IADC/SPE 87183 The Effect of Hole Curvature On The Wellbore Pressure Loss Prediction For Highly Tortuous Ultradeep Wells
IADC/SPE 87183 The Effect of Hole Curvature On The Wellbore Pressure Loss Prediction For Highly Tortuous Ultradeep Wells
IADC/SPE 87183 The Effect of Hole Curvature On The Wellbore Pressure Loss Prediction For Highly Tortuous Ultradeep Wells
Wells
G.Robello Samuel, Halliburton-Landmark Graphics
Copyright 2004, IADC/SPE Drilling Conference This paper was prepared for presentation at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference held in Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., 24 March 2004. This paper was selected for presentation by an IADC/SPE Program Committee following review of information contained in a proposal submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the International Association of Drilling Contractors or Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the International Association of Drilling Contractors or Society of Petroleum Engineers, their officers, or members. Papers presented at IADC/SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the International Association of Drilling Contractors and Society of Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written consent of the International Association of Drilling Contractors and Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to a proposal of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The proposal must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435.
a simple, practical way to view the severity of the wellbore oscillation. Introduction Qualitative assessment and quantitative characterization of the well pressures are critically important in many phases of the well construction. They not only allow subsequent adjustments to the wellplan when combined with payzone geo steering tools, but also successful completion of extended reach and complex wells. Increasingly more difficult wells are being drilled with a narrow margin between pore and fracture pressures. This requires an accurate estimation of wellbore pressures. Operating outside the safe operating window even for a short duration of time may lead to costly complications. Field tests have shown that the API pipe flow equations gravely underestimate the drillstring frictional pressure losses, and largely overestimate the annular pressure losses for highly deviated deep wells. This paper describes a method to calculate the pressure losses that better represent the actual curved wellbore. The curvature of individual curves of the wellbore causes the flow to swirl. Swirling flows are those where the velocity component is dominant in the azimuthal direction and the hydraulics with the flow is fundamentally different. Such flows are complex and are necessary to underpin the effects of the pressure drop calculations. Fluid flow effects in curved pipe, curved annular configurations are of immense practical importance in several engineering equipments such as heat exchangers, reactors..etc. The curvature of individual curves may increase the pressure drop incrementally in the drillstring while in the drilling or production phase of the operations. Problems mostly occur when the drillstring lies in strongly curved wellpath. In the long transitional region that covers most of the operational range in field applications, the conventional pipe flow equations used for hydraulic calculation fail as the secondary flow effects are pronounced in the bends. Due to increased extended and steered wells, the hydraulic calculations need correction to take care of the curvature effects of the wellbore. Furthermore, this paper addresses the adverse impact of the pressure loss calculations in highly tortuous wells and presents an approach that enhances the accuracy of the calculation. Hole Spiraling and Wellbore Oscillation The occurrence of borehole spiraling or oscillation of wellbore path has been known for many years in the drilling industry.
