Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy For Deliberate Self-Harm

Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for Deliberate Self-Harm
Nadja Slee
inleiding.indd 1
02-03-2008 21:38:47
Support for the study was provided by The Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMw) (contract grant number: 2100.0068).
Printed by:
PrintPartners Ipskamp, Enschede
Design: cover & layout: Esther Beekman (www.estherontwerpt.nl)
inleiding.indd 2
02-03-2008 21:38:47
Proefschrift
ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van Rector Magnificus prof. mr. P.F. van der Heijden, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op donderdag 24 april 2008 klokke 15.00 uur door
Nadja Slee
geboren te Amsterdam in 1979
inleiding.indd 3
02-03-2008 21:38:47
Promotiecommissie Promotor Copromotores Prof. dr. Ph. Spinhoven, Universiteit Leiden Dr. N. Garnefski, Universiteit Leiden Dr. E. Arensman, National Suicide Research Foundation, Ireland
Referent Prof. dr. K. Hawton, University of Oxford Centre for Suicide Research, U.K. Overige leden Prof. dr. A.J.F.M. Kerkhof, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Prof. dr. A.J.W. van der Does, Universiteit Leiden
inleiding.indd 4
02-03-2008 21:38:47
Au milieu de lhiver, japprenais enfin quil y avait en moi un t invincible.
(In the midst of winter, I finally learned that there was in me an invincible summer. )
--Albert Camus (1952)--
inleiding.indd 5
02-03-2008 21:38:47
inleiding.indd 6
02-03-2008 21:38:47
Contents
Chapter 1
General Introduction
8 16 30
Chapter 2 Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for Deliberate Self-Harm Chapter 3 Treatment Protocol for Deliberate Self-Harm in Adolescents and Adults Chapter 4 Outcomes of a Randomized Controlled Trial of a Cognitive Behavioural
Intervention for Deliberate Self-Harm Patients

Chapter 5
54
5 Emotion Regulation as Mediator of Treatment Outcome in a Randomized
Controlled Trial of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for Deliberate 6 Self-Harm Patients

Chapter 6 Childhood Trauma Predicts Psychopathology and Treatment Outcome in
78
Deliberate Self-Harm Patients

Chapter 7 The Influence of Cognitive Emotion Regulation Strategies and
96
Depression Severity on Deliberate Self-Harm

Chapter 8 Summary and General Discussion
112 128 148 168 172 176
References Samenvatting Dankwoord Curriculum Vitae
inleiding.indd 7
02-03-2008 21:38:48
chapter 1
hoofdstuk 1.indd 8
02-03-2008 22:01:42
hoofdstuk 1.indd 9
02-03-2008 22:01:42
chapter 1
Rose (18) When I was six, my uncle began molesting me. Since I was so used to being molested almost every day, I didn't see it as something that was out of the ordinary. Third grade was when I finally understood that he was doing something very wrong because my teacher started talking to the class about that sort of stuff and that if anything like that happened to us, we should tell someone about it. From that moment on, I would think about telling my mom every single day, but I just couldn't. I knew that if I told her, it would break her heart. That was when I made a promise with myself. I would never tell anyone my secret until my uncle died. I started to ignore my feelings as best I could by always putting a smile on my face and acting as though nothing was wrong in my life. Then I heard of a lot of other people cutting. I thought I would try it, just to see what I would get out of it. When I did it, it felt good. I started doing it more often. Whenever my parents would yell at me, I would cut, whenever I did poorly on an assignment, I would cut, and whenever I would feel angry and sad, I would resort to cutting. A year ago, my parents found out everything, and he is in jail. Today, I go to therapy often, still not telling her everything I'm feeling.
Introduction
No problem facing psychotherapists is more urgent than Deliberate Self-Harm (DSH). Every episode of DSH increases the risk of future episodes (Colman, Newman, Schopflocher, Bland & Dyck, 2004; Cooper et al., 2005) and, eventually, suicide (Zahl & Hawton, 2004; Cooper et al., 2005). The present dissertation aims to advance the development of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) for young people with DSH. The dissertation is a compilation of theory, research, and intervention practices. It brings together questions such as: How does what we know about risk factors for DSH translate into clinical practice? Does CBT effectively reduce DSH among young people? What makes the CBT intervention effective? Do different people equally respond to the CBT intervention? To what extent is emotion regulation in suicidal individuals different from individuals who are not suicidal? In the present thesis, the term Deliberate Self-Harm (DSH) includes both deliberate self-poisoning and deliberate self-injury (Hawton, Zahl, & Weatherall, 2003). DSH is defined irrespective of the apparent purpose of the act (e.g. relief from pain, punishment of self/others, death). In this definition, both the original parasuicide definition of the WHO/Euro study and their current nomenclature of fatal and nonfatal suicidal behaviour is included, as well as habitual behaviours and self-injuries with no intent to die. In line with the definition of the WHO/Euro study, DSH associated with mental retardation is excluded (De Leo et al., 2004; Schmidtke et al., 2004). Thus, all behaviour that was self-initiated with the intent to harm the body (regardless of intent to die) is included. This definition has the
10
hoofdstuk 1.indd 10
02-03-2008 22:01:42
advantage of being specific, concrete and observable (Linehan, Comtois, Brown, Heard, & Wagner, 2006). In the studies of the present thesis, this definition was used as a first step to gather detailed information about the multiple aspects of DSH that the literature suggests are important to psychotherapists and researchers alike, such as antecedents, stressors, motives, intent, method and consequences of an episode of DSH. The studies in the present thesis focus on DSH patients aged 15-35, because DSH is a serious clinical and public mental health problem among the younger age groups. Recent Dutch population-based studies show that DSH is reported by 4.3% of 15-20 year olds (de Wilde, 2005), by 2.6% of 18-24 year olds and by 2.9% of 25-34 year olds (Ten Have et al., 2006). These findings are similar to those of other western countries (Hawton & Van Heeringen, 2000; Skegg, 2005). However, DSH is not only a prevalent problem, repetition is also common (Hultn et al., 2004; Cedereke & jehagen, 2005; Kapur et al., 2005) and occurs quickly (Kapur et al., 2006). Who is most at risk for DSH? The risk of DSH increases when multiple risk factors are present (Colman et al., 2004). The presence of a severe psychiatric disorder such as major depression is among the strongest predictors of DSH (Fawcett, Clark & Busch, 1993). Anxiety, especially if acute and intense, also plays an important role in DSH (Busch, Clark, Fawcett, & Kravitz, 1993). In addition to anxiety, DSH patients describe feelings of chronic emptiness, alienation and isolation (Orbach, Mikulincer, Gilboa-Schechtman, & Sirota, 2003). In the context of these unpleasant experiences, they report thoughts of hopelessness (e.g. Glanz, Haas & Sweeney, 1995), helplessness (e.g. DZurilla, Chang, Nottingham & Faccini, 1998), of being a burden to loved ones (Brown & Vinokur, 2003), of unlovability and poor distress tolerance (Rudd, Joiner & Rajab, 2001) and of low self-esteem (McAuliffe et al., 2006). In addition, the more problem behaviours are present (e.g., violent behaviour, binge drinking, or drug abuse), the greater the risk of DSH (Miller & Taylor, 2005). Poor problem solving ability is assumed to interact with suicidal cognitions, increasing the risk of DSH (Townsend et al., 2001). A high-risk subgroup are individuals with a history of childhood abuse. Reviewing the literature on childhood trauma and DSH, Evans, Hawton and Rodham (2005) conclude that there seems to be a clear link between abuse in childhood and DSH during adolescence and adulthood. Abused DSH patients are characterized by more severe psychological and psychiatric problems than non-abused patients, including higher rates of repetition of DSH (Forman, Beck, Brown, Berk, & Henriques, 2004), alcohol and drug abuse (Favaro, Ferrara, & Santonastaso, 2007), depression, hopelessness, anger and low self-esteem (Osvath, Vrs, & Fekete, 2004) and high levels of dissociation (Low, Power, Duggan, Jones, & MacLeod, 2000).
