removal on rooting ability of olive
tree cuttings Olea, December,
Gregoriou, C. 1996. Assessment of variation of landraces of olive tree in Cyprus. Euphytica 87:
173-176.
Gregoriou, C. 1999. Clonal selection of the local olive variety of Cyprus. Olivae 76: 26-30.
Gregoriou, C. 2005. Country report, Cyprus. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices for
Hartmann, H.T.; Kester, D.E. 1983. Plant propagation. Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood N.Y.,
Jacoboni, N.; Battaglini, M.; Preziosi, P. 1977. Propagation of olive trees. Modern olive-growing,
FAO, Rome,
Kabourakis, E. 1999. Code of practices for ecological olive production systems in Grete. Olivae
No. 77: 35-45.
Kamoun, N.G., Khlif, M., Ayadi, M. and Karray, B. 2002. Clonal selection of olive tree variety
"Chemlali sfax": preliminary results. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:147-150.
Kaynas, N., Sutu, A.R. and Fidan, A.E. 2002. Olive variety trial in Marmara region. Acta
Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:187-189.
Khlif, M., Ayadi, M., Grati-Kammoun, N., Arous, M.N., Rekik, H., Hamdi, M.T. and Rekik-
Fakhfakh, B. 2002. Identifying Chemlali olive variety in its traditional area. Acta Horticulturae
(ISHS) 586:117-120.
Lavee, E. et al. 1996. Biology and physiology of the olive. World Olive Encyclopaedia.p.61-101.
International Olive Oil Council, Principe de Vergara 154, Madrid, Spain.
Lavee, S. and Avidan, B. 2002. Olive germplasm development past & present approach to genetic
improvement. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:47-56.
Michelakis, N. 2002. Olive orchard management: advances and problems. Acta Horticulturae
(ISHS) 586:239-245,
Mutairi, S. E. A. 2005. Country report, Saudi Arabia. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices
for AARENINA Olive Network Member Countries. Organized by the ARI, AARINENA and
Navero, D.B.; Cimato, A.; Fiorino, P.; Romero, L. R. ; Tuzani. A. ; Castaneda, C.; Serafini, F.;
109 109
Navas, I. T. 2000. World Catalogue of Olive Cultivars, IOOC,2000.
Ouazzani, N., Idrissi, A., El Ghazi, N. and Lumaret, R. 2002. Varietal structure of Moroccan
olive germplasms: evidence from genetic markers and morphological characteristics. Acta
Ozkaya, M. T. 2004. Country report, Turkey. AARINENA-Olive Network 1
st
Meeting 20-22
Pastor, M. and J. Humanes. 1990. Plantation density experiments of non-irrigated olive groves in
Andalusia. Acta Horticulturae 286: 287-290.
Rallo, L.; Martin, G.C. 1991. The role of chilling in releasing olive floral buds from dormancy.
J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., 116, pp. 1058-1062.
Saad-eldin, Ikram. 2005. Country report, Egypt. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices for
Tombesi, A. (1998). Olive orchard installation, soil arrangement, planting density and training.
Proccedings of the International Seminar on Olive growing Chania, Crete, Greece, 18-24
May 1997 pp. 55-65.
Tous, J., A. Romero, J. Plana and F. Baiger. 1999. Planting density trial with Arbequina olive
cultivar in Catalonia, Spain. Acta Horticulturae 474: 177-180.
Trigui Ahmed and Monji Msallem, 2002. Catalogue of autochtonous varieties and local types, Ed
Institut de lOlivier, IRESA- Tunisia.
(ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria. Vit106pp. En.
110 110
6. Tree Training and Pruning Methods
Costas Gregoriou
6.1 General Principles of Olive Tree Pruning
Pruning is necessary for maintaining the equilibrium between the vegetative and reproductive
functions, making the trees maximum production compatible with its vitality, shortening its non-
productive period during youth, lengthening its productive period to a maximum and delaying
decadence, ageing and death.
Maintaining excessively compact and spherical-shaped canopies prevents proper utilization of
light, and for a specific canopy volume, this leads to minimum fruiting. On the other hand, when
pruning makes the branches spread out almost horizontally, the excess light makes the olive react
and continuously put out vigorous suckers, wasting sap and reducing production. Pruning operations
throughout the olive trees life span should:
1. Balance growth and fruiting;
2. Not devitalize or prematurely age the tree;
3. Be economic; and
4. Bear in mind that the main constraint on productivity is water.
In order to determine pruning intensity and to decide whether or not to prune in a particular year,
the following should be considered:
a) Rainfall during the autumn-winter period immediately prior to pruning;
b) The previous years harvest;
c) The vegetative condition of the trees at the time of pruning;
d) The purpose of the crop (table olives or oil olives); and
e) The planting pattern and tree development.
On no account should the canopy size be reduced excessively by heavy pruning in the event of several
years of drought, since the progressive reduction in volume may lead to a permanent reduction in
the orchards productive potential. This is because when there is sufficient or abundant rainfall,
average production levels only increase with large crop yields.
Alternate bearing (the on-year) prevents the normal growth of shoots bearing the next crop and
leads to nutritional deficiencies in the trees after harvesting. In years when an excessively high yield
is forecast, pruning should aim at cutting down the number of flower buds by thinning out fruit-
bearing branches.
Any trunk or scaffold area exposed to light for a few weeks in the spring or summer will allow the
outgrowth of new shoots from latent or newly differentiated buds in the exposed area. However,
111 111
overexposure to direct radiation might cause sunburn and canker development. Thus, although the
olive tree is adapted to the dryness, high temperature and light conditions of the subtropical climate,
it is recommended to whitewash the trees after drastic renewal pruning.
In conclusion, pruning is a vital cultural practice as it:
a) Secures regular fruiting and long life of the olive tree;
b) Adapts the olive tree to local conditions (temperature, humidity, sunlight, soil);
c) Ensures a better balance between vegetative growth and flowering, besides which it
regulates the alternate bearing of the trees;
d) Prevents and secures easier control of pests and diseases;
e) Saves water and humidity (as it reduces transpiration), which is essential because of
the semi-arid conditions of the area and the long dry Mediterranean summer;
f) Regenerates the branches;
g) Regulates the nutrient distribution of the trees; and
h) Makes for easier harvesting.
6.2 Timing, tools and cuts of pruning
Pruning must be done every year so as to avoid the need for severe pruning, which gives rise to
alternate bearing, excessively vigorous shoots, problems from extreme temperatures, and sunburn.
It should be done in combination with harvesting or after harvesting during the winter and prior
of the beginning of flowering and new growth. In the event of serious infection by olive knot
(Pseudomonas savastanoi), the infected shoots should be cut carefully in summer to prevent the
spread of the disease.
Suitable and efficient tools should be used and the pruners must be careful to apply the proper types
of cuts in order to prevent infection of diseases and avoid damaging the tree.
6.3 Types of pruning
There are three types of pruning in every olive production system: a) training (shaping) pruning, b)
fruiting pruning and c) regenerative pruning.
112 112
6.3.1 Training pruning
The purpose of training pruning is to build a framework of the olive tree compatible with the
planting pattern selected that will sustain the plant organs and the crops produced during the trees
bearing lifetime. The possibility of using full-scale machine harvesting depends on whether suitable
frameworks have been built up. Training must respect the natural tendency of the species and of the
variety in question. Natural shapes work best in olive orchards because forced shaping delays initial
bearing and reduces the trees productive potential. In addition, it calls for severe, meticulous and
costly pruning, involving a lot of skilled labour.
Minimum pruning should be done to achieve this type of tree and the use of a stake or support
during the first three years of life of the new orchard is recommended as this helps keep the terminal
bud in a vertical position. Also, during the first few years, low-intensity pruning may be carried out
at intervals during the growing season, in order to gradually give the tree the desired shape without
upsetting the leaf-root relationship.
6.3.1.1 Training pruning in intensive orchards
The goal is to achieve shapes which will take maximum advantage of their environment as early
as possible and, in particular, of solar radiation which in densely-spaced adult orchards is often the
factor that most seriously restricts production because of the shaded areas. It is essential to form
a single trunk to facilitate the use of shaking machines so that more olives can be picked per time
unit.
Single-trunk olive trees give less expanded
shapes with a lower canopy volume for the
same leaf mass. This is important in dense
orchards since it allows light and available
space to be put to better use. The ideal tree
shape proposed for new intensive growing
methods is achieved from a plant trained with
a single trunk in a nursery. There should be
not more than 3 to 4 main branches at about 100 to 120cm from the ground and thereafter a structure
should be formed giving a relatively freely-growing hollow vase shape.
6.3.2 Pruning to promote fruit production
After the trees are fully formed, pruning must aim at maintaining a high leaf/wood ratio and at
improving lighting within the canopy. This improves the quantity and quality of the fruit yield and
also helps harvesting. The olive tree bears fruit mainly at one year old slots at the outside part of the
canopy which receives enough light, whereas its fruiting ability inside the canopy is limited.
Pruners should also try to ensure that the branches are kept shaded, that as many leaves as possible
113 113
are conserved and that they are well lit. Direct
sunlight on the trunk and main branches will
cause burning and premature ageing, reducing
the productive life of the orchard.
It is therefore necessary to monitor tree size, and
to seek a balance when pruning between growth
and fruit-bearing. Planting density plays a
major role, since in high-density orchards there
are more problems of competition between
plants.
The key points in pruning to secure good
fruiting, flowering and healthy tree condition
include:
Weak branches Irom the producing canopy
of the tree should be removed so they can
be replaced by stronger ones, preferably
bending towards the ground;
Branches that are weak, dead, unhealthy or
very dense should be removed as they are
infected easily by diseases;
Branches that create shading between the trees should be removed to prevent bad aeration and to
ensure lighting in the whole fruiting zone of the tree; and
The trunk and branches should not be leIt without any coverage by excessive removal oI shoots
and leaves.
6.3.3 Rejuvenation and regeneration pruning
With age, and sometimes as a result of premature ageing caused by unfavourable environmental
conditions, olives start to accumulate wood, even when production pruning has been performed
correctly. Average yields fall and alternate bearing is accentuated with a loss of fruit quality. Low
rates of vegetative growth of the new shoots, small leaves of a dull green colour, and even defoliation
on some branches, are all indications to the pruner that a branch should be replaced and that they
should begin thorough, regular and continuous rejuvenation of the canopy. Olive trees have the
capacity of self-regeneration as olives have a large number of latent buds in the old wood which,
when needed and duly stimulated by pruning, develop as wood buds, producing vigorous branches
which, in time, are capable of regenerating the tree.
In Mediterranean Basin olive orchards, most of the feasible rejuvenation pruning systems are
114 114
based on two models. The first is suitable for
relatively young adult olives, which are not fully
developed, and do not have too much wood and
is called: continuous system for regeneration
pruning.
This wood rejuvenation pruning used in
Andalusian orchards consists of 5 phases lasting
5 year. In the first year, one of the main branches
is amputated. In the second year, shoots are
formed as a result of the cut. In the third year,
the remaining main branches are cut back. In
the fourth year, shoots are developed as a result
of the cuts which has been done the previous year. In the fifth year no pruning is applied and a new
2 branched tree is formed. In the sixth year a new rejuvenation cycle begins which will continue
throughout the productive life of the orchard. Therefore the original 3 branched tree is left with 2
branches after completion of the first rejuvenation cycle.
The second system shown is used in a large number of warm Mediterranean olive-growing areas
with highly-developed centenarian olives which have never undergone wood rejuvenation pruning.
As a result of this the height and canopy volume of the trees is out of proportion with the potential
of the productive environment. By means of very severe pruning, after 4-5 years, it is possible to
obtain rejuvenated trees that are economically viable. After 2 or 3 years of the severe pruning, it
is necessary to select the branches that will form the new scaffold for the rejuvenated tree. It is
therefore necessary when this regeneration system is used, the first pruning operation can prove
to be over-severe, but is the only solution for revitalizing this kind of olive orchard. Less heavy
pruning is relatively ineffective for achieving the objectives pursued.
115 115
6.3.4 Mechanical pruning in intensive orchards
Machine pruning is performed with a rotating disk pruning machine installed on a medium-sized
tractor which moves along the lanes at a constant speed.
Machine pruning is viable in the following situations:
a) In production pruning during the young adult period, as a substitute for manual
production pruning;
b) In intensive orchards to adapt canopy volume to optimal production and to increase
space between trees to make room for machinery while improving aeration and
lighting; and
c) In heavy thinning, to rejuvenate intensive olive orchards which have aged as a result
of high productivity and excessive volume.
Machine pruning should be heavy but should only be performed once every three or four years so that
the tree can recover fully and in order for production to benefit from the vegetative growth formed
as a result of the cuts made by the machine. It is essential to alternate machine pruning with basic
manual pruning inside the tree to clear the canopy and avoid the risk of the olive accumulating large
quantities of suckers, stumps and dead wood which, unless removed, render it non-productive.
However the system is not viable in adult orchards subjected to rejuvenation because of the low
shoot growth capacity of old branches.
Note: Pictures have been provided by C. Gregoriou, K. Pontikis, International Olive Oil Council
and the World Wide Web.
Ben Rouina, B., Omri, A. and Trigui, A. 2002. Effect of a hard pruning on trees vigor and yields
of old olive orchards. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:321-323.
Cantini, C. and Panicucci, M. 2002. Managing of a traditional olive orchard by timesaving
biennial pruning.. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:361-363
Cirik, N. (1989). Factors influencing olive flower bud formation. Olivae, 27, 25-27.
Madrid, Spain.
Fontanazza, G. 1987. Olive-tree pruning. Olivae, 16, 34-37.
Godini, A. 2002. Apulian traditional olive training systems. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:311-315.
Gregoriou, C., Pontikis, C., and Vemmos, S. 2003. The effect of shading on productivity, fruit
characteristics, oil content and fatty acids of olive cultivar Koroneiki. Proceedings of
116 116
the 20
th
Meeting of Panhellenic Horticultural Society, pp.179-182. Oct. 29-Nov.1, 2001.
Larnaca, Cyprus.
Guerriero, R. and Vitagliano, C. 1975. High density planting of olives; influence of insolation on the
growth and Iloral diIIerentiation oI branches. Instituto di Coltivazioni Arboree dell Universita
di Piza. No 253, 11 pp.
Johnson, R.S., and Lakso, A.N. (1991). Approaches to modeling light interruption in orchards.
HortScience, 26, 1002-1004.
Kabourakis, E. 1999. Code of practices for ecological olive production systems in Grete. Olivae No. 77: 35-45.
Loreti, F.; Vitagliano, C.: 1986: Research on pruning of mature olive trees to improve mechanical
harvesting. OLEA, no. 17, pp. 255-257.
Metzidakis, I. 2002. Effect of regeneration pruning for the recovery of olive productivity and fruit
characteristics in ten olive cultivars. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:333-336.
(ISHS) 586:239-245.
Miguel Pastor Munoz.1989. Olive pruning. Practical Handbook. Published by International Olive
Oil Council, Principe de Vergara 154, Madrid, Spain.
Pea, J.O., Dias, A.B., Pinheiro, A.C., Santos, L., Morais, N., Pereira, A.G. and Reynolds de
Souza, D. 2002. Mechanical pruning of olive trees as an alternative to manual pruning. Acta
Proietti, P., Prezios, P. and Tombesi, A. 1988. InIluence oI shading on olive leaI photsynthesis.
Proceedings of 2nd International meeting on Mediterranean tree crops. Chania, Crete,
Greece, 2-4 Nov. 1988. 334-342.
Tombesi, A. 1998. Olive orchard installation, soil arrangement, planting density and training.
Proccedings of the International Seminar on Olive growing Chania, Crete, Greece, 18-24
May 1997 pp. 55-65.
Tombesi, A. and Cartechini, A. 1986. The effect of crown shading on the differentiation of
flowering buds in olive. Rivista della Ortoflorofrutticoltura Italiana 70, 277-285.
Tubeileh, A.; Bruggeman A. and Turkelboom, F. 2004. Growing Olives and other tree species in marginal
dry environments. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA),
Aleppo, Syria. Vit106pp. En.
117 117
7. Irrigation
Mohamed El-Kholy
Olive Grower & Expert, Sayeda Zeinab olive Groves, Ismailia, Egypt
7.1 Basic background information on olive plant water relations
The olive tree is a typical dry soil plant which, when grown under dry-farming conditions, uses
natural rainfall accumulated in the soil and is not usually given additional water to offset the effects
of long periods of water deficit. Of the total 750 million olive trees worldwide, it is estimated
that only some 50 million trees (7%) benefit from irrigation at varying levels as very few are fully
irrigated while some are supplementary irrigated.
As stated in Chapter One Introduction, this document aims to provide appropriate background
material on each of the sub-topics, a robust scientific underpinning for recommended practices,
as well as the GAP Guidelines themselves. For this reason some of the material in this Chapter is
quite technical in nature. There will be a variety of audiences for this material from academics,
agronomists, trainers, extension officers, NGOs and the farmers themselves. Readers should take
from this what is useful for them for some, all the detail will be fascinating and highly useful;
others will just want to go straight to the Guidelines and take the science on faith. It is intended that
this document will be revised and updated in the future; therefore feedback the usefulness level of
the content will be valuable to the authors.
7.1.1 Adaptability of olive trees to drought
Olive trees have developed the characteristics of xerophilous plants i.e. those which are capable
of thriving in hot dry climates. They possess the following special features which make them very
adaptable to drought and tolerant to other harsh conditions:

The small, thick and leathery leaves, with only a few stomata located on the lower surface of the
leaf at the base of small depressions, help in reducing transpiration.

The mechanism by which the leaves curl longitudinally after mid-morning hours, especially
when the climate is hot, helps in closing their stomata thus preventing excessive water loss by
transpiration.

The water content of the leaves is very low even under non-stressed conditions compared with
other Mediterranean species; e.g 1.56 mg of H
2
O/g dry matter compared with 5.8 mg/g for figs
and 5.9 mg/g for grapes (Abd El-Rahman et al., 1966).

The ability to extract water from soil that is drying-out; a marked increase in osmotic potential
throughout the dry season enabled the roots of Chemlali olive trees grown under semi-arid
conditions (150 mm rainfall) in northwest Egypt to extract water from drying soil (Abd El-Rahman
et al., 1966).
118 118

The waxy cuticular covering the upper surface of the leaves not only aids in controlling water
loss but also assists in securing some of the water needed by the trees through the accumulation
of dew during the night or early morning hours on the waxy surface of the narrow and sharply
pointed leaves. This allows the water droplets to slide to the ground under the canopy to supply
the shallow root system with some of its water requirements (M. El-kholy, personal observations
for 20 years).

The root structure as the vessel lumina of xylem cells are small (half that of grapes) ensuring low
hydraulic conductance (Salleo et al., 1985; Larsen et al., 1989).

The root/canopy ratio is usually greater in non-irrigated than in irrigated olive trees (Xiloyannis
et al., 1999). This improves water uptake of trees grown under rain-fed conditions and contributes
to drought tolerance.

The extensive root system
enables the tree to harvest the
least available moisture contained
in a large volume of soil. High
internal osmotic pressure allows
it to extract water from very low
moisture soils of 1.5 Mpa.
All of the above features contribute
to the high adaptability of olive trees
to the adverse, low water availability
conditions prevalent in the WANA
region which is why the olive
has been always a main fruit crop in the region. Nevertheless the drawback of this adaptability,
especially under prolonged stress, is that the tree reacts by inhibiting its development, reducing
shoot growth and bud formation and consequently reducing production in proportion to the state
of the water reserves or stress. In spite of olive tree tolerance to water-stress, prolonged drought
will adversely affect its yield. The tree can reduce water consumption by about 35% of ETc (crop
evapotranspiration) while maintaining an acceptable physiological condition.
7.1.2 Influence of water availability on the performance of olive trees
Due to the low annual rainfall (<400 mm) in most WANA region countries, the development of
olive trees without irrigation is very slow and the alternate bearing phenomenon is not favourable
as their yield fluctuates strongly from year to year. Generally the olive yield under dry-farming is
drastically affected by the fact that regional rainfall takes place in the winter, whereas many of the
physiological processes requiring water supply such as shoot and fruit growth stages (from cell
119 119
division, to stone lignification to cell enlargement) actually happen during the hot dry months. This
unfortunate situation causes exhaustion in the trees and is clearly exemplified in multiple cyclic
waves of fruit drop, shrivelled or smaller sized fruits, reduction in yield and unhealthy trees by
the end of the season which suffer from shoot die back and weak vegetation growth incapable of
sustaining full production in the coming season. Therefore and in order to reduce the impact of these
negative factors, some growers who depend mainly on rain apply supplemental irrigation during the
sensitive periods, if they have access to other water resources which are normally limited.
Unfortunately, hardiness and survival ability of the olive tree is misunderstood by many growers in
the WANA region as well as growers in other regions of the Mediterranean, who are influenced by
traditions and myths more than science and reality. They believe that olive trees need only very low
amounts of water to produce. These growers generally lack appropriate knowledge of the olive tree
/ water relationship. To rectify this, growers should appreciate the following cases which indicate
the response of olive trees to different levels of water availability:
1. They will survive prolonged drought when assisted with certain cultural practices such as fruit
thinning and severe pruning to balance the fruit load and canopy volume with the available
low moisture but will produce negligible, non-commercial yields;
2. They will alternate and produce low to moderate crop (1.5-3 tons/ha) under average rainfall.
If water is supplemented (even with the application of small doses) during the critical growth
stages, especially those taking place in the dry hot summer months, the yield can reach 45
tons/ha;
3. They will respond favourably to rational irrigation which provides their exact water
requirements (as discussed later in this sub-chapter), especially when meeting their demands
at critical growth stages. The major positive outcomes are a reduced tendency to alternate
bearing and high yields (12-18 tons/ha while some reports indicate much higher yields).
On the other hand, the trees will deteriorate and might completely die when their sensitive roots are
waterlogged under excessive irrigation which causes lack of oxygen and sharp increase in fungal
diseases. This happens specifically in shallow soils with poor drainage. Olive trees do not survive
wet feet conditions; this is what has been always said by old olive growers in the Mediterranean
basin who have developed many wise mottos from their inherited hands-on experience in caring for
this blessed tree for decades.
The increase in yields associated with the application of water in either one of the above cases is
directly linked to the fruit production process starting from higher percentages of perfect flowers,
higher fruit set, reduced fruit drop, non-shrivelled fruits, larger size fruits with higher flesh to pit ratio
which in the end weight more. The water availability effect on fruits cell division is more profound
120 120
than on cell expansion, therefore the
larger fruit size is mainly a result of a
greater number of cells.
In the longer term, increased yields of
olive trees has always been associated
with full irrigation which induces
greater shoot growth, larger total leaf
surface area associated with better
photosynthesis and transpiration
during the entire growing season.
As found by (Tombesi et al. 1996),
irrigated trees bear more fruit per
tree and produce more oil per hectare than non-irrigated trees. These findings are supported by
other authors (Michelakis 1990; dAndria et al., 1998; Magliulo et al., 1998) as they have found
that irrigation increases trunk diameter and shoot growth, as well as the number and size of the
fruits. Nevertheless increasing irrigation quantities over and above the trees water requirements
will not improve yields and will become a financial burden. It has also been shown in many studies
that over-irrigation had not induced any beneficial impacts on the trees. To the contrary, it can
cause more harm than benefit. Deterioration of the root system and the whole tree due to water-
logging is a very common outcome of excessive soil water. Fruit split caused by water swelling is
another example of negative impacts from excessive water application by early season heavy rain
or irrational excess irrigation at the final stages of fruit ripening. Excessive fruit moisture makes oil
extraction difficult.
In addition to the aforementioned
positive impacts of rational water
availability to olive trees, meeting
their actual water requirements at
the right time with the right quantity
through irrigation results in the
following advantages:

Enhanced nutrient uptake from
the soil and especially when the
trees nutritional requirements are
met through complete integration
of irrigation and fertilization
121 121
practices. Therefore fully irrigated olive trees generally look healthier, with denser foliage when
they are compared with those grown under rain-fed conditions;

Accelerated growth rates so that the trees will enter into production earlier, possibly by the
second year after planting and may enter commercial cropping by the 5th or 6th year;

Enhanced emergence, activation and growth potential of the normally dormant microscopic
substitution bud, which when triggered by adequate irrigation and associated rational nutrition
can contribute highly in increasing yields and reducing negative impacts such as the problem of
alternate bearing;

Prolonged periods of activity,
especially from early autumn to
mid winter, when the trees can
recover from cropping exhaustion;
and

Reduced tendency towards
alternate bearing.
Similar to rain-fed conditions,
restricted irrigation causes alternate
bearing and a reduction in yield proved
crop alternating is not only governed by genetic factors but by external factors as well. The low yields
were always due to less seasonal vegetative growth and reduced shoot length during the preceding
on production year.
Rain-fed olive trees also respond well to supplementary irrigation compared with non-irrigated
control trees when low dosages are applied at critical physiological stages or even when supplies
are sporadic and not necessarily given during the dry period. If water is available throughout the
whole crop cycle, the rational approach is to provide as much water as is needed to compensate for
any shortages. In general terms, supplementary irrigation should be adapted to the years climatic
variations and the trees status to ensure minimum water stressing during the period from flowering
to fruit maturity and to avoid decreasing the trees activity when it is mostly needed.
The following Table indicates the effect of water shortage on the physiological development of
olive trees. The Table does not indicate the corresponding months when these physiological events
take place as they vary from one country to the other within the WANA region. They also vary from
north to south in a single country like in Tunisia, Syria and Egypt for example.
122 122
Effects of water shortage during critical growth periods in olive groves
(elaborated and based on: Tombasi, Michelakis & Pastor 1996 and Beede & Goldhamer 1994)
Effect of Low Soil Moisture Growth Stage
Less Ilowers;
Higher Ilowers drop;
More incomplete (imperIect) Ilowers as a result
of dissipated pistils (low sexual expression
ratio);
Deceleration oI shoot growth cycle emergence, which
will have a negative impact on following seasons
fruiting.
Flower development Irom bud swelling to Iull
inflorescence elongation and white ballooning of
clusters;
Vegetative budburst;
Start oI spring cycle oI shoot growth
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

s
e
a
s
o
n

(
2
)

G
r
o
w
t
h

(
1
)
Some Ilowers will continue to drop;
Poor and reduced Iruit set;
More shot berries (parthenocarpic Iruits) due to
incomplete fertilization or pistil abortion;
Retardation in Iruit growth and size development
due to decreased cell division;
Fruit drop and shrivelling;
Reduced shoot growth**.
Blooming;
Pollination and Iertilization;
Fruit set;
Quick Ilush oI Iruit growth by cell division;
Shoot growth.
Severe Fruit shrivelling;
More Iruit drop than normal pre-harvest drop;
Small Iruit size due to reduced cell expansion;
Low Ilesh / stone ratio;
Shoot growth completely ceases;
Possible shoot die-back;
Poor Ilowering Iollowing season.
Steady Iruit growth cycle by cell enlargement
to maturity and start of ripening;
Oil Iormation;
Shoot growth slows down to commence aIter
harvest if it is early and pending climatic
conditions;
L
a
t
e

s
e
a
s
o
n

g
r
o
w
t
h
** Reduced shoot growth enhances alternate bearing
7.1.3 Moisture availability in relation to fruit development & oil accumulation
The schematic graph at the end of this sub-chapter shows the different stages of olive fruit growth
and the influence of soil moisture on
its physiological development as well
as the biosynthesis and accumulation
of oil (lipogenesis). This process
starts roughly ten days after the period
when both the embryo and endocarp
have reached their final size and
endocarp hardening (sclerification
- lignification) is completed. Oil
accumulation continues at an
accelerated rate and ends in late
autumn when the fruits have changed
123 123
colour. The colour change in olive
fruit of irrigated trees is more gradual
and the accumulation of oil may
take longer than rain-fed trees; thus
slightly offsetting the harvesting date.
Apart from the influence of irrigation,
the rate and duration of fruit growth
and oil accumulation are specific to
each cultivar, climate and growing
conditions.
It can be derived from the Table at the
end of the previous sub-chapter that a
considerable number of fruits will drop
during fruit set and stone hardening
stages. One of the major causes of
this phenomenon is the physiological
adjustment of the tree to its water and
nutritional conditions. The higher
the water stress, the heavier the fruit
drop, especially under heavy crop
conditions.
During periods of water stress, the
leaves withdraw water from the fruit
and therefore fruit under development
by cell enlargement will show symptoms of water stress by shrivelling towards the end of summer.
The fruit will undergo possible abscission if the stress is severe and continuous. If the stress is not
severe, fruit shrivelling can be reversible and after the first rain or irrigation the fruits regain their
turgor. Therefore the agricultural traditions common in many countries of the WANA region is not
to harvest olives before the first rain in the fall regardless of the maturity of the fruit. The reason
is that growers are paid by the weight and extracting oil from shrivelled fruits is also problematic.
The moisture required can be secured from rains, in countries where autumn rains are prevalent,
but if they are late or insufficient, then irrigation may be used as an alternative if it is economically
feasible.
124 124
7.1.4 Irrigation effect on the quality of olive fruits
The effect of irrigation on olive fruit quality is a subject of considerable debate. Nevertheless, a good
water supply is very important for obtaining satisfactory size in table olives; a factor which is strictly
correlated to the commercial value of the product (Michelakis et al., 1988; Dettori et al., 1989; Gatto
1989; Ozyilmaz & Ozkara 1990). Further, Proietti and Antognozzi (1996) stated that according to
(Brighigna et al., 1989), less sugar content and higher oil content of irrigated olive fruits could
indicate greater metabolic activity. Irrigation does not influence fruit shape, but increases its weight,
volume, and flesh/pit ratio. The water content in the flesh of irrigated olive fruits will increase and the
firmness might be slightly less than in rain-fed olives which lack water during their cell enlargement.
However after preservation in brine, the
flesh water content of irrigated olives as
well as sensory characteristics (flavour,
texture, and detachment of the flesh from
the pit) are not substantially different. Due
to the low sugar content of irrigated olives,
which enhances natural fermentation when
present, some processors add fermentable
sugar to the brine to produce good lactic
fermentation, which is important for good
fruit storage.
125 125
Oil content in irrigated olives is less than
rain-fed olives if based on fresh weight due
to the fruits increased moisture content, but
the difference is negligible when expressed
on basis of dry matter. In fact the higher olive
oil yield per hectare in irrigated groves can
be attributed to larger sized fruits, higher
moisture content and heavier crops with a
greater number of fruit. A slight reduction
of polyphenol content in olive oil produced
from irrigated olive trees has been reported;
nevertheless the organoleptic features were
not affected. Under dry-farming, the slightly higher level of phenolic compounds is attributed to the
water stress combined with the onset of colder weather at ripening, all of which reduce the metabolic
activity in the fruit leading to reduced utilization and thus greater retention of phenolic compounds.
Also since phenols are water soluble and since the amount of vegetation water produced during oil
extraction of dry-farmed olives is less, the oil will consequently retain slightly higher phenols which
would have been lost in the higher moisture content.
7.1.5 Behavior of the olive tree root system in relation to water availability
The olive root system which is generally
characterized by being lateral, shallow and
spreading without a dominant vertical tap
root, is very much adaptable to different
conditions in the quality and quantity of
soil moisture. Under dry-farming the roots
extend to considerable distances beyond the
tree canopy drip line and in most cases they
are relatively shallow. The majority of roots
in this circumstance are located not deeper
than one meter from the surface. Under
certain circumstances and soils the roots
may go much deeper than that in search for ground water. These features of the olive roots are very
efficient in absorbing the falling light and intermittent rainwater common in the WANA region
before it percolate deep into the soil. These features also facilitate the absorption of the dew water
that drips from their own leaves which only moisten the shallow surface soil. Compared to dry-
farming, the fibrous feeder roots under irrigation are of higher density and better distributed within
the moistened parts of the soil and therefore their water extraction capability is relatively higher;
positively affecting the trees nutritional status and productivity. The root system pattern is dependant
126 126
on the soil type, water quality, irrigation
method and irrigation management
applied (point of application, frequency
and duration of each run). In light sandy
soils with low water holding capacity, the
root system pattern under mini-sprinkler
irrigation will be shallow and similar to the
root system of trees grown under moderate
rainfall 700-1200 mm/year, while it will be
relatively deeper and much denser under
drip irrigation in the same conditions. If
sprinkler irrigation is used in these light
soils, there is always the potential risk of developing superficially shallow roots, especially under
inefficient management, to the degree that anchoring the trees to the ground becomes threatened.
7.1.6 The general behaviour of olive trees in response to water salinity
Olive trees are known to be moderately tolerant to water salinity. They are more highly tolerant than
citrus but less tolerant than date palms. The relationship between olive trees and salinity as well as
their tolerance, which is very much variety dependent, have been studied and evaluated by many
researchers for decades. The following Table indicates the findings of such studies tabulated in time
chronological order.
Findings Salinity level Year Author Variety
10% productivity reduction Soil saturated extract ECe 46- dS/m (25603840- ppm) 1965 Bernstein Olive tree
No problems Irrigation water ECw 3.12 dS/m (2000 ppm TDS) 1968 Romano(1) Olive tree
No decrease in yield Irrigation water ECw 4.70 dS/m (3000 ppm TDS) 1975 El Amani(1) Chetoui
No decrease in yield Irrigation water ECw 6.25 dS/m (4000 ppm TDS) 1976 Bouaziz (1) Chemlali
No signs of damage Irrigation water ECw 9.37 dS/m (6000 ppm TDS) 1982 Zarrouk (1) Olive tree
Producing new growth at leaf Na
levels of 0.4 - 0.5% by dry weight
Irrigation water ECw 5 dS/m (3200 ppm TDS) with SAR
of 18
1985 Di Marco(2) Olive tree
The tolerance limit Irrigation water with 8 g/l NaCl 1990
Rugini and
Fedeli (2)
Olive trees
Na
2
SO
4
was more
deleterious to the general
growth than NaCl
Irrigation water contained either NaCl or Na2SO4 1991
Bartolini,
et al.
Maurino cv
1 year old
olive plants
Nothing negative to
quantity and quality
irrigation with NaCl < 3000 ppm 1995 Daout (1) Olive tree
did not suffer from salt
stress during a 90-day
culture period
NaCl concentrations lower than 80 mM 1998
Therios and
Misopolinos
3 year
old olive
plants
(1) Quoted by Michelakis, N. 2002.
(2) Quoted by Chartzoulakis, K. 2003.
127 127
7.1.6.1 A success story of two decades of an Olive Field Model using highly saline water in
irrigating olives trees
Olive grower Mohamed El-kholy from Egypt has been growing olives successfully for 24 years
using very poor quality water under arid conditions in the Egyptian Eastern desert at Latitude 30
26` 10", Longitude: 32 09` 21", and Altitude: 68.30 masl. He started planting his first 8,000 out
of 14,400 trees in 1987 when the water salinity of the underground well was 8.13 dS/m (5200
ppm TDS) during summer falling to 7.27 dS/m (4650 ppm TDS) during winter time as a result of
reduced demand for water in the whole region. This was due to lower evapotranspiration values
which reduced abstraction demand from the aquifer. In 2001 the salinity reached its peak at 11.7
dS/m (7488 ppm TDS) during summer and 9.53 dS/m (6100 ppm TDS) during winter. The water
analysis results in 2001 are shown in the following Table:
B
ppm
Soluble Anions (meq/l) Soluble Cations (meq/l)
EC dS/m PH
SO
4
--
Cl
-
HCO
3
-
CO
3
--
K
+
Na
+
Mg
++
Ca
++
1.43 28.74 95.10 21.16 --- 2.61 97.97 20.90 23.51 11.70 7.81