Abstract Drilling operations in deep and ultra-deep water are increasing around the world. The development of these substantial prospects is very challenging and requires the integration of knowledge with prudent designs at different stages of the well development. However, the cost premium imposed by deep and ultra deepwater wells are higher and many of the discoveries are marginal in terms of the commercial viability. With the increase of developing and operating costs, there is a growing need to reduce the cost of drilling and other allied operations. The hydraulic program for the deep wells constitutes a significant portion of the well planning. Challenges associated with extreme depth, pressures and temperatures translate to additional problems to the well design. As the wells are drilled deeper and deeper, accurate prediction of the wellbore pressures are increasingly important. Also, more wells are drilled in rotary steerable mode. Alternating between the sliding and rotary modes results in hole spiraling and wellbore oscillation becomes more pronounced due to frequent slide drilling. The estimation of pressures during drilling are indispensable for making appropriate well completion decisions. The prediction of wellbore pressures and downhole equivalent circulating density are of critical importance in wells where the pressure must be maintained within narrow limits of pore and fracture pressures. This paper presents a study on how to adapt to the new wellbore hole spiraling effects encountered in ultra deep wells. This paper examines some of these effects, while asserting that it is necessary to integrate this new approach, so that more accurate solutions can be predicted as a result. This new hydraulic design encapsulating hole spiraling effects provides
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IADC/SPE 87183
Characterization of this behavior and the effects are increasingly discussed and analyzed with improved borehole imaging techniques and logging tools. Increased evidence of hole spiraling have been reported(1, 2). The hole spiraling or threading will have deep impact on the well construction and completion process. During the planning phase, the hole spiraling or oscillation of the wellbore can effectively be described by applying tortuosity to the wellbore with the desired tortuosity factor. Tortuosity is one of the critical factors to consider for complex directional well trajectories, accurate build rates, precise steering in thin reservoirs and extended reach wells. Presently, the industry uses different generations of rotary steerable systems and adjustable downhole tools to reduce wellbore tortuosity. When planning a well, wellpath modeling commonly generates smooth curves, whereas an actual well contains severe doglegs and other irregularities. The difference between the planned smooth well profile and the actual well drilled can have a major impact on the torque and drag losses for the well. Models apply different "rippling" or "roughness" techniques to a planned wellpath to simulate the variations found in actual wellpath surveys. This option renders planned (smooth) well profiles in a form that more realistically predict loads. Note that tortuosity is usually applied only when the surveys represent an unrealistically smooth path. The industry has no standard for quantifying tortuosity. Tortuosity is usually expressed in degrees/100 ft, similar to the expression of dogleg severity. The calculation of running tortuosity is the station-to-station summation of the total curvature normalized to a standard wellbore course length between survey stations. In general, tortuosity is defined as the ratio of the summation of the total curvature, including build and walk, to the survey stations length. The rippling or undulation can be applied based on the different methods that modify the inclination and azimuth of the survey points. Furthermore, "micro-tortuosity(3)" caused by hole spiraling results in a spiraled hole axis instead of a straight line. This can be planned during the planning phase by applying tortuosity over and above the wellpath that has been already tortured with the desired magnitude and amplitude or superimposing a helix with desired pitch and magnitude. Tortuosity Methods There are different methods used to apply "roughness" to a planned well path to simulate the variations found in actual well path surveys. These options render planned (smooth) well profiles in a form that gives rise to more realistic prediction for the analysis. It is expressed as the difference between the actual and planned curvatures divided by the respective distance between the survey stations and can be written as
DL a DL p
T=
j=1 i =1
MD j MD i
Rippling or undulation is applied based on the following three methods. Sine Wave method modifies the inclination and azimuth of the survey point based on the concept of a sine wave shaped ripple