11
hoofdstuk 1.indd 11
02-03-2008 22:01:42
chapter 1
While the body of research on suicidal cognitions, problem solving deficits and childhood abuse was quite large, at the start of the project in 2001, few studies had examined emotion regulation difficulties among DSH patients. This is surprising, since DSH has been conceptualized as serving an emotion regulating function (Linehan, 1993). Only recently, preliminary evidence has been provided fordifferent aspects of emotion dysregulation among patients with borderline personality disorder, including lower emotional awareness and clarity(Levine, Marziali, & Hood, 1997; Leible & Snell, 2004), greater difficulty controlling behaviour when experiencing negative emotions (Yen, Zlotnick, & Costello, 2002; Leible & Snell, 2004), greater use of avoidant emotion regulation strategies (Bijttebier & Vertommen, 1999), and unwillingness to experience unpleasant emotions (Gratz, Rosenthal, Tull, Lejuez, & Gunderson, 2006).Clearly, there is a need for studies on specific emotion regulation difficulties among DSH patients. A better understanding of emotion regulation difficulties may also help to improve treatment for DSH patients, which is the main objective of this thesis. What do we know about effective treatments for DSH patients? Overall, there are two strategies for treating DSH. The first strategy assumes that DSH is a symptom of some other underlying mental disorder. Treatment focuses on the mental disorder, assuming that its effective treatment will in turn reduce DSH. This approach is the model underlying most pharmacological approaches to treatment. The second strategy is to focus directly on DSH. In these treatments, reduction of DSH is an explicit treatment goal. Therapy sessions focus on engaging the patient in a detailed discussion of the most recent episode of DSH. The therapist then looks for factors that might maintain DSH. This second model underlies most CBT approaches to treatment. In this section, the effectiveness of both indirect and direct treatments of DSH is discussed. Unfortunately, limited research has addressed the question which treatments for mental disorders reduce DSH and suicide. Since mood disorders are the most common diagnoses related to suicide, researchers hypothesize that effective treatment of depression will reduce the incidence of suicide. Although this assumption makes intuitive sense, there are few empirical data to back up the assumption (Van Praag, 2003). Khan et al. (2003) analyzed U.S. Food and Drug Administration summary reports of controlled clinical trials for nine recently marketed antidepressants. Similar suicide rates were observed in those randomly assigned to each SSRI, comparator antidepressant or placebo, failing to provide any evidence of a suicide-reducing effect of antidepressants. There are, however, limitations as to how much one can infer from such trials. Suicide is a rare event. Moreover, clinical trials tend to exclude individuals with high suicide risk. Despite such negative findings, a potential beneficial effect of antidepressants on suicide rates has become apparent in a recent series of national population-based reports from Sweden
12
hoofdstuk 1.indd 12
02-03-2008 22:01:42
(Isacsson, 2000), Hungary (Rihmer as cited in Hall et al., 2003), the United Kingdom (Gunnell, Middleton, Whitley, Dorling, & Frankel, 2003) and Australia (Hall et al., 2003). At the start of the project in 2001, there was little research on whether therapeutic interventions aimed directly at reducing DSH and suicide are effective in achieving these aims. A systematic review of both pharmacological and psychological treatments revealed that most treatments had serious limitations, including insufficient power to detect treatment differences (Hawton et al., 1998). Despite these shortcomings, cognitive behavioural therapies (CBT) seemed to be promising (Hawton et al., 1998), especially Dialectial Behaviour Therapy (Linehan, 1993), which was the only treatment with more than one clinical trial demonstrating effectiveness, both in reducing repeated DSH episodes and reducing the lethality of methods used in repeated episodes. How and for whom do CBT interventions work? As the evidence supporting the efficacy of CBT interventions seems promising, there are no studies investigating the mechanism of action of CBT. Understanding the mechanisms through which CBT operates would advance the development of innovative treatment strategies. Furthermore, this would provide insight into the active ingredients of the CBT intervention. Identifying mechanisms of change promises not only to improve treatment but also to enhance understanding of the nature of DSH. If a treatment has its effects by influencing a particular process, this finding points to the importance of this process in the maintenance of the disorder. Analysing these mechanisms therefore also provides an indirect test of the theoretical model of mechanisms maintaining the disorder. On the basis of contemporary psychological theories of DSH, it makes sense to ask whether the changes resulting from CBT are mediated by changes in suicide cognitions, emotion regulation difficulties or problem solving deficits and not primarily due to reduction of symptoms of depression or anxiety. Considering the heterogeneity of the group of DSH-patients, it is important to know whether people differing in demographic characteristics, psychological or psychiatric problems and in particular history of childhood abuse respond equally well to the intervention. However, at the start of the project in 2001, there were no data from randomized controlled clinical trials on the relationship between demographic, psychological, psychiatric and historical characteristics and treatment outcome for DSH. Relevance of the study Despite the suffering of DSH patients and their families, despite the high risk of repetition, and despite the difficulties therapists encounter working with DSH patients, there is little research on whether therapeutic interventions aimed directly at reducing DSH are effective in modifying these outcomes. For this reason, the present study was designed
13
hoofdstuk 1.indd 13
02-03-2008 22:01:43
chapter 1
to investigate the efficacy of CBT in a randomized controlled trial with sufficient power to detect treatment differences. Similar to Dialectical Behaviour Therapy, the treatment described in this thesis targets DSH directly. Since the existing treatment research only partially supports the premise of targeting DSH indirectly, the present study may help to clarify the discussion on direct and indirect treatments of DSH. Aims of the study The main objective of the studies of the present thesis is to improve CBT interventions for DSH. Chapter 2 aims to detect targets for CBT interventions for DSH by studying three diffe-rent cognitive-behavioural theories: (1) the cognitive-behavioural theory Linehan (1993) developed to reduce DSH in patients with borderline personality disorder, (2) the DSH-specific cognitive theory of Berk et al. (2004), and (3) the DSH-specific cognitivebehavioural theory of Rudd, Joiner and Rajab (2001). A review of these theories makes it possible to compare the different approaches to the essential aspects of DSH and the related specific therapeutic techniques. The chapter aims to present a practical cognitivebehavioural framework therapists may use in their work with DSH patients. Chapter 3 aims to provide a manual for the CBT intervention. Building on the cognitivebehavioural framework described above, we developed a time-limited manualised cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) intervention for DSH patients. The intervention aims to reduce DSH by targeting cognitive problems (e.g., dysfunctional thoughts, suicidal cognitions), emotional problems (e.g., emotional avoidance, difficulties regulating strong emotions), behavioural problems (e.g., problem solving deficits, self-defeating behaviour) and interpersonal problems (e.g., poor communication, lack of social support). Chapter 4 aims to examine the outcomes of a randomized controlled trial comparing the efficacy of the CBT intervention as a supplement to usual care, with usual care only. Chapter 5 aims to study emotion regulation difficulties as potential mediators of CBT for DSH. To advance the development of innovative treatment strategies for DSH, it is important to understand the mechanisms through which CBT operates. Identifying mechanisms of change promises also to advance our understanding of the nature of DSH. Chapter 6 aims to examine whether DSH patients differing in demographic characteristics, psychological and psychiatric problems, and in particular history of childhood abuse, respond equally well to the CBT intervention (see Chapter 5). Chapter 7 aims to examine how emotion regulation is different in individuals with DSH. The study described in this chapter compares emotion regulation strategies used by women who engage in DSH with strategies used by female control subjects. Chapter 8 starts with a summary and a general discussion, followed by a discussion of
14
hoofdstuk 1.indd 14
02-03-2008 22:01:43
the methodological strengths and limitations of the studies. Finally, recommendations for future research and clinical implications of this thesis are presented.
15
hoofdstuk 1.indd 15
02-03-2008 22:01:43
chapter 2
hoofdstuk 2.indd 16
02-03-2008 22:03:32
Nadja Slee, Ella Arensman, Nadia Garnefski, & Philip Spinhoven
Published in Crisis 2007; 28 (4): 175-182
hoofdstuk 2.indd 17
02-03-2008 22:03:32
chapter 2
Abstract
Patients who engage in Deliberate Self-Harm (DSH) form a heterogeneous population. There is a need for psychotherapeutic interventions that give therapists the flexibility to tailor the treatment plan to the needs of an individual patient. To detect essential ingredients for treatment, three different cognitive-behavioural theories of DSH will be reviewed: (1) the cognitive-behavioural theory Linehan (1993), (2) the cognitive theory of Berk et al. (2004), and (3) the cognitive-behavioural theory of Rudd et al. (2001). A review of these theories makes it possible to compare the different approaches to the essential aspects in the treatment of DSH: a trusting patient-therapist relationship, building emotion regulation skills, cognitive restructuring and behavioural pattern breaking. An overview will be given of therapeutic techniques that can be used to address the cognitive, emotional, behavioural and interpersonal problems associated with DSH.