The trees were planted at varying high density
of 278 trees/ha (6 x 6 m), 400 trees/ha (5 x
5 m) and super high density of 606 trees/ha
(6 x 2.75 m), based on water availability and
taking its poor quality into consideration when
performing planting and cultural practices.
Fourteen different varieties were grown, some
of which are for table olive production and
some for oil production. All varieties have
shown different tolerance to the saline water
but are all performing commercially well,
providing a good return.
In general the soil is sandy loam with a good,
deep drained profile and a pH of 8.2. Some
minor scattered spots, which do not exceed
15% of the grove area, have a shallow hard
pan which necessitated drilling vertical 5 inch
holes under the canopies, which are filled with
fine gravel to act as localized drains to improve
salt leaching.
The irrigation practices which have allowed using such poor quality water and which have been
successfully applied at this grove for 24 years are outlined in this chapter under 6.7.9 as GAP
Guidelines.
128 128
It must be made clear that it is not only irrigation
scheduling and management that made using
this highly saline water possible but rather
effective Integrated Grove Management System
(IGMS) with a GAP component which deals
with the full range of agricultural practices,
aiming to reduce the negative impacts of the
saline water on the trees and the surrounding
environment and to keep these impacts under
control and constant surveillance.
The most obvious negative impacts of using saline water in irrigation which have been observed
during this long period of field application and their reflection on the economics of the grove are
indicated below:
a) General stunting to the canopy size of the trees, yet the size of leaves and internodes
have not been affected. Under high density planting and all year-round irrigation using
IGMS, this stunting has not affected the maximum green coverage of 75% which was
reached by the 8th to the 11th year depending on the different varieties behaviour
and original planting distances. By comparison, the fruit to canopy ratio have not
been less than other commercially grown trees where comparatively moderate quality
water of 4.70 dS/m (3000 ppm TDS) is used. Thus the gross income in this grove has
never been negatively affected. Expenditure was 7-12% higher than groves in the
same region using normal quality water due to the necessity of using certain metallic
anti-corrosion material in the irrigation system, additional energy consumption for
leaching, drilling of localized drainage holes, the need to maintain the submersible
pump more frequently than with better quality water and the need to improve the
organic content of the soil through regular incorporation of compost (refer to the Soil
Chapter 3).
b) In certain spots of the shallow hard pans (which are less than 15% of the total grove
area), when the vertical localized drain holes filled with gravel are not enough for
adequate salt leaching as a result of increasing water amounts to match tree age and
canopy development, the leaf tips show burn-like symptoms from slow and gradual salt
build up in the leaf tissues with a distinguished very dark brownish area between the
remaining green part of the leaves and the light brownish dead tips. These symptoms
are totally different from those of sudden salt movement into the root zone as a result
of rain or a clogged dripper. At these spots of poor drainage, enhanced leaf drop
129 129
has been also noticed associated
with reduced yields. The direct
negative economic impact is due
mainly to two factors; the first
is reduced yield and the second
is the lower physical quality
of the olives being subjected
to direct sun rays as a result of
reduced foliage from leaf drop.
This exposure to the sun causes
a marked burning or cooking
of the fruit flesh. Another cause of reduced physical fruit quality is wind-caused
rubbing against the die-back twigs or the sharp edges of the withered leaves, both
of which can cause scratches in case of severely affected foliage. In these spots the
extra production expenditure is always associated with drilling more drainage holes.
If improving soil drainage properties and organic matter content (especially at the
perimeter of the wetted zones where it acts as a buffer against reverse salt intrusion
into the rhizosphere) is adequately and timely done, all the drawbacks mentioned
above can be completely eliminated as has been proven in the limited treated sections
of these hard pan areas of the grove.
c) When the trees have reached
the maximum green coverage of
75% and thus receive less light
penetration, it has been noticed
that the salt effect has gradually
started to become more profound.
This is exemplified in more leaf
drop compared with trees under
the same conditions but with
better light interception. On this
basis a rejuvenation pruning
began in 2005 at age 19. This process is gradually performed in stages in order not to
drastically impact the grove returns and to spread work effort on consecutive seasons.
First stage rejuvenation started with trees on 5x5 m spacing; followed by 6x6 m. Trees
planted at 6x2.75 are still young as they were planted later and a different approach
will be followed when the time comes, subject to field verification.
130 130
Under the severe water salinity levels of this
long term Field Model, it has been ascertained
that the most tolerant varieties under the grove
micro conditions, in descending order, are the
local Hamed (table) variety, the Spanish Picual
(oil in its home country oil/table under local
conditions), followed by the local Agiezi
Shami, (table), the Greek Koroneiki (oil),
the local Agiezi Akks (table), Agiezi Sinarra
(table) and finally by Italian Coratina (oil)
and Cipressino (oil) varieties. The most highly
sensitive ones under the same conditions are
the local Taffahi (table) variety, followed by the Spanish Manzanillo (table).
In connection with the above findings, the following 2 tables show the salinity tolerability of some
of the different indigenous varieties within the WANA region and some European varieties which
have been grown successfully in the WANA region.
Tolerance to Salinity of some olive varieties in the WANA region
Tolerant Moderate Sensitive
Author origin variety Author origin variety Author origin variety
Tubeileh, A.
et al. 2004
Tunisia
Chemlali
Sfax
Tubeileh,
A. et al.
2004
Lebanon Bayadi
Tubeileh,
A. et al.
2004
Tunisia Chetoui
Palestinian
Occ.
Terr.&
Jordan
Nabali
Muhassan
Syria Zeiti
Palestinian
Occ. Terr,
Nabali
Baladi
Egypt Hamed Tunisia
Beidh el-
hamam
Tunisia Meski Syria Jlot
Tolerance to Salinity of some European varieties commonly grown in the WANA region
(Arranged by country of origin)
Tolerant Moderate Sensitive*
Author origin variety Author origin variety Author origin variety
Tattini. et al.
1994
Italy Frantoio
Tattini. et al.
1994
Italy Coratina
Chartzoulakis.
et al. 2001
Greece Kalamata
Chartzoulakis.
et al. 2001
Greece Koroneiki
Benlloch et al.
1994
Spain Arbequina
Benlloch et al.
1994
Spain
Gordal
Sevillana
Spain Nevadillo Spain Hojiblanca
Spain Picual Spain Manzanillo
Spain Oblonga
* note that the most common European varieties grown in the WANA arid and semi-arid zones are moderately to
highly tolerant to salinity.
131 131
7.1.6.2 Effect of saline water on the physiology of olive trees
Many studies have been concerned with the mechanism of salt tolerance which might be responsible
for the control of net salt import to the shoots. Such possible mechanisms are located within the roots
and prevent the accumulation of toxic ions in the shoot by ion exclusion and compartmentation at
the root level, rather than salt absorption (Tattini et al., 1994; Chartzoulakis et al., 2002).
Other studies have shown that salinity increases Na and Cl concentration in the fruit and that the
fruits levels of Cl and K were higher than in the leaves. Potassium addition in saline water reduces
toxic ions in both leaves and fruit and increases K content in the fruit. It also causes an earlier
change of fruit colour from green to dark (Chartzoulakis et al., 2001).
Further, other studies have shown that growth (i.e. shoot length, total leaf area and dry weight)
is inhibited by moderate and high salinity. The extent of growth reduction varies significantly
according to the duration of salt exposure and the variety. The above ground part of the plant is
more affected than that of the root at high salinity. Leaf area is more sensitive than total dry weight
(Chartzoulakis et al., 2001).
Under commercial field conditions all these findings are drastically influenced by the management
of the grove not in terms of changing the trees physiological response but rather (for better or worse)
in adjusting, changing, controlling and managing inputs. Following CAP guidelines effectively can
positively assist olive growers in reducing the negative impacts of saline water on their trees
and the environment as whole while securing their incomes from growing olives. Attempting to
resolve such impacts without adequately addressing their actual causes can result in magnifying
these negative impacts.
7.1.6.3 Potential hazards from using saline water in irrigation and related management
principles
As discussed in the Soil Chapter 3, soluble salts cations with their positive charges bind with soil
particles and tend to be immobile in the soil profile while soluble salt anions with their negative
charges are very mobile. Common cations found in irrigation water include calcium (Ca
++
),
magnesium (Mg
++
), sodium (Na
+
) and potassium (K
+
). Calcium, magnesium and potassium are
usually considered beneficial cations for the olive trees. Sodium is considered a non-beneficial
cation and excess amounts of sodium can destroy soil structure and severely reduce crop production.
Common anions found in irrigation water include bicarbonate (HCO
3
-
), carbonate (CO
3
-
), chloride
(Cl
-
) and sulfate (SO
4
-
). A high chloride content, which is common in well water, can cause many
problems to the soil as well as to the trees tissues.
Growers should appreciate the difference between a toxicity problem and a salinity problem as the
former happens to the plant while the latter happens to the soil. Toxicity occurs within the plant
itself as a result of the uptake and accumulation of certain constituents from the soil solution formed
132 132
in part by the irrigation water and the toxicity may occur even when the salinity is low. The toxic
mineral constituents of real concern are sodium, chloride and boron. On the other hand sodium,
chloride and bicarbonate are the three minerals that contribute most to soil problems of salinity
and alkalinity with sodium resembling a train locomotive that pulls all the other minerals behind
it. Therefore no water high in bicarbonate and chloride will lack high levels of sodium content. In
such a case sodium will combine with chloride forming sodium chloride (NaCl) which is a solid
crystallized material (common table salt) and if cultural management is inadequate, especially with
leaching, build up of this salt will take place causing soil salinization and sealing which put the plant
under stress conditions.
In the same way that table salt is not palatable to humans in large quantities and can cause stomach
aches among other symptoms, the same is true of plants. In order to treat a salt toxicity problem,
its roots must be dealt with first at the soil level. A soluble source of calcium such as gypsum
(calcium sulphate - CaSO
4
) is one of the best ways to improve the condition of salt-affected soils
and therefore in the Egyptian Field Model it is incorporated into the soil with organic compost. It
reacts chemically with sodium chloride forming sodium sulphate which is easily leached.
Drip irrigation has proven to be the
most efficient irrigation system for
utilizing poor quality saline water not
only in irrigating olives but generally
in irrigating orchard trees. Under
this system salt movement in the
soil becomes highly manageable. As
shown in the diagram below, salt will
tend to concentrate at the perimeter
of the soil moisture bulb shape
which is dependant on the type of soil,
flow rate of the dripper and irrigation
management. The location of these salt concentrations is called the salt front. If too much time
passes between irrigation runs or in the event of a clogged dripper which has passed un-noticed
for few days in the hot summer months, the movement of the soil water may reverse itself moving
inwards in the direction of the bulb center carrying with it the high concentration of salt.. In this
case, the reverse water movement is triggered by the dryness imposed on the bulb, which starts at
its perimeter where the salt front is located, creating low osmotic pressure zones and the salts will
move towards the much higher osmotic pressure zones at the bulb centre. This is where most of the
roots exist, with a high concentration of the very sensitive feeder roots. Sometimes the damage to the
trees from such a sudden and heavy exposure to high levels of mineral salts can be irreversible.
133 133
Other than the salt build up below surface, salt will also build up on the surface around the edge of
the wetted area. These salts can be hazardous should a light rain occur especially in heavier soils as
surface concentrations in these soils tend to be higher due to low infiltration rates. Such light rain can
move the salt down into the rhizosphere bulb
and without applying enough water to leach the
salts through and below the root bulb, damage
can occur to the roots. Whenever rain falls,
irrigation should be started immediately and
continued as long as it takes until either enough
rain have fallen or enough irrigation water has
been applied to prevent salt damage.
In arid regions where annual rainfall is
insufficient (< 300 mm) to leach the salt,
frequent leaching from time to time using the
same water, or better water if available, should
be a fundamental grove operation. Growers
irrigating with saline water should appreciate
that leaching can be done as frequently as
every irrigation run or periodically, be it once
a week, once a month or even once every six
months. In fact, it all depends on the water
quality, soil type and properties, existence of
weeds and their type, soil conservation practices, hands-on experience of the grower of his/her
grove among other many factors. For example, soil conservation practices have a great influence
on the procedure of leaching in terms of
water quantity and frequency. A grower who
regularly incorporates soil amendments and
improves soils organic content will need less
leaching water and will also be able to perform
the operation less frequently. The grower must
monitor the trees and the soil closely in order
to plan ahead for the next leaching operation.
One of the tried and tested monitoring methods
is to perform leaf and soil analyses at least
twice per year.
134 134
7.2 Estimating water requirements of olive trees
Water is indispensable for all creatures and in plants it has three main functions. It keeps plants
erect through filling the cells in their tissues, acts as a cooling agent while lost by transpiring from
the leaves to prevent over heating under hot conditions and finally it carries nutrients in solution
from the soil into the plants through their roots.
Despite the scientific knowledge on olive trees water requirements, this has not translated into
irrigation scheduling and the day-to-day
practice in many commercial irrigated
olive groves. Given this knowledge,
olive growers will no doubt more
efficiently schedule and manage the
irrigation of their olive trees once they
more fully understand the relationship
between their olive trees / water / soil /
other surrounding environmental factors.
To schedule their irrigation, growers will
need to obtain data on certain factors
affecting irrigation from the local media,
governmental or extension agencies
or from the nearest meteorological
station. In using this data to calculate how much water their olive trees will require, growers must
understand that such calculations will provide them with first hand approximations of how much
to apply rather than shooting in the dark. Nevertheless they have to monitor the response of their
trees and soils to these approximations and adjust them on daily basis as needed. In the WANA
region evapotranspiration is measured by methods which might vary from one country to the other.
Therefore the different terms necessary for identifying olive trees water requirements and their
irrigation scheduling and management are briefly discussed below:
1. ETref: is a reference value for evapotranspiration which indicates the water losses into
the atmosphere from a certain measured cropped area, under certain climatic conditions.
These losses originate from the wetted soil by evaporation (E) and from the plant tissues by
transpiration (T). ETref values change from one locality to the other and also change during the
hours of the day as they are affected by net solar radiation (light intensity and duration), air
temperature, relative humidity, wind and rain as well as soil type and crop characteristics and
its growth stage. The values obtained are expressed as a depth of water in inch or mm and are
normally averaged for a 24-hour period. For simplicity of irrigation application by farmers
under field conditions, these values are again averaged for a week, a month or a season or
135 135
distinctive periods of crop growth. ETref values are necessary for in-field water issues from
irrigation system design to meeting crop water requirements, to irrigation scheduling and
using water efficiently.
2. ETo: is a reference value indicating an estimate of evapotranspiration (ETref) from a certain
ground surface area covered and completely shaded with an actively growing, tall green grass
of uniform height which is not under water stress (optimally irrigated).
3. ETr: is another type of reference to indicate evapotranspiration (ETref) but it obtains estimates
from full grown alfalfa rather than grass.
4. ETpan: also indicates evapotranspiration (ETref) with a method of estimation that relies on
measuring the evaporation from a U.S. Weather Bureau Class A evaporation pan. This pan,
as much as the sites used for gathering data needed to compute ETp or ETr, has standards for
many different elements like size, color, installation, water depth, water quality, protecting the
pan against birds, rodents and insects, etc.
5. Kc: is a numerical factor referred to as the crop coefficient. This reflects the specific crop
conditions in order to relate its specific water use under optimal conditions which is equivalent
to its evapotranspiration (ETc) to the reference ETref (which can be either obtained as ETo or
ETr or ETpan as the case maybe in the locality of the grove). For example Kc of a certain olive
grove should be a reflection of the trees density (distances between rows and trees in-rows),
trees ground coverage by the shade of their canopies, volume of the trees canopies and their
foliage density, growth stage, vegetation cover if any, age of the trees, and any other factors
which fall under the cultural grove management and can influence the evapotranspiration
rate from this olive grove. Olive Kc is relatively low when compared with other fruit trees
like citrus, avocado, peaches, etc., due to the factors discussed at the very beginning of this
chapter.
ETc (olive crop evapotranspiration) = Kc (olive crop coefficient) x ET (reference)
The Kc used in the above equation must be developed for the reference ETref obtained. A
Kc(olive) developed for use with ETr can not be precisely used with ETo or ETpan unless adjusted.
There is a relative correlation between the different ETref in accordance with the following
table:
Conversion factors for different ETref
ETr ETpan x 1.04* ETpan ETo x 0.8* ETr ETo x 0.83*
*Factors valid for semi-arid moderately windy conditions. For arid windy multiply by 1.1
Due to the multiple variable factors affecting the crop coefficient Kc, it can not be constant all
year round and should be determined for each locality of common conditions. For example:
In southern Morocco olive groves, the variation of the olive Kc throughout the year and its
dependence on vapour pressure deficit (VPD), soil evaporation (rainfall), net radiation, air
temperature, wind speed, clearly indicates the difficulty in proposing a unique (Kc) value
136 136
valid for different locations. Even in a given area, inter-annual variability in rainfall dates and
amount will lead to changes in Kc (S. Er-RAKI et al. 2004). The following Table show some
Kc(olive) values with their relevant conditions.
Olive coefficient Kc(olive) obtained from different literature references
(1)
to calculate evapotranspiration in olive groves ETc(olive)
Reference
Kc(olive) at Seasonal
Growth Stages
Available information about growing conditions
late Mid Initial
Crop evapotranspiration guidelines
for computing crop water
requirements FAO paper 56, pp
113-114
0.70 0.70 0.65
40 to 60 oI the ground covered by the olive trees
canopy;
Trees height 5 7 m
UC Leaflet No. 21427: using
reference evapotranspiration (ETo)
and crop coefficients to estimate
evapotranspiration crop (Etc):
0.58 0.80 0.58
Orgaz and Fereres 1997
Quoted by Fernandez et al. 1999
in Water Use by the Olive Tree.
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.55
0.50
0.50
0.65
0.60
0.55
March
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sep.
Oct.
Nov.
60% of the ground is
covered by mature
olive trees;
Conditions are in Cordoba,
Spain;
Soil evaporation accounted for.
Fernandez et al. 1999
0.60
0.65
0.55
0.50
0.50
0.70
0.65
0.60
March
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sep.
Oct.
34% of the ground is covered by mature
olive trees planted at 7 x 5 m;
Trees irrigated daily by drip line with 5
drippers each of 3 L/hr;
Location in Spain at 37 17` N, 6 3` W
and 30 m above sea level;
Average rainfall is 500 mm;
Calculated (IR) irrigation requirement to
satisfy crop demand was 3,800 m3/ha/yr.
Fernandez and Moreno 1999
A range of 0.45 to
0.70
Mature trees, 60 green coverage, 7x5m
spacing in southwest spain
(1)
In the event Kc(olive) values are not available at the grove locality, growers are advised to use the most relevant
values, given in the Table, to their conditions and monitor results to adjust.
In highly-efficient irrigation systems characterized by localized watering application, particularly
as in drip and mini-sprinkler methods, an efficient and highly active dense root system develops
within a limited wetted soil volume which enables the trees to absorb sufficient water and nutrients.
Through using these micro-irrigation systems, the best vegetative and productive response is highly
achievable when applying a Kc(olive) within the ranges indicated in the above table which should be
corresponding to the ETref obtained in the locality of the grove and the physiological growth stage.
When using systems with less application efficiency than drip irrigation (sprinklers, furrow,
basins, etc), the volumes to be applied should take into consideration losses from run-off and deep
percolation into soil layers.
137 137
7.3 Irrigation scheduling and management in olive groves
This chapter has discussed the influence of soil moisture on fruit development stages and critical
growth periods in general, as well as estimating water requirements of olive trees. This all leads
to the conclusion that in order to maintain the higher olive yields attributable to water availability,
managing irrigation scheduling has to be maintained with the primary objective of: applying the
optimum amount of water at the right time.
This indicates that efficient micro-irrigation
methods must be utilized and properly
managed not only for the benefit of the olive
trees but also to effectively utilize the potential
of these methods in saving the growers effort
and time, energy, water and labour. Scheduling
irrigation carefully will also reduce leaching
of nutrients, manage salinity problems, make
more efficient use of fertilizers and reduces
water-logging potential which is very harmful
to olive trees as it enhances the presence of phytophthora, and alternaria.
The consumptive water use rate mm/day of the olive trees is equal to the quantity of water lost to
evapotranspiration. Nevertheless the amount delivered to the trees by micro-irrigation systems must
be greater in order to compensate for direct losses (eg. wind drift, deep percolation, possible runoff
even if slight), in addition of course to compensating amounts to balance the inequalities in water
distribution all over the grove due to the system efficiency. As in any arid or semi-arid region of the
world which commonly suffer from salinity
and alkalinity problems, in many areas of the
WANA region where olives are grown under
full irrigation, salinity control will necessitate
the application of some additional water to
flush the accumulated salts from the root zone.
When using good quality water, leaching
requirements will be minimal but if the water
is saline, leaching will increase in amount and
in frequency.
7.3.1 Olive grower involvement in scheduling irrigation
It is easy for olive growers applying irrigation not to be aware of the potentially negative impacts
of their practices, not only from a production point of view but also in terms of the on and off-site
138 138
environmental impacts. For them and for new olive irrigators, scheduling irrigation might seem
a complex matter at first, however, with appropriate capacity building they can see that they can
manage their irrigation more effectively by taking the following steps:

Understand some basic soil-water relationships to determine if the soil needs water to nourish
the trees and at what rate the irrigation water should be applied. The most important terms of
the soil-water relationships are: 'saturation`, 'hela capacity`, 'permanent wilting point`,
'gravitational water` and 'plant-available water`; all of which are explained in the schematic
in very simple terms.

Understand how to estimate the water requirements of olive trees as per sub-chapter 7.2 above.

Carefully understand the irrigation guidelines contained in this manual with their relevant
background in order to be capable of applying them effectively.

Dedicate less than an hour almost every day, especially during the periods when the trees are
physiologically active (roughly 6-7 months every season) to perform the necessary monitoring,
record keeping and to perform the management practices that are required, guidelines of which
are discussed at the end of this chapter. Record keeping is an essential key to gaining knowledge,
improving accumulated hands-on experience and appraising problems and finding solutions,
not necessarily traditional ones but creative and innovative ones. Records can be in any form
the grower believes suit his/her requirements and capacity. Records should not be sophisticated
but they must be there in an easily readable and understandable form. This allows the grower to
analyse the results, but also to discuss what they mean with other growers and agronomists.
7.3.2 Principles for estimating olive tree consumptive water use rates
To determine consumptive water use rates and develop a manageable irrigation schedule, this GAP
Guidelines Manual recommends the use of a combination between the following two methods:
a) The water-budget method which is based on calculating the consumptive water
use rate in mm/day (water requirements) of the trees as a function of ETc(olive)
evapotranspiration of olive. As discussed above, this is influenced by factors such
as the crop growth stage, trees density, their age and canopy size, soil vegetation
cover, relevant prevailing weather conditions, among many other factors; and.
b) The soil-water measuring method which monitors the depletion of available water
in the trees root zone.
The reason for recommending the above combination is that the assumptions made in translating the
climatic variables into the value of ETref (ETo, ETr or ETpan) and the experimental conditions under
which the crop coefficient Kcolive are obtained may not exactly match the actual evapotranspiration
under the local field conditions. Again this is influenced by the different management practices
applied. Further, in the WANA region, olive trees are particularly grown in harsh, remote and
139 139
isolated areas where both of the ETref and Kc(olive) values required for estimating the water budget can
sometimes only be obtained from distant locations and thus not necessarily accurate enough to the
grove locality. Therefore the soil-water measuring method should be used to correct any errors
in calculation due to this risk factor. Further, in the event such meteorological and agronomic data
are not available, then the grower will have no option other than using the soil-water measuring
method on its own.
The grower is the key element in planning an irrigation schedule for his/her grove based on their
personal experience and knowledge of the grove particulars. In order to apply the recommended
combination he/she must verify, monitor and be fully acquainted with the following parameters
within the grove:
1. Maximum water-holding capacity of the soil and its current soil moisture content in the
effective root zone. This can be calculated by measurement devices such as tensiometers
or resistance or gypsum blocks which should be installed at different depths in the wetted
volume of the soil under the trees as well as in different soil types if they exist within the grove
boundary. Alternatively it can be calculated by the hand-feel method which is a well known,
wide spread method that has been used
successfully for decades by farmers and
researchers alike. In the WANA region,
the hand-feel method is wide-spread
and preferred as it is very cost effective.
It only requires an auger and a sieve if
the grower wishes to study the roots, in
addition to the growers time. Further
this method is maintenance free and
most growers possess reasonable hands-
on experience of the method.
Another advantage of the hand-feel method is that it keeps the grower in direct close physical
contact with his/her trees and grove soils. Further if the grower uses a 2`` or 3`` diameter
auger in obtaining soil samples for the moisture hand-feel test, the root system of the olive
trees can be evaluated at the same time for density and activity at the different depths where
the soil samples are taken. This way the grower will establish a high level of understanding
of the strong relationship between root behaviour (activity, density, distribution, etc) and soil
moisture. Knowing these data about the roots will also assist in managing and scheduling the
irrigation adequately in addition to monitoring the fertilization nourishment schemes, (refer to
sub-chapter 7.3.5. of this chapter for the measuring procedure of soil moisture content).
140 140
2. Full knowledge of the effective root system depths and development under the specific
conditions of the grove.
3. Full knowledge of the trees water requirements during the different growth stages, in particular
the critical ones, on a timely basis (the shorter the better; daily, weekly and finally and least
effective monthly).
4. Day-to-day weather conditions to accumulate hands-on experience of tracking and/or predicting
the rate of evapotranspiration.
5. Effective rainfall received.
6. Irrigation system efficiency and water application rates through monitoring the water meters
installed in the micro-irrigation system.
7. Accurate data collection about the status of the trees and the olive crop, leaf and soil analyses,
soil and water salinity and water quality.
The main factors discussed above will influence the amount and frequency of the irrigation. Managing
olive irrigation in the deep soils (generally preferred by the olive trees) under the arid and semi-
arid conditions of the WANA region is a challenging venture which requires sensitive handling.
Incorrect irrigation practices can cause heavy metals, salts, and other contaminants to accumulate
in high concentrations on the soil surface, even when using good quality water. Irrigation water
added to the soil normally carries fertigated agrochemicals and even if without agro-chemicals it
still absorbs the minerals which exist naturally in the soil, forming what is known as the nutritional
soil solution. Some of this moves downwards and slightly laterally and some moves upward in
the soil profile by capillary action while the water is lost from the soil surface by evaporation.When
water evaporates, some of these substances are left on the soil surface which may cause crusting or a
reduced water infiltration rate. It may also harm the trees through down leaching to the rhizosphere
with rain or even with poorly managed irrigation.
Proper irrigation scheduling among other agronomic practices such as specific pruning concepts
and methods for olive trees grown under full irrigation should be applied in order to help keeping
the wetted areas under the trees canopies cool and protected against severe evaporation. These
management parameters can conserve water within the soil while minimizing concerns associated
with the upward movement of salts and contaminants and can sustain the cultivable soil profile for
generations to come. Olive growers value not only the production value of their olive trees, but
also managing their land in such a fashion that will allow their children and grandchildren to have
a sustainable future living and working on the land.
7.3.3 Developing an olive irrigation schedule
Based on all of the forgoing principles, the grower can use the following 2 main equations to
calculate the consumptive water use rates of his/her olive trees and the final estimated irrigation
requirements which should be applied, subject to close monitoring:
141 141
* ETc(olive) ETref x CET x Kc(olive) x CG
* IR (ETc(olive) SE x LR) (P + DP + R)
Where:
evapotranspiration of the olive tree = its consumptive water use rate mm/day ETc(olive) :
historical evapotranspiration rate obtained at the grove locality or nearby similar
conditions (could be either ETo, ETr or ETpan as recorded)
ETref :
conversion factor for different ETref : CET :
ETpan ETo x 0.8*
ETo ETr x 1.2*
ETr = ETo x 0.83*
ETr ETpan x 1.04* ETo ETpan x 1.25*
*Factors for semi-arid moderately windy conditions. For arid windy multiply by 1.1
olive crop coefficient computed for optimal conditions in a certain locality Kc(olive)
canopy cover correction factor for Kc(olive) to correlate the grove conditions to
the conditions of Kc(olive) obtained. A percentage calculated as double the actual
area covered by the canopies of the olive tree to a unit area of one hectare. For
example, this factor for cases A. & B. indicated below can be computed as
follows:
A. 2 x 28.26 (m
2
/tree) x 70 (trees/ha) 10,000 (m
2
/ha) x 100 = 0.40
B. 2 x 17.71 (m
2
/tree) x 278 (trees/ha) 10,000 (m
2
/ha) x 100 = 0.98
CG
irrigation requirement in mm/day or m
3
/hectare or litre/tree IR
irrigation system operational efficiency to balance system dissimilarities SE
effective rainwater precipitation (gain) in mm/day P
deep percolation (losses) in mm/day DP*
run-off (losses) in mm/day R*
leaching requirement factor in case of using saline water. LR value depends on
the quality of water. Normally ranges between 10% to 30% additional water of
IR (i.e. factor normally ranges between 1.1 and 1.30). Refer to sub-chapter 7.3.4
for equation and calculation
LR
* Under good micro-irrigation management, these losses are almost eliminated and therefore are
not accounted for in irrigation budgeting. In traditional irrigation methods where these losses can
be significant they must be accounted for.
The following table simplifies performing calculations by the growers and at the same time the
indicated 7 examples below show clearly how a change in a single parameter can make a big
difference in the amount of irrigation water required:
A) The olive grove is in a semi-arid area of the WANA region. The trees of the olive
grove are mature but widely spaced at 12 x 12 m (70 trees/ha) as they were originally
planted as rain-fed. They have large canopies of 6 m diameter (coverage of: D
2
x
4 = 6
2
x 3.14 4 = 28.26 m
2
per tree, totalling only 20% of the ground surface per
hectare due to large spacing). The irrigation system applied is a highly managed drip
irrigation system with 90% coefficient with negligible losses from run-off and deep
percolation. Obtained ETref is ETr of 5 mm/day and the obtained Kc(olive) for the same
period is 0.6 calculated in reflection to ETo and not ETr.
142 142
B) Same case and parameters of A. above except precipitation of 1.5 mm rainfall during
that day.
C) Same case and parameters of B. above but in another location at the same time with
few differences namely: intensive planting of 6 x 6 m (278 trees/ha), 4.75 m diameter
(17.71 m2 per tree) with total canopy ground coverage of 49.2%. Obtained ETref is ETo
not ETr of 5 mm/day. Rainfall precipitation on that day is 2 mm.
D) Same as C. above but no rain.
E) Same as D. above but the micro system is mini-sprinkler (efficiency of 75%).
F) Same as E. above but ETo is 7 mm/day and Kc(olive) is 0.55.
G) Same as F. above but the micro system is mini-sprinkler (efficiency of 75%).
H) Same as G. above but the mini-sprinkler system is not properly maintained and is aged
with worn out sprinklers nozzles and worn out pump impeller causing a reduction in
the operation efficiency down to 65%.
To calculate the irrigation time (run duration) for Case D using drippers and case E using mini-
sprinklers with all other conditions being the same as an example assuming case D is using 4
drippers each of 8 litres/hour per tree (total of 32 litres/hour) and case E is using one sprinkler of
100 liters/hour per tree, then the following equation can be applied:
143 143
IT = IR D
IT : irrigation time in hours
IR : irrigation requirement in litre/day
D : discharge rate of the irrigation orifice (dripper or sprinkler) in litre/hour
Case D. drippers :IT = 117.5 32 = 3.67 hours = 3 hours and 40 minutes (approximately)
Case E. sprinklers :IT = 141.0 100 = 1.41 hours = 1 hour and 25 minutes (approximately)
Now that the irrigation requirement of the olive trees in a certain grove (case D of the table above)
has been calculated by the grower and the appropriate irrigation duration has been also calculated to
the best approximation possible using the simplest available equations, the grower has to decide on
how frequently to irrigate. For example for the daily requirement of 117.50 L/t/d of case D above,
some growers would apply an amount of 235 litres every second day rather than 117.50 litres every
day. While the total amount of water applied averages out over the two days, GAP would counsel
against it in the WANA region. This is because if the trees are grown in shallow soils, excess
water might cause water-logging, and if they are grown on deep soils, which is often the case in
the WANA region, nutrient leaching, deep water percolation losses and consequently energy losses
will be inevitable. The end result will be less production efficiency and a greater impact on the
environment.
In almost all types of soils in which olive trees thrive, frequent irrigation becomes essential. Due
to the very limited water holding capacity of these deep soils making an irrigation schedule is also
essential. On the other hand longer intervals of irrigation will result in water stressing and yield
reduction. Not utilising micro-irrigation methods to their full potential both to the advantage of the
grower as well as the trees is also considered a loss of return on invested capital. These methods are
the most economically and agronomically viable methods as they can be operated frequently to both
the benefit of the grower and the trees.
In a further refinement on case D above, some smart and dedicated growers would split the 117.50
L/t/day on two irrigation runs during the day with the main purpose of each run being to replenish
the water used by the olive tree evapotranspiration ETc(olive) in the few hours since the last irrigation.
The 3 hours 40 minutes can be applied as 2 hours during the night with 64 liters/tree and 1 hour 40
minutes during the day with 53.50 litres/tree to replenish the tree water reservoir and inspect the
system operability during day light hours.
Splitting daily irrigation is an art in itself influenced by the way each grower manages his/her grove.
This method assists viability and is rewarding as well, since the best growth response to irrigation
144 144
is generally achieved when the
soil water is maintained slightly
below the field capacity.
Further, running the system for
shorter intervals will prolong
its service life. As a rule of
thumb, it is recommended that
irrigation be applied when the
soil moisture content reaches
60-80% of the field capacity (i.e.
40-20% deficit) in the common
WANA soils used for growing
olive trees. Splitting the daily
irrigation requirement will
facilitate this as there will be no
run-off during the irrigation run
and at its conclusion the root
zone will not be completely
saturated. Further, the water
will not leach below this zone
by deep percolation. This
irrigation strategy is highly
adaptable to drip methods
under effective management
but it can not be achieved with
sprinkler irrigation even under
skilful management unless the water amount is increased in each irrigation run to secure proper
flow into the rhizosphere.
It is also highly recommended to apply more frequent and light water application at the 1
st
and 2
nd
stages of the physiological development as per the schematic graph in sub-chapter 7.1.3.
In regions characterized by high evaporative demand, more frequent watering must be applied.
Examples for this are the inner planes of Cyprus, Egypt, Morocco, Syria and Tunisia where the ETref
and consequently ETc(olive) will be considerably much higher than the coastal plains.
145 145
7.3.4 Estimating leaching requirement for saline water
In the event the water used for irrigation is saline, then leaching becomes a necessity. Pure water
does not conduct electricity, but water containing dissolved solids does. Electrical conductivity of
water (ECw) is used to estimate the total dissolved solids (TDS) in water samples. ECw is expressed
in decisiemens per metre (dS/m).
To avoid salt accumulation in the long run and for general soil sustainability, olive growers should
consider frequent leaching when using water with higher than 3.9 dS/m (2500 ppm TDS) even if the
trees do not show signs of salinity stress or toxicity. In this case leaching will be intended to sustain
the health of the cultivable profile of the soil.
Calculating leaching requirements precisely can be complicated and at times beyond the average
growers capacity. We therefore suggest the following simple equation which can be applied by
almost any grower to approximate leaching requirements subject to close monitoring:
LR = ECw (5 x ECe crop tolerance factor ECw) x 100
The ECe for olives ranges from 3 up to 6 dS/m. To be on the safe side, a rough value of 5 dS/m can
be used in the above equation for a start until field verifications are performed. The equation can be
further simplified to:
LR = ECw (25 ECw) x 100
Assuming the salinity of the water used in case D of sub-chapter 7.3.3 is 3.9 dS/m then the leaching
requirement LR = 3.9 (25 3.9) x 100 = 18.5 % and the total water requirement = 1.185 x 117.5
= 139.24 L/t/d
7.3.5 Procedure for monitoring and measuring soil moisture content

As a starting point for tensiometer installation or other soil moisture measuring devices, their
mode of operation, obtaining readings and maintenance, the manufacturers manual should be
followed.