running along the wellbore using the magnitude (amplitude) and period (wave length) specified. The change in angle is given by D = sin 2 M P The magnitude M is the maximum variation of angle that will be applied to the inclination and azimuth of the native (untortured) wellpath. The determination of magnitudes should be based on the evaluation of historical data from offset or similar wells. The values of magnitude can vary depending on many factors including hole type (cased or open hole), hole size, drilling performance, hole curvature, and other parameters. Further, the inclination angle is modified so that it does not become less than zero, since negative inclination angles are not allowed. The new angle and azimuth are given as follows n = + n = + + xvc Also while applying tortuosity, ensure that the measured depth of the survey point is not an exact integer multiple of the MD 2 = 0 period as = sin P In this situation, tortuosity will not be applied to the undithered data set and caution should be exercised to avoid this situation. Helical method modifies the inclination and azimuth of the survey points by superimposing a helix along the wellbore path using the magnitude (radius of the cylinder in the parametric equation) and period (pitch) specified. This method uses the circular helix defined as: f (u ) = a cos(u ) + a sin(u ) + bu The generalized parametric set of equations for helix used to superimpose the wellbore path is given by x (u ) = M cos(u ) y(u ) = M sin(u ) P z(u ) = u 2 Random Inclination Dependent Azimuth method applies a random variation to the survey inclination and azimuth within the magnitudes specified. Random numbers used may be between -1.0 to +1.0. In this method the azimuth variation is inversely proportional to inclination resulting in higher inclination with lower azimuth variation and lower inclination with higher azimuth variation. The change in angle, new angle and new azimuth are given by: = where MD = M P n = + n = + + cvc 2 sin n Random Inclination and Azimuth method is similar to the Random Inclination Dependent Azimuth Variation method as described as above, except that the azimuth variation is
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independent of inclination. The new angle and azimuth are given as follows n = + n = + + cvc 2 sin n In order to observe how the well trajectory has changed, absolute and relative tortuosities are also calculated to measure the degree of tortuosity applied to the wellpath. Absolute tortuosity of the survey before or after applying tortuosity is the mid-sum angle divided by the mid-measured depth between two survey stations. Relative tortuosity characterizes the undulation of the survey relative to the absolute tortuosity. Relative tortuosity is zero unless tortuosity has been applied. Also, the absolute tortuosity of the original survey is the difference between the absolute tortuosity of the survey with tortuosity and the relative tortuosity. Secondary Flow Effects Due to the spiraled nature of the wellbore, there will be a variation of the centrifugal force due to the swirling flow across the drillstring inside and the annulus. This results in a pressure gradient maximum at the outer wall of the drilling and wellbore, and minimum at the inner wall of the drillstring and the outer wall of the drillstring. Swirling flows are those where the velocity component is dominant in the azimuthal direction and the hydraulics with the flow is fundamentally different. The curvature of individual curves increases the pressure drop incrementally as the spiraled hole increases in length. Problems are predominant when the drillstring lies in strongly curved wellpath. This causes an increase in the frictional energy loss near the drillstring walls and the pressure drop will be greater than the corresponding flow in the straight pipe. The secondary flow due to coriolis force takes place when viscous fluid flows through a straight pipe rotating about an axis perpendicular to the pipe axis. The effects of secondary flow on different newtoninan and non-newtoninan fluids have been investigated and reported by researchers(4,5,6) in the past. The concept of secondary flow has been studied extensively in pipeline and piping systems. There have been many experimental and numerical studies with curved toroidal pipes. Furthermore, the effects of secondary flow in cured pipes in the form of helical and spiral coiled attracted many investigators. Mishra and Gupta(6) investigated the effects of curvature and pitch on the pressure drop in both laminar and turbulent flow regimes. Coiled pitch and radius of curvature of the pipe effects were experimentally investigated and presented by Gupta(6). The pioneering work was published by Dean(7,8) on the theoretical aspects of the toroidal flow and showed the effects of pressure gradient on curvature of the pipe. He also presented a fundamental relation between the flow resistance and curvature of the pipe by way of defining a parameter called Dean Number. The Dean number and Reynolds number are related(7) as follows: r N De = N Re R