Introduction
Most clinicians agree that patients who harm themselves deliberately are among the most complex and therapeutically challenging patients they are confronted with. These patients form a heterogeneous population with respect to characteristics such as the number of previous episodes of Deliberate Self-Harm (DSH), motives for DSH and psychological and psychiatric problems. In this article, the construct of DSH covers all types of non-lethal self-harming behaviour either with or without suicidal intent (e.g. trying to hurt or kill oneself). With this heterogeneous population in mind, the main objective of this paper is to provide guidance for clinicians. There is a need for psychotherapeutic interventions that give therapists the flexibility to tailor the treatment plan to the needs of an individual patient. If the connection between the problems of an individual patient and specific treatment strategies and techniques can be specified, this will enable the clinician to match patient and treatment more precisely. The questions we will address here are: What do DSH patients need? How can we be more effective in treating DSH? To detect essential ingredients for treatment, three different cognitive-behavioural theories of DSH will be discussed: (1) the cognitive-behavioural theory Linehan (1993) developed to reduce DSH in patients with borderline personality disorder, (2) the DSH specific cognitive theory of Berk, Henriques, Warman, Brown and Beck (2004), and (3) the DSH specific cognitivebehavioural theory of Rudd, Joiner and Rajab (2001). A review of these theories makes it possible to compare the different approaches to the essential aspects of DSH and the related specific therapeutic techniques.
18
hoofdstuk 2.indd 18
02-03-2008 22:03:32
Cognitive-behavioural theories of DSH A cognitive-behavioural approach to DSH proposed by Linehan, named Dialectical Behaviour Therapy In treating chronically suicidal patients who have been diagnosed with borderline personality disorder, Linehan discovered an important shortcoming in standard cognitive and behavioural treatments: They focused almost exclusively on helping patients change their thoughts, feelings and behaviours. This approach was not particularly helpful: patients often felt misunderstood and dropped out of treatment. With these shortcomings in mind, Linehan developed an intensive treatment program called Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT), combining general cognitive-behavioural techniques with elements from Zen (Linehan, 1993). In line with cognitive-behavioural principles, emotion regulation, interpersonal effectiveness, distress tolerance, core mindfulness and self-management skills are actively taught. In line with Zen, patients are encouraged to develop an alert, non-judgmental attitude towards events as well as to their own emotions and cognitions. According to DBT this mindful attitude is crucial in order to prevent impulsive, mood dependent behaviour and the associated recurrence of DSH. A mindful, non-judgmental attitude is also considered to be essential for the therapeutic relationship, as DBT focuses on validating the patients experiences. This requires that the DBT therapist searches for the truth inherent in each of the patients responses and communicates this to the patient. Validation also involves sympathetic acknowledgement of the patients sense of emotional pain. Throughout treatment, the emphasis is on building and maintaining a positive, collaborative relationship between patient and therapist. Furthermore, the judicious use of humour irreverence is advocated as a useful technique for keeping the interaction between patient and therapist on the go when it might otherwise slow to a halt. Another major characteristic of the therapeutic relationship is that the primary role of the therapist is as consultant to the patient, not as consultant to other individuals. Due to the philosophical nature of the theory, DBT cannot easily be verified. However, a large number of treatment studies have now demonstrated the efficacy of DBT in reducing both the number and severity of repeated DSH episodes, reducing the number of hospital days and improving general and social functioning as well as treatment compliance over a one year follow-up period (Linehan, Armstrong, Suarez, Allmon, & Heard, 1991; Linehan, Heard, & Armstrong, 1993; Linehan, Tutch, Heard, & Armstrong, 1994; Linehan, Comtois, Murrey et al., 2006). No differences were found between DBT and treatment as usual with respect to depression, hopelessness, suicidal ideation and reasons for living. In a study among borderline patients with co-morbid substance abuse disorder, DBT resulted in greater reductions of DSH than treatment as usual. It is noteworthy that the beneficial
19
hoofdstuk 2.indd 19
02-03-2008 22:03:32
chapter 2
impact on frequency of DSH was far more pronounced among those who reported higher baseline frequencies of DSH compared with those reporting lower baseline frequencies (Van den Bosch, Verheul, Schippers, & van den Brink, 2002; Verheul et al., 2003). Although standard DBT is effective for borderline patients with and without co-morbid substance abuse problems, it does not seem to affect substance abuse problems. Therefore, DBT appears to be effective in terms of the specific target that is focused on (e.g., DSH). Standard DBT could be modified such that multiple targets can be focused on, depending on the specific problems of individual patients. This may be useful, since patients tend to have multiple problems (Van den Bosch et al., 2002). Given that this patient population is difficult to treat, the results are encouraging. However, the intensity of this approach probably precludes its use in current routine clinical practice, but elements of it may be directly applicable (Hawton, 1997). A cognitive-behavioural approach by Berk et al Berk et al. (2004) have elaborated Becks Cognitive Therapy (Beck, 1967; 1976) to develop a brief cognitive treatment (10 sessions) for DSH. Since the treatment focuses on repetition of DSH, all issues brought forth by the patient are discussed in terms of their relation to the self-harming behaviour. The treatment includes interventions such as a multi-step crisisplan, a detailed cognitive conceptualization of the irrational negative beliefs associated with DSH and the use of coping cards. Within this general framework, therapists are active and directive. A recent study shows that the treatment can effectively reduce repetition of DSH (Brown et al., 2005). Within the follow-up period of a year and a half, people in the Cognitive Behavioural Therapy group were approximately 50% less likely to engage in DSH than individuals in the control group. Those who received cognitive therapy scored also significantly lower on measures of depressed mood and hopelessness. Although this is the only study of this specific treatment in DSH patients, there is a considerable weight of evidence for the effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy in other psychological disorders (Alford & Beck, 1997). This brief and effective treatment might therefore be a good alternative for people who do not have the motivation or energy for longer courses of therapy. Furthermore, the short-term feature of this treatment would make it particularly applicable for the treatment of DSH at community mental health centres. A cognitive-behavioural approach to DSH by Rudd et al While Linehan (1993) developed a treatment for chronically suicidal patients diagnosed with borderline personality disorder, Rudd et al. (2001) developed a suicide and DSH specific cognitive behavioural treatment for a broader range of patients. Their approach to DSH is similar to the approach of Berk et al. (2004), in that DSH itself is the primary target of treatment, rather than it being approached as secondary to an underlying psychiatric
20
hoofdstuk 2.indd 20
02-03-2008 22:03:32
problem such as depression. In the theory proposed by Rudd et al. (2001), the so-called suicidal mode consists of suicidal cognitions, mixed affects, death related behaviours and physiological reactions. According to Rudd et al. (2001) cognitions associated with suicide and DSH are characterized by hopelessness, which comprises core beliefs of unlovability, helplessness and poor distress tolerance. Suggested intervention techniques following from this theory are symptom management, restructuring the patients belief system, and building skills such as interpersonal assertiveness, distress tolerance and problem solving. Another characteristic element of this theory is the development of a strong therapeutic alliance. Rudd et al. (2001) argue that when the therapeutic relationship is made central to the treatment plan, it may function as a source of safety and support during crises. Although this specific treatment has not been studied in a controlled clinical trial, in general, cognitive and cognitive-behavioural therapies directed at cognitive restructuring seem to be promising in successfully treating DSH (Hawton et al., 1998). Essential characteristics of DSH and associated mechanisms of change The three theories in this article make it possible to compare the different approaches to the essential aspects of DSH and the related specific therapeutic techniques. Emotion regulation is a central concept in the theories of both Linehan (1993) and Rudd et al. (2001), as well as in a recent theory which describes the primary function of DSH as avoidance or escape from unpleasant experiences (Chapman, Gratz, & Brown, 2006). Although the precise mechanisms behind emotion regulation are not yet clear, it seems likely that by allowing emotions to be experienced (exposure) without judgement, new associations are acquired (Lynch, Chapman, Rosenthal, Kuo, & Linehan, 2006; Williams, Duggan, Crane, & Fennell, 2006). Indeed, one of the key proposed mechanisms of change in Dialectical Behaviour Therapy is exposure and acting opposite to emotion-related action tendencies (Lynch et al., 2006). Avoidance responses may also be reduced through mindfulness techniques (Linehan, 1993). In addition to reducing avoidance responses, mindfulness could also increase the individuals ability to turn their attention to what they would like to focus on and let go of that which they do not (Teasdale, Segal, & Williams, 1995). This would make their behaviour more effective and in tune with a specific situation. In cognitive behavioural therapies cognitions are seen as the central pathway to DSH (Rudd et al., 2001). Hence, the interventions all focus on cognitive vulnerabilities. They aim to increase the patients hope by systematically targeting negative views of self and the future (Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979; Rudd et al., 2001). Support for the central role of cognitions of hopelessness in DSH also comes from a more theoretical model, which conceptualizes DSH as a cry of pain (Williams, 1997; 2002). A test of this model shows that individuals who engage in DSH react to a stressful event with a greater sense of defeat, no escape, and no rescue than matched controls (OConnor, 2003). Although this