For the hand-feel method, growers should follow the following procedures:
* Use an auger to get a soil sample from the different depths within the root zone (preferably at
20 30 cm intervals for olives);
* Squeeze the soil in the palm of the hand to form a ball this can be used to determine a fairly
accurate estimate of soil moisture; and
* Bounce the ball three times lightly in the palm of your hand;
* The relative soil moisture can be determined for the different soils by using the Table next
page.
146 146
Guide for evaluating outcomes of hand-feel test for soil moisture
Judging Appearance Available water to
field capacity
Clay loam/clay Loam/silt loam Sandy loam Sand
Leaves free water
on ball surface and
hand palm when
squeezed.
Free water can be
squeezed out.
Free water is
released with
kneading.
Free water appears
when soil is
bounced in hand.
Above field capacity
Appears very dark.
Free water appears
on the ball surface
when squeezed. Wet
trace of ball is seen
as well on hand.
Will ribbon about 2
inches.
Appears very dark.
Free water appears
on the ball surface
when squeezed. Wet
trace of ball is seen
as well on hand.
Will ribbon roughly
1 inch.
Appears very dark.
No free water
appears on the
ball surface when
squeezed. Wet trace
of ball is seen on
hand. Makes short
ribbon.
No free water
appears when
squeezing the ball,
but wet trace of the
ball is seen on hand.
100%
Dark colour. Easily
ribbons out between
fingers, has slick
feeling.
Dark colour.
Forms a ball, is
very pliable, slicks
readily if high in
clay.
Quite dark, forms
weak ball, breaks
easily. Will not
stick.
Tends to stick
together slightly.
Sometimes forms
a weak ball with
pressure.
75 - 100%
Fairly dark. Forms
a ball, ribbons out
between thumb and
forefinger.
Fairly dark.
Forms a ball,
somewhat plastic,
will sometimes
slick slightly with
pressure.
Fairly dark. Tends
to ball with pressure
but seldom holds
together.
Appears to be dry,
will not form a ball
with pressure.
50 - 75%
Slightly dark.
Somewhat pliable,
will ball under
pressure.
Light colour.
Somewhat crumbly,
but holds together
with pressure.
Light coloured.
Appears to be dry,
will not form ball.
Appears to be dry,
will not form a ball
with pressure
25 - 50%
Hard, baked,
cracked sometimes
has loose crumbs on
surface
Dry and sometimes
slightly crusted,
forms a week ball
but easily broken
down into powdery
condition
Dry, loose, flows
through the fingers
Very dry, loose, hard
to hold and flows
between the fingers
0 -25%
7.4 The importance of integrated management and GAP Guidelines when irrigating olive trees
Based on earlier discussions in this chapter, olive yields will exhibit an economic increase to rational
water availability, either in fully irrigated groves or when supplementary irrigation is applied for
rain fed trees at specific critical growth stages. This is especially so during dry periods. On the
other hand irrigation can be associated with some potential problems as it provides a favourable
environment for diseases, pests and weeds, which might have never grown in these habitats until
water was harvested by dikes and dams or used intensively by man. Further irrigation might cause
potential nutrients leaching and accumulation of harmful salts.
Growers should not think that irrigation alone will increase their returns. We must exert greater
management skills and inputs in the form of monitoring soil conditions, better fertility management,
improved pests and weed control, timely identification of disease problems, applying practices
to improve water-use efficiency to save water and reduce the cost of power consumption. Above
147 147
all growers should keep records of all grove
activities. Under irrigation, cooperation with
others as well as obtaining information from
different sources, permits or right of way from
governmental authorities, public sources or
from fellow growers become more critical.
In short, irrigation requires totally different
agronomic approaches in management and can
introduce huge socio-economic impacts into
traditional olive growing communities some
positive, some potentially negative.
Full irrigation of olive trees allows
intensification of the number of trees up to
400-600 trees/ha. This can be compared to
18 trees/ha in southern Tunisia, for example,
where rainfall is < 200 mm, or 100 - 160 trees/
ha where average rainfall is 500 mm and
therefore irrigation does not only influence the
cultural practices for managing pests, weeds,
diseases and fertilization but it induces new
practices such as fertigation, chemigation and
fully mechanized harvesting. It also influences
other cultural practices such as cultivation and pruning for example, all of which should follow
GAP Guidelines for maximum benefits at least environmental cost.
Under irrigation, trees vigour and consequently architecture will be different than those under
dry-farming and pruning practices must favour light interception into the canopy surface of the
intensively planted olive trees. The Egyptian Field Model discussed earlier under sub-chapter
6.1.6.1 indicates a possible negative relationship between saline water and shading in high density
olive groves. Incorrect or irrational pruning under such conditions will result in excessive vegetation
growth on account of fruiting and can cause much worse alternate bearing than under rain-fed
conditions. For all the foregoing, high level of management is crucial for maximum profitability
and optimum tree condition in irrigated groves.
Improvement of water use efficiency in irrigated olive groves aims at reducing losses from the
system (i.e. evaporation, deep percolation leaching and runoff) and at the same time increasing
the effectiveness of stored soil moisture and improving yields. It also aims to increase vegetative
growth rates through meeting critical water demands and reducing crop evapotranspiration during
non-critical periods with controlled deficit irrigation (CDI) or regulated deficit irrigation (RDI).
Either system relies on interrupting the supply of water or reducing it except when in critical demand
148 148
at the physiological stages discussed earlier, most critical of which is just before flowering and at
stone hardening. Goldhamer (1997) found that with RDI applied on mature Manzanilla trees, a
saving of 20.5% equivalent to 185 mm of ETc 900 mm of the control maintained top yields and
quality. Similar findings were also found by Pastor and Orgaz (1994).
7.5 The most viable irrigation systems for olive groves in the WANA region
The integration of proper irrigation systems with growers awareness through GAP Guidelines is
an essential tool in economically managing irrigated olive groves in order to make a better profit
margin (compared to dry-farming). This needs to take into account the fact that growers would
first need to recover the invested capital of the irrigation system and associated operational and
production costs. The following sub-chapters will briefly discuss the different irrigation systems
which can be adapted in the region.
7.5.1 Drawbacks of traditional irrigation systems under the WANA conditions
As we know, water is scarce in the WANA region countries and costly facilities are required to
store it, especially where olive trees are grown or can potentially be grown. This GAP Guidelines
Manual therefore does not recommend the use of traditional surface irrigation methods (basins,
furrows, borders, etc.) in irrigating olive groves, due to their many drawbacks; the main of which
are outlined below:

High evaporation losses and deep percolation leaching causing high potential of water tables to
rise;

Drainage system might be required in many instances;

Not suitable for deficit irrigation;

Very low automation potential;

Low water application efficiencies, not exceeding 50% even under good management;

Improving water application efficiency requires land levelling which is costly under conditions
of small land holdings and land fragmentation. Furthermore levelling might result in infertile
sub-soil appearing on the soil surface;

Not suitable for steep slopes, poorly drained soils, soils with high infiltration rates, or soils with
a highly non-uniform structure which are vulnerable to erosion;

Not suitable when small rates of water flow are available as these systems require high discharge
rates to apply water uniformly in the field;

Not suitable for effectively meeting water demands at critical physiological stages;

Time consuming for management and labour alike and therefore application costs increase
considerably; and

Not environmentally friendly as it moves nutrients and agro-chemicals to water bodies and can
cause silting of such sources.
149 149
7.5.2 Modern localized water saving irrigation systems for olive groves in the WANA region
From previous discussions in almost all of the forgoing sub-chapters, it is quite clear that the most
practical and economically viable system for irrigating olive groves is the use of modern micro-
irrigation methods which utilize drippers or mini-sprinklers. These systems provide a low-volume,
low pressure form of irrigation that will save water and pumping energy through applying the water
slowly and frequently in controlled quantities to each individual plant root zone, with better water
distribution uniformity. Using these irrigation systems result in uniform growth, healthier trees and
better yields. A quality micro-irrigation system should not only achieve these objectives but as also
assist in conserving, sustaining and protecting water resources from pollution.
Olive growers must develop an in-depth understanding of these benefits as well as the limitations
of micro-irrigation systems in order for them to successfully manage, operate and maintain these
systems to their maximum design potential. The advantages of micro-irrigation can be summarized
as follows:

Significant water saving because conveyance and runoff losses are almost eliminated, deep
percolation is minimized and the wetted soil surface area is restricted greatly reducing evaporation
losses;

Application efficiencies are much higher than those of surface irrigation. These can be achieved
in a range of 70 to 90% depending on the design, installation, maintenance, water quality and
quality management;

Provides a high water distribution uniformity;

Great flexibility in applying water, facilitating accurate irrigation scheduling;

Increased yields whereas the root-zone remains continuously moist due to the possibility of
frequent operation. Therefore the plant is not subjected to stress cycles;

Fertilizers can be applied with the irrigation water (fertigation), exactly when and where they are
needed by the plant;

The area between plant rows of trees remains free and dry enabling different practices such as
spraying and harvesting to be conducted even during water application;

Utilization of steeper slopes and problematic soils otherwise unsuitable for irrigation with the
conventional methods of irrigation;

Poor quality saline water can be utilized especially with drip irrigation methods, because
adequately managed frequent irrigations and adequate dosing at the correct point of application
will allow for maintaining high moisture in the soil. This ensures the salt being added with the
irrigation water is diluted maintaining the soil water salinity (SWS) lower than the irrigation
water salinity (IWS) within the rhizosphere at all times;

Strong potential to reduce harmful effects of high temperatures;

Operate effectively with limited flow rates at relatively low-pressure head; 1 bar for drippers
150 150
and 2 bars with mini-sprinklers. This means savings in the cost of pumps, fittings, lines and
energy;

Reduced weed growth potential; and

Requires limited labour. The system can be automated using automatic metering valves, electronic
tensiometers, time switches, computers, etc.
With all the advantages listed above, any micro-irrigation system can not claim to be problem-free.
The main drawbacks of using these systems are:

Cost: relatively high initial capital investment is required for acquisition and installation.
Operating and maintenance costs can be slightly higher or lower than traditional irrigation
systems depending on the local conditions of each grove.

Blockages: may occur at water discharge orifices from single or multiple factors; some of which
are physical such as the load of suspended colloidal clays, silts, sand and other materials passing
through filters or broken pipes or even sometimes sucked into drippers orifices when a vacuum
develops accidentally in poorly designed irrigation networks. Other physical factors include
root intrusion or insects nesting inside discharge orifices. Chemical factors of blockages include
build-up of carbonates and iron oxides, and precipitates from agrochemical injections. Biological
factors include algae, aquatic weeds, fungi, bacteria and slimes. The clogging problem can be
prevented through careful attention to the types of fertilizers used in fertigation, routine flushing
of the piping system and installing and operating adequate filtration, and chemigation systems.

Drought sensitivity: the dense mass of roots developed in a restricted volume of the soil as
a result of constant favourable moisture and aeration conditions make the olive trees drought
sensitive in case of any emergency; be it water shortage or pumping failure especially when it
happens during critical water demand stages associated with a heavy crop (M. El-kholy, personal
observations).

Management skills: should be very high to schedule, operate and maintain the system. Although
these systems are suitable for use with poor quality saline water, inadequate management can
cause salts buildups to harmful levels not only for the current crop but also for future crops.

Damage potential: rodents, foxes and rabbits can damage laterals by chewing holes into them
to drink or to sharpen their teeth. Ants and spiders sometimes use discharge orifices for housing
especially if the system is idle for prolonged periods of time. Certain components of the system
can be also damaged by persons unaware of their locations.

Obsolete materials: can be very harmful to the environment (being manufactured mainly from
hydrocarbon sources) if not disposed of correctly, carefully and in a friendly way. Most of these
materials can be recycled but the pollution problems can be induced from either ignorance or
reluctance in correct handling like burning or simply disposing of in uninhabited areas where it
will deteriorate but will not degrade.
151 151
7.5.3 Other water saving methods suitable for irrigating olives in the WANA region
The following water saving method used in Syria could be very well adapted in other countries
of the WANA region where water resources are very scarce. The method is shown next to the text
and the following paragraph is cited from Tubeileh, A et al, 2004. Growing Olives and Other Tree
Species in Marginal Dry Environments. An (ICARDA) Publication.
'Subsurface insert irrigation is a simple
way of improving water-use efhciency.
Water is suppliea by a hose (left) or pipe
network (right) to 4- or 5-inch-aiameter
plastic tubes placea vertically in the soil. To
ensure gooa water aistribution in the root
:one, a gravel pocket is placea at a aepth of
40 to 70 cm, at the lower ena of the tubes, in
a circle or crescent arouna the tree, either
at establishment or later on. This methoa
conveys water to where it is neeaea, ana
therefore avoias losses through evaporation from the soil surface.`
7.6 Factors influencing selection of micro-irrigation systems for olive groves
Before launching a micro-irrigation venture for an olive grove, the grower should initially investigate
the long-term potential of water availability. When this water is supplied from an aquifer, the
depth from which the water will be pumped must be known. For micro-irrigation systems to be
sustainable, investigations should also extend to cover needed permits, capital and operating
financing requirements, energy sources, energy prices and availability of knowledgeable labour
capable of performing the practices induced or influenced by micro-irrigation.
7.6.1 Features of the two main types of
micro-irrigation systems
The main hardware components of either
mini-sprinkler or dripper systems are almost
similar and include the following common
items:

Pumps;

Water filtration equipment media (gravel
/ sand), disk or screen according to the
water quality and source;
152 152

Anti-siphoning equipment to prevent
backflow of agrochemicals;

Air venting and vacuum valves to release
entrapped air and prevent vacuum action
inside the piping network;

Pressure relief valves to protect the
irrigation network and prevent bursting;

Check valves to ensure one way flow
in certain piping and to protect pumps
against backflow;

Throttling valves according to the design
of the fertigation unit;

Block valves as an off-on for segregation of irrigation blocks (plots). If the system is automated
these valves should have a solenoid for automatic off-on control;

Isolation valves to isolate sections of the network in case of accidental breakage or for maintenance
and repairs;

Flushing valves at the ends of piping work (main and sub-main lines), low points and filtering
stations. End of laterals should be also provided with flushing valves or with end stops, which
are cheaper than valves, to save capital cost;

Flow meters;

Fertigation equipment: agitators, dosing pumps or venturi or other types of chemical injection
and ancillary tanks, platforms, hoses, etc;

Ancillaries such as pressure gauges, temperature sensors, small outlet valves for different filling
purposes, etc; and

Mainlines, sub-mains and finally laterals to which the final components (either drippers or mini-
sprinklers) are connected.
The size and number of each of the above components is influenced by the selected system. All
components for mini-sprinkler systems are much larger to cope with the higher flow rates and
higher pressures required to operate the system. The numbers of certain components such as block
valves will increase at least 3 to 4 fold.
The following table gives a brief comparison between drip and mini-sprinkler irrigation systems
so that growers can correlate their local conditions and circumstances to the system features for
adequate selection.
153 153
Mini-sprinklers
(B)
Dripper
(A)
System features
Less efficient Very efficient Evaporation losses
Possible although at reduced rates
pending soil type due to much higher
water application rate
Almost negligible unless on heavy
soils (clay) associated with poor
management practices
Run-off losses
2 bar at the nozzle / 3 bars at the
system head to compensate for losses
1 bar at the nozzle / 2 bars at the
system head to compensate for
friction losses
Operating pressures
70-80% on average Can reach 80-90% under good
management
Application efficiency
Normally longer and controlling soil-
water content is not as effective as
drippers
Very frequent which is excellent in
keeping soil-water content at the
preferable level of 70-90% of field
capacity
Irrigation cycle rotation
Must be shorter to avoid excessive
water amounts on wetted area
Long due to low discharge rates Irrigation duration (run time each
cycle)
Fair due to longer cycles and shorter
duration, unless more pumps are
installed to meet periodical high
demands
Excellent due to short cycles, more
frequent irrigations and larger grove
areas covered in a single irrigation
run
Meeting the physiological demand of
trees for water
In certain situations can cause necrosis
or algae growth. Rectified by using 2
half circle sprinklers.
No harm unless dripping on the trunk,
especially if the water is saline
Trunk wetting
Much larger Relatively small Coverage wetted area
Resembles rain-fed in distribution
but denser. Not recommended in very
light sandy soil with low holding
capacity as roots become superficially
shallow to the degree the trees might
be blown by wind
Induces deeper & excessively dense
root system which is confined to
relatively small volume of soil.
Therefore very suitable for super high
density groves
Root system
Failure to function as well as operation
are easily detected
Needs close attention as water flow
can not be easily seen
Inspection for function
Promote Discourage Potential weed growth
May obstruct spraying action No effect Weeds effect on function
Much smaller Large Irrigated area with same energy
consumption
Much lower Very high Ability to irrigate many trees per
single valve
High Relatively low Energy requirements
High: higher discharge/pressure
pumps, larger size main, sub-main
and laterals. Sprinklers are generally
expensive
Moderate: smaller pumps and piping.
Emitters cost is cheap even with
increased numbers per tree
Components costs
Moderate Moderate Installation cost
Moderate High Filtration requirements & cost
High Relatively lower Overall capital cost
High on energy consumption due
to larger pumps. High on replacing
damaged sprinklers
High on filtration and flushing with
chlorination and acids and replacing
clogged drippers
Operability / maintenance costs
Not suitable for trees trained with low
skirt (crotch)
Highly adaptable especially for high
and super high density
Adaptability to tree shapes
154 154
Less suitable and if water is limited it
might not be suitable
Suitable Suitability to low quantities of
available water
Not suitable: will cause surface build
up of salts
Very suitable Suitability for high saline water
Suitable with higher application at
the beginning to leach salts
Not suitable unless soils are pre-
treated and salts are leached
Suitability for saline soil
Water might be drifted away from the
original wetted areas of roots
Very suitable Suitability for irrigation in windy
conditions
Very good on slopes and hilly areas
Less suitable for deep sandy soils
with poor water holding capacity
(refer to roots system above)
Excellent. In deep sandy soils, the
number of low discharge drippers
must be increased.
Suitability for all types of soil
Fair: time to inject and flush may
exceed the optimal irrigation length.
Potential damage to foliage
Excellent Fertigation
Minimized if laterals are buried but
spaghetti tubing and sprinkler remain
vulnerable, ants may still use the
nozzles for housing
Minimized if laterals are buried,
nevertheless drippers remain
vulnerable for ants and roots
intrusion
Attack by rodents, rabbits, foxes and
ants
Possible especially during harvesting
and vegetation slashing
Very rare Physical damage
Low to medium Medium to high Labour requirements
Moderate High Management skills
Easy Very easy Automation potential
Very good Vulnerable: good filtration and
frequent dosing with acids and
inspection eliminate problems
Clogging (refer to the following two
features)
Not suitable for water high in sodium,
bicarbonates & chlorides due to
potential damage to foliage
pH of water high in Ca, Mg, Fe &
HC0
3
should be acidified down to 6
-6.5 to prevent precipitates
(1)
Adaptability to chemical composition
of water
Tolerant Restricted Adaptability to biological burden of
surface water
Refer to maintenance management of micro-irrigation system sub-chapters
7.7.5, 7.7.6, and 7.7.7
(1)
Calcium precipitates are white; iron oxides are reddish-brown whereas manganese oxides and iron sulphides are
dark-blackish coloured materials.
(A)
More features of drippers:
Different types of drippers are available on the market; vortex type, labyrinth type, long path
micro-tube drippers, self-regulated drippers,
etc. The flow rate of the individual nozzle
ranges normally between 2 and 10 L/h while
some come with higher discharge at the
recommended operational pressure, which is
usually 1 bar. When a drip system is used in
irrigating young olive trees, only one lateral
will be needed until the trees develop and
demand more water. Then two lateral lines
with more drippers are usually installed per
155 155
tree-row. The other option is to provide the lateral with a T-piece at the tree location and connect
a new lateral to form a ring loop around each tree. Drippers with a low discharge rate are installed
close together on the ring loop when irrigating trees in light, deep, sandy soils characterized with
poor water holding capacity. The spacing between drippers becomes increasingly wider the heavier
(clay) the soil becomes. The dripper discharge should take into account the soil characteristics to
avoid water logging in heavy soils or deep percolation losses in deep soils.
Self-regulated drippers are available which have a constant flow under a wide range of pressures.
They are used in hilly areas and sloping landscapes. However, they exhibit great variation in flow
and the rubber o-ring built into the dripper to regulate the openings of the nozzles deteriorates
rapidly with time. Drippers with larger nozzle openings are preferred, because they are not as easily
blocked by impurities in the irrigation water and therefore they require less complicated and less
expensive filtration systems. These drippers are also characterized by higher uniformity in flow.
Labyrinth type drippers are therefore preferred to orifice-type drippers.
(B)
More features of mini-sprinklers:
Different types are available on the market. Their flow rate at 2 bar operational pressure ranges
between a minimum of 30 and a maximum of 150 L/h with a corresponding wetted area between 2
and 6 m in diameter. During the first years of tree growth mini-sprinklers with the least flow and the
least wetting diameter are recommended to avoid excessive weed growth and water wastage . With
tree growth, the orifice of the nozzle is changed to increase the flow and the wetted area. Finally,
at full tree development, the 150 L/h orifice is installed, which wets an area of 5-6 m in diameter.
Recently, nozzles of up to 250 L/h were manufactured but their use is not recommended, because
tree performance is not further improved and the installation cost is higher. Nozzles wetting a full
circle, half-circle or quarter-circle are also available. The part circle nozzles are used in cases where
wetting the trunk would lead to disease attack.
7.6.2 Blockage (clogging) in micro-irrigation systems
Although this problem has been briefly discussed in the sub-chapter above, as it can be the most
serious constraint to the long-term and effective operation of any micro-irrigation system, this
sub-chapter provides greater detail. This is so that when the GAP Guidelines for operating and
maintaining micro-irrigation systems are presented at the end of the chapter, growers will have
enough background knowledge to apply these Guidelines. The following points represent the most
important parameters of this problem:

Filtration systems will not remove all suspended materials from the water. Agricultural filters also
do not usually eliminate many types of algae which are too small to be filtered, as well as remove
clay, silt, and some very fine sand sized particles. Organic growths in pipelines, especially bacteria,
create a clogging hazard for both drippers and sprinklers with varying degrees of intensity. At
156 156
the same time they provide the glue that sticks fine particles together. The fine size particles
of clay, silt and sand will become a problem even in the absence of a gluing agent when they
flocculate into clumps inside the system.

Chemical precipitates provide another type of clogging potential and they can occur in micro-
irrigation systems from the chemical composition of the water as well as from fertilizers applied
through fertigation. Precipitation rates depend on the water quality, type of agro-chemicals used,
temperature, pressure, and exposure to oxygen among other factors.

The clogging potential to the water discharging orifices normally take place at the end of laterals more
than any other locations in the irrigation network. This is simply because while the water flow velocity
is high throughout the whole length of mains and sub-mains, it slows down in the laterals, especially at
the end where they are no longer sufficiently wide to carry clumps or precipitates any further.

The negative impacts of these clogging agents can be minimized or even eliminated when applying
GAP Guidelines which deal with filtration, flushing, chlorination and adequate management of
agro-chemical fertigation. The four methods mentioned above are integrated and must be applied
within an overall clogging prevention and reduction management programme.

Chlorine injection is the most common and least expensive method to prevent clogging by
biological growth (algae, colonial protozoa, sulphur bacteria, and other clogging-causing
organisms). Iron and manganese precipitating bacteria can be controlled by chlorine treatments,
aeration or polyphosphates.

The quality of the water can change at any time, requiring changes in the flushing frequency
and / or procedure. For example if large amounts of debris are discharged more frequently, more
frequent flushing should be considered among other actions. Water from wells can sometimes
vary from the original design data and carry finer particles than the installed screen filter can
handle. If this is identified promptly, the filter mesh can be changed and the number of filters
increased in order to compensate for the smaller sized mesh and thus avoid any consequential
flow restrictions.

Due to the limited water resources in the WANA region, many of the irrigated olive groves use
irrigation only as supplementary to rainfall. This mode of operation normally results in micro-
irrigation systems being idle for weeks or even months during the rainy season or during other
periods when water at the source is scarce. This situation encourages the build up of all sorts
of plugging debris inside the system especially under hot and humid climate conditions, which
is prevalent in many WANA countries, and which encourages bacterial and algal growth in
pipelines.
7.7 Irrigation GAP Guidelines for olive groves
These Guidelines are designed to help olive growers in the WANA region who are irrigating their
olives to avoid wasting time in unnecessary irrigation and to rationalize their water and pumping
157 157
energy consumption to reduce production costs, while maximizing yields and improving the fruit
quality. When applying these Guidelines, these objectives will go side-by-side with reducing
environmental pollution impacts from irrigating olives such as preventing soil salinization, altering
water resource quality, eliminating nutrient leaching, and reducing the amount of vegetation water
produced during oil extraction through rational irrigation to reduce fruit water content. These
guidelines intend to fill the gap of comprehensive practical guidelines, lack of knowledge, or lack
of hands-on experience in water and irrigation management in olive groves.
7.7.1 Design objectives of micro-irrigation systems
A well-design of a micro-irrigation system is essential for efficient and uniform distribution of water
as well as for long-term smooth operation.
Good design will achieve the following basic
objectives:

Sustain water resources through maximum
crop profitability at the most effective water
usage;

Select the appropriate equipment and
components which are of high quality
at competitive cost and which will be
suitable for long operating times under site
conditions and design requirements. To
specify the correct materials, water quality
and characteristics of all agro-chemicals which will be injected through the system should be
analysed;

Maximize standardization of components to reduce spare and repair stocks which must be kept
in the grove storehouse;

Facilitate ease of installation, operation, flushing, repair and maintenance as well as minimize
installation and maintenance difficulties and costs;

Attain a high degree of flexibility to adjust to trees increasing water requirements from juvenility
to maturity and full cropping;

Ensure maximum possible uniformity in water distribution, pressure, and flow.

The system should be environmentally friendly and non-polluting;

Produce a list of materials which specifies the size and type of equipment to be used. The list is a
crucial tool in managing the irrigation system in the future and ordering spare or repair stocks;

Provide the grower with an operating manual which should include as a minimum mode of
operation, flushing procedure to ensure enough flow velocity inside the piping during flushing
and calibration test procedures; and

Include provision for future expansion in the grove area as planned by the grower.
158 158
7.7.2 Guidelines for the design criteria of micro-irrigation systems
The minimum specific considerations and criteria which the design should be based upon include:

Field data collected from the grove or from the grower or other third parties as the case may be:
* Land survey to plot the size of the grove area and its shape, distance from the water source,
topography and contour lines to show elevation variations and the orientation of the grove,
and its altitude.
* Water quantity and quality (total dissolved salts and iron content) as well as contingencies in
the availability of the water source.
* If the water source is a well, any available information about the aquifer should be collected
from the relevant authorities. Further, the drilling contractor should run a well performance
pumping test upon drilling completion to provide all information about the static water
level before and after the pumping test. They should also provide a range of pumping flow
rates and their corresponding draw-downs, and details of the bearing formation cores with
recommendations for the maximum allowable safe discharge and pressure at the well head.
* If the water source is surface, its biological and contamination levels must be known.
* If the TDS of the water is high, the maximum design daily water needs must be increased
to cater for leaching requirements according to the level of salinity and the irrigation system
proposed.
* Density of the trees and spacing.
* Soil infiltration rate and its variation throughout the property.
* The peak ground temperature at the burial depth for main and sub-main lines. Temperature is
one of the parameters which affect the selection of the pipe strength.
* Historical reference of evapotranspiration rate ETo and available data about olive crop
coefficient Kc(olive) in the grove locality. If the later is not available, the designer should use
the value of similar locations, subject to future field verification.
* Calculation of peak water demand by the trees as maximum daily needs during the summers
hottest months for mature trees when they reach the planned maximum green coverage
(canopies cover the allotted land area). In areas where summer water availability is restricted,
which is very common in some countries of the WANA region, the design will not be based
on trees requirements but rather on the quantity of available water and strategies of regulated
deficit irrigation (RDI) should be recommended and applied.
* Speed and direction of prevailing winds in the area of the grove.

The efficiency of the proposed irrigation system.

The internal irrigation blocks (plots) inside the grove should be approximately of the same size.

Intended irrigation frequency and duration time of single irrigation runs at peak demand.
159 159

To withstand possible water hammering, it is always preferable to select the main line one class
higher than that specified for the operating pressure. The investment will naturally be higher but
it will pay off in a longer lifespan and in a reduced risk of bursting the main line.

The design should not attempt to save
money in sizing the piping network by
allowing turbulent flow as it results in high
friction losses, reduces the pipes operating
life, and creates efficiency problems in
addition to increasing operating expenses.
Flow inside piping should all be laminar.

Pressure loss caused by fertigation
equipment and filtration must be accounted
for.

If the grove is large, then an option of multiple fertigation injectors as close as possible to the
irrigation blocks should be considered in lieu of a one single central station. This is in order to
avoid over-watering due to longer distances when fertigating.

The water source should be protected by proper backflow and anti-siphon equipment to prevent
the fertigation chemicals from contaminating the source or from flowing excessively to the
trees.

Uniform water discharge orifices should be installed. This is more critical with drippers, which
are characterized by a higher manufacturing variation in flow ranging from 2% to more than
10%. A smaller coefficient is associated with higher uniformity of water application in the field
and it is usually accompanied with a bigger orifice opening. Vortex type drippers are usually less
uniform (higher coefficient of variation) compared to labyrinth type drippers. Within the same
type of dripper increased variation in flow
is associated with smaller dripper openings.
The same characteristics of dripper nozzle
quality applies to mini-sprinklers.

Long radius elbows should always be
preferred to sharp 90 elbows to reduce
friction losses.

Filters should be designed according to
the flow rate, water quality and its debris
160 160
loading. The size of the mesh orifices should be at least one quarter of the micro-sprinklers
nozzle or one seventh of the drippers nozzle as a minimum requirement.

Other than pump intake screens, filters should never be installed on the suction side of a pump.

A fair comparison of filter types and brands can be made by looking at the effective filter area.

For contingencies and unforeseen events, the design should be conservative when selecting
filtration equipment, keeping below manufacturers` guidelines for pressure loss and using 80%
of manufacturers` maximum flow rates.

Main and sub-mains should be provided
with flushing valves and for cost savings,
laterals can be provided with end stops.
End stops are tedious to open and close and
therefore some designs consider a common
header to which all laterals are connected
to an irrigation block as an alternative. This
header will have only two flushing valves at
both ends. It is less expensive than installing
flushing valves at each lateral end but is,
of course, more expensive than end stops.
However, the gains outbalance the additional costs in ease and effective flushing. Growers are
sometimes reluctant to open stop-ends but opening two valves per block is an easy task. A great
advantage of this common flushing header is that it supports better pressure equilibrium and flow
in all laterals within the irrigation block.

Many designs prefer not to specify automatic flushing valves at lateral ends as they jam after a
while from clumps or precipitates which accumulate at lateral ends.

The larger the grove is, the more important it is to install flow meters and pressure gauges at
different critical locations. Each grove, irrespective of its size, should have at least a set of
pressure gauges at the filtration station to indicate pressure drops and another set at the pumping
station in addition to a flow meter.

Irrigation blocks layout and size should be based on soil properties, slope and number of trees.

If laterals cannot follow the contour lines, pressure compensating drippers on the laterals or
pressure compensating devices at the outlet of each block valve must be considered.

Length of laterals should not exceed the manufacturer`s recommendations.

Pressure variations along a lateral should not exceed 10% of the sprinkler or dripper operating
pressure and the variation within an irrigation block should also not exceed 10%.

Variation in dripper discharge rate between any two drippers within an irrigation block should
not exceed 5%.
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The spacing design of sprinklers should achieve a minimum of 85% water distribution
uniformity.

The pump should be provided with an automatic pressure drop shutdown switch to ensure that
the water is not lost to the desert in case of accidental bursting.

Submersible well pumps should be also provided with water level switches to automatically stop
the pump in case of water-level drop.

Vacuum relief valves should be installed at the highest downstream point of all block on-off valves
to prevent vacuum development in laterals and sucking in soil particles through dripper orifices.

The design flexibility should allow for future changes when the trees gradually grow, such as
changing sprinkler nozzles to higher discharge ones, increasing dripper numbers and discharge,
running double laterals or looping, reducing the number of irrigation blocks in a single irrigation
run to accommodate higher discharge and associated pressures and so on.

The materials drippers and mini-sprinklers nozzles are made of and the LDPE laterals should
be specified for stability against ultra-violet and heat radiation. Nevertheless burial of laterals at
shallow depth should be specified by the design for prolonged service life span.
7.7.3 Guidelines for installing micro-irrigation systems:
The irrigation system should be installed according to the irrigation design specifications, and in a
way that results in an efficient and uniform distribution of water. It is preferable to hire a professional
contractor to install the irrigation network; nevertheless a considerable saving to the investment
capital can be secured if the grower has the knowledge to perform this task. The irrigation contractor
should be licensed, experienced, reputable and with a long proven rack record.
Following are the minimum requirements for installing a trouble-free micro-irrigation network:

Supervising the contractors work is a key element in ascertaining the quality of installation.
This also enables the grower to learn from the contractor and allows the grower to undertake
future work themselves.

Prior to the installation of the irrigation outlets, be they drippers or sprinklers, the piping system
(including each lateral) must be flushed to dispose of all debris remaining inside. Once the
irrigation outlets are fitted to the lateral, the whole network should be flushed again to ensure that
laterals are clean from any installation scraps.

Following the installation of a new micro-irrigation system, a pumping and pressure tests should
be conducted to identify any malfunctions.

Upon completion of testing, the contractor should provide to the owner and the designer an as
built drawing to reflect any installation changes to the original design and to show the exact
location of any buried components for ease of future maintenance.

All components of the irrigation network should be purchased in accordance with the design
specifications and from a reliable vendor.
162 162

PVC or HDPE main water pipe lines should be buried at a depth of not less than 800 mm protected
by steel sleeves at road crossings to protect them from damage by vehicles and equipment. If
rocks are uncovered while excavating the ditch, sand bedding of at least 100 mm thick should be
laid under the pipes to prevent scratching to the pipe surface.

HDPE sub-main lines, which are much more flexible than PVC pipes, should be buried at a depth
of not less than 600 mm. Main and sub-main lines contain large quantities of water under no
flow conditions and if buried at shallow depths the water will get very hot in the summer and
very cold in the winter causing considerable damage to the olive tree roots.

LDPE laterals should preferably be buried rather than laid on the ground surface, again because
the water can be extremely hot in the summer and also because when laid on the ground they
become more vulnerable to wild animal and rodent attacks in their search for drinking water or
to sharpen their teeth. These lines should not be buried at more than 150 mm because at greater
depth they can be constricted by the roots.

The problem of animals chewing the laterals can be simply solved by installing two or three
drippers in each irrigation block to pour water into a pot for these animals to drink and in this
way the olive grove becomes sympathetic to wildlife. When fertigating, these drippers should be
blocked.

Laterals, whether buried or laid on the
ground, should be snaked to account
for expansion or contraction caused by
fluctuations in temperature. Buried laterals
should have small mounds which come out
of the ground near the trees so that drippers
can be installed and maintained, and to
prevent clogging by root intrusion. For
sprinklers, the laterals can be buried all the
way without any mounds.

To improve wetting distribution when
using drippers, it is always recommended
to install multiple drippers symmetrically
spaced from the tree trunk rather than a
single dripper. If the water is saline, one
dripper is highly recommended in lieu of
two drippers equally spaced from the
trunk as their wetted bulbs will interfere
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creating a high salt concentration front under the trunk. A single dripper located at 10-15 cm
from the trunk will always push the salt centre-out. When the trees grow, more drippers can
be installed on the two laterals or on a loop provided these drippers are of low discharge while
increasing the discharge of the central dripper to keep any salts accumulation from the small
drippers away from the trunk and the main concentration of root zones at the centre.

On slopes, drippers should be placed uphill of the trees so that any potential runoff, depending
on the soil type, can thus run into the root zone rather than away from it.

When drippers are mounted on spaghetti
tubing, the tubing must be fixed to the ground
with a spaghetti stand to prevent it from
moving and changing the wetting pattern or
the salt accumulation front causing harmful
effects to the root system. Loose spaghetti
tubing does not move unless accidentally by
moved by animals, humans or by the wind.
They do, however, change regularly every
single time the system is operated due to the
build up of pressure in the system.