All the above studies concluded that there exist strong effects on pressure loss due to curvature. Most of the studies neglected the effect of torsion. Germano, Yamamoto studied the effect of curvature as well as torsion effects of the pipe. The effects of curvature on the pressure loss in coiled tubing have been recently reviewed and extensively studied again by Sha and Zhou(11,12) with Newtonian and non Newtonian fluids for coiled tubings on the reels. Anwar and So(13,14) analyzed the effect of bend curvature on secondary motion in curved pipe flows. They found that the secondary flow in the curved pipe is reorganized by fluid swirl effects and also they studied the flow recovery from fluid swirl. They conducted theoretical and experimental studies with non-Newtonian fluids. Taking into account of the non-newtoninan fluid behavior McCann and Islas(15) studied and generalized the Srinivasan and Nandapuraker(16) correlation for turbulent flow. They compared the generalized correlation for power law fluid with flow loop full-scale tests. The results were conducted with six different fluids in three different diameter tubings. The friction factor given by them is as follows
1.06a r .8b R N0 Re where log 10 (n ) + 3.93 a= 50 1.75 log10 (n ) b= 7 The above friction factor is used in the present study. f=
0.1
Curved Flow Models The crucial factor in the secondary flow model is the curvature factor besides the Deans number which is defined based on the flow resistance and curvature effects. There are other downhole factors that affect the pressure loss inside the annulus. The eccentricity of the pipe relative to the wellbore is a significant factor to the pressure loss calculation. The pipe position inside the wellbore and pipe rotation further contributes the secondary flow effects. The simplified estimation of the annular pressure losses becomes more critical when the operation is carried out within close window of pore and fracture pressures. During this time controlling wellbore pressures within the narrow pressure margins makes it more critical. The annular pressure losses with secondary flow effects have been studied extensively in the medical sciences. Catheters consisting of long flexible cylindrical tube with various tools are inserted into the artery for intravascular diagnosis. Studies of the pressure gradient and flow velocity are very much essential for the safe operation. The insertion of the catheter forms an annular flow domain between the catheter wall and the arterial wall. As the arterial walls are curved in nature secondary flow is introduced between the walls due to the curvature. Extensive theoretical and experimental studies have been reported with newtonian and non-newtoninan fluids. A detailed mathematical model was presented by MacDonald(17) for pressure gradient estimates for catheters which are positioned eccentrically as wells as concentrically inside the artery. Back(18) using analytical
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approach substantiated with experimental results showed that the mean flow resistance increases concentric and eccentric annuli. Numerical simulations and experimental analysis were conducted by several other researchers(19,20,21,22) for the curved arteries and concluded the increase the increase of pressure losses. Dash and Jeyaraman(23) concluded that the pressure drop may increase approximately by factor ranging from 1.5 to 5 depending on the eccentricity and curvature. There have been numerous other studies also on fully developed flows in curved tubes which were reviewed extensively by other researchers (24, 25). Even though there are no published explicit friction factor equations for non-newtoninan fluids Jeyaraman and Dash(26) study concluded that the friction factor in a curved tube is higher than the corresponding value in a curved annulus. So for the present study the same friction factor for the pipe is used as a first approximation. Calibration of Tortuosity Factors A simple methodology(27) can be used to calibrate tortuosity factors for the hydraulics calculations. The methodology uses actual survey data and known surface hook loads for different operating conditions such as tripping in, tripping out, and rotating off bottom to arrive at appropriate friction factor values that can further be used in torque and drag calculations. Once the friction factors are determined for both cased hole and open hole, appropriate tortuosity values such as period (wave length) and magnitude (amplitude) can be determined by comparing the predicted results with the drillers data. However, the values obtained may be specific to the wells as the friction factor obtained is based on hole diameter, hole conditions, lithology, and drilling fluid type. The following simple procedure is a guideline to estimating the tortuosity factors for a particular hole size: 1. Calibrate the friction factor for casing with the actual survey data and record hook loads. 2. Calibrate the friction factors for open hole and cased hole based on actual survey data and record drilling loads. 3. Determine the appropriate tortuosity factor using the calibrated friction factors, actual survey data, and the original planned wellpath. Illustration The tortuosity effects are illustrated with the following synthetically generated data which demonstrates the method and establishes the objectives of analysis. A deviated well is drilled in an offshore reservoir of water depth 2,500 ft as shown in Fig 1. Additional details of the well profile and well data involved in the calculations are given below. 13 5/8 Casing Depth = 10,300 ft Open hole Depth = 25,315 ft Bit diameter = 10 5/8 in BHA Length = 580 ft Mud weight 14.3 ppg with Pv - 30 cp and YP - 23 lb/100 ft2 Base Type Fluid: Oil Other details of the wellbore are shown in the schematic as shown in Fig.1