21
hoofdstuk 2.indd 21
02-03-2008 22:03:33
chapter 2
model is grounded in and supported more by laboratory studies than clinical evidence, it shows similarities with the cognitive models discussed here. For example, the core beliefs of this model correspond with the cognitions of the suicide mode as proposed by Rudd et al. (2001) and adapted into the cognitive therapy trial of Brown et al. (2005). More specifically, the cognition of defeat shows similarities to poor distress tolerance (the psychological distress cant be handled). Also, the cognition of no escape overlaps with the cognition of helplessness, since they both express that solutions can not be found. Furthermore, the cognition of no rescue and the cognition of unlovability both refer to a (perceived) lack of social support. Cognitive therapy might work by changing these suicidal cognitions. Consistent with cognitive theory, the cognitive intervention of Brown et al. (2005) significantly reduced DSH as well as cognitions of hopelessness. However, the specific mechanisms behind these favourable outcomes are still unclear. The cognitive behavioural therapies point to the importance of a third psychological process that may underlie DSH: poor problem solving ability. Recent research findings show that passive and avoidant reactions to problems are associated with repetition of DSH (McAuliffe et al., 2006). It has also been argued that people who engage in DSH tend to perceive problems as unsolvable (Williams, 1997; Rudd et al., 2001). This sense of hopelessness and helplessness may maintain problem solving difficulties, which may then further increase the risk of DSH. In line with these findings, the therapies reviewed here identify the training of behavioural skills as an important target for intervention (Linehan, 1993; Rudd et al., 2001). However, despite the promising findings of Cognitive Behavioural Therapies with a problem solving component (Hawton et al., 1998), the optimal treatment approach is still uncertain. Different therapeutic approaches, including the ones presented here, also seem to agree that a necessary prerequisite for any successful intervention for DSH is a good and trusting patient-therapist relationship. The therapeutic alliance may enable the therapists to better understand what DSH means to the patient, which is essential to help a patient to develop new ways of coping. Also, the empathy and acceptance expressed by the therapist may be a model for the way patients gradually learn to relate to themselves (Linehan, 1993; Jobes, 2000; Rudd, Ellis, Rajab, & Wehrly, 2000; Orbach, 2001; Leenaars, 2004). Reviewing the three theories, there seem to be four mechanisms of change that are at the core of effective cognitive-behavioural treatments of DSH: (1) a trusting patienttherapist relationship, (2) building emotion regulation skills, (3) cognitive restructuring (4) behavioural skills training. Table 1 summarizes these four mechanisms.
22
hoofdstuk 2.indd 22
02-03-2008 22:03:33
Table 1
Mechanisms of change in DSH

Mechanisms of change in DSH
Therapeutic relationship
Characterized by validation and therapist as a consultant of the patient, not of others (DBT of Linehan, 1993) Therapist is active and directive (CBT of Berk et al., 2004) Strong and trusting; a source of safety during crises (CBT of Rudd et al., 2001)
Emotion regulation
Reducing experiential avoidance/avoidance behaviour and developing a mindful attitude (Linehan, 1993)
Cognitive restructuring
Identifying and restructuring irrational negative beliefs, in particular around hopelessness, and reducing cognitive distortions (Rudd et al., 2001; Berk et al., 2004)
Behavioural skills training
Enhancing problem solving skills (Linehan, 1993; Rudd et al., 2001)
Clinical implications The cognitive theories of DSH and the hypothesized mechanisms of change lend itself to several clinical applications, which will be discussed in relation to different phases of the therapeutic process (see figure 1). Phase One: Case Formulation In the early sessions of therapy, the therapists task is to reach, together with the patient, a shared understanding of the most recent episode of DSH. Helping patients to tell their story may give them a chance to feel heard and may also facilitate the patients self-understanding. An additional advantage in having patients tell their story is that it can be used to develop a case formulation. A case formulation is an individualized model of the mechanisms that trigger or maintain a particular patients psychological problems (Persons, 1989). It starts with the assessment of the most recent episode of DSH: circumstances at the time of the episode, motives and reasons related to DSH, and psychiatric and physical problems. Then the history of the patient is assessed, which results in a theory of how the representation of prior experiences (e.g. abuse) might have influenced current cognitions, emotions, behavioural patterns and relationships. However, the case formulation does not have to be confined to the first phase of the treatment, but can continuously be influenced by information that comes from the treatment sessions.
23
hoofdstuk 2.indd 23
02-03-2008 22:03:33
chapter 2
Phase Two: Treatment Plan Based on the case formulation, therapist and patient may together select specific problem areas related to DSH. Central problems associated with DSH might include: irrational negative beliefs or schemas, mood intolerance, reduced activity, problem solving deficits, Figure 1 Clinical applications for treatments of DSH Phase One: Case Formulation Examining the way aspects of DSH interact and the way the representation of prior experiences influences current cognitions, emotions, behaviour and relations. Phase Two: Treatment Plan 1 Goal setting /selecting problem areas associated with DSH that will be focused on. Problem areas can be cognitive (irrational negative beliefs and cognitive distortions), emotional (avoidance of unpleasant experiences), behavioural (reduced activity, problem solving deficits) or interpersonal (poor communication and impaired social function). 2 Selecting appropriate intervention(s) to address specific problem areas Problem areas
Irrational
Possible Intervention
Socratic questioning, keeping a positive diary, positive self-verbalization Increasing tolerance of distress, mindfulness training Activity scheduling Skills training Using existing skills, learning new skills, changing cognitions related to loss of control Skills training trough modeling or role playing Removing obstacles to social support Discussing possible relapse and looking for ways to prevent it: relapse prevention task and mindfulness techniques (learning to take a new perspective to previously avoided thoughts and feelings)
negative beliefs/ unpleasant experiences
cognitive distortions
A voiding

Reduced Problem
activity solving deficits behaviour
I mpulsive

Poor
communication social functioning
Impaired Relapse
24
hoofdstuk 2.indd 24
02-03-2008 22:03:33
impaired social functioning and poor communication. The following section gives an overview of these problem areas and of possible intervention techniques. Cognitive problems associated with DSH: irrational negative beliefs or schemas and distorted thinking Increasing helpful beliefs Addressing cognitive problems associated with DSH includes helping patients to learn to identify and restructure specific suicidal thoughts (e.g. thoughts of hopelessness, helplessness, unlovability) (Rudd et al., 2001), distorted thinking (e.g. overgeneralized and dichotomous interpretations) and irrational negative beliefs or schemas about themselves and the world (Alford & Beck, 1997; Young & Klosko, 1994). Recurrent episodes of DSH may be related to enduring cognitive vulnerabilities, sometimes related to loss, neglect, or abuse suffered during childhood. In this case, early maladaptive schemas may lay the foundation for the distorted perception and interpretation of events, including events occurring in the therapeutic relationship. Understanding the schemas genesis, beginning with the less traumatic aspects of childhood, and challenging the schemas appropriateness in current situations can be helpful in promoting insight in the patient (Young & Klosko, 1994). To facilitate schema change, keeping a positive diary might also be helpful (Persons, Davidson & Tompkins, 2001). Emotional problems associated with DSH: avoidance of unpleasant experiences Enhancing mood tolerance Patients may engage in DSH to avoid or escape unpleasant feelings (Chapman et al., 2006). It has been argued that acts of DSH may not directly follow from unpleasant experiences, but seem to be related to inadequate development of adaptive coping strategies as well as to not making use of strategies that are available (Beck, 2003; Chapman et al., 2006). In addition, patients may have a variety of beliefs that attenuate their motivation to inhibit DSH. These might include thoughts such as, When I get this upset, its unbearable or My urge is too strong to control. In order to enhance mood tolerance, patients might be encouraged to develop an accepting attitude to their experiences, to apply adaptive coping strategies, and to monitor thoughts of low tolerance of distress (Linehan, 1993; Rudd et al., 2001). Behavioural problems associated with DSH: reduced activity and problem solving deficits Increasing activity Increasing the frequency of pleasant activities in the patients typical day can be very
25
hoofdstuk 2.indd 25
02-03-2008 22:03:33
chapter 2