Install a permanent derrick over the water
well head to ease the operation of drawing
the submersible pump for maintenance
work or for replacement. The derrick is
provided with a set of pulleys at the bottom
and the top to convert the horizontal force
of pulling a cable by the farm tractor into
a vertical force. This will save the cost
of hiring a crane which can be extremely
expensive if the grove is remotely located. This is not only cost saving but it saves time and
protects the crop as sometimes it can take days for a crane to come to the grove by which time
the trees can suffer from potential drought damage. This is especially so if the trees carry a heavy
crop in summer time and the damage can be very severe if the water used is saline, as with the
absence of irrigation the salt accumulated at the salt front of the bulbs rhizosphere will move
backwards and harm the roots.
7.7.4 Guidelines for the operation management of micro-irrigation system
The history of micro-irrigation has proved that irrigation managerial skills are derived by
accumulated, hand-on experience and growers who use these Guidelines should understand that
164 164
whatever is recommend here will never replace their experiences gained from day-to-day contact
with their own trees and their own irrigation system. Following are common guidelines to assist
growers in operating their micro-irrigation systems and establishing their own managerial skills:

Familiarization with the irrigation system is essential for growers who want to operate their
system efficiently. This requires farmers to build their skills through periodic observation, frequent
inspection as well as performing preventive and corrective maintenance, sourcing external help
only when it is indispensable.

To ensure successful operation of the system, all parameters connected with the irrigation
activity should be monitored for refining. This monitoring should be performed before, during
and after irrigation. These parameters include soil, weather, trees respond, system efficiency, etc.
Examples of monitoring outcomes are indicated below:
* Soil moisture to avoid prolonged periods of stress or applying unnecessary irrigation runs
which lead to excessive water and nutrient losses by leaching, and possibly water-logging.
One of the easiest methods is to dig holes periodically using an auger to check soil moisture
or water-logging visually or by the hand-feel method.
* Monitoring weather patterns and the weather forecast helps in predicting changes in irrigation
scheduling and thus water can be conserved by frequently adjusting the day-to-day changing
need for water.
* Monitoring the appearance and health of the olive trees for evidence of stress or excessive
water will indicate the appropriate level at which to operating the system and will aid in fine-
tuning the irrigation cycles and duration of each run.
* Longitudinally twisted olive leaves, especially at midday, are normally an indication that the
trees need water.

Deep percolation below the tree root zone can be minimized by applying water according to the
ETc(olive) and monitoring soil moisture status.

The overall irrigation programme should be adjusted throughout each season and from year to
year as no season or year is exactly the same.

The systems efficiency must be checked frequently through measuring flow rates, pressure,
dripper or sprinkler outlet discharge, depth of water infiltration and water uniformity both overall
for the grove and at individual trees location. For example a reduction in flow rate can indicate
partial blockages of water discharge orifices and a need for flushing.

Annual leaf analysis and soil salinity tests are excellent tools in assessing efficiency of irrigation
management.

With all its benefits, mulching with moisture retention substances like wood chips, for example,
should be avoided when using mini-sprinkler system. The wet mulch will create such favourable
conditions on top of the covered soil surface of enough moisture and aeration that some feeder
roots will grow above the soil surface just below the mulch.
165 165

Mini-sprinklers are sensitive to changes in
operating pressure. Higher pressures will
create misting while lower pressures will
give poor distribution. Therefore pressures
should be in accordance with the design and
manufacturers recommended range. The
consequences of increasing the operating
pressure over that of the design can be
devastating to the grower and the irrigation
network.

Operating mini-sprinklers in windy
conditions should be avoided. Effective
windbreaks will assist in reducing negative
impacts of wind on sprinklers functioning.

Night time operation is always preferable,
as the wind velocity and evaporation
losses are lower and in certain areas off-
peak power is more stable and in some
countries, cheaper. If night operation is an
acceptable practice, then the system should
be periodically operated during day time
for inspection purposes.

In northern areas of the WANA region (Turkey, Cyprus and Syria) where winter frosts are very
rare but likely to happen, avoid late season irrigation as it may produce new succulent vegetative
growth that could be susceptible to damage by frosts.

In shallow soils lighter irrigation runs over shorter intervals are recommended to avoid water-
logging.

Perform more frequent inspections while applying any major operations like harvesting
or incorporating soil amendments as such operations are likely to cause damage to certain
components of the system.

Immediately isolate any irrigation block which has a leakage or a burst pipe and repair it.
Pressurized water of micro-irrigation systems can cause localized soil erosion that is worse than
rain caused erosion.
7.7.5 Guidelines for managing maintenance of micro-irrigation systems:
Timely preventative maintenance will result in keeping the integrity of the design and operating
the system in accordance with its specifications. It will further sustain an efficient and uniform
distribution of the water. The following are guidelines for maintaining the micro-irrigation system:
166 166

As irrigation systems age and because of
wear to the water discharge orifices, overall
pressure and flow in the whole network will
greatly vary within the grove and distribution
uniformity usually decreases. Pressure
drops everywhere and flow rate increases in
areas close to the pumps depriving the trees
in other areas of their water rations to such
a degree that differences in growth become
very noticeable. Therefore a discharge
calibration test of drippers or mini-sprinklers in different locations of the grove is essential at
least once a year or more frequently based on the operation conditions of the network and the
hands-on experience of the grower in his/her grove to verify when a change is necessary. The
dripper test is simple - a measuring cup is placed under the dripper to measure the discharge in
an hour. For sprinklers place a plastic cone on top of the sprinkler to divert the water into a pan
to find the discharge in an hour.

The older the pump gets, the more inspection it will need as its operating efficiency will decline.
Changing an impeller or a bearing at the right time will restore the pump efficiency and save the
grower from unnecessarily high operational costs.

When a repair is performed, any deviation from the original material, design and installation
specifications will cause nothing but trouble. Restoration should be to the original conditions.

Any replaced components should meet the design specifications and manufacturers
specifications.

Changing like-for-like will ensure minimum malfunctioning of the system or deviations from
design operating flow and pressure.

Checking the reading of the pump motor electrical ammeter and recording the reading on a log
book is very important as it will show any dramatic change in energy use and indicate a potential
problem. This is especially critical for submersible pumps.

The system should be regularly flushed (for details refer to the following sub-chapter).

Water supply and pressure should be frequently verified for conformity with those stated in the design.

Filters should be cleaned frequently by reversing the direction of water flow in a process called
backwashing. This process can be either manual, automatic at a certain pressure drop, or at a set time.

Backflow prevention devices should be checked for correct functioning.

If the system is provided with sensors, they must be checked for operating within their pre-set
ranges.

All spare parts and components should be tagged and stored in a dedicated store room.
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7.7.6 Clogging management in micro-irrigation system
The reason for including this activity in a separate sub-chapter, although it could fall under either
system operation or system maintenance alike, is that partial or total clogging can become a chronic
problem to the extent that some growers, who do not know how to resolve the issue, consider it as
the most serious constraint to the long-term operation of any micro-irrigation system.
Following are the main guidelines which will keep the clogging potential under control in micro-
irrigation systems:
Following are the main guidelines which will keep the clogging potential under control in micro-
irrigation systems:
Filtration and flushing to control clogging

Maintenance of media filters, screen filters, disc filters or any other type of filters should be in
accordance with the manufacturers instruction or operation manual.

Regular flushing is needed early enough to remove any foreign particles which escape the
filtration system before they accumulate and develop into a clogging risk.

Although main and sub-mains do not trap clogging matter as much as laterals, it is always
preferable to flush mains, followed by sub-mains and finally laterals every time the system is
flushed.

The duration of the flushing run depends on many factors, especially the water quality and
system design. The flushing operation should continue until the discharged water runs clean.

For proper flushing to occur, the water discharge velocity must be high enough to be capable
of dislodging and displacing all biological clogging-causing organisms, physical clumps and
chemical precipitates out of the piping. To ensure the required velocity is reached, the design will
recommend which flushing valves are to be opened at the same time. If the grower has installed
the system without the help of a designer, then a trial and error method must be followed
to verify how many laterals can be opened at once. Opening all lateral ends for flushing in a
group of irrigation blocks together will reduce the velocity to low levels which will not facilitate
effective flushing, and the grower might take it mistakenly that the lines are clean since the water
will flow carrying no debris. The mode of operation is to open only a few flush ends and leave
them to run for a while then close them before moving to the next group. Generally the flushing
velocity should not be less than 0.6 m/sec and although there are methods of measuring the water
velocity in the field, the grower should follow the mode of operation most suitable to the grove
conditions rather than attempting to measure the velocity.

Some types of chemical precipitation can be avoided by injecting water soluble or acid-forming
fertilizers only.

Laterals should be flushed more frequently than other piping due to the low velocities which
cause settlement of algae, physical clumps or chemical precipitates.

It is important to observe what type and how much clogging matters is moved from the lines
every time they are flushed. A clean, white plastic container of reasonable volume should be
168 168
placed under the flushed end to collect the water and debris. A much better and precise way is
to connect a portable hose to the open end of the flushing valve just before opening it to receive
the flushed water when the valve is opened into a non pressurized wheel-mounted tank in order
not to cause spillage and also to make sure that all debris is collected for proper evaluation.
The spray tank can be used for this inspection and evaluation purpose provided all the debris is
thoroughly washed away from the tank to save the spraying nozzles from becoming clogged.

Growers should not be reluctant to evaluate the debris every time they flush the irrigation network
in order to take corrective measures to the filtration system or flushing procedures if the water
quality changes.

Flushing should be more frequent when large amounts of debris are present, while less frequent
flushing may be adequate if only small amounts of debris are flushed.
Chemigation to control clogging

Chlorine is the most common substance used
in cleaning micro-irrigation systems so that
the process itself is called chlorination. The
most common sources of chlorine in a liquid
form is sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and
in a powder form is calcium hypochlorite
(Ca(ClO)
2
), which is not recommended to
use in the event the water is of high pH as
it can produce precipitates that may clog
drippers.

Another source is chelated copper sulphate
pentahydrate which is effective with hard or alkaline irrigation water. It also prevents or controls
roots intrusion into drippers and is useful in controlling certain soil fungal diseases. Doses should
not exceed those recommended by the product label instruction.

When an irrigation system is idle for prolonged periods during the rainy season or due to shortage
in water at the source, it is preferable to flush it at intervals of six weeks 2 months to prevent
biological growth of clogging-causing organisms. If this is not feasible because of limited water
even just for flushing, then the grower must understand that when the system is operated for
the first time after a long shut down, large chemical shock treatments will be required to flush
the coagulated remains and reclaim the system. Operating a system containing debris or with
clogged water discharge outlet orifices should be highly prohibited as after a while the clogging
matter will build up causing high back pressure on the pumping station and all components of the
system to the degree that connected drippers or sprinklers might be blown away or weak piping
might burst and the trees will not get enough water.

Intensity and frequency of chlorination are generally a reflection of the water quality, the micro-
irrigation system design, the frequency at which the system is used, its preventative maintenance,
and the rate of debris accumulation. Also the effectiveness of chlorination is highly dependent on
the water pH; higher at low pH. All of these factors can change from one grove to the other, there-
169 169
fore it is difficult to make solid recommendations on application rates of chlorination. Nevertheless
when using surface water, which will normally contain higher biological clogging-causing
organisms than underground water, the following are rough guidelines (not recommendations)
for growers to have as strategic guidance on the different approaches to chlorination and some
starting points to refer to:
* Continuous treatment: chlorine is injected every second irrigation run with a concentration of
1 to 2 mg/L (2 ppm) of free chlorine measured at the remotest irrigation orifice.
* Intermittent treatment: every 6 weeks to two months depending on results as verified by
regular evaluation of flushing debris. The average rate in this type of treatment would be in the
order of 10 to 20 mg/L (10-20 ppm) for 30 to 60 minutes, with a minimum of 20-30 minutes
after the chlorine has reached the last irrigation outlet to ensure adequate dissemination in the
soil.
* Shock treatment: after a prolonged period of the system being idle with verification that the
algae have coagulated. Injection application rates should be high with up to 500 mg/L (500
ppm). Once the injected chlorine reaches the remotest irrigation orifice, the system should be
shut off and the chlorine left in the piping for 24 hours before flushing. If the trees are well
nourished with water, then the 24 hour withholding period can be extended before flushing
can commence in order to leach the chlorine beneath the root zone.

Since chlorine can react with some fertilizers, specifically ammonia and nitrogen, growers
should be very alert to apply them separately and also to run water through the system in a
normal operation mode for a short period before chlorination to ensure lines are free of any agro-
chemicals and to avoid any non-desirable chemical reactions. The same tank and pump used for
fertilizer injection can sometimes be used provided all equipment has been thoroughly cleaned
of residual fertilizers before chlorination.

Injection of dispersing agents such as sodium hexametaphosphate through the system may reduce
some clogging problems by preventing the flocculation of silts and colloidal clays.

Underground water can in some cases contains the precipitates calcium carbonate and manganese
oxide in the pipe lines of the system. Injection of acids to maintain a water pH between 6.0 and
6.6 will resolve this problem. Temporary storage of water in a small reservoir before pumping
into the network can reduce hazards from high levels of manganese as well as iron by oxidation
and settlement.

Phosphoric acid must never be injected with, before or after fertigation, with calcium nitrate as
it will cause calcium phosphate precipitates creating a severe clogging situation.

Acidifying agents must be well mixed and diluted before contacting valves and other system
components. Acids should be injected before injection of chlorine fertilizers or any other agro-
chemicals.

Refer to (fertilizers chapter) for recommendations on mixing fertilizers for fertigation to avoid
clogging due to precipitation from chemical reactions.

Liquid or powder chlorine and acids must be stored separately in a closed well ventilated store
room with anti-corrosive flooring.
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7.7.7 Summary of olive grove micro-irrigation system maintenance management
The table below will help the olive grower to maintain the irrigation system in the highest trouble-free
condition for optimum use and maximum profitability. A well maintained micro-system facilitates
meeting the trees water requirements on demand. The table can also assist the grower in preparing
his/her own record keeping tallies.
171 171
7.7.8 General guidelines for irrigation management of olive trees when using saline water
Reliable guidelines for managing cultural practices for safe and sustainable use of saline water
when irrigating olive trees are outlined below:

Selection of the right olive variety which
can withstand the existing or the predicted
water salinity level is a crucial element and
since olive varieties normally change their
behaviour from one place to the other, the
grower should select his/her salt tolerant
variety with a good track record in the near
vicinity of the grove.

Implementing special planting procedures
that minimize or compensate for salt
accumulation within the trees soil moisture
bulbs or what is referred to as the rhizosphere bulb. Land preparation should emphasise
facilitating efficient operation of the irrigation system, uniformity of water distribution and
infiltration and leaching of salt build up, (refer to Design of New Grove Chapter 5).

Improve drainage in the grove especially where hardpans exist.

Use the irrigation system most suitable, which at the present time is drip irrigation.

Implement irrigation strategies which will
ensure that the Soil Water Salinity (SWS)
is kept at lower levels than the Irrigation
Water Salinity (IWS) at all times.

Weeds should be eliminated, especially
those with shallow root systems, as they
increase the rates of evapotranspiration,
causing excess salt concentrations on the
soil surface.

Irrigation should be avoided during hot or
windy conditions as accelerated evaporation
will increase surface salt deposits.

Monitoring soil permeability at its highest levels through preventing crusting and improving its
organic matter content are important practices to reduce harmful effects of the saline water on
the soil and trees, (refer to the Soil Chapter 3). Misplacement of organic fertilizers away from the
soil moisture bulb can cause harm rather than benefit.

Fertilizers with a high salt index should be avoided.
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7.7.9 Specific guidelines obtained from the Egyptian long term Field Model for irrigation
management of olive trees when using highly saline water
The following guidelines are derived from
a long field experience by Egyptian olive
grower Mohamed El-Kholy. These guidelines
were presented in 2001 in Naples, Italy at the
International Course Land & Water Use for
Sustainable Olive Growing organized by the
IOOC, CNR and Regione Campania through
a paper by M. El-Kholy entitled Egyptian
Field Model for Mediterranean developing
countries in using poor quality water under arid
conditions and its impact on soil conservation
and land sustainability.
The water source is highly saline, ranging from a low of 8.13 dS/m to a high of 11.7 dS/m in 19
years. In this Field Model a combination of a drip irrigation system, Integrated Grove Management
System (IGMS) and the application of the following guidelines have managed to reduce the negative
impacts of the highly saline water and ensure a sustainable and successful commercially intensive
olive growing venture. These would be applicable to other similar situations in the WANA region.

Whenever shallow hardpans are exposed during excavation of planting holes or at a later stage,
localized 5 inch vertical drainage holes with 5.5 m depth are drilled to penetrate the hard pans
and are filled with 5-10 mm fine gravel. In addition to this, provide a gravel pack of 120-150
mm thick at the bottom and periphery of the planting hole, prior to backfilling, as shown in the
picture next to the text. In emergency cases such as when a dripper is clogged or when there is
a malfunction in pumping, this gravel pack would act as a barrier (especially when the trees are
juvenile) against salt movements from the salt front at the edges of the wetted bulb back to the
rhizosphere and the tree can be saved.

A special irrigation system called the Spear
Irrigation system has been developed
which comprises a 6070 cm long LDPE 18
/
o
mm piece cut from a lateral pipe. The pipe
is perforated all the way through its length
like a mesh and is driven into the ground at
a distance of
~
~
120-150 mm from the trunk
with an angle of
~
~
30-45 to the vertical.
The dripper is mounted on a 4
/
o
mm micro
173 173
tube that is inserted into the buried Spear Pipe and thus the water flows
directly from the lateral through the tube and the spear pipe into the root
zone bulb from the perforated holes and the lower open end of the pipe.
The upper open end of the pipe is installed above the ground at a distance
that ranges between 5-15cm depending on the soil type. This allows the
first perforated holes to release water to leach any accumulated surface
water. Also the portion of the spear pipe exposed to light will prevent the
roots from penetrating the small holes of the pipe buried in the ground.

The advantages of the Spear Irrigation System in general and especially when utilizing poor
quality water are, it:
* Reduces evaporation from the soil
surface and consequently it minimizes
water losses and build up a top soil
profile with excess salinization, which
causes crusting resulting in reduced
permeability followed by water loss
from run-off and degradation in trees
health.
* Pours enough water close to the centre
of the rhizosphere bulb causing salt to
move laterally out and vertically down from the root zone.
* Improves water use efficiency due to less fluctuation in soil temperature and moisture at
lower depths leading to a reduction in the salt amounts deposited in the soil and consequently
reduces leaching requirements.
* Contributes in integration with land preparation and soil conservation practices in developing
a relatively deep root system. Under drip irrigation with intensive densities and within limits,
a deeper root system is always considered an advantage because it provides better mechanical
stability and anchorage against wind and against the impact of mechanical harvesters. Roots
close to the surface are exposed to cyclic dryness even under the most efficient management
and irrigation systems. Also the activity of superficial shallow roots will be restricted by
possible surface salt accumulation. A deep root system will also expose more of the soil
volume under good irrigation management.
* Since it is a semi-subsurface irrigation system, it produces a symmetrically shaped soil
moisture bulb, not much affected with environmental factors, such as wind or exposure to
direct sun in non-shaded areas under the trees canopies. This symmetrical shape encourages
growth of a well-distributed root system.
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* Completely eliminates any possibility of water run-off, which is not a major problem in itself
under drip irrigation specifically in sandy loam deep soils. With this poor quality water, run-
off can cause hard-to-manage salt accumulation in localized scattered spots.

With this very poor quality and highly saline water, the point of irrigation application becomes
of paramount importance. Changing this point followed by dryness of previously wetted areas,
or even vice versa, can cause sudden movements of salts from high salt boundaries into the
relatively free salt root zone via capillary action, reduced osmotic pressure or salt intrusion
washed in by a new point of application. Therefore it is inadvisable to change this point. When
changes are required, such as when the number of drippers need to be increased, it is preferable
to do this only during winter time, when all conditions are favourable for this operation such as
roots being less active, water requirements are less and the well water is of better quality due to
reduced abstraction.

It is crucial to continuously irrigate when it rains. Light rain can leach salts into the rhizosphere.
Irrigation can be only stopped if the rain is so heavy that it can move the salts below the root
zone.

From experience, whenever similar poor quality water is used, it is highly recommended to
install the first single dripper for young olive trees, which do not cover much of the soil with their
canopies, on the southern side of the trunk. This position will compensate for the accelerated
dryness on this side caused by being exposed to more sunlight. Salt will accumulate more on this
side restricting the roots growth and therefore positioning the dripper on this side will leach the
salt and balance water losses due to excessive evaporation.

A dripper clogged for some time could be a real threat to the survival of an olive tree with the
water quality used in this Field Model. Once the osmotic pressure drops inside the rhizosphere
bulb, salt move backwards from the salt front damaging the root system. Therefore the irrigation
system must be subjected to strict, frequent operability inspections in addition to injecting
cleaning agents like sulphuric and phosphoric acids into the irrigation network.

The opposite case to a clogged dripper is just as harmful. When a dripper is blown away from
the lateral due to wear in the lateral hole, due
to build up of pressure or when the drippers
nozzle is broken for any reason, the splashing
of salty water can cause considerable damage
to the foliage which will loose much of its
leaves due to mechanical impact as well as due
to salts burn. The soil surface will also suffer
from salt accumulation in areas not leach-
able for being away from the drippers reach.
175 175
Frequent inspection and maintenance is crucial. Dripper fitting holes in the lateral affected by
wear, leaking or repelling the drippers, should be plugged and other holes punched to enable
proper mounting of drippers.

Given the low water holding capacity of the soil, the harsh prevailing climatic conditions and
the poor water quality, the irrigation strategy is characterized in general by frequent small
applications at short intervals with periodically increased doses to satisfy leaching requirements.
Applying this strategy has resulted in keeping the Soil Water Salinity (SWS) at lower levels than
the Irrigation Water salinity (IWS) at all times. During summer, the values of Kcolive, Eto, water
requirements and water salinity are at their highest levels. To ensure the salt is continuously
leached properly from the root rhizosphere under these circumstances and reduce the amount of
additional water quantities needed for periodical leaching, the daily irrigation cycles are applied
as one day of heavy irrigation followed by a light irrigation the following day.
The heavy irrigation = IR + (0.2 x IR) while the light irrigation = IR (0.2 x IR) where IR is the
daily calculated irrigation water requirements. According to the operation mode at the grove, the
heavy irrigation runs can be split into two runs during the day so that in a cycle of 48 hours the
trees are irrigated three times.

In winter, the normal irrigation cycle is 3 times/week. During this period all factors influencing
water requirements are at their lowest values including the TDS of the irrigation water. While
the roots are in a relative resting period, an extra heavy irrigation is applied to leach and dissipate
salt accumulated during the season into deep soil horizons and to fill the soil moisture bulb
underlying each tree with better quality saline water than the water used in summer. Three to
four weeks before floral bud swelling, another heavy irrigation is applied (but lighter than the
previous one), followed by 7-10 days of no watering. This is done to apply some stress on
the trees to enhance uniform flowering thus leading to a better fruit set and improved yields.
Uniform flowering is an advantage for uniform ripening and for facilitating efficient harvesting
management.

In summer, irrigation is applied at night time as much as possible to reduce evaporation.

Under the micro-climatic conditions, and using a crop coefficient within a range of 0.4 0.65
for table olives according to the physiological stage of the trees, the water consumption quantity
including leaching needs/mature tree/year varies between approximately 16.5 and 21 m
3
. Under
full green coverage of 75% on average among the varying densities, this figure reveals a water
consumption / ha of a minimum 4,300 m
3
up to a maximum of 7,875 m
3
. Taking an average
watering of 18.75 m
3
/tree/year and the 1997 on year production under the hottest recorded
summer in the grove till 2001, the water utilization for harvested yield (Ey) as a direct correlation
was 5.6 kg/m
3
of fruits containing 58% moisture compared to 1.2 to 2 kg/m
3
for fruits containing
30% moisture as per http://www.fao.org/landandwater/AGLW/cropwater/olive.stm; (FAO
176 176
Crop Water Management Olive). These figures indicate that high water usage efficiency is
achievable even when using saline water.

In the early years, while the water
requirements are still low, only one Spear
Pipe is provided per tree. Once the water
requirements are increased another Spear
Pipe is installed, followed few years later
by low discharge surface drippers installed
on a lateral pipe ring which diameter varies
with the canopy size ranging from 1.25 m to
1.75 m. For the super high density planting
of 606 trees/ha, the application point is
restricted to one spear only.

Over time it has been noted that the bark of the olive tree trunk is very sensitive to salts injury.
Salt moving via capillary action upwards on the lower trunk portion causes bark necrosis. The
best method to control this side effect is to coat the trunk up to a height of 150 mm from the
ground surface with clear polyurethane paint every second or third year.

In this field model the trees have been trained with low crotches (skirt) to aid in reducing
evaporation losses and consequently reduce deposited surface salt.

In the early years of this field model before enough hands-on experience was accumulated about
irrigation and soil management as well as soil salt movement management, soil bunds with a
height of 12-15 cm approximately were constructed around the trees, although there were no
run-off noticed. The practice was simply copied from traditional furrow and basin irrigation
methods, especially where drip irrigation was relatively new (not older than a decade). After 4
years all these bunds were removed as they contributed to concentrate salt on the soil surface.
Water moved up these bunds with capillary action and evaporates very quickly leaving high salt
levels on the surfaces of these bunds which can not be leached using the existing drip system.

Inter-cropping in row-middle areas were trialled in the early years of the grove and proved not to
be a viable option as the lateral movement of the salty water from the inter-cropped rows towards
the trees can concentrate salts in the olive trees root zones.

For the duration of the groves life so far, weeds have been always kept under strict control for
their negative impact on concentrating salt on the soil surface.

Incorporation of gypsum and compost into the planting holes is used during land preparation and
annually within an overall soil conservation programme. Gypsum helps lowering the soil pH and
aid in leaching sodium salt to overcome the expected build up of impermeable salt sealants. In
spots of hardpans, extra quantities of compost and gypsum are used to serve as a binding agent
177 177
to the fine clay particles making larger and water-stable aggregates which in return will improve
drainage and aeration.

The poor quality water used in this Field Model is very corrosive; therefore the use of special
alloy material for the pump and other metallic components is an avoidable major requirement
and expense as well.
7.7.10 Minimizing pollution of water sources from olive irrigation
This topic is covered in the water chapter.
7.8. Resource Materials
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conditions. Flora, Abt. B, Ba. 156. 202-219
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M.P. Romero. 1999. Regulated deficit irrigation in olive trees. Acta Horticulturae 474. 373
-376
Allen, R.G., L.S. Pereira, D. Raes and M. Smith. 1998. Crop evapotranspiration. Guidelines for
computing crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation ana Drainage Paper 56. FAO, Rome,
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Androulakis, I. 1998. Growth and development of the olive (Olea europaea L.) in relation to
irrigation, mineral nutrition and fruit load. The yearly vegetative growth cycle and alternate
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Paper 29 Rev. 1. FAO, Rome, Italy. p.174.
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olives in `Nocellara del Belice* variety. Olea 17: 195-198.
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2
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4
and NaCL salts on
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Hort. Sci. 5.73-79.
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178 178
water relations, gas exchange and leaf structure of olive tree. Acta Horticulturae 537. 241
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on growth, ion content and CO2 assimilation rate of six olive cultivars. Scientia Horticulturae.
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date on yield and water utilization efficiency of Koroneiki olives under drip irrigation.
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oil content of young olive trees grown under different irrigation regimes. Acta Horticulturae
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parameters in young table - olive trees. Acta Hortic., 286, 255-258.
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in Sardinia. Olivae, 17, 30-35.
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watering regimes. Irriga:ione e Drenaggio 4, 183-186.
Dichio, B., C. Xiloyannis, G. Celano and K. Angelopoulos. 1994. Response of olive trees
subjected to various levels of water stress. Acta Horticulturae 356. 211-214.
Doorembos, J.; Kassam, A. H. 1979. Yield response to water. Irrigation and drainage. Paper,
33. FAO. Rome.
Eliades, G., Metochis, Chr. and Papachristodoulou, S. 1995. Technoeconomical analysis of
irrigation in Cyprus. Miscellaneous Reports 1. Agricultural Research Institute, Cyprus. p
30.
El-Kholy, M. 2001. Egyptian Field Model for Mediterranean developing countries in using poor
quality water under arid conditions and its impact on soil conservation and land sustainability.
Proceeaings of the International Course 'Lana & Water Use for Sustainable Olive Growing`
organi:ea by the IOOC, CNR ana Rgione Campania, Naples, Italy. p. 216-244.
S. Er-RAKI S., G. Chehbouni, N. Guemouria, J. Ezzahar, B. Duchemin, G.Boulet, R. Hadria,
A. Lakhal, A. Chehbouni, J.C. Rodriguez. 2004. Measurement of evapotranspiration and
179 179
development of crop coefficients of olive (olea europaea L.) orchards in semi arid region
(Marrakech, Morocco). Profet INCO-WADEMED Actes au S'eminaire Moaernisation ae
lAgriculture Irrigu'ee Rabat, au 19 au 23 avril 2004
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Marrakech%2C%20olive`
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2(2). 101-167.
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cultivars (Olea europaea L.) differing in tolerance to salinity. Tree Physiol. 17. 13-21
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180 180
leaf water potential in Olea europaea L., cv. Frantoio, at different levels of available water.
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181 181
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7.9. Pictures acknowledgment
All pictures in this chapter have been provided by M. El-Kholy.
182 182
8. Fertilization
Costas Gregoriou
Mohamed El-Kholy
Olive Grower & Expert, Sayeda Zeinab olive Groves, Ismailia, Egypt
8.1 The importance of nutrients
Correct fertilization should cover the needs of the crop and provide the quantities of nutrients which
cannot be extracted from the soil. Assessment of soil deficiency and the crops requirements is difficult
but guidelines can be given which, with the necessary corrections, can help meet specific olive orchard
fertilization requirements. These guidelines should be interpreted, depending on the nutritional condition
of the orchard.
Nitrogen is the element to which the olive tree responds most swiftly and with the greatest benefits
in that it speeds up and generally increases productivity (increases shoot growth and the number of
fruit sets per tree). Nitrogen is needed most from the period of flowering to the hardening of the pit.
Nitrogen deficiency can be identified by the pale green colour of the leaves (which, however, do not
become necrotic as they tend to do when suffering from other nutrient deficiencies) and by a general
reduction in plant growth.
Phosphorous deficiency is rarely found in field conditions, but the symptoms include a major reduction
in leaf size and an intense greeny-purple colouring.
Potassium deficiency reduces resistance to cold and drought and increases sensitivity to fungal diseases.
It is difficult to maintain adequate levels of K in olive trees, because:

more than 60% of the K in the plant is located in the fruit at harvest time;

the low mobility of K in soils and the soils ability to retain it; and

the difficulty of extracting it from the soil at certain times (in autumn, owing to the low water content
of the soil, or in winter owing to low ground temperatures which reduce the absorption of water and
nutrients).
The first symptom of potassium deficiency in leaves starts with chlorosis at the tip and progressive
decolouration towards the basal area. When there is a major deficiency, the chlorosis causes necrosis
of the leaf tissues, particularly in the older leaves due to their dehydration, and this later extends to the
younger leaves. In cases of intense and long-lasting deficiency, there is usually marked defoliation.
Olive trees are tolerant of calcium and very sensitive to calcium deficiency. Olive orchard soil is usually
rich in Ca and deficiency problems are not common. In very acid soils, levels of this macro-element
have to be carefully monitored and liming is recommended.
Boron is one of the trees least mobile elements and its deficiency can be detected when the leaves
become chlorotic and gradually turn paler green from the tip towards the basal area, until two thirds of
the leaf blade is affected. Then the tip becomes necrotic and the leaf falls, with heavy defoliation in the
event of severe deficiency. Correction of B deficiency is very important, as N and K supplies may be
inefficient if limited by lack of boron.
183 183
A characteristic feature of magnesium, too, is its low mobility. There is greater consumption of this
element at but growth in the spring, although Mg deficiency has seldom been identified in olive
trees. The symptoms of Mg deficiency are seen when leaf content is below 0.08 per cent; the leaves
of affected trees become chlorotic at the tip or the edges, while the rest of the leaf stays green.
8.2 Critical levels of essential elements in olive leaves
Of the different diagnostic techniques available, leaf analysis is the method which best defines
the nutritional condition of the olive tree. The leaves sampled for analysis should be taken from
the current years shoots, without fruit, picked halfway between the shoot tip and the base. They
should be totally expanded and healthy, and aged between two and five months. The best time for
sampling is during the summer when vegetative processes come to a halt (end of July in the northern
hemisphere).
The following Table shows a diagnosis chart with the critical levels of essential nutrients in olive
leaves as proposed by Freeman et al. (1994).
Critical levels of essential nutrients in olive leaves
(Leaf sampling in July)
Element Deficient Sufficient Toxic
Nitrogen (%)
Phosphorus (%)
Potassium (%)
Calcium
Magnesium (%)
Manganese pp
Zinc ppm
Copper ppm
Boron ppm
Sodium ppm
Chlorine ppm
1,40
0,05
0,40
0,30
0,08
14
1,50 2,00
0,10 0,30
over 0,80
over 1,00
over 0,10
over 20
over 10
over 4
19 150 185
over 0,20
over 0,50
8.3 Nitrogen fertilization
In traditional olive orchards, application of between 0.5 and 1 kg of N/olive tree is recommended,
depending on the level of productivity of the orchard. This should allow an adequate level of N
to be maintained in the leaves. A maintenance application of 1kg N/olive tree is recommended
in autumn, as long as the leaf content stays above 1.5%. In olive orchards using drip irrigation,
continued application of N from February to August is suggested, with monthly applications of 2%,
5%, 10%, 25%, 35%, 15% and 8% respectively. In dry orchards, there are no advantages in splitting
nitrogen supplies, and a single application in winter is recommended, preferably in ammonia or
urea form.
In arid regions and in drought years, lack of response to nitrogen fertilization is common. Response
to nitrogen manuring was only observed in years when rainfall exceeded 500mm. In these conditions
it is preferable to use foliar fertilization, a technique which is equally useful in any type of olive
orchard, even in orchards under irrigation.
184 184
Urea is the nitrogen fertilizer that is most quickly assimilated by the leaves. It is rapidly absorbed
and metabolized by the plant and rapidly transported to the foliage, inflorescences and fruits during
the growing period. When applications are repeated, high leaf levels of N can be maintained
throughout the vegetative cycle. Foliar application of urea has a positive influence on production,
increasing the rate of fruit set and reducing olive drop after setting. The best dosages of urea
for foliar spaying range between 4 and 6%, since higher concentrations tend to cause leaf burn,
although the trees subsequently recover.
Foliar applications of urea can result in larger increases in productivity per fertilized unit than when
applied to the soil, although if the soil is fertilized with N, there is usually no profitable response to
foliar fertilization using urea.
8.4 Phosphorus fertilization
Productive responses to fertilization with P in olive orchards have seldom been recorded. The
possible reasons for the poor response of the olive trees to P supply may be the plants low
consumption or the fact that the root system of this species is very mycorrhizal, as a result of which,
in average soil conditions, the root system may be able to extract its P needs for the life span of
the plant. Applications of P are recommended when a foliar analysis performed in July detects
deficiency levels.
Foliar fertilization with P can give interesting results. In traditional olive orchards in which tree
volume is approximately 80m
3
, 30-40g of P/tree can be sprayed on using phosphoric acid or
monoammonium phosphate. In trees with sufficient leaf content of P, no response has been obtained
from foliar application of increasing quantities of P.
8.5 Potassium fertilization
Major increases in yields have only been observed in olive orchards with a high level of deficiency
in K when huge quantities of potassium sulphate were applied to the soil.
In olive orchards using drip irrigation, fertigation techniques may be used, applying continuous
supplies together with the irrigation water. It is recommended 15% applications of K in spring, 35%
in summer, and 50% in autumn, when the fruit is ripening.
Foliar fertilization using K can be extremely useful in olive
orchards. Potassium nitrate (N03K) is the best-assimilated
salt and has proved to be more efficient than potassium
sulphate. Spraying with urea immediately before spraying
with N0
3
K increases the absorption of K and N through the
leaf. Foliar application of potassium nitrate is recommended
using concentrated solutions of 2-3% when the total amount
of liquid applied is 1,000 l/ha.
185 185
8.6 Correcting deficiencies of other elements
Boron and magnesium are microelements which are frequently
responsible for deficiencies in olive orchards. Lack of iron can
cause iron chlorosis in very chalky soils and should be corrected
by the use of chelates or iron sulphate injections into the tree
trunk. Manganese and zinc deficiencies can be corrected by
spraying leaves with chelates of both microelements, or using
commercial multivariant correctors rich in Mn and Zn.
Boron, along with nitrogen, is one of the nutrients which the olive tree responds to most quickly,
despite the fact that this element is one of the least mobile inside the tree. Beneficial response to
boron application for leaf contents of below 19p.p.m. is obtained. The correction of deficiencies can
be achieved by soil application of 40g boron/tree in the first year, and annual maintenance dosages
of 25 g/tree. Another possibility is foliar application, and this is recommended in combination with
the two anti-fungal treatments, at a dosage of 0.5% of a soluble formula containing 20.8% B.
Magnesium deficiencies are registered at levels of 0.07%, while adequate levels should be between
0.1 to 0.6%. This can be corrected by foliar spraying with magnesium sulphate at the 0.7% dosage.
8.7 Fertilization in WANA countries
The type, quantity and application time of fertilizers differ in the various countries of WANA
according to:

Average of annual rainfall;

Fertility and quality of soil;

Tree age;

Variety; and

Plant density.
8.7.1 Fertilization of olive trees in Syria
The type and amount of fertilizer used in Syria during the early stage of the trees are as shown in
the Table below:
Potassium Sulphate 50%
(Kg/ha/year)
Super phosphate 46%
(Kg/ha/year)
Urea 46% (Kg/ha/year)
Tree Age (years)
irrigated rain-fed irrigated rain-fed irrigated rain-fed
60 30 60 30 90 45 1 - 2
90 40 90 45 130 65 3 - 4
100 50 130 65 170 85 5 - 6
120 60 130 65 200 100 7 - 8
140 70 170 85 300 150 9 - 10
160 80 170 85 400 200 11 - 12
186 186
The fertilization of olive trees during the production phase (above 12-years old) is shown in the
following Table:
Type of fertilizer Rain-fed (kg/ha/tree) Irrigated (kg/ha/tree)
N- urea 46%
Nitrate 33%
110kg
1500kg
220
300
P- super phosphate 46% 110 220
K- sulfate potassium 50% 100 200
Manure 30m
3
30m
3
Green manure: Many farmers prefer to use green fertilization in the areas where manure is
unavailable. An important benefit of green fertilization is the improvement the chemical and
physical characteristics of soil, in addition to the fact it is cheap and easily obtained. Many crops
are used such as vetch, lentils, beans etc with a quantity 50-70 kg of seed per ha. Seeding should be
done in November and December after harvest and incorporated into the soil at the end of March
and beginning of April when the percentage of inflorescence of legumes reaches about 5%.
8.7.2 Fertilization of olive trees in Morocco
In Morocco, there are three distinct fertilization formulas to be applied based on the types of existing
olive groves. These are:
A. Areas where the olive tree is treated like a forest bush. These areas are characterized by
unfavourable surroundings where the terrain is rough (mountainous area) and less fertile.
1) Fertilization for young trees: application of 20 to 30 kg of manure per tree with a supplement
of 20 to 30 g of nitrogen per tree and per year of age.
2) Fertilization for adult trees in production with a yearly yield of 5 to 7 kg of olives per tree:
application of 40 to 60 kg of manure per tree in order to maintain production at the above
level. However, the supplement of nitrogen of 200 to 300 g per tree (1 to 1.5 kg of ammonium
sulphate) will improve the yield.
B. Extensive olive cultivation
1) Fertilization for the young trees: annual application of:
- 20 to 40 kg of manure per tree; and
- 60 to 80 g of N per year of age.
2) Fertilization for the adult trees in production: annual addition of:
- 40 to 60 kg of manure per tree; and
- 800 to 1000 g of N per tree.
C. Intensive olive cultivation
1) Fertilization for the young trees: annual addition of:
- 20 to 40 kg of manure per tree;
- 80 to 100 g of N per tree and per year of age;
187 187
- 60 to 80 P
2
O
5
by tree and per year of age; and
- 80 to 120 g of K
2
0 per tree and per year of age.
2) Fertilization for the adult trees in production: annual addition of:
- 60 - 80 kg of manure per tree;
- 1000 to 1500 g of N per tree;
- 800 to 1000 g of P
2
0
5
per tree; and
- 1000 to 1500 g of k
2
O per tree.
8.7.3 Fertilization of olive trees in Cyprus
In olive orchards where drip irrigation is applied and in the majority of those irrigated with mini-
sprinklers the main method of fertilization used is fertigation. The recommended application rate is:
- 35 g N, 10 g P, 15 g K in every 1000 litres of irrigation water.
The types of fertilizers which are usually used in fertigation are: Potassium Nitrate, Monoammonium
Phosphate (MAP) and Ammonium Nitrate.
In the old, non-irrigated olive plantations and a small percentage of those irrigated with mini-
sprinklers, the Extension Service of the Department of Agriculture recommends farmers use the
following formula of fertilization:
Tree Age Irrigated Olive Orchards Non- Irrigated
(years) N (g/tree) P(g/tree) K(g/tree) 20N-10P-10K(g/tree)
2 100 50 50 250
3 200 75 75 400
4 300 100 75 500
5 400 100 100 750
6 600 200 150 1000
7 700 200 200 1500
8 800 250 250 2000
9 900 250 250 3000
10 1000 300 300 4000
>11 1250 400 500 5000
In orchards irrigated with mini-sprinklers, 25% of the dosage recommended above should be applied
in January and the rest split from then through to August.
In old, non-irrigated orchards, the dosage is applied in one or two applications from January to
March.
8.7.4 Fertilization of olive trees in Jordan:
In the rain-fed areas, not all farmers add organic manure or chemical fertilizers. In the irrigated
areas, most of the farmers use chemical fertilizers and some add organic manure in addition to
chemical fertilizers.
The main types of fertilizers used in the country are:

Super phosphate 46% P - used once at pre-planting and can be added yearly in autumn if needed;
188 188

Diammonium Phosphate (DAP 18% N, 46%P) - used once at pre-planting and can be used yearly
if needed;

Compound fertilizers (NPK - different % constituents) + Micronutrients if needed;

Potassium Sulphate 50% if needed;

Urea 46% N - a number of doses during the growing season due to the leaching effect of N,
taking into consideration the important stages of vegetative growth;

Ammonium sulphate (21% N) - the same as for urea;

Organic Manure - it is very important to be added at pre-planting and can and should be added
yearly in autumn, at least on trees borders; and

Fertigation is a new important fertilization system used in Jordan mainly in the orchards with
drip irrigation.
8.7.5 Fertilization of olive trees in Egypt
Most Egyptian olive growers/farmers feed their trees through two different methods (soil application
and fertigation) which complement one another. A third method, foliar application, is discussed in
C below, but it is rarely used.
A. Soil application: The holes initially prepared to plant the transplanted olive trees would not
provide sustainable olive production in the poor, infertile reclaimed lands unless soil development
and conservation is a continuing process. Most growers/farmers therefore incorporate well
composted organic matter into the soil around their trees within the first ten years of planting. This
practice should be done every year or every second year. It is very beneficial as it helps to improve
soil fertility and physical structure. Normally the application is done during winter time when the
trees are relatively dormant by applying one of the following two methods:
1
st
Method: Trenches are dug all around the trees periphery within the wetted areas inwards from
the canopy drip line and a mix of compost and a portion of the annual mineral nutrient ration is
mixed with the excavated soil and backfilled. The width and depth of the round trench varies from
one year to another as a function of the tree canopy size and its crop yield, but normally would not
be less than 250 mm wide and 300 mm deep. The nutrient mix commonly contains phosphorous,
potassium, sulphur, magnesium and gypsum. Boron can be also added in small quantities if the leaf
analyses shows deficiencies or if there is a problem in pollination.
This method results in preventing the roots from confinement and encourages them to move outwards
and downwards.
2
nd
Method: The same mix, but with smaller quantities, is incorporated into small holes dug around
the tree. The number of the these holes can vary between two to four and the size of each hole is
roughly 300 500 mm wide and 300 mm deep. Alternate the position of these holes from one year
to the other.
189 189
B. Fertigation: Drip irrigation makes fertilization through injection (fertigation) a very viable tool
in increasing productivity and improving the fruit quality as it allows precise timing of fertilizer
application relevant to the specific physiological stages on demand. It also reduces the potential risk
of polluting groundwater due to fertilizers leaching from heavy applications and excess irrigation.
One of the very important advantages of fertigation in olive growing is that it provides an excellent
management tool for the application of nitrogen. Olives are considered high consumers of nitrogen
and therefore it is critical to maintain the balance between growth and cropping. Under fertigation,
nitrogen is applied regularly all year round, except during winter and the final stages of ripening, in
small doses to prevent excessive vegetative growth caused by single large applications.
In Egypt the most common fertilizers for fertigation are ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate
and calcium nitrate for N, Potassium sulphate for K and phosphoric acid for P. Since phosphorus is
immobile in the soil, a great proportion of the P ration is incorporated during the winter time with
compost and the remaining portion can be added through fertigation.
C. Foliar application: The above two methods of fertilizing olive trees in Egypt efficiently meet
the nutritional demands and therefore it is rarely that the trees show deficiencies which need
intervention by foliar application. Therefore, this method of applying fertilizers is generally not
common domestically.. Some olive growers/farmers are convinced that foliar application is not
economically viable due to the cuticle layer which covers the leaves and inhibits uptake, but also
due to the fact that the stomata are found on the underside of the leaves. Some growers/farmers
spray boron at floral bud swelling stage to improve the activity of the pollen grains.
8.7.6 Fertilization of olive trees in Libya
The application of nutrient elements to olive trees in a chemical form is not done as a common
practice in Libya. However trees may receive some nutrient elements indirectly if they are grown
in a mixed cropping system especially with vegetable crops. Manure, as a farm residue, is usually
added to the trees.
In some newly planted orchards, especially with table olive cultivars, the growers apply some
fertilizer whenever irrigation water is available. Occasionally, some farmers may add fertilizer to
olive trees during the rainy reason and before ploughing. It is worth mentioning here that there are
no recommended doses of fertilizer application for the olive trees. However, a fertilization project
with the objective to determine nitrogen requirements of large trees which are in the full production
stage is underway at the "Tarhuna" Agricultural Research Center.
8.7.7 Fertilization of olive trees in Yemen
The common practice of fertilization for rain-fed plantations in Yemen is to apply organic composted
manure at a rate of 2 to 40 kg / tree, depending on tree age, during the beginning of the raining
season. No chemical fertilizer is usually applied but in some cases a small amount of urea, less than
250 g/ year is also added to small trees.
190 190
Irrigated olive trees may receive some nutrient elements indirectly if they are grown in a mixed
cropping system, especially with vegetable crops or with other fruit trees where fertilizers are
applied.
8.7.8 Fertilization of olive trees in Palestinian Occupied Territory
The fertilization practice in Palestinian Occupied Territory is as follows:
A. Organic manure - is applied in trench at a rate of 80-100 m
2
/ha/ year.
B. Chemical fertilizers
1) Rain fed areas - ammonium sulphate at a rate of 1-1.5 kg. / tree is spread under the tree
canopy at a radius of 1m from the trunk annually. Most West Bank farmers do not apply
chemical fertilizers and fertiization relies on organic manure.
2) 2. Irrigated orchards - Ammonium sulphate at the rate of 2-2.5 kg /tree is applied annually in
3 equal doses, in February, June and August.
8.7.9 Fertilization of olive trees in Tunisia
In the first and second year after planting 100 g and 200 g of ammo nitrate 33% is applied per olive
tree, respectively. In addition super phosphate 45% is applied during the year with rains.
For the trees which are on the bearing stage, 5kg of ammo nitrate per olive tree is provided for
the plantations in the North of the country, whereas in Centre and South, 3 kg is applied. These
quantities are applied two thirds in fall and one third in the spring, just after the rains.
Phosphate and potash are provided in general after soil and leaf analysis and only in rainy years. It
is recommended to supply 1 to 1.2 kg of super phosphate 46% per olive tree in fall and 1 to 1.5 kg
of potash sulphate.
For organic fertilization, it is recommended to provide 50 kg of decomposed manure per olive tree
every 3 years.
8. 8 Organic fertilizers-Cover Crops-Green Manure
Organic fertilizers are derived from plant material or animals. They are obtained by converting
animal manure, plant and post-harvest material or organic waste into compost.
When properly treated, organic fertilizers can provide many advantages to public health and the
environment because their production eliminates waste material that would otherwise constitute
a source of bacterial contamination and environmental pollution. On the other hand, if animal
manure is not properly treated it would be hazardous to the tree, environment and human health.
The treatment to reduce these risks is composting; a, biological process by which organic material
is broken down and decomposed. Composting treatments can be divided in two groups; passive
and active.
Passive composting treatments are based on maintaining organic waste in piles under natural
conditions. Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity and ultraviolet radiation, given
191 191
enough time, encourage the composting process and a reduction in the number of pathogenic micro-
organisms, weeds and salts. The biggest obstacle to this approach is that it takes a long time and
determining the time required for this process to take place is difficult. The amount of time needed
depends on the climate, region and season, as well as the source and type of manure and organic
waste used. Due to these uncertainties, passive composting treatments are not recommended.
Under the active composting approach compost piles are turned frequently for aeration or other
aeration is provided to maintain adequate oxygen (aerobics) conditions within the pile. Temperature
and moisture levels of the pile are monitored and supplements are added as necessary to obtain
optimum moisture and the proper carbon:nitrogen ratio for complete composting. The composting
process is complete when the pile stops heating. Under appropriate conditions, the high temperature
generated during the fermentation process destroys most of the pathogens in a relatively short
time.
Organic manures are also recommended where available, at a rate of 50 kg/tree every 3 years,
especially in irrigated plantations.
Green manure: Many farmers prefer to use
green fertilization in the areas where manure
is unavailable. An important benefit of green
fertilization is the improvement of the chemical
and physical characteristics of soil, as well as
being cheap and easy to obtain. Many crops
are used such as vetch, lentils, beans etc with
a quantity of 50-70 kg of seed per ha. Seeding
should be done in November and December
after harvest and incorporated into the soil at
the end of March and the beginning of April
when the percentage of inflorescence of legume reaches about 5%. More information of soil
management on soil fertility, such as the importance of growing vegetation cover in row-middle
floors, animal manure, green manure, composting and practices is provided in the Soil Chapter 3 (
Sections 3.7, 3.11 and 3.12).
8. 9 Recommendations on the management of organic fertilizers

The location for storage and treatment of animal manure should be away or isolated from the
orchard;

Barriers or some type of physical containment should be used as part of the manure treatment and
storage areas;
192 192

Manure piles should be covered with plastic or other materials;

Organic fertilizers should be applied in the winter after harvesting and incorporated with soil;
and

Applying untreated animal manure (without composting) on the fields during the cultivation
period is not recommended.
8.10 Fertigation/Fertirrigation
The application of fertilizers with localized irrigation is known as fertigation. Localisation at the
watering points improves the efficiency of the fertilizer, and it may be sufficient to apply between a
third and half the fertilizing units, compared with traditional methods. It has the benefits of increasing
productivity and improving the fruit quality as it allows precise timing of fertilizers application
relevant to the specific physiological stages right on demand. Controlled application by fertigation
not only improves efficiency and saves fertilizers but it also reduces the potential risk of polluting
groundwater due to fertilizers leaching from heavy applications and excess irrigation.
One of the very important advantages of fertigation in olive growing is that it provides an excellent
management tool for the application of nitrogen. Olives are considered high consumers of nitrogen
and therefore it is critical to maintain the balance between growth and cropping. Under fertigation,
nitrogen is applied regularly all year round, except during winter and the final stages of ripening, in
small doses to prevent excessive vegetative growth caused by single large applications.
In order to ensure the safe and efficient operability of the fertigation system, the following points
must be considered:

The system should be secured by a backflow prevention apparatus to prevent the movement of
water containing fertilizers into the well or water source when the system is shut down;

The system should also be provided with anti-siphoning equipment to prevent the flow or suction
of the fertilizer stock solution back into the irrigation lines when the system is not operating. This
can be substituted by manually closing the suction valves to the fertilizer tanks;

The irrigation system must maintain a high degree of uniformity ensuring that the same amount
of water and fertilizer are delivered at all parts of the grove. This uniformity is obtained by proper
design, proper installation and most importantly by proper and regular preventive and routine
maintenance. For example the system uniformity can decrease by a faulty pressure regulator or by
clogged drippers;

Uniformity should be checked routinely by measuring the flow from different drippers within the
grove;

Acids should be added to water and not vice versa. Pouring water into acids is hazardous as it will
splatter;

Before operating the fertigation system, the irrigation network should be fully pressurized;

Following the completion of injection, the irrigation system should be operated long enough
to ensure complete flushing of the injected fertilizers. For this reason, the fertigation apparatus
193 193
(injection pump, venturi tube, or differential pressure tank) must be properly sized to enable
injecting in the required time and flushing the system without running the risk of over-watering;
and