Well Schematic 0 ft RKB Mean Sea Level 2500 ft 3000 ft 4000 ft TOC 5000 ft 4900 ft TOC 7000 ft KOP 7100 ft 6000 ft TOC 16" Surface Casing 11 3/4" Intermediate Casing Mud Line 36" Structural Drive Pipe 20" Conductor Casing
17800 ft
Figure 1 Well Schematic The following additional parameters are used for the calculations. Motor details: Overall length = 30 ft Maximum Horse power = 40 hp Pressure loss @ 800 gpm = 145 psi Pressure loss @ 900 gpm = 181 psi Pressure loss @ 1100 gpm = 275 psi Position of the motor from bit = 20 ft Tortuosity: Model = Helical Period = between 20 ft and 150 ft Magnitude = between 0.1 and 1 Interpolation interval = between 20 ft and 150 ft Stiff string model is used to find out the position of the pipe in the wellbore for various conditions of the wellpaths. Figure 2 shows the difference in pressure for various length of the well on which the tortuosity was applied. The period and flowrate used for the lengths between 0 ft to 6000 ft are 20 ft and 1000 gpm respectively. Further, in a similar fashion, calculations can be repeated for different periods. It can be seen that as the distance increases, the difference between the pressures with the tortuosity and untortured wells also increases. At lower flowrates the increase in pressure loss is insignificant even for loner tortured wellbore lengths. It is found that the increases in curvature caused the increase in the frictional pressure which depends on the flowrate.
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300
250
appreciable at lower period at higher flowrates. For larger periods, the cross sectional plane becomes parallel to the walls of the annulus indicating that the effect of curvature become insignificant as the value of period increases.
18200 Period= 150 ft
Amplitude = 1.0
Pressu re (p si)
50
8200
6200
24000
23000
22000
20000
19000
0 18000
4200
2200
200 300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Flowrate(gpm)
14000
Length = 4000 ft
Figure 4 Total System Pressure loss vs. Flowrates for various tortuosity period: Applied wellbore length 4000 ft
17100
T o ta l S y s te m P re s s u re lo s s (p s i)
17080
8000
17060 S y s te m P re s s u re L o s s (p s i)
6000
17040
4000
2000
0 100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Flowrate(gpm)
Magnitude = 0.25
Figure 3 Total System Pressure loss vs. Flowrates for various wellbore length: Applied Period 20 ft Figure 3 shows the total system pressure loss for various flowrates. Again the wellbore length on which tortuosity applied was varied from 0 ft to 6000 ft. It can be seen that the effect of tortuosity is less pronounced at lower flowrates even if the tortured wellpath is longer. The period used for the lengths between 0 ft to 6000ft is 20 ft. It can also be seen that the pressure difference is appreciable at higher wellbore lengths. Figure 4 shows the total system pressure loss for various flowrates with the wellbore length on which tortuosity applied was kept constant at 4000 ft. The tortuosity value, period (wave length) used were 20ft, 25ft, 35ft, 50 ft, 80ft, 100ft and 150ft. The magnitude was kept constant at 1 throughout the analysis. It can be seen that the effect of period is less pronounced at lower flowrates even when the period is smaller. It can also be seen that the pressure difference is
Figure 5 Total System Pressure loss vs. Period Length for various tortuosity magnitudes: Applied wellbore length 4000 ft Figure 5 shows the total system pressure loss for various period lengths with the wellbore length on which tortuosity applied kept constant at 4000 ft. This includes the tortuosity magnitude values 0.25, 0.5, and 1.0. The flowrate was kept constant at 1000 gpm throughout the analysis. It can be seen that at lower period the effect is more pronounced. It can also be seen that the pressure difference is appreciable at lower magnitude for the same flowrate. In these cases, the inertial effects are not significant as the curves tend to become straight.
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Figure 6 shows the total system pressure loss for various period lengths with the wellbore length on which tortuosity applied kept constant at 4000 ft. The tortuosity values, magnitudes used were 0.25, 0.5, and 1.0. The flowrate was kept constant at 900 gpm throughout the analysis. A similar effect is seen here also as compared to 1000gpm but with lower pressure losses.