encouraging (Williams, 1984; Persons et al., 2001). Especially when people are severely depressed, cognitive techniques can only be used after behavioural techniques like activity scheduling have had some success (Beck et al., 1979). Improving problem solving skills Patients usually report that episodes of DSH are triggered by stressful events. To improve the capacity to deal with problems, ineffective coping skills and irrational negative beliefs and emotional problems associated with inadequate problem solving could be addressed (Hawton & Kirk, 1989; Nezu, Nezu & Perri, 1989; Rudd et al., 2001; Speckens & Hawton, 2005; McAuliffe et al., 2006). Furthermore, it is important to look for behavioural patterns that increase the risk of DSH (e.g. use of drugs or alcohol), which can be considered as maladaptive ways of coping with problems. Also, people who habitually engage in DSH report that it makes them feel better and restores a sense of being alive (Van der Kolk, 1996; Nixon, Cloutier & Aggarwal, 2002). It is possible that once DSH as a way of emotion regulation has been experienced, this behavioural pattern gets positively reinforced and is therefore more likely to be repeated in situations that are experienced as unpleasant. Therapy could focus on alternative emotion regulation strategies, such as self-soothing (Chapman et al., 2006). Interpersonal problems associated with DSH: impaired communication and impaired social functioning Improving communication Interpersonal processes contribute in a variety of ways to the maintenance of DSH. First, interpersonal difficulties commonly precipitate episodes of DSH, and there is evidence that patients who engage in DSH may be especially sensitive to social interactions. Second, longstanding interpersonal difficulties undermine self-esteem, which may result in increased risk of DSH. Since DSH often occurs against a background of poor communication, especially in relation to parents, patients might benefit from techniques that improve interpersonal communication skills, such as role-playing or modeling (Becker, Heimberg & Bellack, 1987; Rudd et al., 2001). Improving social functioning Social isolation is a risk factor for DSH. Attention could be given to cognitive, emotional or behavioural problems that limit someone in finding sufficient support from others (Becker et al., 1987). Other relevant interventions The intervention techniques that have been discussed primarily focus on the factors maintaining DSH. However, these intervention techniques might very well be combined with strategies that focus on vulnerability factors, such as Schema-Focused Therapy
26
hoofdstuk 2.indd 26
02-03-2008 22:03:33
(Young, 1994) or Attachment Based Treatment (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999; 2000; 2001). Another possibility is to combine the techniques presented here with family therapy, which may be particularly helpful for young patients. Psychotherapy could also be combined with pharmacotherapy. It is, however, not clear whether pharmacological treatment should precede psychotherapy to stabilize levels of arousal, whether it should be combined with psychotherapy or whether it is useful to continue pharmacological treatment after the termination of psychotherapy. Phase Three: Relapse Prevention Before therapy is terminated, the therapist may help the patient to identify problems that could possibly trigger relapse of DSH. In the cognitive intervention of Berk et al. (2004) patients are prepared for possible relapse by activating the original mood in which the suicidal thoughts occurred. People are not discharged until they are able to deal effectively with the feelings and thoughts that arise. This seems a very practical and useful way to help patients to rehearse emotion regulation and behavioural skills and to assess the progress they have made. Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2002; Williams et al., 2006) might complement the more traditional cognitive therapies that have been described here, in that it is a preventative program designed for patients currently in remission of DSH. Unlike the other approaches, it does not focus on changing the content of cognitions but on changing the relationship to cognitions. It encourages individuals to take an accepting stance toward previously avoided thoughts and emotions. This nonjudgemental attitude towards emotions, cognitions and bodily sensations is thought to prevent escalation of negative thoughts into suicidal thinking (Williams et al., 2006). Preliminary findings suggest that Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy may indeed prevent the reactivation of the suicidal mode (Williams et al., 2006).
Conclusions and recommendations

The questions we addressed here were: What do DSH patients need? How can we be more effective in treating DSH? Discussing the three cognitive-behavioural theories has helped to formulate four mechanisms of change that could guide therapists in their work with patients who engage in DSH: (1) a trusting patient-therapist relationship, (2) building emotion regulation skills, (3) cognitive restructuring (4) behavioural skills training. The three therapies might work by targeting these mechanisms of change. However, the specific mechanisms behind the favourable outcomes of the therapies are still unclear. Consequently, the ultimate aim here is to provide a framework that encourages
27
hoofdstuk 2.indd 27
02-03-2008 22:03:33
chapter 2
practitioners to look for these mechanisms of change in the context of their work with DSH patients. In particular, the framework may help therapists to decide what to do when patients fail to progress and their approach does not seem to work. The framework may then suggest that they may have to refine the case conceptualization, which may help them to more specifically identify the beliefs or behaviours that may underlie the patients problems in therapy. The framework may also inspire them to look in more detail at all four ingredients of change and see what possible targets for treatment possibly have not been adequately addressed in their delivered therapy approach. With this framework therapists can quickly identify the specific cognitive, emotional, behavioural or interpersonal aspects most needingand most amenable tochange. Another advantage of this approach is that it is not limited to specific groups of DSH patients (such as those with borderline personality disorder or depression), but that it addresses the needs of a wide range of patients. It also shows how the treatment of current problems can be complemented by interventions aimed at relapse prevention. Furthermore, it encourages patients and therapists to formulate clear targets for intervention. Having a clear focus might improve the effectiveness of their work considerably. This seems to be especially relevant when working with patients who present with a wide range of problems. Clearly, there is a need to prioritize here and to address the targets of treatment one by one. For the purpose of this paper only those theories have been discussed that are relevant to cognitive-behavioural interventions for DSH. However, recent theoretical models point to the importance of a broad range of aspects associated with DSH in addition to the psychological factors discussed here, including psychiatric (e.g. major depression), developmental (e.g. childhood trauma), social (e.g. unemployment) and biological aspects (e.g. low serotonin) (Yang & Clum, 1996; Sandin, Chorot, Santed, Valiente, & Joiner, 1998; Mann, Waternaux, Haas, & Malone,1999; Fergusson, Woodward, & Horwood, 2000; Van Heeringen, 2001; Reinecke & DuBois, 2001; Williams, 2002; Johnson et al., 2002; Evans, Hawton & Rodham, 2004). With regard to young DSH patients, it has been suggested that specific age related aspects are particularly relevant as well (Reinecke & DuBois, 2001), including stressors and difficulties related to adolescence (De Wilde, 2000). It has been argued that DSH may best be understood by employing a conceptual framework which is integrative, that is, one in which psychiatric, psychological, developmental, social and biological aspects and their interactions are considered simultaneously. However, testing these complex models as a whole may not be feasible due to practical limitations. An advantage of the limited focus on psychological aspects may be that there is a clear connection between theory about DSH and clinical practice.
28
hoofdstuk 2.indd 28
02-03-2008 22:03:34
29
hoofdstuk 2.indd 29
02-03-2008 22:03:34
chapter 3
hoofdstuk 3.indd 30
10-03-2008 09:08:07
Treatment Protocol for Deliberate Self-Harm in Adolescents and Adults
Nadja Slee, Nadia Garnefski and Philip Spinhoven
An adaptation of this chapter can be found in Protocollaire Behandelingen bij Kinderen en Adolescenten (eds. Caroline Braet en Susan Bgels), 2008, Uitgeverij Boom
hoofdstuk 3.indd 31
10-03-2008 09:08:08
chapter 3
Introduction
Deliberate Self-Harm (DSH) involves deliberate injury inflicted by a person upon his or her own body, such as cutting, burning, scratching, head-banging, overdosing and taking toxic substances, regardless of the intention (Hawton, Zahl, & Weatherall, 2003). DSH is a serious clinical and public mental health problem among the younger age groups. Recent Dutch population-based studies show that DSH is reported by 4.3% of 15-20 year olds (de Wilde, 2005), by 2.6% of 18-24 year olds and by 2.9% of 25-34 year olds (Ten Have et al., 2006). These findings are similar to those of other western countries (Hawton & Van Heeringen, 2000; Skegg, 2005). However, DSH is not only a prevalent problem, repetition is also common (Hultn et al., 2004; Cedereke & jehagen, 2005; Kapur et al., 2005) and can occur quickly (Kapur et al., 2006). If no help is sought, DSH may increase in severity. Moreover, DSH is a strong indicator for suicide. The risk for suicide is at its highest during the first six months after an episode of DSH (Cooper et al., 2005), and suicide remains a significant risk for decades especially if the psychiatric and psychosocial problems of adolescents continue into adulthood (Harrington et al., 2005). As far as the severity and complexity of DSH is concerned, it is of great importance that therapists are capable of offering DSH patients appropriate treatment. This treatment protocol for DSH is intended to assist with this. Research shows that DSH is often done on impulse (Rodham, Evans, & Hawton, 2004). It may be a reaction to an argument with parents, the end of a relationship, or problems at school or work (Miller, Rathus, & Linehan, 2007). In many cases DSH appears in the context of symptoms of depression, anxiety and behavioural problems (Burgess, Hawton, & Lovday, 1998; Kerfoot et al., 1996). Moreover, patients who harm themselves have frequently experienced traumatic events such as sexual abuse and physical maltreatment within the family (Evans, Hawton, & Rodham, 2005). Based on knowledge of psychological and psychosocial risk factors (see figure 1), we have developed a theoretical model, which describes the development and maintenance of DSH. It is a so called vulnerability-stress model. The model shows that the risk of DSH increases when a person with a specific vulnerability (e.g., a history of traumatic experiences and or biological traits) is subjected to stress. This could, for example, be an argument with a boyfriend or a girlfriend (an external trigger). The more often someone harms him or herself, the less the behaviour is linked to external events and the easier his/her own thoughts can become triggers of DSH (e.g., No one cares about me). The model suggests that DSH is maintained through four aspects: dysfunctional thoughts, problems with emotion regulation, behavioural skills deficits and relational problems. These four aspects form the basis for change in DSH in the treatment protocol.