All fertilizers sources must be highly water soluble to be effective for drip irrigation fertigation.
In order to schedule fertigation, the trees needs have to be determined in terms of extraction by the
crops, nutritional status, which can be analyzed by leaf diagnosis, and the periods when requirements
for each of the nutrients are greatest. This will give the number of fertilizing elements to be supplied,
which in conjunction with the water dosage established for irrigation, enables evaluation of the
concentrations (g/m
3
) to be applied in each period. In Cyprus where the edapho-climatic conditions
are representative of WANA countries the recommended fertilization through the fertigation is :
35 g N, 10 g P , 15 K in every 1000 litres of irrigation water (Papadopoulos and Pachristodoulou,
1995). The types of fertilizers which are usually used in fertigation are: Potassium nitrate,
Monoammonium Phosphate (MAP) and Ammonium Nitrate.
8.11 Fertilization / Environment
Fertilization in olive orchards has so far received less attention from an environmental point of view
because contamination of groundwater has not yet been seen to be the result of olive cultivation. With
the advances in fertilization techniques emphasis should be given to achieving good environmental
outcomes while improving olive production. Greater consideration is also likely to be given to
the energy costs involved in obtaining synthetic fertilizers. The fertilizer industry can make a
strong contribution to improved environmental and production outcomes and it is important for
the olive sector work in partnership with this group to ensure every effort is made to work towards
a sustainable future. Collective research and development work is one area in which these two
sectors can work together for a win: win for all concerned and the environment.
Note: Pictures have been provided by M. El-kholy, International Olive Oil Council and the World
Wide Web.
Androulakis, I. And Loupasaki, M.H. 1995. Fertilization of Olive tree. Agriculture-Animal
Husbandry. Volume 9: 160-175
Ben Rouina, B., Trigui, A. and Boukhris, M. 2002. Effect of tree growth and nutrients status of
Chemlali de Sfax olive trees and their productivity. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:349-352.
194 194
Chartzoulakis, K., M. Loupassaki, M. Bertaki and I. Androulakis. 2002. Effects of NaCl salinity
on growth, ion content and CO
2
assimilation rate of six olive cultivars. Scientia Horticulturae
96 (1-4): 235-247.
Cimato, A.; Marranci, M.; Tattini, M. 1990. The use foliar fertilization to modify sinks
competition and to increase yield in olive (Olea europaea cv Frantoio). Acta Horticulturae,
286, pp. 175-178.
Connell, J.H., Krueger, W.H., Ferguson, L., Metheney, P.D., Reyes, H. and Sibbett, G.S. 2002.
Effects of foliar application of urea on olive leaf nitrogen, growth and yield. Acta Horticulturae
. (ISHS) 586:251-254.
Cregoriou, C. 2005. Country report, Cyprus. Workshop on Good Agricultural Practices for
Delgado, A., Benlloch, M. and Fernardez - Escobar, R. 1994. Mobilization of boron in olive trees
during flowering and fruit development. J. Hort. Sci., 29, 616-618.
Di Giovacchino, L., Basti, C., Costantini, N. and Surricchio, G. 2002. Olive vegetable water
spreading and soil fertilization. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:389-392.
Fernandez Escobar, R. , 1993. Fertilizacion del olivar. En: Olivicultura. Jornadas Tecnicas,
pp.55-64. Fundacion La Caixa. Barcelona
Fernandez-Escobar, R. and L. Marin. 1999. Nitrogen fertilization in olive orchards. Acta
Horticulturae 474: 333-335.
Ferreira, J.; Garcia-Ortiz, A.; Frias, L.; Fernandez, A. 1986 Los nutrients N, P, K en la fertilizacion
del olivar. Olea, 17, pp. 141-152..
Madrid, Spain.
Freeman, M.; Uriu, K.; Hartmann, H.T. 1994. Diagnosing and correcting nutrient problems. En:
Ferguson, L.; Silbert, G. S.; Martin, G. C., Olive Production Manual. University of California.
Division of Agriculture and Resources. Publ. 3353, pp. 77-86. Oakland, California.
Gavalas, N.A. and Demetriades, S.D. 1964. Calcium distribution in relation to the chlorosis in
boron deficient olive leaves. Ann. Inst. Phytopath. Benaki, 7, 37-45.
Gonzalez, F., Garcia, A.M., Chaves, M. and Mazuelos C. 1967. Estado de nutrition, equilibrio
nutritivo Y rendimiento en el olivar de la provincia de Sevilla. I. Estudio sobre variedades de
aceite. Annales de Edafologia Agrobiologia, 26, 733-762.
195 195
Inglese, P., Gullo, G. and Pace, L.S. 2002. Fruit growth and olive oil quality in relation to foliar
nutrition and time of application. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:507-509.
Jasrotia, A., R.P. Singh, J.M. Singh and V.P. Bhutani. 1999. Response of olive trees to varying
levels of N and K fertilizers. Acta Horticulturae 474: 337-340.
Marcelo, M.E. and Jurdao, P.V. 1994. Effect of nitrogen and potassium on yield and some fruit
quality parameters of olive tree. Acta Horticulturae, 356, 202-204.
Marcelo, M.E., Jordo, P.V., Soveral-Dias, J.C., Matias, H. and Rogado, B. 2002. Effect of
nitrogen and magnesium application on yield and leaf-n and mg concentrations of olive trees
cv. Picual. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:329-332.
(ISHS) 586:239-245.
Papadopoulos, I. and Pachristodoulou, S. 1995. Tecnoeconomical analysis of fertilization in
Cyprus. Miscellaneous Report 2, Agrcicultural research Institute, Cyprus, pp19.
Papandreou, Th. 2000. The Olive tree. Issue 12000/ of the Department of Agriculture. Ministry
of Agriculture, Natural Resource and Environment, Cyprus.
Perica, C. and Androulakis, I.I. 1990. Mineral composition of olive leaves as affected by summer
N and K fertilization. Proc. 10th world Fertilizer Congress, Nicosia, Cyprus, p. 66-70.
Perica, S., Brown, P.H., Connell, J.H. and Hu, H. 2002. Olive response to foliar boron application.
Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:381-383.
Perica, S.; Androulakis, I. I.; Loupassaki, M. H. 1994. Effect of summer application of nitrogen
and potassium on mineral composition of olive leaves. Acta Horticulturae, n
o
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grown in the Marmara Region. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:375-379.
196 196
Therios, I. and Sakellariadis S.D. 1982. Some effects of varied magnesium nutrition on the growth
and composition of olive plants. Sci. Hort., 17, 33-41.
Therios, I. and Sakellariades, S.D. 1988. Effect of nitrogen form on growth and mineral composition
on olive plants (Olea europeae L.). Scientia Horticulturae 35, 167-177.
Therios, J. 1996. Inorganic Plant Nutrition and Fertlizers. Dedousi Editions. Sallonica. Greece.
Tsalidas, C.D. 1995. Investigation of soil parameters causing boron deficiency in olive trees and
methods of correction under Greek soil and climatic conditions. Olivae, 56, 48-50.
Xiloyannis, C., G. Celano, A.M. Palese, B. Dichio and V. Nuzzo. 2002. Mineral nutrient uptake
from the soil in irrigated olive trees, cultivar Coratina, over six years after planting. Acta
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197 197
9. Alternate Bearing in Olive Trees
Belkassem Boulouha
National Agricultural Research Institute (INRA), Marakesh, Morocco
Costas Gregoriou
9.1 Factors affecting alternate bearing of fruit trees in general
The alternation of production is a phenomenon that appears in irregular production levels; this is
affected by the individual tree, the soil and the cultural practices of the orchard and the conditions
of the region (especially weather conditions). It can be biennial: succession of one year on or
more to one year off or "less". It can also be a multi-year succession of two or three years of
low production to one year of high production.
The research done to date on the alternation of fruit trees in general, assign it to factors bound to the
plant itself (internal factors) notably the genotype, the balance of plant regulators and nutrition, and
to external factors (soil, fertilization, irrigation, pruning, diseases, and environmental conditions).
Due to the variability in the genotypes of the various varieties, the degree of alternation varies
between varieties and clones. Some clones have been selected according to their level of alternation,
but this behaviour can change under different climatic conditions.
The other internal or external factors act on the physiological functions of the tree by diversion
of the metabolism to flower (fruit) or shoot (vegetative) development or by the destabilization of
the endogenous hormonal balance. Indeed the development of the olive tree during its life evolves
according to very definite physiological stages: vegetative rest, flowering, fruit set, fruit enlargement
and fruit ripening. In every physiological stage the tree is subject to the influence of the external or
internal factors.
9.2 Factors affecting alternate bearing of olive trees
In olive cultivation alternate bearing is one of the most serious phenomena that affects olive grower
profitability, especially in the table olive industry. The olive tree has a very marked alternate or
biennial bearing pattern. Heavy crops are invariably followed by lighter ones. Although, biennial
bearing is genetically determined, the degree to which it occurs is greatly affected by cropping level,
environmental conditions (especially the weather), and by cultivation practices such as irrigation,
fertilization, pruning, harvesting, plant protection etc. Therefore, the degree of alternation depends
on the interaction between a large number of external and endogenous factors, the most important
of which are discussed in the sub-chapters below.
9.2.1 Cropping level - shoot length - fruiting ability
Olive fruits are borne on one-year-old shoots (i.e. grown the previous season) of modest vigour (not
those excessively vigorous and not those of little vigour). For most cultivars shoots 8" - 16" long
are the most fruitful. In the year of the heavy crop, shoot growth that will bear the subsequent crop
198 198
is physically depressed and without fruitful shoots, so no crop will occur the following year. The
degree of depression depends on the cropping level and the management of trees through the growing
season (thinning, pruning, irrigation, fertilization, pest and disease control etc.). Management should
be tailored to crop size to maximize shoot growth early in each season.
The current crop yield is a major factor determining the degree of differentiation and fruit set in
the following year. The level of yield in the current year has a dual effect on the following years
fruiting ability. First, it controls the mechanisms of the developing fruit on the level of induction
and the differentiation ability of the buds. Secondly, it indirectly controls the negative growth
intensity of the shoots carrying the fruit in the following year.
Furthermore, after a heavy yield, the differentiation potential of the buds on the short shoots is usually
low. Thus shoots of the same length will develop, in most cases, considerably more inflorescences
after an off year than after an on year. The viability of flowers on the inflorescences also differs
according to the fruiting history of the tree. The percentage of fruit set is considerably lower after
an on year than after the off one, whether based on flower or inflorescence number.
9.2.2 Age of trees
Alternate bearing in young trees is less apparent due to their vigorous annual growth. The relationship
between vegetative vigour and alternative bearing can partially explain the small degree of alternation
in young trees.
9.2.3 Maturity- harvesting
A further effect of large crops on alternate bearing is their late maturity (heavy crops mature later
than light ones) as does oil accumulation. Allowing a crop to remain on the tree late into the winter
to attain profitable size (in the table industry) or maximize oil content is a considerable drain on
carbohydrate reserves that would otherwise go to flower bud differentiation and development.
Bloom is seriously depressed the subsequent year when harvest is delayed for long periods. Time
of harvest has a major effect on fruiting ability in the following year. Late harvesting increases
alternate bearing. Thus, for annual fruiting, harvest should be performed at the end of colour change
and in most regions not later than mid-December.
9.2.4 Chilling requirements
Plantations should be located in areas where the chilling is appropriate. The amount of chilling
required for the induction of winter differentiation is linearly correlated with the relative fruit load
of a tree in the previous season.
Trees with high yield will require more chilling to differentiate the same number of flower buds
as trees bearing less fruit. It should be noted, however, that this doesnt apply if the yield of the
previous season exceeded a critical level, regardless of the amount of chilling. The flowers which
developed under such conditions are in most cases of low viability and do not set fruit.
199 199
9.2.5 Weather Disease
Other external factors that initiate alternate bearing are weather and disease events that directly
reduce bloom and/or crop size. For example, late spring frost kills developing buds so that a light
crop results, throwing the tree into alternation. Cold weather during the bloom development period
reduces effective bloom; the result is a light crop that will be followed by a heavy one. Excessive
heat and/or drying winds during the bloom period reduce pollination and crop size - again throwing
the tree into an alternate condition. The reason a region will tend to alternate together is that a
weather event that had a broad influence over a large area starts it off.
Finally, allowing the trees to defoliate due to disease (e.g. peacock spot), or be nutritionally deficient,
will reduce bloom and starts the biennial bearing cycle.
It is clear that some things are under the growers control and some are not. However when natural
events (weather) decimate a crop, careful management of the subsequent heavy crop (e.g. modifying
crop load) are required to avoid alternation and poor profitability in subsequent years.
9.2.6 Fruit thinning
It should be noted that the leaf-to-fruit ratio is what mostly affects shoot growth, flower initiation,
differentiation and subsequent cropping. Thus fruit thinning, as practiced by table fruit growers,
reduces fruit load without reducing leaves, improves the leaf-to-fruit ratio for the remainder of the
season.
9.2.7 Pruning
This cultural practice reduces both leaves and fruit so its primary effect is to promote new shoot
growth that will hopefully bear the next year. In years when an excessively high yield is forecast,
pruning should aim at cutting down the number of flower buds by thinning out fruit-bearing
branches.
For the table industry, both (fruit thinning and pruning) are used as management practices to stabilize
cropping. Is it possible to thin half the branches one year, and thin the other half the following year
to reduce the extent of alternate bearing. Growers often discuss the benefits of managing every
other tree by fruit thinning or pruning to even out the crops - thus half the orchard in "on" and the
other "off"
9.2.8 Irrigation
Alternate bearing is found equally in non-irrigated and irrigated trees, under the same climatic
conditions (chilling). Restricted irrigation can cause alternate bearing and a reduction of accumulated
yield, but on the other hand adequate water supply during active growth periods tends to reduce
alternate bearing.
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Low annual yields in under-irrigated trees are usually due to less seasonal vegetative growth during
the preceding on production years. When the irrigation requirement is fully met, no significant
differences in vegetative growth are generally found from year to year.
9.2.9 Fertilization
The N and K elements appeared to be important in the process of alternation due to the development
of the two types of shoots (Long and Short) that influence the tendencies of the tree toward the on
year or the off year. It seems that there is a positive inter-relationship between the concentration
of nitrogen in the leaves of the long and short branches and the degree of alternation.
Potassium intervenes in the nutrition of the tree in two phases. The first phase is during the period of
full vegetative growth and flowering, and the second at the time of fruit development. It seems that
during the second phase of its intervention there is an interrelationship between the concentration
of K in the leaves of the long and short branches and the degree of alternation due to the fact that
the fruits constitute an important attraction pole of K. Therefore, it is essential to ensure the correct
fertilization (quantity and time of application) to attain enough vegetation each year in order to
eliminate alternation.
9.2.10 Metabolic reasons for alternation
Under intensive growing conditions, trees with a very high yield will have a small yield the following
year, even when considerable vegetative growth occurs parallel to the high yield. In most cases,
inflorescences will not be formed and, if they are formed due to favourable winter conditions, such
flowers usually do not set fruit or only very few of them do. It can therefore be asserted that an
endogenous control mechanism, which is partially independent of the environmental conditions,
governs flower bud induction and differentiation. It seems that alternation is controlled by induction
and differentiation inducers and repressors, the production of which is initiated by the developing
fruit. The effectiveness of these regulators is determined by environmental conditions, mainly the
weather.
Plant growth regulators have been shown to be signal-producing agents. A lot of experimental work
has been done with gibberellic acid, paclobutrazol, phenolic acids (chlorogenic acid), defoliation
and fruit thinning, but no clear answers have been given to their influence on biennial bearing. From
the information currently available in the literature, it is concluded that alternate bearing is initiated
by a signal, probably a hormonal signal, diffusing from the fruit to the leaves. A metabolic change
occurs in the former resulting from the activation of specific genes leading to the production of a
differentiation inhibitor at a rate determined by the intensity of the signal and the environmental
conditions. The leaf inhibitor (probably phenolic) will determine to what extent buds will undergo
a metabolic change leading to flower bud differentiation. This equilibrium between vegetative and
reproductive development is based on the previous development and yield of the tree as well as
environmental conditions.
201 201
Androulakis, I. 1998. Growth and development of the olive (Olea europaea L.) in relation to
irrigation, mineral nutrition and fruit load. The yearly vegetative growth cycle and alternate
bearing. Proceedings of the international Seminar on olive growing. Chania-Crete, Greece,
18-24 May, p. 27-33.
Ben-Tal, Y.; Lavee, S. 1984. Girdling olive trees, a partial solution to biennial bearing. II.
Influence of consecutive mechanical girdling on flowering and yield. Riv. Ortoflorofrutti.
It., 68, Pp. 441-451.
Cimato, A.; Marranci, M.; Tattini, M. 1990. The use foliar fertilization to modify sinks
competition and to increase yield in olive (Olea europaea cv Frantoio). Acta Horticulturae,
286, pp. 175-178.
Lavee, S. 1989. Involvement of plant growth regulators and endogenous growth substances in
the control of alternate bearing. Acta Hortic., 239, pp. 311-322.
Lavee, S.; Avidan, N. 1981 Possible involvement of chlorogenic acid in controlling alternate
fruiting of the olive. Proc. 13
th
Int. Bot. Cong., Sydney, 62.
Lavee, S.; Avidan, N. 1994. Protein content and composition of leaves and shoot bark in relation
to alternate bearing of olive trees (Olea europaea L.). Acta Hortic., 356, pp. 143-147.
(ISHS) 586:239-245.
Monselise, S.P.; Goldschmidt, E.E. 1982. Alternate bearing in fruit trees. Hort. Reviews, 4, pp.
128-173.
Rallo, L., P. Torreno, A. Vargas and J. Alvarado. 1994. Dormancy and alternate bearing in olive.
Acta Horticulturae 356: 127-136.
Sibbett, St. 2000. Alternate Bearing in Olive Trees. California Olive News,Vol 3, Issue 12,
December
Tombesi, A. 1994. Olive fruit growth and metabolism. Acta Hortic., 365, pp. 225-232.
Zigarevic, I.A (1959). The biology of vegetative growth in bearing olive trees. Subtropical Culture
4: 80-82.
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10. Weed Management
Costas Gregoriou
Nicos Serafides
10.1 General information on weed management
Weed control in olive orchards enhances the development of newly planted trees and improves the
growth and yield of established trees. Growers have many weed management tools available to
achieve these objectives; however, the best strategy for employing these tools will vary from year-
to-year and from orchard to orchard, according to local conditions and production strategy (organic
cultivation, ICM, IPM, etc..).
Weed management is part of an overall orchard management system as plants on the orchard floor
can influence other pests such as insects, mites, nematodes, as well as diseases. A weed management
programme, particularly for perennials, should start before trees are planted because it is easier to
manage the weeds before planting. Weeds reduce tree growth and yields by competing for water,
nutrients, and interfere with harvesting. Competition is most severe during the first 5 years of the
tree`s life or where tree growth is limited. Weeds around the tree trunk not only compete directly
with tree growth, but provide a good habitat for field mice, which can girdle and kill young trees.
Dry weed growth is also a fire hazard. For optimum yields and tree health, it is recommended to
control weed growth, especially within one metre of a young tree`s trunk. After about the fifth year,
the effect of competition from weeds is somewhat lessened as trees become established and shading
from the orchard canopy reduces weed growth.
Orchard floor management decisions and the management methods used are significantly influenced
by tree age, climatic conditions, soils, irrigation practices, topography, and growers preferences.
Weeds are commonly controlled either mechanically (mowed or tilled), or chemically treated
with herbicides, or by flamers. Growers should eliminate cultivation in order to follow the GAP
recommendations set forth under the Soil Chapter (3) of minimum or no till. This can be achieved
by a ground cover of resident vegetation or a sown cover crop which should be maintained to
control weeds in addition to conserving the soil as discussed in the aforementioned soil chapter.
Some ground covers can be managed by complete mowing or by mowing the row middles while
keeping a strip along the tree rows free of weeds with herbicides. Another alternative to using
herbicides on tree rows strip is to use synthetic fabric mulches that are resistant to UV degradation
can be placed around the base of the tree. These fabrics allow moisture to penetrate but prevent
weeds from emerging. Often several weed management techniques are combined.
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Soil characteristics are important to weed management (see also Soil Chapter No.3 for more
information). Soil texture and/or organic matter influence which weed species are present, the
number and timing of cultivations required, and the activity and residual effects of herbicides. Less
pre-emergent herbicide is required for weed control on sandy, light soils, but residual control may
be shorter than on clay or clay loam soils. It is also advisable to use low rates of herbicide on sandy
soils or those low in organic matter.
The irrigation method, amount of water applied, and pattern of rainfall affects the frequency and
timing of cultivation as well as the selection of chemicals and their residual activities. Frequent
wetting of the soil promotes more rapid herbicide degradation in the soil. Herbicide degradation is
generally faster in moist, warm soils than in dry, cold soils. Degradation is also more rapid under drip
emitters or mini-sprinklers than under furrow or sprinkler irrigation. The first irrigation following an
herbicide application is the most critical in terms of how far the pre-emergent herbicide has moved
into the soil; subsequent irrigation is less important to the movement of the herbicide. The optimum
results for herbicide activity is with the application of smaller amounts of water (from 12.5mm to
25mm). Greater amounts of water (75-150mm) risks the herbicide penetrating far enough into the
soil, especially in sandy areas, that it can be absorbed by the tree`s roots.
When properly used, herbicides registered for use in olives can control most weed species. In
many orchards, combinations and/or sequential applications of herbicides are required to provide
effective, economical control.
Before using any herbicide, identify the weed species to be controlled, then read and follow product
label directions carefully. There is a need to balance the appropriate weed management programme
to maximize production with the long-term sustainable use of the natural resources needed to grow
olives and sustain the ecosystem services provided by the environment.
10.2 Monitoring of weeds
Weeds vary from area to area and year to year, even within orchards, so it is recommended to
conduct weed surveys at least twice each year: once in late winter and again in late spring or summer
to determine the spectrum of weeds present. These surveys are the basis for weed management
decisions about herbicide choice or cultivation equipment and practices. Keep written records of
survey results noting date and species observed (For more information about weed species and
management, see Annex 1).
10.3 Weed management before planting
To reduce the competition from weeds during orchard establishment, it is advisable to control
annual and perennial weeds before trees are planted. It is especially important to control established
stands of perennial weeds before trees are planted so that potential injury to young trees from
herbicides can be avoided. Perennial weeds that can be especially troublesome are field bindweed,
johnsongrass, dallisgrass, bermudagrass, nutsedge, blackberry, and little mallow (cheeseweed).
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10.3.1 Cultivation (when chosen by the grower)
If this method is chosen, then cultivation control of perennial grasses such as bermudagrass and
johnsongrass should be performed when the soil is very dry. Cultivation cuts the rhizomes into
small pieces causing them to dry. Rework the soil frequently using spring-tooth harrows to pull
new rhizomes to the surface so that they will dehydrate. If the soil is irrigated or rain occurs before
total control of the perennial plant is achieved, the rhizome pieces will begin to grow and the
effectiveness of this practice is reduced. Similarly, working the soil when wet can increase the
population of perennial weeds; because each piece of cut rhizome can root and develop into a new
plant (also see Soil Chapter No.3 for more information). If the trees are not grown under minimum
or no till, then seedlings of perennials can be controlled with repeated cultivation.
In case of irrigated orchards which is not following the minimum or not till approach, then an
effective method of weed control before planting is to cultivate, then irrigate to germinate new
weeds, and then shallowly cultivate again to destroy seedling weeds. Frequent cultivation lowers
weed seed populations in the soil, thus reducing weed growth. At least two cycles of cultivation,
irrigation, followed by a shallow cultivation are needed for a marked reduction in weed seedlings.
10.3.2 Cover Crops
Apart from their other uses, cover crops can also be used to reduce weed populations between tree
rows. With cover crops, the species selected and management will differ from one area to another
(also see Soil Chapter No.3 for more information). Cover crops such as fall-seeded cereal crops
(wheat, oats, cereal rye, or barley) that will not become competitive with the trees are recommended.
Cultivation in preparation for planting a winter annual cover crop will also reduce weed growth.
10.3.3 Soil solarization
This is a non-chemical method of controlling weed seeds
and soil borne pests by placing clear plastic sheets on
moist soil during periods of high ambient temperature in
the hot summer months. The plastic sheets allow the sun`s
radiant energy to be trapped in the soil, heating the upper
levels. Solarization can increase soil temperature to levels
that kill many disease-causing organisms (pathogens),
nematodes and weed seeds. It leaves no toxic residues and
can be easily used on a small or large scale.
10.3.4 Flaming
Flaming is another non-chemical method that can be
used to control very young weed seedlings. Flaming is
effective only on newly emerged weed seedlings and is
not intended to burn the weeds, but rather to kill the tiny
seedling with heat.
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Flaming should never be used where there is dry and dead vegetation, leaves, or duff around the
base of the tree. Flaming may also damage or ignite mulches in the orchard.
10.3.5 Herbicides
Herbicides are traditionally discussed as two groups: those that are active against germinating
weed seeds (pre-emergent herbicides) and those that are active on growing plants (post-emergent
herbicides). Some herbicides have both pre and post-emergent activity. Herbicides vary in their
ability to control different weed species. Most herbicides can be combined for controlling a broader
spectrum of weeds. In organic farming it is forbidden to use herbicides. (For more information
about herbicide treatments see Annex 2).
Weed seedlings and established annual weeds can be controlled either with pre-emergent or post-
emergent herbicides before planting. It is recommended to use a pre-emergent herbicide before
planting an orchard only in conjunction with a rotation crop. Make sure the residual period of the
herbicide is not so long as to preclude planting the trees. Always consult the label for exact timing,
rates and the method of application.
Application equipment must be accurately calibrated to apply the proper amount of herbicide to
the soil and young growing weeds. To minimize drift, spray equipment should be equipped with
a short boom that has low pressure (LP), flat fan nozzles. Off-centre (OC) nozzles are often used
on the end of the boom to apply chemicals in the orchard row. Some herbicides require special use
precautions as indicated in Annex 2. Always read and follow the entire product label before using
any pesticide.
For treatment of small areas, especially for perennial weeds, a backpack sprayer or low-volume
controlled droplet applicator can be used. Extreme care needs to be exercised to avoid drift of
herbicides (such as glyphosate, sulfosate, oxyfluorfen, or paraquat to tree leaves or green stems).
10.3.5.1 Pre-emergent Herbicides
These types of herbicides are applied to bare soil and are leached into the soil with rain or irrigation
where they are active against germinating weed seeds. If herbicides remain on the soil surface
without incorporation, some will degrade rapidly from sunlight. Weeds that emerge while the
herbicide is on the surface, before it is activated by rain or irrigation, will not be controlled. Also,
large weed seeds, such as wild oats, may germinate in the soil below the herbicide zone and still be
able to emerge.
10.3.5.2 Post-emergent Herbicides
Post-emergent herbicides are applied to control weeds already growing in the orchard and they
may be either contact herbicides, such as paraquat or a trans-located, systemic herbicide such as
glyphosate, sethoxydim, and others. Contact herbicides are most effective on young weeds, whereas
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trans-located herbicides are effective on both young and older weeds. No herbicide is effective on
old, dusty mature weeds.
Post-emergent herbicides can be combined with pre-emergent herbicides or applied as spot
treatments during the growing season. In newly planted orchards, selective post-emergent herbicides
are available for the control of most annual and perennial grasses, but not broadleaf weeds.
10.4 Weed management after planting
Trees are most sensitive to weed or cover crop competition during the first few years of growth and
where soil depth is limited. Weedy orchards may require several more years to become economically
productive than weed-free orchards. Regardless of the method used to control weeds, be careful not
to injure trees with mechanical or chemical damage to the trunk or roots. As trees become established,
competition from weeds is lessened as shade from the tree canopy reduces weed growth.
10.4.1 Cultivation (if used in preference to minimumtill or no till approach)
Some growers prefer to manage weeds without herbicides. This
usually requires hoeing, cultivating, or using weed knives (less
than 5cm deep) around trees several times during spring and
summer as well as cultivating or mowing between tree rows.
This is best accomplished when weeds are still in the seedling
stage; it becomes more difficult when weeds are allowed to get
large. Hand tools are generally used close to the tree to minimize
injury from mechanical cultivators, particularly when the trees
are young. Mechanical cultivators available for use in the tree
row include: weed knives, spider cultivators, and rotary tillers.
Hand-held mechanical flails (e.g., Weed Eaters) may be used, but
can injure tree trunks. Tillers or mowers can be used between the
rows. Mechanical control of weeds must be done repeatedly when weeds are at a young stage. The
equipment should be set to cut shallowly, to minimize damage to tree roots. As weeds mature, they
are more difficult to control, may clog equipment, and produce seed. When using any mechanical
equipment around trees, be careful not to injure the feeder roots or trunk (also see Soil Chapter No.3
for more information).
Control seedlings of field bindweed, bermudagrass, and johnsongrass before they are 3 weeks old
or they may form perennial structures such as rhizomes. Cultivating established perennials in an
irrigated orchard often increases the weed problem. Cultivation also cuts and damages the roots of
trees, reducing the ability of the tree to take up nutrients and allowing soil pathogens access to the
tree.
10.4.2. Cover Crops
Cover crops are planted in some orchards to replace the resident weed vegetation on the orchard
floor. These winter annual cover crops are mainly fall-seeded cereal crops such as wheat, oats,
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cereal rye, or barley. These are seeded into a prepared seedbed between tree rows in late September
through mid-November. Most plants will re-seed themselves if mowed in January or early February
and then allowed to re-grow into April and May. Mowing after the seeds mature ensures seeds for
the next season. Sometimes larger-seeded cover crops such as beans, vetch, or clover are planted
in orchards and tilled in as green manure (also see Soil Chapter No.3 for more information). Keep
cover crops away from the trees. Changing cover crop species reduces the potential for build-up of
disease pathogens, weeds, rodents, and insect pests.
10.4.3 Mulches
Weeds in the tree row can also be controlled using mulches. Organic mulches (cereal straw, green
waste, composted wood chips, almond shells) or synthetic mulches of polyethylene, polypropylene,
or polyester can be used around young trees. Shredded tree pruning also make good mulch (also
see Soil Chapter No.3 for more information). Always apply mulches when the soil surface is free
of weeds. Mulches prevent the growth of weed seedlings by blocking light and preventing it from
reaching the soil surface. However, mulches may also provide a good habitat for gophers, voles,
field mice, and snakes or be a source of new weed seed that came with the mulch. Mulches do not
control perennial weed growth unless all light can be excluded; some woven fabric mulches offer
excellent weed control for several years, but the initial cost of purchase and installation is high.
10.4.4. Herbicides
In order to control weeds with herbicides after trees are
planted and before bearing, it is recommended to apply a pre-
emergent herbicide to either a square or circle around each
tree (at least 1.5m-2m across) or as a band down the tree row.
Young trees need to be protected from contact by some post-
emergent sprays. Be sure to check and follow individual label
instructions.
In most orchards, herbicides are used only on a narrow strip of soil centred on the orchard row.
Herbicides can also be applied to control weeds after they emerge. Selective herbicides are available
for annual grass control and suppression of perennial grasses, but to be effective they require the
addition of either a non-ionic surfactant or a non-phytotoxic oil.
In conjunction with the application of herbicides in the tree row, mowing or cultivating the weeds
between the rows can be used. Herbicides such as napropamide and oryzalin are safe to use as a
directed spray in newly planted olive orchards. Additional products are available for use in established
orchards such as oxyfluorfen which can be used in pre and post-emergence applications.
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Annex 1 Catalogue with the main perennial weeds and management programme.
Bermudagrass Cynoaon aactylon (Family
Poaceae): Bermudagrass is a vigorous spring
and summer-growing perennial. It grows from
seed but its extensive system of rhizomes and
stolons can also be spread during cultivation. It
is very competitive in olive orchards for moisture
and nutrients. Seedlings are controlled with pre-
emergent herbicides. If bermudagrass develops
in an orchard or in localized areas, spot treat it at
its flowering stage with post-emergent herbicides
such as glyphosate or sulfosate.
Dallisgrass Paspalum ailatatum (Family Poaceae):
Dallisgrass is a common perennial weed found
in olive orchards. It has a clumpy growth habit
that gives it a bunchgrass appearance. It can be
highly competitive in newly planted orchards; in
established orchards it competes for soil moisture
and nutrients. Seedlings germinate in spring and
summer and form new plants on short rhizomes that
develop from the original root system. Dallisgrass
seedlings can be controlled with cultivation or
with pre-emergent herbicides. Treatment with
glyphosate or sulfosate has been successful in
controlling dallisgrass infestations.
Field bindweed. Convolvulus arvensis (Family Convolvulaceae): Field bindweed is a vigorous
perennial weed that either grows from seed, which
can survive for up to 30 years in the soil, or from
stolons, rhizomes, or extensive roots. Because of
the longevity of the seed in the soil, it is critical to
destroy plants before they can produce seed. The
plants may spread from stem or root sections that
are cut during cultivations. However, cultivation
controls seedlings. If field bindweed appears in or
around the orchard, spot treat it with high label
rates of glyphosate or sulfosate.
Johnsongrass. Sorghum halepense (Family Poaceae): Johnsongrass is a perennial weed that spreads
from seed or from an extensive system of underground rhizomes. It grows vigorously in spring and
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summer when it overtops newly planted trees and
competes for light, moisture, and nutrients. Severe
setback of a young orchard can occur under these
conditions. A post-emergent application of fluazifop
or clethodim can be used around newly planted
trees. If johnsongrass develops in or around trees in
an established orchard, spray it with glyphosate or
sulfosate to prevent the spread of its rhizomes.
Nutsedge. Cyperus spp. (Family Cyperaceae):
Yellow nutsedge is a perennial weed that reproduces
from underground tubers that survive for 2 to 5
years in the soil. The tubers are easily spread by
cultivation equipment. Each tuber contains several
buds capable of producing plants. In established
orchards, if nutsedge develops, it is recommended
to apply glyphosate or sulfosate.
Wild blackberry. Rubus spp. (Family Rosaceae):
Wild blackberries are vigorous perennial vines
that are often found around orchard margins and
sometimes around the trunks of trees. They interfere
with all cultural operations, especially pruning and
harvest. For best control, spot treat with glyphosate
or sulfosate at the flowering stage or after fruiting
when there is good soil moisture and the plants
aren`t stressed. A re-treatment may be required on
large clumps if regrowth occurs. If blackberry is
growing near or up into an olive canopy, pull the
vines out before treating so the herbicide will not
get into the tree.
Little mallow (cheeseweed) Malva parviora
(Family Malvaceae):
It is an annual or biennial plant that is sometimes
not controlled with pre-emergent herbicides.
Oxyfluorfen effectively controls seedlings or young
plants. Mature plants are tall and woody with a
large taproot that can be removed with a shovel or
with cultivation.
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Annex 2. Catalogue with the main herbicide treatments in olive orchards.
2.1 During site preparation (before planting)
2.1.1 Established weeds
A. GLYPHOSATE - spray with a controlled applicator or with low pressure flat fan nozzles. Apply to
young annuals or vigorously growing perennials in the flowering stage. Some perennials require
the high label rate for control. Weeds should not be cultivated for 7-14 days after treatment to
obtain maximum control. New weeds usually do not establish for a month or more, due to the
no-till effect. Residual period: less than 1 month.
B. SULFOSATE - for annual weed control, application should be when weeds are less than 12
inches in height. Use flat fan nozzles at 30-50 psi, not flood jets. A non-ionic surfactant may be
used up to 0.25% volume per volume.
C. PARAQUAT - it is recommended to use 0.5% nonionic surfactant. Repeat treatment as new
growth occurs. Residual period: less than 1 month.
2.2 After planting
2.2.1 Before weeds emerge
A. ORYZALIN - it can be used in non-bearing and bearing trees. Best if irrigated after application
or applied before rainfall. If rain does not occur within 21 days, sprinkle irrigate with 12mm-
25mm of water. May be combined with a post-emergent herbicide if weeds are present. The
higher rates give the longest soil residual. Residual period: 6-12 months.
B. NAPROPAMIDE - it can be used in non-bearing and bearing trees. Must be incorporated within
7 days of application or sprinkler irrigated. A second application can be made during any one
growing season. May be combined with a post-emergent herbicide if weeds have emerged.
Residual period: 410- months. Pre-Harvest Interval (P.H.I.): 35 days.
C. OXYFLUORFEN - it can be used in non-bearing and bearing trees. Application should be done
on firm soil. Must not be mechanically disturbed otherwise poor weed control will result. Often
combined with oryzalin. Residual period 4-10 months
D. DIURON - it is recommended a split application in fall and spring. Direct spray to the soil under
trees at least 3 years of age. Diuron is sometimes combined with other pre-emergent herbicides
to broaden the spectrum of weeds controlled. These combination treatments frequently use lower
rates of diuron. Do not apply to tree trunks less than 5cm in diameter. Do not use on soils with
less than 1% organic matter. Residual period: 8-12 months.
E. SIMAZINE - make only 1 application/year to the soil under trees older than 3 years anytime
between harvest and early spring. Use the high rate for heavy soils. Simazine is frequently used
in combination with other pre-emergent herbicides. On light soils, simazine often is used at the
low rates. Do not use on gravel, sand, or loamy sand soils. If an irrigation is applied immediately
after application, limit water to 12mm. Residual period: 8-12 months.
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2.2.2 Established weeds
A. GLYPHOSATE - apply with a controlled droplet applicator or with low pressure flat fan nozzles.
Apply to young annuals or vigorous growing perennials. Avoid drift onto green bark or foliage,
or injury will result. Weeds should not be cultivated for 7-14 days after treatment for maximum
control. Pre-harvest interval (P.H.I): 17 days.
B. SULFOSATE - for annual weed control apply when weeds are less than 30cm in height. Use flat
fan nozzles at 30-50 psi, not flood jets. Do not apply more than 4 lb/acre/year. Avoid drift onto
green bark or foliage otherwise injury will result.
C. PARAQUAT - use 0.5% non-ionic surfactant. Repeat treatment as new growth occurs. Residual
period: less than 1 month. Do not exceed 4 post-emergent directed applications/season. Pre-
harvest interval ( P.H.I.): 13 days.
D. OXYFLUORFEN - apply to young (4-leaf stage) weeds. May be combined with other post-
emergent herbicides for specific weeds.
E. FLUAZIFOP-P-BUTYL - use on non-bearing trees only for selective control of grasses when they
are 520-cm tall, but before tillering and/or heading. Use a crop oil (1%) or nonionic surfactant
(0.25%) to increase penetration and control. Do not apply to grass that is stressed otherwise poor
control may result. Pre-harvest interval ( P.H.I.): 365 days.
F. SETHOXYDIM - it is recommended for annual and perennial grasses in non-bearing trees
only. Repeat applications will be required for the control of perennial grasses. Add a crop oil
concentrate to the spray solution. Do not apply to grass that is stressed otherwise poor control
may result. Residual period: less than 1 month. Pre-harvest interval (P.H.I): 365 days.
G. CLETHODIM - for use on nonbearing trees only. Apply to rapidly growing grasses when they
have reached the height recommended on label. Do not apply to drought stressed plants. Use a
crop oil concentrate. Do not apply within 1 year of harvest.
2.3 Herbicide combinations
Combinations are most often used to broaden the weed control spectrum. Perennial weeds will not
be controlled with these combinations. Other combinations can be used depending upon the weed
spectrum in the orchard.
A. GLYPHOSATE plus OXYFLUORFEN - helps to increase control of little mallow, chickweed,
and grasses. The effectiveness of glyphosate is increased with low water volume; oxyfluorfen is
more effective at the higher volume. Avoid drift and follow directions for application period of
oxyfluorfen. Pre-harvest interval ( P.H.I.): 17 days.
B. GLYPHOSATE plus ORYZALIN or NAPROPAMIDE - combines post and pre-emergent
control of most annual weeds with residual control up to 6 months. Combination choice depends
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on weed spectrum and how rapid incorporation will occur following application. Napropamide
needs irrigation within 7 days, oryzalin within 21 days. Pre-harvest interval ( P.H.I.): 35 days.
C. PARAQUAT plus XYFLUORFEN - broad-spectrum post-emergent control. Avoid drift and
follow directions for application period of oxyfluorfen. Pre-harvest interval (P.H.I): 13, do not
apply within this many days of harvest.
D. ORYZALIN plus OXYFLUORFEN - applied pre-emergence or combined with paraquat or
glyphosate if weeds have emerged. Activate within 21 days.
E. SIMAZINE plus DIURON plus GLYPHOSATE - this combination is effective on a broad range
of weed species. Add glyphosate only when weeds have emerged and are actively growing. Use
lower rates of simazine and diuron on light soils and high rates on heavy, fine-textured soils.
Residual period for diuron and simazine: 8-12 months. Glyphosate has no biological residual.
Pre-harvest interval (P.H.I): 17 days.
Note: Pictures have been provided by N. A. Seraphides, A. Hadzinokolis, C. Gregoriou,
International Olive Oil Council and the World Wide Web.
Americanos, P.G. 1991. Chemical control of weeds on olive groves Technical Bulletin 133.
Agricultural Research Institute, Nicosia. 6p.
Bini, G., and S. Ghisolfi. 1986. No-tillage of soil using herbicides: a prospect for olive growing.
Weea Astracts 87, Abstract No. 3577.
Elmore, C.L., Cudney, D.W. and. Donaldson D. R. Weeds. The UC IPM Pest Management
Guideliness: Olive. Publication 3452. University of California, USA, Agriculture and Natural
Research.
Fermandez, P.J.M., and R.A. Velasco. 1978. Herbicides in the olive groves of Cordova province.
Proceeaings of the Meaiterranean Herbiciae Symposium, pp. 286-296. Madrid.
Fiorino, P. et. al. 1996. Agronomic techniques and characteristics of olive oil. Olive Encyclopaedia.p.
197-222. International Olive Oil Council, Principe de Vergara 154, 28002, Madrid, Spain.
Michelakis, N. 2002. Olive orchard management: advances and problems. (ISHS) 586:239-245.
Montemurro, P., Fracchiolla, M., Guarini, D. and Lasorella, C. 2002. Results of a chemical weed
control trial in an oil olive orchard.. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 586:397-400.
Parsons, W. T. and Cuthbertson, E. G. (2001). Noxious Weeds of Australia. CSIRO Publishing,
Collingwood, Victoria.
Pollastro, L. 1977. Circles under olive trees to facilitate harvesting. Weed Abstracts 27, Abstract
No. 2251.
213 213
Pontikis, k. 1981. Olive Handbook. Karampelopoulos Edition. Athens, Greece.
Randall, R. P. 2002. A Global Compendium of Weeds. R. G. & F.J. Richardson, Melbourne.
Rom, R.C. 1972. Herbicide effect on surface soil in orchards and rainfall infiltration. Arkansas
Farm Research. 5p.
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11. Pest and Disease Management
Costas Gregoriou
Mohieddine Ksantini
Olive Tree Institute, Sfax, Tunisia
Nicos Serafides
11.1 General guidelines
Of all agricultural practices, it is perhaps pest control that has the greatest impact on public opinion.
Most Quality Assurance schemes tailored to market and consumer demands require foods to be
clear of chemical residues and the population is increasingly aware of and concerned about chemical
impacts not only on the human body but also on the environment. Maintenance of crop health is
essential for successful farming for both yield and quality of produce as well as for safety and
environmental protection. This requires long-term strategies and application of good agricultural
practice. The GAP approach should be based on the following:

Use of certified high quality, healthy nursery plants;

Use resistant cultivars and varieties;

Apply proper cultural practices that maximize biological prevention of pests and diseases (soil
management, pruning, fertilization, irrigation, weed control, harvesting etc);

Maintain regular and quantitative assessment of the balance status between pests and diseases
and beneficial organisms of all crops;

Adopt organic control practices where and when applicable;

Apply pest and disease forecasting techniques where available;

Decide on interventions following consideration of all possible methods and their short and long-
term effects on farm productivity and environmental implications in order to minimize the use of
agrochemicals, in particular to promote integrated pest management (IPM).
The development of integrated pest management programmes is based on an understanding of
the environment and of population dynamics in the orchard ecosystem, on the compatible use of
chemical and biological methods to reduce insect pest populations to levels that do not cause damage
above the economic threshold.
This approach has come to be considered more rational than other types of management systems
because the growing, indiscriminate use of chemicals led to the appearance of a series of undesirable
changes in olive groves. These include:

The intensification of attacks from pests that had previously been kept in very good check by
their natural enemies (natural parasites used to keep scale insect and mite populations balanced
in olive orchards);
215 215

Resistance phenomena to certain chemicals started to appear due to their repeated use (e.g.
Dimethoate);

An increased number of treatments. These were applied according to fixed schedules without
ascertaining the level of the pest population, when it is best to treat, which product is most
effective, what is the right dose, etc;

Treatment costs have gone up;

Environmental pollution has increased. This is a major issue in olive farming because of the large
acreage cropped in extensive areas of the Mediterranean countries; and

Problems of pesticide residues in olive oil and table olives can arise if the safety intervals or the
maximum authorized residue limits are not observed.
Chemicals are only used in integrated pest management when the thresholds have been exceeded
and when, after considering the action of the factors regulating the populations of different species
of pests, there is no other effective management system. Although a degree of chemical control
will still be necessary in many cases, pesticide use and associated risks can often be reduced. One
factor is the careful determination of the best time to apply the treatment to combat the pest while
trying as far as possible to avoid harming most of the existing auxiliary fauna. It is a case of keeping
applications to the minimum, and of using the lowest effective dose and the most selective products.
Safety intervals have to be observed and, above all, it is necessary to be fully familiar with the side
effects.
11.2 Application phases of integrated pest and disease management
Three phases have to be completed for integrated management systems to be applied correctly:

Research phase: During this phase information is gathered on the crop impact and treatment
thresholds of the various pests; the development and dynamics of the pests and their natural
enemies; methods of population assessment; food, light, semiochemical and other attractants to
catch harmful species; influence of cultural practices on their development; influence of climatic
factors etc;

Development phase: In this phase the techniques studied are finalized in pilot plots in the olive
growing area concerned; and

Application phase: The techniques chosen are implemented in wider areas and are relayed to
farmers.
A high standard of technical expertise is required to carry through this process together with firm
support from the institutions involved in olive farming: governments, universities, international and
national organizations, trade associations and cooperatives.
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11.3 Key elements of integrated pest and disease management
Good pest and disease management decisions can be made only after answering questions such as:
1. What pests or diseases are present, and in what numbers and stages of development?
2. What conditions exist that may increase or decrease pest or disease problems?
3. What natural enemies of the pests, such as parasites, predators, and diseases are present that
may play an important role in control?
4. What amount and type of damage is being caused or may soon be caused by pests or
diseases?
5. What is the stage of development, condition, and value of the crop?
6. What is the potential for economic impact on the enterprise? How much damage is tolerable?
Has the action threshold been reached?
7. What is the history and severity of previous infestations at the site? How were those infestations
managed? What were the results?
8. What management options are available, and how do the advantages and disadvantages of
each apply to the situation?
9. If alternatives are not available, is a pesticide treatment justified for the situation? If so, what
is the material of choice?
10. If a pesticide is not justified, what approaches, if any, should be taken?
11.3.1 Pest and disease identification
The first, most crucial step is to identify the pest or disease. The effectiveness of subsequent pest or
disease management depends on correct identification. Misidentification of the pest or disease may
be worse than useless; it may actually be harmful, cost time and money and allow further spreading
of the pest or disease.
After a pest or disease is identified, appropriate and effective management depends on monitoring
and risk assessment.
11.3.2 Risk assessment and monitoring
Populations of pests and diseases must be regularly monitored and recorded. Scientifically
established assessment methods appropriate to the region or locality must be used. For each pest or
disease the approximate level of infestation or the risk of damage must be estimated. The decision
must be based on scientifically established threshold levels and the official forecasts of pest and/or
disease occurrence and risks. Existing and validated forecasting models for diseases should be used
and the use of adequate monitoring devices by groups of growers is recommended.
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11.3.3 Monitoring
Monitoring involves systematically checking the fields for pests at regular intervals and at critical
times to gather information about the crop, pests, and natural enemies. Sweep nets, sticky traps
and pheromone traps can be used to collect insects for both identification and population density
information. Leaf counts is one method for recording plant growth stages. An area of a square-foot
or larger grid laid out in a field can provide a basis for comparative weed counts. Records of rainfall
and temperature are sometimes used to predict the likelihood of disease infections. The more often
a crop is monitored, the more information a grower has about what is happening in his fields.
Frequency may vary with temperature, crop, growth phase of the crop and pest populations. If a pest
population is approaching economically damaging levels, the grower must be extra cautious.
11.3.4 Economic injury level (EIL):
Economic injury level is the pest population that inflicts crop damage greater than the cost of
control measures. Because growers will generally want to act before a population reaches EIL, IPM
programmes use the concept of an economic threshold level (ETL or ET), also known as an action
threshold. The ETL is closely related to the EIL, and is the point at which suppression tactics should
be applied in order to prevent pest populations from increasing to injurious levels.
In practice, many countries have no established EILs or ETLs, or the EILs that have been developed
may be static over the course of a growing season and do not reflect the changing nature of an
agricultural ecosystem.
EILs are intimately related to the value of the crop and the part of the crop being attacked. For
example, a pest that attacks the fruit will have a much lower ETL (that is, it must be controlled at
lower levels) than a pest that attacks a non-saleable part of the plant. The exception to this rule is an
insect or nematode pest that is also a disease vector. Depending on the severity of the disease, the
grower may face a situation where the ETL for a particular species because the disease it transmits
is so destructive.
11.3.5 Action Threshold
The action threshold is a key IPM decision-making tool. Thresholds are based on considerable
amounts of research and field experience. If an action threshold is approached, but not reached, a
pesticide should not be applied at that time. Instead, the field should be rescouted within a few days
to determine the status of the infestation. Pest populations can decline naturally due to mortality
from natural enemies and unfavourable weather conditions. Precise timing of needed pesticide
applications is extremely important to achieve good pest control. Pest monitoring, action thresholds,
and a good knowledge of the life cycles of pests are used to determine the best timing of needed
treatments.
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11.3.6 Management
11.3.6.1 Pest and disease management in the nursery
The nursery is the first source of safe or contaminated olive plants in which several pest and diseases
occur:

Fungi (Fusarium sp, Jerticillium spp, Macrophomina phaseoli, Armillaria mellea, Corticium sp.);

Nematodes (Meloaogyne spp, Pratylenchus spp, Tylenchulus spp, Helicotylenchus spp, ,
Zygotylenchus spp, Xiphinema spp, ) that also attack the roots. Young plantations will have a
weak growth and often remain small in size;

Insects (Palpita unionalis, Euphyllura olivina, Aspiaiotus nerii.) observed generally on the
aerial parts of the olive plants (branches, leaves, terminal buds); and

Mites (Aceria oleae, Oxycenus maxwelli.).
To prevent any source of contamination and obtain safe olive plants, growers should strictly:

Keep the nursery away of contaminated areas;

Use a safe substrate;

Use a safe plant (safe wood stock, vitro plants);

Use a resistant stock to prevent nematodes and soil fungus;

Treat the soil with pesticide (to control nematodes, insects, diseases ) before transplanting the
young olive plants; and

Regularly disinfect all material to prevent any disease contamination and keep the nursery safe.
11.3.6.2 Pest and disease management before planting
Growers should:

Choose a resistant or tolerant and adapted olive oil or olive table variety;

Choose safe soil (not contaminated with nematodes and diseases). Soils used to produce other
cultures contaminated with fungus and/or nematodes (cotton, tomato, etc.) are prohibited;

Give soil balanced fertilization (determined after soil analysis);

Plant at appropriate density; and

Avoid planting between rows other crops that may harbour olive pests and diseases.
11.3.6.3. Pest and disease management after planting
There are a variety of management systems but the most important ones are outlined below:
Cultural practices are being taken into account more and more in integrated pest and disease management
and are designed to hamper the proliferation of phytophagous pests. Some of these techniques have
proved to be very effective and easy to use if they are applied properly:

Autumn and winter tillage affects the larvae of soil insects (Melolontha spp, Cicaaa spp.) and
those that overwinter in the ground, like Otiorrhynchus spp, Prays oleae ana Bactrocera oleae. Soil
219 219
cultivation has proved particularly effective in combating the olive cicada (Psalmocharias plagifera)
in the centre of Tunisia where 3 or 4 cultivations a year reduced the populations of this pest by
85%. Nevertheless in case of applying minimum till or no till approach which is recommended by
this GAP manual, the grove floor should be maintained clean of fallen fruits and where necessary a
light scratching of soil shallow profile will be similarly effective and will help conserving the soil as
discussed in the Soil Chapter (3).