14400
14380
provides a relative comparison of various designs by way of comparing with the untortured wells. Implementation of this methodology can be achieved efficiently in the wells where hole spiraling is a problem. The results provide insight into the complex wellpaths caused by downhole steering tools. The effects are less pronounced and may not be significant at lower flowrates, lower magnitudes of the shape, higher periods. The effects will have significant effect at higher flowrates with larger wellbore torture lengths. Experimental work and flow models are needed for curved annulus flow.
S y s te m P re s s u re L o s s (p s i)
14360
14340
Acknowledgments The authors would like to express their appreciation to Landmark Graphics Corporation for the opportunity to present this paper.
Magnitude =1.0
14320
Figure 6 Total System Pressure loss vs. Period Length for various tortuosity magnitudes: Applied wellbore length 4000 ft With the forgone calculations it can be clearly seen that the intervening variables such as tortuosity period, amplitude, tortured wellbore length, and flowrates play an important role. So an operating window of these variables needs to be established and selected to estimate the total effect of the tortuosity on the wellbore hydraulics. In addition, it is evident that the effects are negligible at lower flowrates, smaller tortured wellbore length, larger period and lower magnitudes. Non-inclusion of tortuosity effects on the hydraulics analysis may result in the underpredcition of standpipe pressures. Concluding Remarks The present work has produced results of important value despite the fact that it has not been validated with the actual data. However, the study lays some groundwork to validate with the available data. The proposed framework generally describes wells that are very deep with spiraled wellpath. These estimates can be used to correct the error involved in measured pressure gradients. Based on the study and analysis, the following inferences are made. Rotational effects of the pipe in addition to the eccentricity, curvature and torsional effects will cause centrifugal and coriolis forces in addition to the usual inertia and viscous forces. Overlaying with the straight flow may also cause significant heat transfer. The severity of the hydraulic design depends on the tortuosity and spiraling of the wellpath. The calculation
Nomenclature f = friction factor, r = radius of the pipe, ft D = Measured depth, ft P = period, M = magnitude, n = power-law exponent NDe = Dean number, NRe = Reynolds number, R = radius of curvature of pipe, ft u = angular parameter xvc = cross vertical correction = random number SI Metric Conversion Factors E +00 = m ft 0.3048 inch 25.4 E -03= m in3/min 1.6387 E -05 = m3/min E +00 = liter Gal (US) 3.785 psi 6.8948 E -03 = MPa References 1. Tom Gaynor, Doug Hamer, David Chen, Darren Stuart: Quantifying Tortuosities by Friction Factors in Torque and Drag Model SPE 77617 presented at The SPE Annual Technical Conference, San Antonio, Texas, 29 September-2 October 2002. 2. Paul Pastusek and Van Brackin,.: A Model for Borehole Oscillations SPE 77617 presented at The SPE Annual Technical Conference, Denver, Colorado, U.S.A., pp. 5-8 October 2003. 3. Tom Gaynor, Doug Hamer, David Chen, Darren Stuart, Blaine Comeaux.: Tortuosity versus Micro-Tortuosity Why Little Things Mean a Lot SPE 67818 SPE/IADC Drilling Conference held in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 27 February-1 March 2001. 4. Yamamoto K. A. Aribowo, Y. Hayamizu, T. Hirose, Kawahara, K., Visualization of the flow in a helical pipe Fluid Dynamics Research, Vol. 30 (4) (2002) pp. 251-267 The Japan Society of Fluid Mechanics and
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7. 8.
9.
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23.