32
hoofdstuk 3.indd 32
10-03-2008 09:08:08
Figure 1.
Theoretical model of DSH
Vulnerability factors History of learning and experiences in the family: physical abuse, sexual abuse, and/or Biological/Genetic Disposition Personality
Triggering Factors External/ Internal
Dysfunctional Thoughts and Schemas
Problems with Emotion Regulation
Behavioural skills deficits; Problem solving; Social skills; Impulse control
Relational Problems; Lack of support/ Communication
DSH
33
hoofdstuk 3.indd 33
10-03-2008 09:08:08
chapter 3
2 What is known about the treatment of DSH and suicidal behaviour? The treatment protocol for DSH combines elements from Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT; Rudd, Joiner, & Rajab, 2001), Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT; Linehan, 1993) and problem solving therapies (Nezu, Nezu, & Perri, 1989), since evidence for effectiveness of these treatments for DSH and suicidal behaviour is accumulating (Hawton et al., 1998). CBT reduces the tendency for suicide attempts much more so than regular treatments as is indicated by a recent randomized controlled trial (Randomized Controlled Trial: RCT) (Brown et al., 2005). DBT has also been studied in RCTs and these show that DBT has a visible effect on DSH (Linehan et al., 2006). The treatment has been adapted for adolescents, and the initial results are positive (Miller et al., 2007). In addition, problem solving therapies seem to have a positive effect on DSH and suicidal behaviour (Comtois & Linehan, 2006). Furthermore, the effectiveness of the treatment protocol for DSH has been evaluated in a RCT among adolescents and adults with DSH. After the treatment for DSH, adolescents and adults reported not only a reduction in DSH, but also a reduction in symptoms of depression, anxiety and suicidal thoughts. Moreover, they felt more confident and they were better able to cope with daily problems (Slee, Garnefski, van der Leeden, Arensman, & Spinhoven, 2008; see Chapter 4). These results confirm that DSH can be influenced by changes in dysfunctional thoughts, emotion regulation difficulties, behavioural skills deficits and relational problems. 3 Whom is the treatment intended for? The treatment is intended for adolescents and adults who engage in DSH. The treatment is appropriate for people who seek help after an initial episode of DSH as well as for those who have been suffering from this behaviour for a longer period of time. The treatment is also applicable to people with varying diagnoses according to the DSM-IV, such as depression or borderline personality disorder. The target group comprises 15 to 35 year olds. The treatment is not suitable for people with serious cognitive limitations (an IQ score <70). When DSH is the result of psychotic experiences or is associated with drug and alcohol abuse, the treatment is not appropriate and specific treatments for these problems are recommended. 4 How does the treatment work?
The therapist explains the treatment by using an example of the patients daily life. Therapist: If you harm yourself it is important to get help, because it is very difficult to get better on your own. In order to get an idea of how the treatment works, we can look at the example which you just talked about of a difficult situation last weekend. What exactly happened? Christy (17): When I went to my parents home last weekend, my father, mother and sister
34
hoofdstuk 3.indd 34
10-03-2008 09:08:08
were washing the car. Total chaos entered my head and I didn't know anymore what to do. I cut myself with a kitchen knife to stop the chaos. I don't understand myself, because there really wasn't anything going on that was a problem. Therapist: In order to gain an insight into the chaos it can be very helpful to look closely at what was happening, what you were thinking, what you were feeling, what you were doing and how your parents and sister reacted. Do you remember what you were thinking when you arrived and saw your parents and sister washing the car? Christy: My sister still lives at home and I just came by and then I wound up hanging around. Therapist: What did you feel then? Christy: Lonely, sad, and also tense; it just started to get worse. Thoughts raced through my head - total chaos. Therapist: Do you remember what you were thinking? Christy: My parents don't care about me. Nobody cares about meNobody caresI felt so sad and lonely Therapist: Yes, the more negative thoughts you have, the lonelier, sadder and more tense you will start to feel. See how your thoughts and feelings amplify one another? Christy: It feels good to talk about this, because I find it really strange and scary, as if cutting just happens for no reason at all. Therapist: The feeling of chaos does not just appear from nowhere. Nor does the cutting. When you start to become aware of your thoughts, feelings and behaviour in difficult situations, you can gradually learn how to stop the cutting behaviour. This is the main objective of the treatment. During the treatment you will learn to recognize negative thoughts and how to challenge them. You will learn to bear and accept negative feelings. You will also learn how to deal with problems and gain self confidence. 5 The treatment protocol for DSH This chapter describes a time limited CBT (12 sessions of 45 minutes) for DSH. The treatment consists of three phases. During the early phase (sessions 1 and 2) the significance of DSH is discussed, goals are set and the therapist and patient come to a set of agreements. During the middle phase of the treatment (sessions 3 through 10), the focus will be on cognitive, emotional, behavioural and relational problems which maintain DSH. Session 3 and 4 form the basis for session 5 through 10. During the last phase of the treatment (sessions 11 and 12) the focus is on relapse prevention.
35
hoofdstuk 3.indd 35
10-03-2008 09:08:08
chapter 3
5.1 Early phase of the treatment (sessions 1 and 2)
Structure of sessions 1 and 2 - The significance of DSH; asking about important details of the most recent Episode(s), mental health, social circumstances, future - Giving an explanation of the treatment - Making practical agreements - Formulating goals - Making a help chart - Filling in the agreements on the chart
5.1.1 The significance of DSH During the first phase of the treatment, it is the therapists task to come to a shared understanding of what DSH means experientially. The therapist invites the patient to talk about the last episode of DSH. This enhances the patients insight as well as giving him/ her the feeling that he/she is being heard. An additional advantage of the information given by the patient is that this is an initial indicator for the functional analysis of DSH. A functional analysis describes how DSH is maintained. The questioning of antecedents and consequences of self-harm gives insight into the function of the behaviour, for example, the rejection by a boyfriend (antecedent) and the extra attention of the parents which follows DSH (consequence which reinforces the behaviour). In order to gain insight into DSH, the therapist will ask about: The significant details of the most recent episode (or the episode which is best remembered): (1) events preceding DSH, (2) circumstances (if the patient was alone, if others were aware of it), (3) motives and intent, especially suicidal intent, (4) thoughts and emotion which preceded DSH (5) lethality of the chosen method (and the attitude the patient exhibits), (6) thoughts and emotions that followed DSH (7) reactions of others toward DSH and (8) other consequences (for example medical care of the injuries or a hospital admittance) The mental health of the patient: (1) earlier episodes of DSH or suicidal behaviour, (2) psychiatric diagnoses, (3) personality problems, (4) substance abuse, and (5) psychosocial problems. Social circumstances : (1) lifestyle conditions, (2) support from family, friends, partner and other important persons and (3) coping strategies. The future : (1) how the patient perceives help, (2) inventory of thoughts of hopelessness, (3) the risk of repetition of DSH. The therapist needs to take into account any earlier treatments as well as treatment successes and treatment failures. In addition, it is important to get familiar with the life history of the patient. The therapist develops a
36
hoofdstuk 3.indd 36
10-03-2008 09:08:08
holistic theory, which describes how earlier experiences of, for example, sexual abuse or being bullied at school, have contributed to dysfunctional cognitions, emotion regulation difficulties, behavioural skills deficits and relational problems which the patient exhibits. In addition to the patient, the partner and family are also an important source of information. The functional analysis is not limited to the first session, but can be expanded with information obtained in later sessions. The therapist asks Amy (24) what DSH means to her. I am usually busy with work and sports. When I am not busy, I start to think about things that happened in the past. I can't stop these thoughts. They only stop when I start to cut myself. That brings relief. The cutting hurts, but the tension before the cutting is worse. Just like long ago when my mother would hit me; the moments before the hitting were the worst. I would be relieved once it was over 5.1.2 Explanation of administering treatment and making practical agreements During the first session the therapist explains the treatment; how thoughts, feelings, behaviour and reactions of others are coherent and maintain DSH. The therapists also discusses the practical points pertaining to the sessions; the duration and frequency of the sessions and the availability of the therapist outside the sessions. Finally, the therapist asks the patient to acquire a nice book with blank pages or a notebook and to take this along to session 3. 5.1.3 Formulating goals On basis of the functional analysis and holistic theory, the therapist and the patient formulate treatment goals. The goals pertain to the factors that maintain DSH: dysfunctional cognitions, emotion regulation difficulties, behavioural skills deficits and relational problems. The more precise treatment goals are formulated, the more effective treatment likely is. Moreover, it is important that treatment goals are realistic. Amy (24), discussed previously, appears to avoid experiencing emotions by cutting herself or staying busy. The therapist is of the opinion that Amy can benefit from expanding her emotion regulation skills. During the sessions she can learn to experience her feelings of tension in a safe manner, and outside the sessions she can in the first instance benefit from activities which offer her solace. Processing the earlier traumatic life events does not fit within the short term treatment, but could be a subject for follow up treatment. Amy, together with her therapist, formulates the following goals: She wants to reduce stress and learn alternatives to take the place of cutting herself.