Excessive nitrogen fertilization encourages the development of scale insects, psyllids, olive leaf
spot and soil fungus;

Pruning and removal of adventitious shoots and suckers: severe pruning involving the removal
of large branches or thinning of flowering and fruiting shoots is an effective way of reducing
populations of numerous harmful species such as scales, xylophagous insects (Phloeotribus
scarabeoides, Hylesinus oleiperda, Zeuzera pyrina, Euzophera pinguis). Pruning in December/
January contribute to eliminate 30% of the larvae of the third generation of olive moth. Remove
adventitious shoots and suckers in summer, limit psyllid proliferation in the autumn in order to
restrict the development of the first spring generation;

If pruning is not done properly, it encourages the spread of many insects like the pyralid jasmine
moth, oleander scale and psyllid;

Use of natural attractants and removal of pruning brush: this technique is recommended to control
olive beetles. Setting up piles of wood in the orchards attracts this pest and acts as traps. After the
beetles have entered the piles they can then be destroyed;

For the olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae), its recommended to use a sensitive olive tree variety
in the orchard (early fruit set, very receptive olives) which attract the insects and acts as a banker
trap;

Enhancement of natural enemies in olive groves: this can be achieved by manipulation of the
ground cover by creating vegetation islands with flowering plants and developing cultural
techniques to preserve hibernating sites for beneficial insects. The application of additional
food resources (vegetation islands of flowering plants, artificial food) will support the impact of
natural enemies;

In drought conditions, irrigation protects olive trees and prevents the bark being attacked by
beetles; and

Harvest time is another way to control olive fruit fly and maintain crop quality. With early
harvesting, serious attacks in late autumn and winter can be avoided.
Biological control goes back a long time in olive farming. It began at the turn of the last century
and is focused on the three pests that are considered to have the greatest economic impact in olive
farming: Bactrocera oleae, Prays oleae and Saissetia oleae. This technique releases large quantities
220 220
of adapted parasitoids like Trichogramma spp against Prays oleae, Opius concolor to control
Bactrocera oleae, the parasitoids (Aphytis spp, Metaphycus spp, Diversinervus spp) and the
predators (Rhizobius forestieri, Exochomus quadripustulatus, Chilocorus bipustulatus) to limit
Saissetia oleae and Aspidiotus nerii populations.
Microbiological control, such as Bacillus thuringiensis (to control olive moth and pyralid moth) and
Saccharopolyspora spinosa (to control olive moth and olive fruit fly). Research is being conducted
to extend these bacterial control activities to other insects, like the psyllid.
Bio-technical methods such as mating disruption, mass trapping with pheromones, growth inhibitors,
etc. are being tested. Some methods are very advanced and their effectiveness is proving comparable
to that of conventional methods. This makes us think that suitable techniques will be available in the
near future for inclusion in integrated management programmes.
Mechanical methods such as the destruction of xylophage galleries, bird and rodent habitats. Such
methods would need to be balanced against the value these habitats have in the wider landscape on
a case-by-case basis.
Semi chemical treatments such as localized treatments with a mixture of insecticide + hydrolysed
protein baits to control Bactrocera oleae, poisoned baits to control rodents and birds, mineral soap
to control scales, natural products (sulphur) to control mites, fungi etc.
Chemical control continues to be important in pest and disease control in olives , but should not
be the primary mode of crop protection and should only be applied in the light of the principles
outlined so far.
11.3.6.4 Pest and disease management on Organic Olive Growing
While, in principle, any pesticide use is discouraged in organic systems, a rather wide range of
biorational pesticides is permitted. The pesticides permitted in organic farming fall predominantly
into several classes.
Minerals: these include sulphur, copper and diatomaceous earth;
Botanicals: these include common commercial materials such as rotenone, neem, and pyrethrum;
Soaps: a number of commercial soap-based products are effective as insecticides, herbicides,
fungicides, and algicides;
Pheromones: these can be used as a means to confuse and disrupt pests during their mating cycles,
or to draw them into traps; and
Biologicals: one of the fastest-growing areas in pesticide development, bio-pesticides, presents some
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of the greatest hope for organic control of highly destructive pests. Among the most well-known
bio-pesticides are the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) formulations for control of lepidopterous pests.
11.4 Pesticide Management (use, misuse and precautions)
In the case of chemical treatments consideration should be given to the following:

A grower should critically evaluate the need for a pesticide and, when possible, (i) use alternative
methods of pest control; (ii) if these are not available, select pesticides that are least harmful to
the agro-ecosystem and to human health

Pesticides must be registered with the relevant National registration authority and be approved
for use on olives. Registration enables authorities to control quality, use levels, efficacy claims,
labelling, packaging and advertising. Registration also helps to ensure that the interests of end-
users are well protected.

They should be applied, handled and stored in accordance with the instructions given on the label
or on the manufacturers safety data sheet for the product.

Pesticides should be used only when needed and only in the amounts that will adequately control
pests.

Using the minimum recommend amount of pesticide reduces costs, residues and helps to protect
the environment.

The instructions for application of a particular pesticide should be read carefully before using
the product. Information such as restrictions for its use (beneficial insects, bees etc.), application
rates, approved doses, compatibility with other substances, mixing properties, number and
minimal intervals between application and harvesting days after application should be carefully
considered.

Special attention should be paid to spray equipment, pumps and nozzles used to apply pesticides.
To minimize the potential for over or under treatment, accidents and spills, they should be
calibrated for accuracy and checked frequently for malfunctions. Spray equipment should be
regularly washed to prevent possible contamination of olives with compounds not authorized for
that commodity and to avoid accidentally overdosing.

All pesticides should be stored safely away from children, animals, all water sources and anyone
who might misuse them. Pesticides should be stored in clearly labelled containers; storage in
the original containers is preferable. Containers should be kept in a safe storehouse that is well
ventilated and can be closed off to prevent unauthorized entry. The storehouse should be located
away from populated areas, on well-drained land, and away from domestic water supplies. It
should be constructed with non-combustible material, and have a leak proof floor and emergency
exists.

Small farmers should keep the pesticides in a locking cupboard made from iron (locking
cabinet).
222 222

Any pesticide spillage should be absorbed with sand or sawdust
and then swept up. Thereafter, the floor should be cleaned with
detergent and water.

Use of appropriate masks, gloves and other protective gear as
recommended on the label is essential. Personal cleaning and
bathing after application are also essential.

Pesticides should not be sprayed if there is wind (windy weather)
causing pesticide drift.

Pesticides, passengers (human-beings and animals) and food should never be transported in the
same vehicle.

Strict adherence to Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) for each pesticide used. The MRL is the
maximum level of residue that is legally permitted to remain in or on the olive in order to provide
reasonable assurance that no adverse effects to the consumer will result over a lifetime of dietary
exposure.

Pesticide disposal: Empty pesticide containers should be washed multiple times and then taken
to an appropriate place for disposal. Empty, properly rinsed pesticide containers can be disposed
of at most sanitary landfills. In view of the persistent, volatile nature of many pesticides, disposal
by burning or burying on the farm is discouraged. Pesticides or pesticide containers should never
be disposed of in unused wells or near water sources.

Training: Thorough training of personnel responsible for using and applying pesticides is critical.
They should be trained in the appropriate use of the product and be aware of the dangers that
can result from its improper use. They should also be trained in the use of safety equipment and
application devices. Field workers should be reminded that adverse health effects caused by
inappropriate use of pesticides are often not noticeable in the short term, but can develop over
time if exposure is not reduced. Employers have an obligation to ensure that staff involved in
the application of pesticides are provided with the necessary protective gear and appropriate
sprayers that meet national or FAO standards.

Avoiding Crop Injury: certain chemicals may cause injury to crops (phytotoxicity) under certain
conditions. It is important to always consult the label for limitations. Before applying any
pesticide, operators should take into account the stage of plant development, the soil type and
condition, the temperature, moisture and wind conditions. Injury to plants may also result from
the use of incompatible materials.

Personal Safety. label directions should be followed carefully, avoiding splashing, spilling, leaks,
spray drift and contamination of clothing. Operators should NEVER eat, smoke, drink, or chew
while using pesticides. Provision for emergency medical care should be made IN ADVANCE as
required by regulation.
223 223

Careful application records should be kept on pesticide usage and should include the information
listed below:
1. Date of application;
2. Place where the specific orchard covered is located;
3. Name of pesticide (active ingredient, formulation and trade name) as printed on the label;
4. The dosage and volume of spray applied per unit area;
5. The operator name for monitoring purposes;
6. The common name of target pest, disease and weed;
7. Pest/disease level or risk as justification for treatment; and
8. First permitted harvest date.
This is essential from a food safety point of view but will also enable the grower to demonstrate
good agricultural and environmental practice on his or her farm in the event of a disease or pest
outbreak. This in turn will minimize the potential negative effects such an outbreak can have on the
individual enterprise.
11.5. Guidelines for control of the main pests and diseases
11.5.1. Insects and mites
Olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae)
This is the most widespread and best
known olive pest. It is characteristic of the
Mediterranean countries but can also be found
in other regions. It is much more problematic in
humid, frost free areas, where it can decimate
the olive crop, leading to greatly reduced oil
quality. However, in dry, high altitude areas,
the presence of olive fly tends to be much less
and control measures may not be necessary on
a regular basis.
The number of generations varies according to local climatic and agronomic conditions. In areas
with a continental climate there are only two or three generations a year, while in the coastal
Mediterranean areas there are more.
Damage: The factors contributing to the economic losses caused by the olive fly include direct
damage through fruit drop and weight loss, and indirect damage due to the poor quality of the oils
produced in infested areas.
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While weight loss through early fruit drop may be offset by
weight gain in the olives left on the tree, this is not the case when
weight loss is caused by fruit drop from November onwards.
The loss in oil quality is caused by the development of micro-
flora inside the galleries made by the larva. When conditions
are optimal (high humidity and mild temperature), these flora
alter the acidity and organoleptic quality of the oil.
Management: Various monitoring methods are used for this
insect, based on attraction by colour (yellow sticky traps), by food
(McPhail traps) and by sex-pheromone (spiroacetal) baited traps. Colour
and food traps provide similar information as they catch both males and
females, while traps primed with synthetic pheromones catch only males.
Traditionally two methods have been used to manage this insect: one kills
the adults and the other kills the larvae. The first treatment is preventive
and entails eliminating the adult insect before it lays its eggs. Usually an organophosphate or
pyrethroid insecticide, combined with an attractant (ammonium salts, protein hydrolysate) is used.
This method is being used in lure and kill treatments that involve ground spraying 2-3 m
2
of the
southern facing part of the canopy.
The larvicidal treatments applied are curative and entail ground spraying of the entire tree canopy
usually with an organophosphate insecticide.
In most countries the thresholds set for larvicide treatments are active infestation of 10-15% for oil
olives and 2-5% for table olives. For adult treatments, the intervention threshold is set at captures
of 3-5 females/trap/week and active infestation of 5%.
Olive moth (Prays oleae)
The olive moth is a monophagous species that lives off the olive tree. It
has three generations per year, each of which develops on different plant
organs. The first generation lives and develops on the flower buds and
flowers, the second generation lives on the fruit and the larvae develop
inside the fruit damaging the kernel and the third generation develops on
the leaves.
Damage: The damage caused by the first generation is a reduced yield
when infestation is serious. The second generation can cause real damage
and economic loss. The young larvae, which attack the olives in the pepper
225 225
grain stage, cause a small amount of fruit to fall. A second fall, which is
usually more serious, occurs in September-October, due to the emergence
of the mature larvae through the peduncle. The damage caused by the
third generation is not usually economically significant. When infestation
is exceptionally serious, the larvae destroy the shoot extremities.
Management: Traps primed with a synthetic pheromone are used to monitor
the flight of the males of the various generations. The traps come in two types:
delta or funnel. For adequate monitoring two traps are placed at a minimum of 200 m
from each other. To manage the carpophagous generation, organophosphate
insecticides are used since they penetrate the fruit to eliminate the larvae.
Insecticides used for managing the first generation include organophosphate,
carbamate and pyrethroid pesticides, growth inhibitors and entomopathogens.
At present, the product recommended is Bacillus thuringiensis var. Kurstaki.
Black scale (Saissetia oleae)
This is the most widespread homopteran in olive farming in humid areas
where it is considered to be the third most economically important
pest. If the conditions for development are favourable, it can infest vast
olive growing areas. It is more commonly found, however, in small
areas on individual trees in sheltered, small damp locations. A typical
characteristic of the species is that is always associated with a mould known as sooty or black
mould.
Damage: It causes intense defoliation, withering of branches and a
general state of vegetative decline that reduces production and can
lead to total crop loss in extreme cases. Young black scales excrete
sticky, shiny honeydew on leaves of infested trees. At first, affected
trees and leaves glisten and then become sooty and black in appearance
as sooty mould fungus grows on the honeydew. Infestations reduce
vigour and productivity of the tree. Continued feeding reduces bloom
the following year. Olive workers are also reluctant to pick olive fruit
covered with honeydew and sooty mould.
Management: Saissetia oleae is attacked by numerous parasites and many predators, thus the best
method to control it is to increase and enhance the action of the entomophagous antagonists. If
necessary, chemical treatment can be applied with organophosphate or carbamate insecticides.
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Olive scale (Parlatoria oleae)
This is a polyphagous insect, found in most tropical and subtropical
regions of the world and in all the Mediterranean countries.
Damage: This species can affect the vegetative organs of the tree
although it causes the greatest damage to the fruit. In the cause of table
olives, it detracts from the value of the product while in the case of oil-
olives it lowers the quality and quantity of oil that is produced.
Early in the growing season (late May and June) first brood olive scale
feed on and consequently deform young, rapidly growing fruit. A later brood, in July and August,
causes the pronounced purple spotting of green fruit, rendering it worthless. Heavy olive scale
infestations will also occur on branches, twigs, and leaves. Such infestations substantially reduce
the productivity of a tree. On leaves, they may cause a slight chlorosis and the small twigs are often
a little deformed and darkened.
Management: Under normal conditions, parasites and predators are able to keep the insect populations
within acceptable limits. If necessary, organophosphate insecticides can be applied.
Purple scale (Lepiaosaphes ulmi)
This is a polyphagous insect that mainly damages citrus fruits although
it also can affect olives.
Damage: The larvae settle on the branches, shoots, trunk, leaves and
fruit of the tree. They can cause direct damage by weakening the plant
by sucking the sap, which causes defoliation and smaller crops. When
they infest the fruit, they detract from the value of table olives and
lower the quality of the oil produced.
Management: Parasites and predators are able to keep the insect
populations within acceptable limits. Chemical control should be
applied only when natural management is insufficient and when
most of the population is at the larval stage with an organophosporus
insecticide.
Oleander scale (Aspiaiotus nerii)
This is a polyphagous insect that causes damage mainly to olives, carob,
oleander and lemons. In years when climatic conditions are normal and in
areas where the species develops endemically, there are three generations a
year, while in hot areas with a mild winter a fourth generation may develop.
Oleander scale often appears in greatest numbers on the leaves of the lower
inside part of the tree.
227 227
Damage: The oleander scale infests olive fruit and delays maturity at
the spot where it feeds. Thus, damage is seen as prominent green spots
on purple fruit, in direct contrast to the dark spots caused by olive scale.
Heavy infestations seriously deform fruit, and fruit spotting renders the
olive worthless. Extremely heavy infestations reduce oil content by as
much as 25%. Leaf and twig damage also result in lost production.
Management: Parasites and predators are able to keep the insect populations within acceptable
limits. If necessary, organophosphate insecticides can be applied.
Jasmine moth (Margaronia unionalis)
This insect has various generations through the year. It overwinters in
larval form and the first adults appear at the beginning of spring.
Damage: The larvae cause damage by feeding on the leaves, terminal
buds and fruits. Leaf loss in adult orchards is generally of no relevance
from the economic point of view. In nurseries or young orchards, the
damage is considerable since up to 90% of the leaf area and plant shoots
can be affected.
If the fruit is affected, which occurs in August and September when there are high densities of larval
populations, the damage can be serious.
Management: Treatment should be applied only when the insect affects young nursery plants or
young orchards. In years of exceptional infestation, it is recommended in adult orchards when the
fruit is affected, with a pyrethroid or organophosphate insecticide.
Pyralid moth (Eu:ophera pinguis)
The pyralid moth overwinters as larvae without suspending its activity
and the adults emerge from the cocoon from August till the end of
September.
Damage: The larval galleries damage the plant vessels and block sap
circulation. This causes pronounced vegetative decline in the olive
grove, apparent in the intense yellow colour of most the infested branch
or branches. Severe leaf loss ensues and the branch may die.
Diagnosis is easy since the sawdust produced by the larvae as they dig their
galleries can be seen on the infested branches. Another typical symptom
is a swelling at the points on the infested branches where sap retention
occurs.
Damage can by very serious in young orchards, and in extreme cases the whole tree may be lost.
228 228
At present, treatment is only recommended in adult trees when typical symptoms appear, i.e. when
the branches start to weaken and the leaves start to turn yellow. In the case of young trees, the
recommendation is to carry out treatment when a gallery is observed.
Management: Monitoring of the insect can be achieved with the use of light and food traps and by
counting the pre-imaginal stages on branches and the trunk. Treatment is only recommended in
adult trees with organophosphate insecticides and summer mineral oil. Complementary agronomic
measures (pruning, removal of young shoots) have to be taken to manage this insect.
Leopard moth (Zeu:era pyrina)
The Leopard moth is a polyphagous insect found all over the world.
Normally, its biological cycle lasts two years but in the olive it is
annual.
Damage: The larvae attack the young shoots on the outer part of the
tree, which they penetrate by digging upward galleries under the
bark. The excrement is pushed out with the sawdust and a reddish
coloured plug can be observed on the outside. Then they come out
through a hole and penetrate another shoot. This is repeated until the
larvae are approximately one month old; from then on they attack the
main branches by digging ascending galleries in the cambium. Infested
branches can wither and break, especially in years when the crop is abundant.
The larvae can be located in the gallery by the presence of beige or brown
coloured sawdust and excrement at the entrance.
Management: Adequate pruning and removal of infested branches is needed.
Traditional managing methods include soaking wool in carbon sulphide or paradichlorobenzene
and placing it in the gallery.
Olive leaf gall midge (Dasineura oleae)
This insect is mainly found in the olive growing areas of the eastern Mediterranean countries. The
adults emerge in March and May and lay their eggs on the leaves or inflorescences.
Damage: Deformations have been observed that form galls on the leaves and flower buds. Infestations
on the leaves are not important, but attacks on the inflorescences cause the loss of flower buds.
Management: Treatment with an organophosphate insecticide.
Olive psyllid (Euphyllura olivina)
The insect overwinters as an adult at the base of small branches, leaves
and axillary buds. The start of female activity coincides with the
229 229
vegetative activity of the tree and oviposition becomes generalized in
early spring.
Damage: The insect sucks elaborated sap from the plant, upsetting
the normal vegetative development of the tree. If the eggs are laid
on the buds, these may be affected and the development of the tree
is jeopardized. However, this damage is less serious than when the inflorescences are attacked,
because in many cases this can reduce fertility and can cause the flower buds to drop, which leads
to lower fruit set.
Management: Monitoring of the insect can be achieved by counting the pre-imaginal and adult
populations on branches and inflorescences. The best time for treatment is when the colonies are
forming and the cottony mass is not too dense, with an organophosphate insecticide.
Olive beetle (Phleotribus scarabeoiaes)
The olive beetle is a monogamous species that spends its entire life
in galleries dug in the host plant. One distinctive characteristic is that
to complete its development, it needs to find branches that have been
pruned or accidentally cut, or very debilitated trees that do not receive
adequate cultural care to ensure normal vegetative development.
Damage: The adults cause damage by digging feeding galleries at the
insertion points of branches, leaves, buds, inflorescences and fruits.
These galleries can cause the infested tree part to fall either by itself
or with gusts of wind. As a result the infested tree slows down its
vegetative development and remains small, with a very low leaf/wood
ratio. Other pests and diseases frequently develop alongside this insect.
One example is the olive thrip, which lays its eggs in the galleries dug
by Phloeotribus scarabeoides, or olive knot, which spreads more easily
when there are cracks or galleries in the bark. All this lends a very
characteristic appearance to the tree when it is heavily infested. It is
strikingly small and has a large quantity of wood, the branches are not developed, and it has olive
knot galls and bears very little.
Management: Preventive measures should be applied for managing this insect (prune early, remove
and destroy pruning brush). The threshold for treatment for this insect has been fixed at 10%
infestations of shoots and deep-penetrating organophosphate insecticides are recommended.
230 230
Olive borer (Hylesinus oleiperaa)
Olive borers overwinter as larva. The adults appear in early May and move
towards the branches of the tree where they dig oviposition galleries to lay
eggs.
Damage: Damage occurs when the insect feeds off the plants and
damages its bark. This prevents normal sap flow to the shoots or
branches and can result in withering or general debilitation of the olive
orchard. Infested trees look debilitated and have dry branches and
shoots. Quite deep cracks can be seen in the branches and trunk. There
are also areas of rotten bark and reddish stains in the gallery areas.
A Weevil (Otiorrhynchus cribricollis)
The weevils overwinter as larvae, which go through 10 stages until
development is completed at the beginning of spring. In late April or
early May, the first nymphs appear, followed by the first adults which
emerge until the end of June.
Damage: The weevils feed along the leaf margins, causing a characteristic
notched appearance. They sometimes attack the stalk of the leaves, the buds and the stems of the
fruit. Unless infestation is very severe, they do not cause great damage to adult olive trees.
In the case of young developing olive trees, however, damage is more frequent and results in severe
debilitation of the tree, poor shoot development and short internodes. In extreme cases, the tree may die.
[Ed. :Treatment: does this need a treatment/management section?]
Olive thrips (Liothrips oleae)
Damage: Highly characteristic deformations can be seen on the terminal
leaves of tender shoots and on the stalks, at the centre of which there are
small lighter coloured markings. Defoliation can occur if the stalks are
infested and the fruit may also be deformed similarly to the leaves.
Damage is due to withering the whole branches and shoots. This occurs because the insect sucks the
sap and injects a substance to aid food digestion that causes alterations in the plant tissues. This leads
to poor growth and very short internodes that give the infested trees a characteristic appearance.
[Ed.: Treatment: does this need a treatment/management section?]
231 231
Olive mites
Damage: Generally, they cause little damage and it is only of some importance in the case of the
species of family Eriophyiaae Aceria oleae Nal., Aculops benakii (Hatzinikolis), Aculus olearius
(Castagnoli), Tegolophus hassani (Keifer) and Ditrymacus athiasellus (Keifer).
Mites cause leaf deformations like those produced by Liothrips oleae on which reddish-green galls
can be seen. Sometimes, they can attack flower buds and young fruit, which they can make fall in
the event of severe infestation. When the fruit is larger, the mites can cause deformations such as
discoloration at their feeding points.
Management: Treatment is only recommended when populations are very high.
11.5.2 Diseases
Olive knot (Pseuaomonas savastanoi)
Damage: Olive knot can cause the death of small branches and twigs as
well as the progressive debilitation of the tree, although it rarely kills it.
Crop production is reduced in terms of both fruit quantity and size. Olives
from infected branches have an unpleasant smell and a bitter, rancid taste.
The resultant oil has inferior organoleptic characteristics.
Factors affecting the disease

Rain and a humid environment facilitate the persistence and spread of the bacterium whereas it
is very sensitive to sunlight and drought.

Hail and frost are also conducive to the development of the disease.

Bacterial multiplication slows down at temperatures below 18
o
C. The optimal temperature for
development is 22-25
o
C.

Cultivars show different degrees of susceptibility in the field: Frantoio and Empeltre are very
susceptible, Arbequina and Manzanilla are susceptible and Arauco, Ascolana and Santa Caterina
are quite resistant.
Management: The strategy against olive knot centres on reducing the inoculum source by pruning
infected branches to eliminate most of the galls and on preventing wounds and reducing the risk of
injuries.
The following practices are recommended as indirect methods of management:

In areas where infection is high, the olives should be harvested by hand or by machine but not by
beating with poles;

The olives should not be harvested when it is raining;

Healthy plants should be pruned before sick plants and tools should always be disinfected with
formalin;
232 232

Pruned branches should be burned immediately on site;

Resistant varieties should be used;

The trees should be kept balanced to ensure they only produce the leaves necessary for their
development;

Cicatrisants (wound paste) should be used on cuts after pruning; and

Treatment with copper protects wounds and leaf scars and should be applied as soon as possible
every time it hails or frosts.
Verticillium Wilt (Jerticillium dahliae)
Symptoms: This disease is caused by the fungus Verticillium dahliae
and characterized by wilted shoots, which are caused by vascular lesions
that disrupt the water transport system of the plant, so giving rise to two
different types of external symptoms.
The first is known as slow decline and produces necrosis of the
inflorescences of infected trees; the wilted, mummified flowers generally
remain on the tree, although they may drop if the disease develops at the start of flowering. The
leaves on infested branches turn a dull green colour and drop before wilting completely, except in
the case of the distal leaves that stay on the tree for quite a while longer although they do eventually
wilt. The branches become reddish brown on the outside and dark chestnut on the inside, eventually
taking on the typical dun colour of wilted branches.
These symptoms start to show towards the end of April and gradually evolve through spring until
the beginning of summer.
The second kind of symptom is known as rapid decline or apoplexy and appears at the end
of winter or the beginning of spring. It is characterized by the rapid death of shoots, secondary
branches and sometimes main branches; the wood turns a purple colour that spreads from the end to
the base. The internal tissues of the necrotic areas turn dark chestnut. Initially, the leaves of infected
branches lose their green colour and turn brown. They shrivel up and stick to the branches, on which
they are often folded up. In some cases the disease can cause the death of the tree.
Damage: This disease has a great development potential. At present it affects extensive olive
growing areas, above all new orchards in countries where olive cultivation is expanding or where
traditional orchards are being restructured. It generally affects irrigated olive orchards located
in areas where other irrigated crops are grown and where plants susceptible to the diseases were
formerly cultivated.
233 233
Attacks by Verticillium dahliae can cause withering of shoots, secondary branches and sometimes
of the whole tree.
Factors affecting the disease: Soil moisture and temperature are two factors of particular interest.
The incidence of the disease is greater in irrigated olive orchards. Infection is more virulent in spring
when daytime temperatures are not higher than 20-25
o
C, and in summer when maximum average
day temperatures are not more than 30-35
o
C. In experimental conditions where soil moisture is
optimal, maximum pathogen development occurs at temperatures between 21
o
C and 27
o
C, and
peaks at 24
o
C.
There is a high risk of infection in olive orchards planted on land that previously grew susceptible
crops such as cotton or vegetables (aubergine, peppers, tomatoes etc). In addition, infection is much
more virulent because the inoculum level is high.
Different varieties of olive show different degrees of susceptibility. For instance, the Italian varieties
Frantoio, Coratina and Frangivento are all quite resistant to the disease while Ascolana, Cellino and
Leccino are very susceptible. The most resistant Spanish varieties are Empetre and Arbequina while
the most susceptible ones are Picual, Cornicabra, Lechin de Granada and Picudo.
Management: Management is generally based on indirect measures aimed at avoiding contact
between the olive and the pathogen and reducing the infection potential of the disease by reducing
the inoculum level of the soil or by modifying the conditions that are conducive to its development
such as:

When setting up a new orchard, one preventive measure is to make sure that the plant material is
certified free from the disease;

Crops that are susceptible to Verticillium should not have been grown previously on the land;

If no other land is available, it is advisable to put off establishing the orchard for a few years and
to reduce the inoculum level by keeping the soil weed-free and growing plants that are resistant
to the disease, such as grasses;

In infected orchards, inter-cropping with susceptible plants should be avoided and the soil should
be kept free of weeds;

It is also advisable to avoid over-irrigating to avoid rapid growth that is conducive to the
development of the disease;

Care should be taken over agricultural implements and tools, which should be disinfected before
and after use;

When infection is low, one successful practice is to reduce the quantity of nitrogen available for
the inoculum;

Solarisation is a technique that has given good results in other crops. It entails covering the soil
with thin plastic sheeting for 4050- days when temperatures are at a maximum. The soil has to
be irrigated beforehand. Soil and moisture temperature increases and eliminates the bulk of the
inoculum;
234 234

Chemical control is another possibility that is being studied, although with contradictory results.
Recommended chemical control is soil drenching with various systemic fungicides such as
thiophanate-methyl or benomyl;

The most rational way to manage the populations is to find resistant rootstocks or varieties
and various research groups are working along these lines. In the United States, researchers
successfully used Oblonga rootstock, which was resistant to the disease under test conditions.
Olive leaf spot (Spilocaea oleaginea)
Symptoms: This disease produces lesions on the upper leaf surface and
occasionally on the leaf stalk, fruit stem and fruit. Round spots can be
seen on the leaf. They vary in size from 2 mm to 10 mm in diameter and
in colour from brown to yellow and green, arranged in concentric circles.
When the disease develops, the spot becomes black as it is covered with
conidia. Later, when the conidia spread, the spot may turn whitish if the
leaf remains on the tree due to the separation of the infected cuticle from the tissue underneath.
There are no round spots on the lower leaf surface, only dark stains. Frequently, sections of the
central nervature of the leaf may be blackened.
When the leaf stalk or fruit stem is attacked, brown elongated spots can be seen. When the olive
fruits are infected, they wrinkle and become deformed due to stumped growth in the area that has
been attacked.
Damage: Many leaves fall as a consequence of the lesions produced by Spilocaea oleagina, above all
on the lower branches, which become totally bare. This weakens the tree; the extent of debilitation
increases with the severity of infection. This results in lower production and the loss of axillarys
buds that slows down tree development and can jeopardize the formation of young trees.
Fruit stems and the fruit itself can also be affected. In the first case, the olives fall prematurely,
which causes crop losses or lower quality oil, depending on whether the fruit drops before or after
harvesting. If the fruit is attacked, infection slows down ripening and lowers the quantity and quality
of the olive oil produced.
Factors affecting the disease: Climatic factors have considerable influence on the development of
olive leaf spot.

The fungus develops normally within the temperature limits typical of temperate climates with
average values between 10 and 20 degree Centigrade; its optimum temperature is between 9 and
18 degrees Centigrade.

Areas with rainy, temperate springs and autumns are prone to heavy infection by this pathogen;
the same happens in areas with mild winters and cool summers. In these cases fungal activity
does not halt and infections overlap.
235 235

The fungus needs high humidity to develop. That is why rain, dew, fog and high relative humidity
are important factors that favour this disease. So do other indirect factors that keep the tree damp
such as little sunlight, closed canopies, low-lying areas where humidity builds up, etc.

Generally, in Mediterranean countries, infection can occur in spring and autumn. In summer and
winter it is limited by the unfavourable climatic conditions; as a result, the pathogen is latent or
has a very low activity rate.

Excessive irrigation, insufficient pruning, orchards located near rivers or streams or in river beds
etc. are all conducive to the development of the fungus because the olive trees are exposed to
higher humidity for longer periods.

Excessive nitrogen fertilization and shortage of calcium predispose the plant to the disease.
Management: High relative humidity and free water play an important part in the development
of the disease. Hence, it is advisable to apply whatever cultural practices make for well-aerated
trees such as selective pruning and orchard designs that avoid dense canopies and trees that are too
closely spaced.
Chemical treatment entails preventive foliar applications of copper-containing fungicides, organic
fungicides or mixtures of the two. It should be applied according to the above-mentioned criteria
or generally, before the start of the autumn or spring rain. To manage the disease properly, it is
important to spray evenly over the whole leaf surface, above all on the lower inside areas where the
disease develops most frequently.
Olive anthracnose (Gloeosporium olivarum)
Symptoms: Initially, single roundish ochre coloured spots appear on the
olives; these later grow and may join up. Normally attacks start at the tip of
the fruit where rainwater accumulates. As the disease progresses, all or part of
the infected fruit starts to rot and dries up, shrivels and becomes mummified.
Damage: The infected olives drop to the ground prematurely with the ensuing
reduction in the crop. In addition, the oil obtained from olives harvested in
areas affected by anthracnose are poorer in quality because alterations occur
in their colour, acidity and organoleptic characteristics.
Attacks on branches and shoots have been recorded in some areas, with the ensuing defoliation and
debilitation of the tree.
Management: Chemical control is recommended in areas where the disease is endemic. Preventive
treatment is advisable with copper-containing fungicides such as mixtures of copper oxychloride.
Treatment should be applied at the end of the summer. If the weather conditions are conducive to
the development of the disease, it is advisable to repeat treatment when the secondary infections
appear.
236 236
11.5.3. Other
Nematodes
Damage: Root knot or citrus nematodes may be damaging to the root system if relatively high soil
populations are present. Trees become slightly weaker, especially in sandy areas and fruit size on
infected trees is reduced.
Management: Control of nematodes with soil fumigation must be done before planting. Proper
water and cover crop management can help to avoid damage from these nematodes in established
plantings.
Cultural Control: Irrigate infested, weakened trees with greater frequency to avoid plant stress.
Most cover crops will host root knot nematode and root lesion nematode.
Rodents
Only the rodents belonging to the genera Arvicola spp., Microtus spp. and Pitymis spp. can cause
damage to olive orchards.
Management: Poisoned baits are used with good results. Cultural practices that are used to manage
rodents include: Deep tillage, flood irrigation, removal of the weeds in the area around the tree
trunk, tillage between the rows of trees to a depth of 8-10 cm and digging of circular trenches 15-20
cm deep around young trees.
Birds
Various species of birds can cause economic losses in olive orchards. Damage is caused by the birds
feeding on ripe olive fruits. Generally, bird populations are not so large as to cause economic losses
that call for treatment.
Before undertaking specific treatments for rodents and birds, farmers should check with the relevant
authorities whether the species in question are listed as endangered or under threat. If so, appropriate
action plans should be developed and implemented to ensure a balance can be reached between
preserving the endangered species and limiting their impact on farm production.
Note: Pictures have been provided by N. A. Seraphides, M. Ksantini, International Olive Oil Council
and the World Wide Web.
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Baker, R.; Herbert, R.; Howse, P.E.; Jones, O.T. 1980. ldentification and synthesis of the major sex
pheromone of the olive fly (Dacus oleae). J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Comm., pp. 52-53.
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239 239
12. Harvesting, Post-Harvest, Processing and Olive By-Products
Anwar Al Ibrahem
General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research (GCSAR)
Department of olive research, Idleb, Syria
Saleh Shdiefat
National Centre for Agricultural Research & Extension (NCARE), Amman, Jordan
12.1. Harvesting
Olive harvesting is one of the most important practices done for olive production throughout the
growing season. Maturation is a long, slow process that extends over several months. It depends
basically on the latitude of the growing area, agricultural practices and olive variety. Climatic
conditions are also of considerable importance, above all because of the way in which they affect
water availability and summer-autumn temperatures.
12.1. 1. Harvesting Time
The optimum harvesting time and method should meet the following objectives; fruit must have the
highest amount of oil production of best quality, table olives must be at the right stage of ripeness
for processing as black or green olives, olive trees must receive as little damage as possible and
harvesting must be cost-effective. Ripening in olives is characterized by increased fruit size and a
change of skin colour which turns from green to yellow then to a reddish-violet and finally to a deep
violet. Olive harvesting should be done when the fruit colour changes from dark green to pale green
and of about 50% reddish-violet colouration (maturity indices should be done), because fruits at
this stage attain the highest content of best quality oil and anti-oxidants (eg Extra virgin olive oil).
Once these conditions are met, the only factors affecting the decision to harvest are the availability
of labour and weather conditions.
12.1. 2. Harvesting Methods
The methods used to harvest olives depend on cultural techniques, tree size and shape, and orchard
topography.
12.1. 2.1. Hand Harvesting (Picking)
This is the most widespread traditional method used in the region and the best method for the highest
quality table olives and olive oil. Harvesting by beating with poles and sticks should be avoided.
Suitable implements like rakes and vibrating combs are used to speed up the operation and can be
important in increasing harvesting efficiency and cost-effectiveness. The fruit falls onto nets spread
under the tree canopies and is placed in bins when all olives have been picked from the tree.
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Hand picking performance is particularly high when the trees are very productive and they have
drooping branches.
This means that ladders do not have to be used. However, ladders must be used when the trees are
large and not shaped with picking in mind, with the ensuing loss of time. Moreover, this method is
the only one possible where the slope of the land rules out access by shakers, if a quality product is
wanted. A considerable workforce is needed for hand picking, an element that generates problems
of labour availability and cost. These factors in turn have a substantial impact on product price and
profit margins.
12.1.2.2. Mechanical Harvesting
The expensiveness of hand picking has hastened the uptake of machine-harvesting which is
performed by shakers which are attached to the trunk and scaffold branches. However, the following
conditions must be met if this method is to be effective:

Tree shape must be such as to transmit correctly and efficiently the vibrations generated by the shaker;