Elsevier Science. Discusses the secondary flow effects with high torsion P.Mishra and S.N Gupta: Momentum Transfer in Curved Pipes- Newtonian Fluids Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev. pp 130-37 Vol 18 1979. P.Mishra and S.N Gupta: Momentum Transfer in Curved Pipes- Newtonian Fluids Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev. pp 138-42 Vol 18 1979. Dean W.R: Note on the Motion of Fluid in a Cured Pipe Philos. Magazine, PP 208-23, Volume 20, July 1927. Dean W.R: The Streamline Motion of Fluid in a Curved Pipe Philos. Magazine, PP 673-93, Volume 30, April 1928. Germano, M: On the Effect of Torsion on a Helical Pipe Journal of Fluid Mechanics. Pp. 1-8, Volume 125, 1982. Germano, M: The Dean Equations Extended to a Helical Pipe Flow Journal of Fluid Mechanics. Pp. 289-305 Volume 203, 1989. Shah, S.N., Zhou, Y., An Experimental Study of Drag Reduction of Polymer Solutions in Coiled Tubing SPE 68419, SPE/ICOTA, Houston, TX 7-8 March 2001. Zhou, Y., Shah, S.N., Non-Newtoninan Fluid Flow in Coiled Tubing: Theoretical Analysis and Experimental Verification SPE 77708, SPE, Annual Technical Conference, San Antonio, TX 29 Sep.-2 Oct. 2002. Anwar, M., So, R.M.C., Swirling Turbulent Flow Through a Curved Pipe. Part I: Effect of Swirl and Bend Curvature Experiment in Fluids, Volume 14, pp. 85-96 So, R.M.C., Anwar, M., Swirling Turbulent Flow Through a Cured Pipe. Part II: Recovery from Swirl and Bend Curvature Effect of Swirl and Bend Curvature Experiment in Fluids, Volume 14, pp. 169-177. McCann, P.C., Islas, C.G., Frictional Pressure Loss during Turbulent Flow in Coiled Tubing SPE 36345, presented at SPE/ICOTA North American Coiled Tubing Roundtable held in Montgomery, Texas 26-28 Feb. 1996. Srinivasan, P.S., Nandapurkar, S.S., Holland, F.A., Friction Factors for Coils, Trans. Instn. Chem. Engr., pp. T156-T161, Vol. 48, 1970. MacDonald, D.A., Pulsatile Flow in a Catheterized artery Journal of Biomechanics, 19, 1986, pp. 239-249. Back, L.H., Estimated mean Flow Resistance increase during Coronary Artery Catheterization Journal of Biomechanics, 27 1994, pp. 169-175 Jeyaraman, G., Tiwari, K., Flow in a Catheterized Curved Artery Med. & Biol. Engng. & Compt 33, 1995 pp 1-6. Snyder, W.T., Goldstein, G.A., An Analysis of Fully Developed Laminar flow in An Eccentric Annulus, A.I.Ch.E.J., Vol. 11, 1965, pp. 462-467. Sarkar, A., Jayaraman, G., Correction to flow ratePressure drop Relation in Coronary Catheterized Artery A Theoretical Model. Journal of Biomechanics, Vol. 29, 1996, 917-930. Chang, L.J Tarbel, J.M., A Numerical Study of Flow in Curved Tubes Simulating Coronary Arteries Journal of Biomechanics, Vol. 21, 1988, pp.927-937. Dash, R.K., Jayaraman, G., Mehta, K.N., Flow in a Catheterized Curved Artery with Stenosis, Journal of
Biomechanics, Vol. 32, 1999 pp. 49-61. 24. Pedley, T.J., The Fluid Mechanics of Large Blood Vessels London: Cambridge University Press, 1980. 25. Berger, S.A., Talbot, L., Yao, L.S., Motion of Fluid in Curved Pipes, Ann.Rev.Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 15, 1983, pp. 461-512. 26. Jeyaraman G., Dash, R.K., Numerical Study of Flow in a Constricted Curved Annulus Journal of Engineering Mathematics, Vol. 40, pp. 355-376, 2001. 27. Yuejin Luo, Kaiwan Bharucha, Robello Samuel, Faris Bajwa: Simple practical approach provides a technique for calibrating tortuosity factors Oil & Gas Journal 15, 2003.
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