37
hoofdstuk 3.indd 37
10-03-2008 09:08:09
chapter 3
5.1.4 Making a help chart In addition to these goals, the therapist and Amy formulate concrete steps for Amy to take, if she starts to feel tense. These steps are written down on a card, the so called help chart.
Amys help chart When I feel tense, I will choose one or more of the following: 1 Play music 2 Take a shower 3 Call my friend Susan
The chart can be extended after a while and if needed adjusted. In case the urge to self harm becomes very strong, it helps to select activities which do not enable DSH to take place. Some examples include going for a walk or visiting someone. 5.1.5 Filling in the agreement card During session 2, the therapist introduces the so called agreement card, which describes the responsibility of the patient during the therapy, such as presence and participation during the sessions and use of the help chart. The responsibilities of the therapist are also listed on the card, such as the therapists availability and input. Since responsibilities on both sides have been made explicit, ambivalent feelings about use of the help chart can be discussed immediately. However, the tendency to DSH can never be forbidden, since the therapy is intended to address that. Patients also do not have to promise that they will not harm themselves anymore. In this manner, the agreement card differs from a treatment contract which forbids DSH. It is preferred to use such an agreement card rather than a treatment contract, since the card emphasizes desired behaviour rather than undesired behaviour (Rudd et al., 2001). If patients do not use the help chart, the therapist will discuss this: What stops you from using the chart? What does it mean to you that you dont use the chart? What needs to change in order for you to use this chart? It may be necessary in the beginning of the treatment to adjust the chart. It could be that the functional analysis was not complete and that some essentials were left out. Moreover, during the introduction of the help chart, an explanation is given what will happen if the
38
hoofdstuk 3.indd 38
10-03-2008 09:08:09
patient does not make use of the chart. If necessary, a discussion will take place to see if the offered form of help is appropriate or if it would be better to discontinue treatment. The agreement card of Amy is mostly aimed on self-injury, since Amy has no suicidal thoughts or plans. In case of suicidal thoughts or plans, the card can be adjusted.
Amys agreement card Amy I will be present at every session and if I am detained, I will call the therapist. I will make an effort during the sessions. Outside the sessions I will practice the new skills. If I feel the urge to harm myself, I will use the help chart. My most important goals: 1 Practice the alternatives for DSH (using the help chart) 2 Reduce tension (using the help chart)
Date Therapist
Signature
I promise to give my full effort to help you reach your goals. Outside the sessions you can reach me at XXX-XXXXXXX (during office hours). Outside of office hours, you can contact X at XXX-XXXXXXX. Date Signature
39
hoofdstuk 3.indd 39
10-03-2008 09:08:09
chapter 3
5.2 Middle phase of the treatment: sessions 3 and 4 The middle phase of the treatment is directed toward factors that maintain DSH; cognitive problems, emotion regulation difficulties, behavioural skills deficits and relational problems. Sessions 3 and 4 form the basis for sessions 5 through 10.
Structure of sessions 3 and 4 - Evaluating the current mood - Evaluating the DSH and/or suicidal behaviour during the past week. - Introducing the diary pertaining to problem situations - Evaluating the skills, talents and resilience of patient, partner and family
5.2.1 Evaluating the current mood and DSH during the past week At the beginning of each session, the therapist asks about feelings of sadness, tension and thoughts of DSH and suicide. This systematic approach helps to prevent intense emotions and suicidal thoughts from being missed. If a patient reports suicidal thoughts, it is important to ask about the nature of those thoughts: How frequently do you think about it? Have you already made a plan? What prevents you from doing it? These questions give the therapist insight into the severity of the suicidal tendency and help patients to put their thoughts into order. Moreover, an open conversation breaks open the isolation. Van Heeringen and Kerkhof (2000) and Shea (2002) offer practical suggestions for the evaluation of suicidal tendencies and for taking protective measures. Once the therapist has asked the patient about current mood and thoughts of DSH and suicidal behaviour, he/she will ask about the number of episodes of DSH and suicidal behaviour during the last week and these will be recorded in detail. 5.2.2 Introducing the diary for problem situations During session 3, patients are asked to bring a notebook with blank pages in which to write down their problem situations. The therapist explains that during each session they will discuss problem situations, especially situations in which they have harmed themselves or when the urge to do so was very strong. The focus each time will be on the following questions. What happened? What were you thinking? What were you feeling? What did you do? The answers to these questions are then noted down in the diary. This gives insight into cognitive, emotional, behavioural and relational problems which should be addressed. Other important questions are: How often does this problem happen? What would the patient want to see changed?
40
hoofdstuk 3.indd 40
10-03-2008 09:08:09
A question from Laurens (22) diary: Event: I call my boyfriend but he doesnt answer. What I thought: He doesnt care about me anymore. He wants to break up. What I felt: (intensity 0-100): fear ( 90 ), anger ( 90 ) and sadness ( 90 ) What I did: I kept calling him every minute for an entire 15 minutes and when he finally answered, I yelled at him.
The diary provides clear insight into Laurens interpretation of a seemingly neutral event. It also provides an image of the intensity of her feelings and the way in which she deals with the event. After a while the diary reveals themes such as fear of abandonment. The diary can also reveal specific problems with emotion regulation and specific skills deficits. The therapist explains that keeping a diary provides material to practice during and outside sessions. 5.2.3 Skills, talent and resilience Due to the focus on problems, strengths of the patient, partner and family can easily remain under-exposed. However, they are an important counter-balance for DSH. These strengths could be coping skills, talent, resilience, fun activities and social support. When Jade (19) is asked about her strengths, she reveals that she can dance well and that she is rather social. Fun activities can be implemented as part of the therapy. Initially, Helen (23) is not able to name any activities which she enjoys. As therapy progresses, it appears that she enjoys watching old movies. She will reward her self by watching a movie after coming home from a long day at work. The partner or parents can encourage patients to partake in fun activities. Joint fun activities can be expanded. These can also be placed on the help chart. 5.3 Middle phase of treatment (continued): sessions 5 through 10 Session 5 through 10 build on session 3 and 4. The structure of sessions 5 through 10 remains the same; evaluating the current mood and DSH and suicidal behaviour, discussing problem situations and evaluating cognitive, emotional, behavioural or relational problems. Once it is clear what the specific problems are and how frequently they surface, therapeutic interventions can be selected which address the specific cognitive, emotional, behavioural or relational problems of the patient.
41
hoofdstuk 3.indd 41
10-03-2008 09:08:09
chapter 3
Structure of sessions 5 through 10 - Evaluating the current mood (see 5.2.1) - Evaluating DSH and/or suicidal behaviour during the past week (see 5.2.1) - Evaluating actual problem situations (especially those related to DSH/suicidal behaviour) (see 5.2.2) - Evaluating the use of the help chart; adjust if needed (see 5.1.4) - Patients select the most important problem situation and based on that focus on dysfunctional cognitions, emotion regulation difficulties, behavioural skills deficits and relational problems (see 5.2.2) - Select relevant therapeutic technique; interventions with dysfunctional cognitions, emotional problems, behavioural problems or relational problems - Practice with cognitive problems (dysfunctional thoughts or schemas), emotion regulation difficulties (avoiding emotions or excessive emotion), behavioural problems (lack of skills and self-defeating behaviour) or relational problems (improving communication and expanding social support) - When needed incur support of partner or parents, especially if problems with the partner or parents seem to maintain DSH
5.3.1 Possible interventions for cognitive problems Below is a chart of the cognitive interventions therapists can select to target cognitive problems associated with DSH.