Fruit removal resistance must be low; and

Orchard topography must allow machinery access.
Machine-harvesting using branch and trunk shakers is suitable in countries with high labour costs
and unavailability of labour at the right time for harvesting. It needs a pre-designed olive plantation
layout and proper training methods. It can be effective if these
conditions are met.
Shakers are at their most efficient when attached to the
trunk, in which case one shake is enough to make the olives
drop. However, the structure and rigidity of the trunk do not
always make this possible, and as a result the branches have
to be shaken. This process has to be repeated several times
on the same tree, with the attendant loss of time and poorer
performance. Machine-harvesting performance is contingent
above all on the fruit removal force which decreases as the
olives ripen. On the other hand, if shaking is done late, it can
adversely affect the quality of the oil. Furthermore, a late
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harvest may give rise to crop losses through natural olive drop, especially under frequently windy
conditions during the winter.
Several experiences in the field of mechanical harvesting show as the pneumatic combs are one of
the most efficient means to harvest olives with respect to time/cost ratio.
12.1.3 Collecting:
Before harvesting, the ground area under the olive trees should be cleaned from gravel, stones and
weeds if possible. The fruit falls onto nets spread under the tree canopies and is placed in bins when
all olives have been picked from the tree.
Naturally fallen fruit should be collected before harvesting and separated from optimally harvested
fruit. Fruit should be collected in large, light, synthetic nets put under trees. Use plastic crates (boxes)
of about 25-200 kg capacity with low layers of olive fruits. Those crates should be transferred to the
mills as soon as possible or stored safely under optimum conditions till pressing.
12.2 Post-Harvest and Processing
To ensure the quality characteristics of olives and olive oil, olives must be delivered directly from
the field to the olive mill for processing.
12.2.1 Transporting and Storing the Olives Prior to Processing
To ensure that the olives retain the quality characteristics at the
time of harvesting, it should be delivered directly to the olive
mill for processing (maximum 48 hours after harvesting). The
best way to transport the olives is in open-mesh, plastic crates
that allow air to circulate and prevent the harmful heating
caused by the catabolic activity of the fruit.
In contrast, the practice of transporting olives in jute (burlap)
sacks is inappropriate, as it causes fruit spoilage (heat and fruit
damage), especially when olives are mature, which in turn triggers the development of biological
processes that lower oil quality. Some farmers have started using net bags for transporting olives
to mills. This method ensures a higher aeration of the olives, but it might increase the presence of
ground particles.
GAP stresses the need to process the olives as soon as possible after harvesting, however this is
not always possible when the mills are unable to cope with the sheer volume of olives coming in
and are forced to store them. This situation occurs especially in on-years. In such cases, storage
should be designed to preserve fruit quality, or at least to curb the deterioration processes. When
stored prior to processing, the olives are usually spread in shallow layers (20-30 cm), and kept in
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well-ventilated, cool store rooms. It is preferable to use slatted wooden boxes which allow air to
circulate and increase the amount of space available for storage purposes.
When suitable containers are not available, the olives can be kept in plastic crates. Growers/
processors should avoid storing the fruits in sacks. Shortage of facilities often makes it necessary
to store the olives outside, with and without roofing, which has the disadvantage of suffering from
weather conditions which have a particularly negative effect. An alternative is to use suitable
plastic crates of different capacities of more than 25kg, with a limited number of olive layers that is
also suitable for storing fruit before crushing.
In this way, the same crates used for transport can then be used for storage, should this be
required. Olives can usually be stored in slatted wooden boxes and plastic crates if space is limited
under the same optimum conditions, usually for up to 3 days without any deterioration of fruit
characteristics.
This is another key area in which collective research and development and industry planning can
have big returns, as any reduction in time-wasting between harvest and processing will preserve
quality and boost profitability.
12.2.2 Processing olives to oil
The aim of olive processing is to produce virgin olive oil.
The olive paste intended for mechanical oil extraction must
therefore be prepared in such a way as to obtain the following
results:

The oil-containing mesocarp cells must be completely
ruptured; and

Emulsification of the paste must be avoided or
minimised.
Throughout olive fruits pressing, a number of operations should be carried out:
12.2.2.1 Leaf removal and olive washing
Leaf removal and washing operations are carried out in automatic machines equipped with a suction
system for separating the leaves and a tub with circulating water for washing the olives. These
operations are used to remove all the impurities, whether they are of plant origin, like leaves and
twigs, or other materials.
As a rule, they are performed when the olives are processed into oil by continuous centrifugation
because, in these machines, the presence of leaves magnifies the organoleptic characteristic known
as green leaves in the oil produced.
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The presence of other materials such as metal substances could damage the fast-moving mechanical
parts of the crusher or decanter. In addition, the abrasive action of sandy materials can dangerously
interfere with the operation of the decanter rotor.
When using the pressing system, leaf removal and washing are usually omitted since the apparatus
and operating conditions involved are not affected by the unfavourable conditions described above,
especially when the olives are picked from the tree and only a small proportion of leaf is mixed
in with the fruit. Only when the olives have been harvested from the ground does the extraneous
material have to be drawn off by means of a simple leaf separator.
12.2.2.2 Crushing
Releasing the oil from the plant tissues begins by crushing the olives. Crushing with rollers or stone,
or by metal crushers should last no longer than 20-30 minutes, especially when the rollers or stones
are heavy. The object is to tear the flesh cells to let the oil run out of the vacuoles, thus permitting
the formation of larger drops that can then be separated from the other liquid and solid phases in the
paste. There are two types of machine are used to grind the olives:
a) Roller or stone mills
Pounding the olives with stone mills is the oldest method. Weighing 16-28 quintals, two, four and
even six granite millstones repeatedly mash the olives until a homogeneous paste with the right
consistency is obtained.
The millstones are shaped like cylinders or truncated cones. The surface of the travelling edges is
uneven to avoid crushing the paste particles so small as to hinder the subsequent separation of the
liquid and the solid phases. This is the reason crushing should last no longer than 20-30 minutes
because, if ground too small, the paste particles obstruct the pores during pressing, thereby reducing
the oily flow with the resultant negative effects on extraction yields.
b) Metal crushers.
Metal crushers can also be used to grind the olives. Basically they consist of a metal part, of varying
shapes, which throws the olives against a fixed metal grating by rotating at high speed, thus making
them burst and converting them into a fine paste. Metal crushers can be of a variety of types (fixed
or moving hammer, cylindrical, disc, toothed, conical) and are fitted with devices to adjust the
degree of milling. In this way the most suitable particle size can be chosen for each extraction
system. The type of crusher used directly influences the final quality of the oil.
The mills where the pressing method is employed usually use roller mills to crush the olives, while
those operating on continuous centrifugation use metal crushers. However, in recent years this
pattern has been changing; pressing mills are now using metal pre-crushers in advance of the roller
mills to cut milling times. Continuous centrifugation plants are turning more and more to roller
mills to achieve higher levels of oil release from the cells.
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12.2.2.3 Mixing (Malaxation)
Mixing is an important step in preparing the paste for subsequent separation of the solid/liquid
phases. It is done by stirring the paste slowly and continuously to increase the percentage of free
oil by helping the droplets to merge into large drops that can be separated into a continuous phase
and by breaking up the oil/water emulsion. In mills where the oil is obtained by pressing, mixing is
less important since the roller crushers ensure that the paste is practically ready. Mixing is therefore
restricted to the 10-15 minutes it takes to stack the press load and is performed at a temperature of
no more than 18- 20
C. In conventional mills, the mixers are equipped with a mat loading system,
by means of which the mixed paste is spread onto the pulp mats that make up the press load.
In continuous centrifugation units, mixing is very important in preparing the paste to be transferred
to the decanters. They tend to use metal crushers which, apart from the fact they do not completely
tear the oil-bearing cells, can also emulsify the oil. Mixing has to last not less than an hour and
to be performed at temperatures above the ambient temperature, particularly when the olives are
difficult to process and require even greater mixing times and temperatures.
Nowadays nitrogen atmosphere malaxing facilities are available on the market These reduce the
presence of oxygen, preserving quality by reducing the oxidation of the paste. In percolation
units too, the paste has to be mixed for more than 30 minutes at temperatures above the ambient
temperature (not exceeding 35c under any circumstances) with a mixing time of not less than 30
-45 minutes. However, if the olives are more manageable, mixing can be restricted to 30 minutes
since percolation involves constantly stirring the paste, an operation which, in separating the oil by
dripping, could be termed a subsequent mixing stage.
12.2.2.4 Separation of the Phases
A variety of equipment is used to separate the liquid phases from the solid phase by subjecting the
olive paste to one of three types of force, depending on the extraction system involved. This force
may be pressure (in pressing), centrifugal (in centrifugation) or difference in interfacial tension (in
percolation). The oily must (two immiscible liquids with different densities) has to undergo the
last step to completely separate the oil from the vegetable water by centrifuge separation that has
automatic impurities discharge.
Pressing:
When pressing facilities are employed the olive paste is squeezed between pulp mats. The pressure
applied makes the paste decrease in volume so that the liquid phases are able to run out of the cake
and the mat mesh, producing two flows of oily must:

A central flow which runs down through the needle into the trolley table; and

A peripheral flow which, through run-off, drips outside the pile of mats and is collected in the
press table.
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The following factors affect this process:

The oil characteristics and the olives;

The speed at which the ram is raised and the duration of pressing;

The maximum pressure that can be applied and the specific pressure applied to the pomace;
and

The type of stack formation.
Where fruit characteristics are concerned, the percentages of moisture, oil and solid matter are of
special significance. "Difficult" olives generally have low oil content and high moisture content.
This lowers extraction yields since, when it is being pressed, the paste tends to slip out of the mats,
thus producing a loss of oil-containing plant material which ends up in the vegetable water or in the
matter discharged from the centrifuge separator. Increasing mixing temperatures and duration are
two steps that help to improve oil yields in such cases. The speed at which the press ram is raised
has to be adjusted to the characteristics of the olives. However, nowadays, modern super presses can
vary ram speed in two ways: the load may either be raised quickly to fit it under the press head, or
it may be raised slowly for actual pressing.
The duration of pressing is an important factor when it comes to assessing extraction performance. It
must therefore be ensured that pressing lasts long enough. When the maximum pressure is attained,
the stack must be kept under constant pressure for 30-60 minutes to obtain the high yields this
system can afford (about 90% of the oil contained in the olives).
Centrifugation
When direct centrifugation units are employed to extract the oil from the olives, centrifugal force is
applied to the water-diluted paste. This accentuates the difference between the specific weights of the
immiscible liquids and the solid matter, thereby permitting continuous, simultaneous separation of
the oil, water and pomace. This separation is possible thanks to the horizontal centrifuges (decanter)
which rotate at 3,000-4,000 r.p.m. and can attain G values (ratio of centrifugal acceleration to
gravitational acceleration) of 2,000-3,000, depending on the internal diameter of the rotor. Extraction
yields are affected by two chief operational parameters: the characteristics of the olives and the
supply flow. Other factors of less importance are the amount and temperature of the water added to
dilute the paste.
When the centrifugation system is used, "difficult" olive pastes have to be properly prepared during
mixing in order to increase the amount of "free" oil that can be separated by mechanical means. In
addition, the operational capacity of the equipment must be lowered to prevent oil being lost in the
by-products.
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Each individual centrifuge decanter has a maximum hourly capacity, depending on its manufacturing
and dynamic characteristics, which must be complied with if satisfactory extraction yields are to
be obtained. When the centrifuge capacity is pushed to its limit or exceeded, the mixture of olive
paste and water does not have enough space or time inside the decanter to separate cleanly into the
different phases. As a result, the oil is not properly removed and some of the plant material is lost
in the vegetable water.
Another factor that may affect extraction yields is the amount of water added to the paste, i.e. if too
much or too little is added this can affect the quality and the efficiency of decanters. The optimal
amount of water needed to dilute the paste is chiefly determined by the characteristics of the olives
and the centrifuge.
It is estimated empirically by observing the oil (which should be clean) and the water (which should
not be very viscous) as they flow out of the decanter and may vary widely (from 60-70 1/q of olives
to 100-110 1/q). The actual temperature of the paste-diluting water has less of an influence on
extraction yields, but it must not be above 25 C to avoid limiting the activity of enzymes.
Percolation (Selective Filtration):
Extracting the oil from olive paste by percolation works on the principle that the oil and vegetable
water have different surface tensions with respect to a steel plate. What happens is that when the steel
plate is plunged into the paste, it will preferably be coated with oil when it is withdrawn, which then
drips off, thus creating a flow of oily must made up almost only of oil. The extraction yields attained
with percolation are particularly affected by the characteristics of the olives and the duration of the
operation, and may vary between 40-45% (difficult olives) and 70-75% (easy olives).
As a rule, good results are obtained when the olives have low moisture content and a higher solid
matter content. If the olives are difficult or have a high moisture content, oil processing performance
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can be improved by adding pomace or hydrophilic extraction aids. Extraction efficiency is not
affected by the amount of paste that can be loaded into the single extractor (300-350 kg) or the dual
extractor (650-700 kg). However 7.5 r.p.m. is the best rotation speed for the mechanical arm that
stirs the paste.
Percolation leaves a very wet, oily pomace from which the oil must subsequently be extracted by
pressing or centrifugation. Combined percolation-centrifugation is the system most in favour at
present, which operates on a continuous, automated cycle that requires less labour.
Separating the oil from the must
The oil must obtained in the various extraction systems has to undergo one last operation to completely
separate the oil from the vegetable water. Two immiscible liquids with different densities can be
separated by natural settling or centrifugation. When good-quality virgin olive oil is wanted, it is
wise to centrifuge since natural decantation is a slow process and one in which the oil is in contact
with the vegetable water for a long time, with the consequent risk of contamination. Centrifugation,
in contrast, is quick, requires little labour and is efficient in separating the impurities from the oil.
12.3 Oil Storage
While waiting to be released for consumption, the extracted virgin olive oil, however, has to be stored
properly to prevent any possible decline in its quality. The oil must be stored in uniform batches.
Consequently, it must undergo a number of quick, analytical assays that enable its classification. It
can then be mixed with the batch corresponding to its commercial grade. The assessments performed
for this purpose involve assessing the oil`s organoleptic characteristics and its acidity. It can then
undergo a preliminary classification and be mixed with batches of oil of a similar quality. Large
sunken vats or above-ground stainless steel tanks are suggested to store olive oil in bulk. The vats
are built in the ground; they are made of stone or cement and have enamelled or glazed walls. On
the other hand, metal tanks, which are usually made of stainless steel, lie above ground and are kept
under cover inside buildings.
Since oil is able to absorb odorous, volatile or lip soluble substances with ease, thus acquiring
undesirable organoleptic characteristics, the storage places must be free from all source of odours,
whether pleasant or unpleasant. Every possible precaution must therefore be taken during storage to
prevent the following types of oil spoilage:

Deterioration caused by contact with unsuitable materials;

Deterioration caused by prolonged contact with aqueous impurities; and

Oxidative deterioration.
The spoilage that occurs in olive oil through contact with the water that remains in the product, albeit
in minimum quantities (must be less than 0.5%), after passing through the centrifuge separator is
basically caused by fermentation triggered by the hydro-soluble substances present in the aqueous
layer.
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When virgin olive oil is stored, a layer of sediment (dregs or sludge) forms on the bottom made up
of vegetable water which contains glucosidic and protein substances (lipo-proteins), in addition to
plant debris and enzymes. When the environmental conditions are right and the oil is left in contact
with the aqueous layer for a long time, it may acquire the following defects, known as:

"muddy sediment", caused by the smell peculiar to vegetable water; and

"putrid", caused by anaerobic fermentation of the dregs.
The free acidity of the oil may also rise owing to the lipolytic action of the enzymes present in the
aqueous phase. So it is essential to separate the oil from the sediment as quickly as possible, either
by decanting the oil or by filtering it through hydrophilic material (eg cotton wool).
Oxidative deterioration in virgin olive oil is due to autoxidation which can be delayed by employing
suitable methods, but cannot be avoided. The oxidation process in the oil begins from the moment the
olives are picked from the tree, which triggers the activity of enzymes present in the fruit. Following
mechanical extraction, oxidation continues in the form of a radical mechanism, which is caused and
supported by the dissolved oxygen. The speed with which oxidation occurs is determined by the
conditions of storage, until it produces the defect known as "rancid" which makes the oil unfit for
consumption. Oxidative deterioration is encouraged by the following factors:

Exposure to light and air;

High ambient temperatures; and

Excessive metal content (Cu and Fe especially).
Storage in the traditional sunken vats satisfies all the requirements to protect product quality from
oxidative spoilage. They are a barrier to light and are lined with a vitrified coating or enamelled tiles
which prevent any harmful metal taint. They also afford effective protection from both low winter
temperatures, thereby preventing the oil from freezing, and high summer temperatures, by keeping
it at a temperature of no more than 20-22 C. The only disadvantage of this storage system is that
the oil has to be decanted by pumping it through to other containers to remove the dregs, which
therefore involves exposing it to the effects of aeration.
Metal storage tanks also afford satisfactory conditions for protecting the oil from light and air, and
from the risk of metal taint, since they are generally made of corrosion-resistant stainless steel.
However, they have one drawback. The metal walls of the tanks afford poor insulation and do not
therefore protect the oil from temperature changes, particularly from the high summer temperatures
that cause the most oxidation damage. If the risks connected with increased oil temperature are to
be avoided, the tanks must be provided with proper thermal insulation.
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12.3.1 Filling and Packaging
Normally, small containers are made of steel, which are made inert on the inside, by covering them
with a metal film which the oil is unable to wear away. This layer may come off leaving the oil in
contact with the metal and may lead to tainting the oil and spoiling it. Filling and packaging oil in
containers made of glass, stone, enamel internal facing or metal alloys that exclude all possible taint
are possible to avoid oil spoilage. Oil filtration by any means should be performed before oil filling
and packaging in small containers. Packaging is one of the last processing procedures undertaken
for olives and olive oil before it reaches the consumer. It is done by companies that have licenses
necessary to guarantee proper hygienic treatment of a product for human consumption and able
to implement appropriate standards for olives and olive oil products. Companies should employ
the international standards especially IOOC standards for the extra virgin olive oil and other olive
products and should have the ISO and HACCP certificates needed for the most hygienic, high
quality products.
12.3.2 Machinery Cleaning and Maintenance
At the beginning and at the end of the production season, all the oil processing machinery must be
scrupulously cleaned both for general hygiene and to avoid leaving the components exposed to the
risk of corrosion. Particular care must be taken over the maintenance of all the moving mechanical
parts to avert harmful friction between the metal parts. Daily cleaning is advisable in accordance
with the product flow.
12.4 Olive By-Products
12.4.1 Oil Processing By-Products
0live fruit and olive oil account for a minimal part of the biomass produced in olive and olive oil
production as a whole. Olive fruit are in fact equal in weight to olive pruning brush while olive
oil represents approximately 20% of fruit weight. The remaining biomass can be considered as
processing residue. It can be considered a by-product. If not, it is defined as waste and has to be
treated or disposed of according to specific rules and regulations. Olive oil production produces the
following types of residue:

Olive oil pressing residue: olive pomace and olive wastewater;

Orchard residue: unpicked olive fruits and pruning brush (wood and foliage); and

Virgin pomace solvent-extraction residue: depleted (spent) pomace.
12.4.2 Olive Pomace
Pomace is the solid by-product (skin, pulp, and pieces of stones) that is produced when olives are
mechanically processed into oil. It is equal to about 45% on average of the total processed olive
fruits. It is composed of either:
1. Crude olive cake: the residue of the first extraction of oil from the whole olive by pressure. It
has relatively high water (24%) and oil (9%) content causing rapid spoilage when exposed to
air.
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2. Exhausted olive cake: the residue obtained after extraction of the oil from the crude olive cake
by a solvent, usually hexane.
3. Partly destoned olive cake: the result of partly separating the stone from the pulp by screening
or ventilation.
4. Olive pulp: the paste obtained when the stone has been separated from the pulp before extraction
of the oil. It has a high water content (60%) and is difficult to store.
The olive pomace is composed of 50-55% moisture in addition to 5-7% oil (Pressing) and 50-62%
in addition to 3-5% oil (Centrifugation). It is a source of income for olive mill owners since it is
delivered to pomace plants to re-extract the residual oil by a solvent (hexane) to use it for soap
production. The extracted oil is known as olive pomace oil which has to be refined to make it edible.
The dry pomace residue is used mainly as low grade fuel (3200-3800 Kcal / kg). It can be also used
for manufacturing active carbon.
Olive cake (OC) can be used in animal feeding and agricultural organic fertilizers or composting.
Based on the research results in the region, it is concluded that the ensiling process is an effective,
simple and low-cost technique for preserving OC. Combining OC with poultry litter and/or other
ingredients improves silage quality although it is not a prerequisite. When fed as part of the finished
diet to moderately growing ewe lambs and goat kids or to dry mature ewes at maintenance level, the
nutritional value of ensiled OC is significantly higher than that obtained in vitro. The use of urea
solution for upgrading the nutritional value of OC is of very limited value.
Ensiled OC can be used in urea blocks (UB) manufacturing, and because of its binding properties,
incorporating OC into UB may facilitate the use of smaller quantities of binders even without
molasses. Despite the high palatability of the ensiled OC, care should be taken that its inclusion is
restricted to a level where the oil content of the total diet is below 5%.
12.4.3 Olive Vegetative Water (OVW) or Olive Waste Water (OWW)
OVW/OWW is the brown watery liquid residue which has been separated from the oil by
centrifugation or sedimentation after pressing. Its volume depends on the extraction system used
in the mills. It varies from 35-40 L / 100 kg of olives (Pressing), to 80-110 L/ 100 kg of olives
(Centrifugation). It should be kept in special vats before being disposed of. It is primarily an organic
liquid composed of dry matter, oil, reducing sugars, total polyphenol, ash, organic nitrogen and
many different minerals. Disposing of it in the environment may be a source of pollution, and
finding acceptable methods of disposal constitutes a challenge in olive oil processing areas. This
problem should be solved through research activities through reclamation by different means to re-
use it in agricultural production and the opportunity for recovering certain organic constituents from
it as valuable anti-oxidant properties.
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The wastewater produced during olive oil extraction contains a large amount of organic matter that
is acquired during the various stages of processing. Its disposal is a considerable problem because,
besides its high organic matter content, Olive Waste Water (OWW) has a low biodegradability. On
average it has a BOD
5
/COD ratio of 0.25-0.30 owing to the presence of organic substances that
cannot be biologically oxidized in short periods of time. Vegetable water disposal is quite a costly
operation at present for oil mills, due to the tough environmental protection laws that have been
introduced in most of the olive-growing countries banning the until-recent practice of discharging
the oil mill waste into water courses or urban sewage networks. It is very difficult to reclaim OWW
because of its high organic matter content, which makes it ineffective to use common treatment
technologies, such as the biological active sludge system used to treat urban sewage. Such facilities
could only be used by diluting OWW with urban sewage at a high ratio of from 1:500 to 1:1000.
It is essential for olive processors to ensure the requirements of these laws are met if the industry
is to be able to claim it is run on a sustainable basis. It only takes a few well publicized breaches of
such laws for the whole industrys environmental reputation to be tarnished.
Wastewater spreading on agricultural land
The aim of this practice is to spread it back onto the ground. The organic substances the land
itself has helped to produce, has a beneficial effect, from the agronomic point of view. It has been
demonstrated in numerous experimental trials conducted on different crops grown on vegetable
water-treated soils. The application of 1200 litres of OVW, in three doses, for each olive and citrus
tree did not create any problem to the vegetative growth, flowering and setting of fruits. Even though
the results are preliminary, they can be considered very promising. The work will be continued over
the coming years.
Effects of spreading OWW on the land
The practice of spreading waste on the land has been under careful
study during the last 15 years in Mediterranean countries, not only
as a way of disposing of the waste but as a way of enhancing the
physical and chemical properties of the soil and improving plant
nutrition. It contains sizeable quantities of mineral nutrients that can
replace some of the nutrients provided by conventional fertilization.
Specifically, it contains large amounts of potassium, and smaller amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus
and magnesium. Moreover, because it consists mainly of organic matter, it is an excellent substrate
for the development of the micro flora that improve the physico-chemical properties of the soil.
OWW can be used successfully for agricultural purposes, as can be seen from the large body of
research by several authors. Results provided by several authors report an increase in the total
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number of micro-organisms in the soil 20-40 days after spreading as well as a favourable effect on
bacterial flora, mainly due to the addition of organic matter. This solution can be viewed favourably
in the light of lengthy research into the application of OWW to agricultural land. The reason is
that from the hygiene and health points of view, this wastewater does not have the microbiological
characteristics that make urban waste hazardous for raw crop consumption and for a safe environment.
Also, normal soil water-retention capacity prevents significant vertical infiltration and even under
heavy rain the OWW does not reach groundwater level.
From experiments carried out by numerous authors there is agreement that spreading 40-100 m
3
/
ha of OWW on tree crops has several advantages: virtually all the nutrients are recycled (N, P, and
K), the organic load is metabolized and the salts present in the vast are absorbed. Conversely, the
application of OWW is not advised when herbaceous crops are growing, but it can be spread 30
-60 days before sowing or planting. For this reason, the spreading of OWW on agricultural land
has been put forward as the most rational, economical alternative to industrial purification and as a
useful way of returning nutrients to the soil for micro flora and plants.
Timing for spreading

Trees: during the winter season (November- December);

Crops: 1-2 months before planting. It can be added to the soil during the growth period of crops
but not to the leaves;

Vegetables: at least one month before seeding.
Method of adding
It is possible to add OWW directly on the soil by spreading all to areas (crop and tree) by tube from
the back of a tractor or by a special machine designed for this purpose. Release about 50-70 cm
around the trunk of the tree at the end of autumn/ beginning of winter. This method can be used as a
main chemical fertilizer but farmers must pay attention to the following when adding OWW:

Protect the surface and subterranean water; especially in the wet area;

Have data on the soil pedology and depth;

The origin of OWW (press, centrifuge). The amount of OWW from the press is less than with a
centrifuge, because of the high concentration of materials used in press system;

The type of crop and trees the OWW is to be spread on; and

It is not advisable adding OVW directly after heavy rain or after frost.
12.4.4 Olive Pruning Residues
Olive pruning brush can be divided into four categories: large wood branches over 40 mm in
diameter, small wood branches less than 40 mm in diameter, small shoots and leaves. This
brush, which used to be collected for fuel, presents an environmental and farm management issue
253 253
nowadays. Except for large pruning wood, which is still widely used, it is no longer worthwhile
collecting smaller wood and foliage because of labour costs and the growing use of other sources
of energy. In modern olive orchards the smaller pruning wood and foliage is chopped and then
incorporated into the soil using tractor-driven shredders or else it is gathered into piles at a distance
from the trees (almost always mechanically) and then burned. Burning of pruning by-products is
not recommended because this means both loss of money (because of piling up the prunings) and
of organic matter. The organic matter is converted into ash. Though rich in potassium and trace
elements, these do not return the mineral elements exported during cultivation when spread on
the soil.
Olive by-products represent a considerable, insufficiently exploited feed resource for the
Mediterranean Basin. These by-products come in different forms including olive pruning residues
(leaves and branches) discussed above. Leaves collected at the oil mill are not considered pruning
residues, as they were obtained after the olives have been washed and cleaned on entering the oil
mill. It is estimated to be about 5 per cent of the olives weight. Further, each by-product has a
nutritional value which should not be neglected.
These by-products can and should be more and better used in animal feeding (leaves and branches of
less than 3cm in diameter). Olive by-products used in animal feeding should be accurately defined
to avoid confusion and incorrect interpretation of results. However, these by-products should be
considered as crude ligno-cellulose feeds comparable to cereal straw or poor quality hay and they
are most effective in improving the feed value of olive cake.
Olive tree leaves and branches constitute a fodder of exceptionally high quality (which is higher as
the proportion of wood decreases) that should preferably be used fresh (since their nutritional value
is higher than that of leaves which have been dried) or preserved in silage. Separation of the leaves
from the wood whenever possible is recommended. The large branches (more than 3cm in diameter)
can be chopped by a machine to feed animals or can be used as a source of energy in heating houses
for example
254 254
12. 5 Resource Materials
Note: Pictures have been provided by M. El-kholy, C. Gregoriou, International Olive Oil Council
and the World Wide Web
Amirante P. and F. Pipitone 2002. Re-use of the by-products of olive growing and olive oil
production. in Olivae no. 93-October 2002 pp.27-32.
Amirante, P., Montel, G.L, 1999. Utilization and disposal of the byproducts of olive oil extraction
and problems of their impact on the environment, proceedings of IOOC international seminar,
Florence, 10-12 March 1999.
DI Giovacchino L., Basti C_Costantini N., Surricchio G., Ferrante D., Lombardi D., 2002 Effects
of spreading olive vegetable water on soil cultivated with maize and grapevine, in Olivae no.
91-April 2002 pp.37-43.
Fedeli, Enzo. 1996.Oil production and storage technology. Olive Encyclopaedia.p.251-291.
Hadjipanayiotou, M. (1999) .The ensiling technique: A simple, safe and feeding crude olive cake.
Olivae. (IOOC). No. 76, 31-34.
Hadjipanayiotou, M.1995. Urea block manufacturing and feeding: Middle East experience.
Paper presented at the 1st FAO Electronic Conference, May 3, 1995. http://www.fao.org/
DOCREP/003/X6545E.htm
International Olive Oil Council (IOOC) Publication. 1990. Olive Oil Quality Improvement.
International Olive Oil Council (IOOC) Publication. 1998. The Olive Tree, the Oil, the Olive.
Jardak, T., BEN Rouina, B., OULED Amor, A., Harrabi, T., 1997. valorisation de la pulpe de
grignons puiss en alimentation animale I`chelle industrielle, Documentation de COI.
Kiritsakis,A. 1991. Olive oil. Dedousi Editions, Salonica, Greece.
Morisot, A., 1979. Utilisation des margines par pandage, in LÒlivier, 19, 8-13.
Olive Department Publication. 2005. Olive Byproducts (Wastewater and Pomace Disposal).
Program for the Technical Assistance for the Improvement of Olive Oil Quality Syria.
Photiou, Chr. (2002) Use of vegetation water Cyprus Experience. Presented in the International
course on olive oil production, quality improvement and environmental protection Larnaca,
Cyprus, 3-10 March 2002.
Sansoucy, R. 1981. Utilisation des sous produits de lòlivier pour làlimentation des animaux.
Seminare international sur la valorisation des sous produits de lòlivier. Monastir, Tunisie.
Dcembre 1981.
255 255
Annex 1
List of Participants to the GAP Workshop, Larnaca, Cyprus, 19-21 /12/ 2005
A) Organizations Representatives
Fawzi Taher [email protected]
FAO/RNE
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nation Regional Office for the Near East
Ibrahim Hamdan [email protected]
AARENINA
Association of Agriculture Research Institutions in
the Near East and North Africa
Ashraf Tubeileh [email protected]
ICARDA
International Center for Agricultural Research in the
Dry Areas
Ahmed Trigui [email protected]
ESCORENA
European System of Cooperative Research Networks
in Agriculture
B) Representatives of Host Institution (ARI) Agriculture Research Institute, Cyprus
Androula Gergiou [email protected]
Costas Gregoriou [email protected]
George Eliades [email protected]
Nicos Serafides [email protected]
C) AARENINA Olive Network Focal Points and Coordinators of Working Groups
Cyprus
Costas Gregoriou [email protected]
Egypt
Ikram Saad-eldin [email protected]
Mohamed El-Kholy [email protected]
Iran
Ali Asghar Zeinanloo [email protected]
256 256
Jordan
Haytham Khouri [email protected]
Saleh Shdiefat [email protected]
Libya
ElHadi Khalaf [email protected]
Morocco
Belkassem Boulouha [email protected]
Palestine
Ismail Abu Zinada [email protected]
Saudi Arabia
Sallal Essa Al Mutairi [email protected]
Syria
Anwar Al Ibrahiem [email protected]
Tunisia
Boubaker Karray [email protected]
Mohieddine Ksantini [email protected]
Yemen
Monsour Aldalas [email protected]
257 257
Olive GAP Workshop Agenda
Monday, 19 December 2005
8:30 - 9:00 Registration
9:00 - 9:30 Opening session Chairman: Mohamed El-Kholy
FAO Statement Fawzi Taher
AARINENA Statement Ibrahim Hamdan
ARI Statement Costas Gregoriou
9:30 - 9:45 Coffee break
9:45 - 10:45 Session 2: Introductory Remarks Chairman: Mohamed El-Kholy
9:45 - 10:00 Introduction to GAP Fawzi Taher
10:00 - 10:15 ICARDA presentation on GAP Ashraf Tubeileh
10:15 - 10:45 Presentation of guidelines on GAP Costas Gregoriou
for Olives
10:45 - 11:00 Coffee Break
11:00 - 02:00 Session 3: Presentation of Country Chairman: Saleh Shedifat
profiles by AARENINA Olive
Network Focal Points
11:00 - 11:15 Morocco Country profile Belkassem Boulouha
11:15 - 11:30 Tunisia Country Profile Mohieddine Ksantini
11:30 - 11:45 Libya Country Profile ElHadi Khalaf
11:45 - 12:00 Egypt Country profile Mohamed El-Kholy
12:00 - 12:15 Cyprus Country Profile Costas Gregoriou
12:15 - 12:30 Saudi Arabia Country Profile Sallal Essa Al Mutairi
12:30 - 02:00 Lunch break
02:00 - 03:45 Session 3 (continue) Chairman: Boubaker Karray
02:00 - 02:15 Syria Country Profile Anwar Al Ibrahiem
02:15 - 02:30 Palestine Country Profile Ismail Abu Zinada
02:30 - 02:45 Iran Country Profile Ali Asghar Zeinanloo
02:45 - 03:00 Jordan Country Profile Saleh Shdiefat
03:00 - 03:15 Yemen Country Profile Monsour Aldalas
03:45 - 06:00 Session 4: Discussion topics Chairman: Costas Gregoriou
03:45 - 04:15 Presentation on GAP with emphasis on Fawzi Taher
food safety
04:15 - 06:00

Summary of morning presentations Round Table Discussions

Table of generalities arising from

morning sessions

Are research guides needed? Where?
For what level? What topics?
258 258

Introduction to each chapter philosophy
and content
Chapters will be addressed in decreasing
importance, delegating a person to each topic
If new important topics arise, a volunteer will
be asked to rough out that chapter.
Tuesday 20 December 2005
9:00 - 17:00 Session 5: Discussion by working groups Chairman: Fawzi Taher
9:00 - 11:00 Preparation of the new guidelines Working groups and round
table discussion
11:00 - 11.30 Coffee break
11:30 - 13:30 Preparation of the new guidelines (continue) Working groups and round
table discussion
13:30 - 15:00 Lunch break
15:00 - 17:00 Preparation of the new guidelines Working groups and round
(continue) table discussion
Wednesday: 21 December 2005
9:00 - 11.45 Session 5: Discussion by working groups Chairman: Fawzi Taher
(Continued)
9:00 - 11:00 preparation of the final version of guidelines Presentation by working
groups
11:15 - 11:30 Special session: AARINENA Olive Chairman: Saleh Shedifat
Network: Election of Olive Network
Chairman of the Board
11:30 - 11:45 Current olive activities in the region Coordinator of AARINENA
Olive Network
11:45 - 13.00 Session 6 (closing): Presentation of Olive Chairman: Saleh Shedifat
Network Working Groups Coordinators
(WG):
11:45 - 12:00 Post Harvest -Jordan Haytham Khouri
12:00 - 12:15 Socio-Economic & Commercialization- Syria Anwar Al Ibrahiem
12:15 - 12:30 Production & Protection-Egypt Ikram Saad-eldin
12:30 - 13:00 Closing of the workshop
13:00 - 18:00 Lunch and Field trip

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FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR THE NEAR EAST

State Nurseries; and

Homogenous texture free of hard pan lenses;

Efficient water holding capacity;

High soil organic matter;

High biological activity and biological diversity;

Balanced stores of available nutrients and favourable pH for olives (5.6-8.5);

Favourable soil temperature;

Low levels of soil-borne pathogens;

Low levels of toxic substances; and

Low sodium adsorption ratio (SAR).

Applying appropriate mechanical and conservation tillage practices;

Provide a nitrogen source, when leguminous plants are planted;

Suppress weed growth and reduce herbicide application;

Assist in conserving threatened and endemic plant species.

Nutrient and water requirements;

Temperature and light requirements;

Length of biological cycle;

Requirements for soil conservation;

Susceptibility to pests and diseases;

Susceptibility to burning, especially in dry windy areas;

Feeding requirements of grazing animals;

Reduces extreme variations of surface soil temperature;

Decreases crust formation, erosion and soil compaction;

Limestone parent material from which these soils were formed;

Irrigating with high pH irrigation water containing bicarbonate; and/or

Boron deficiency which might become tied by soil colloids;

The formation of insoluble iron and manganese oxides and hydroxides;

Potential of molybdenum toxicity for certain sensitive crops.

Whenever conditions allow, traditional tillage systems should be substituted by non-traditional

In some soils it is necessary to handle topsoil compaction problems before switching to

The efficient application of herbicides is performed using equipment in

To improve topsoil structure and thus resist water

While establishing new olive groves in soils

In areas known to be vulnerable to gully erosion

On very slightly sloped lands where run-off water

When stones are available within the olive grove

When using drip irrigation in olive groves under

Establishment of woody tree windbreaks around the

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