Overview of interventions for dysfunctional cognitions and schemas: - Identifying dysfunctional cognitions and suicidal thoughts - Recognizing negative thoughts, challenging them and distancing oneself - Identifying dysfunctional schemas (sessions 8 through 12) - Creating a behavioural experiment
Identifying dysfunctional cognitions and suicidal thoughts Patients who harm themselves think more negatively about themselves, others and the world than patients who do not harm themselves (Slee, Garnefski, Spinhoven, & Arensman, 2008). This ranges from mild self criticism (Feeling sad is a sign of weakness)
42
hoofdstuk 3.indd 42
10-03-2008 09:08:10
to suicidal thoughts (The world is better off without me). Suicidal thoughts demand special attention, in particular those thoughts that pertain to being a burden to others (I am a burden to my family), thoughts of helplessness (No one can help me to solve my problems), thoughts pertaining to being unworthy of love (I am not worthy of love) and thoughts of not being able to bear painful feelings (My feelings are unbearable). These thoughts have in common that they suppress a feeling of hopelessness and they are important triggers for DSH and suicidal behaviour (Rudd et al., 2001; Slee, Garnefski, et al., 2008). During treatment, patients learn how to recognize these thoughts, challenge them and distance themselves from them. Recognizing, challenging and distancing from negative thoughts The diary provides insight into the connection between negative thoughts and negative feelings. It also provides an insight into the specific content of the thoughts. A broad spectrum of interventions is available to challenge negative thoughts (see for example Beck, Freeman et al., 1990 and Rudd et al., 2001). A much used intervention is collecting pros and cons of a specific thought. Another technique is to take on a new perspective. This technique is illustrated in the example below. Grace (17): I have been depressed for a year and it is just getting worse. It is really hard on my parents. Sometimes I think that it would be better for everyone if I were dead. Therapist: What would you think if your parents were depressed and needed care? Grace: Well, if they were depressed, I would also want to take care of them. Therapist: Also? Grace (smiles): Yes, when I think of it, my parents want to take care of me because they love me. Therapist: How do you feel when you think like that? Grace: This thought makes me feel better. Identifying dysfunctional schemas By looking more closely at dysfunctional and suicidal thoughts, the underlying dysfunctional schemas become visible. The Socratic dialogue, metaphors, and many other techniques can produce schema change (see for an overview Beck et al., 1990). Below is an example of a technique called extreme contradictions. Emily (22) refers to herself as bad .
Therapist: I was wondering if you know of anyone who is a good example of bad ; someone you know personally or someone you have read about in the newspaper or know about from TV. Emily: Well murderers, psychopaths, parents who abuse their children, people who abuse animals.
43
hoofdstuk 3.indd 43
10-03-2008 09:08:10
chapter 3
Therapist: If you compare yourself with them, how much badness do you show? Emily: Well, not that much. Therapist: Is it then correct when you say that you are bad? Emily: No, not really, I think. Setting up a behavioural experiment A different way to challenge negative thoughts is a behavioural experiment. Jasmine (23) lives in student housing with six others. There is always someone who would like to do something with one or more of the group. Jasmine: Sometimes I long to be alone for just a little while. I could just scream. I then go to my room to cut myself in order to feel some peace. I know I can t go on like this, but I am afraid to say no if they ask me for something. I am afraid that they will then start to ignore me. Therapist: How do you know that they will ignore you if you choose to say no for a change? Jasmine: Well, that s just what I think. Therapist: How could you find out if this is really true? Jasmine: I could ask my best friends what they would think if I said no . Therapist: Wonderful. In order for it to be a real test, it is important that you write down what you think they will say, so that we can compare it with that what your friends are going to say. 5.3.2 Possible interventions with emotional problems Below is a chart of the emotional interventions therapists can select to target emotional problems associated with DSH.
Overview of interventions for emotional problems: - Observing emotions - Breaking through emotional avoidance with experiential exercises - Breaking through emotional avoidance with mindfulness exercises - Learning to recognize emotions in a timely manner - Differentiating and naming emotions - Regulating intense emotion: diverting and finding solace
44
hoofdstuk 3.indd 44
10-03-2008 09:08:10
Enhancing mood toleranceLearning to observe emotions Some patients tell their psychotherapist that they do not feel anything anymore. DSH can take on the function to break through the lack of feeling and to regain contact with their bodies. Julia (16) experiences flat affect to the point that she is unable to indicate what she felt in various situations during the past week. Nothing , she says, but when I burn myself, I at least feel something . Audrey (25) relates in a monotonous tone how one of her neighbours humiliated her. When questioned, she said she did not feel anything when talking about it. It is important to find out whether patients are aware of the flat affect. Furthermore, it is important to examine what causes them to feel so threatened by their feelings. Patients can be afraid of becoming completely overwhelmed. If I begin to cry, I ll never stop , says Audrey. Assuming an indifferent attitude can also be a form of self protection, as is the case with Julia. If I keep people at a distance, they can t touch me. If patients practice observing their feelings, they often become aware that they avoid certain feelings. This insight can be the beginning of breaking through avoidance. With some patients it is important that this happens in stages, otherwise they would be overwhelmed by emotions. Breaking through emotional avoidance with the use of experiential exercises When patients are afraid of emotions, this fear promotes the intensity of the emotions. During the session, experiential exercises can be used in order to test or challenge catastrophic thoughts about emotions. Therapist: The tension that you just spoke of, where is it located? Amy (24): In my stomach, it feels tight because of the tension. Therapist: Okay. Can you place your attention on that area of your stomach, right there where the tension is? Amy: Yes it is getting worse. I now also feel pressure on my chest.Therapist: Okay, the tension in your stomach, the pressure on your chest, just let it be. Amy is able to experience it for several minutes. Therapist: Well done. What did you notice when you observed the tension? Amy: Well, that it first got worse and then it became less intense. I didnt think I would be able to keep it up. This technique provides a new look at how emotions change and how patients can bear them. Even the strongest emotions will reduce in intensity after a while. Patients who harm themselves are not usually aware of this since they do not wait for the moment of the reduction in intensity of the emotion; by then they will already have harmed themselves. Moreover, some patients want to simply rid themselves of the intense emotion. One of
45
hoofdstuk 3.indd 45
10-03-2008 09:08:10
chapter 3
the goals of treatment is to have them experience that emotions are a valuable aspect of the human experience. Dialectical Behaviour Therapy emphasizes in this context that wisdom develops from the integration of feeling and thinking (Linehan, 1993). Breaking through emotional avoidance using mindfulness exercises In order to break through the pattern of emotional avoidance, mindfulness exercises can also be used. These exercises focus on sensory awareness in the present moment, for example, the eating of chocolate or listening to music, without judging it to being pleasant or unpleasant. They are based on eastern psychological approaches, as well as western ways of non-reinforcing exposure. They are also used as methods to eliminate the automatic avoidance of fear responses (Linehan, 1993). It has been our experience that patients enjoy these exercises, which can be performed during the session. The exercises can also be placed on the help chart to be applied at home during moments when they feel stressed, sad or angry. The heightened attention placed on the hereand-now, which these exercises demand, stops impulsive behaviour and proves useful in breaking through dissociation. Lilian (28) puts her cat on her lap and pays attention to all sensory perceptions while she pets the cat; the soft fur, the warmth of the cat s body, the purring, how the cat slowly opens and closes its eyes, the patterns of the brown and black stripes of the fur. She discovers that this calms her and that it prevents her from dissociating. Learning to recognize emotions in a timely manner When patients are blocked off from their emotions, they will only begin to notice them once the emotions have become very intense, which increases the risk of escaping into self-harm in order to stop the painful experience. Rachel (15) is not aware of her feelings of fear and dissociates when she watches TV programs that remind her of sexual abuse. She describes how she takes all the medication she can find, as if she were in a daze . During the session Rachel becomes aware of light feelings of fear and she is able to apply techniques to calm herself (for example, drawing, colouring, reading a book in a rocking chair).
Learning to differentiate emotions and name them Patients can experience difficulty differentiating and naming emotions. Kevin (19) divides emotions into two categories: chill and not-chill. Since Kevin has difficulty differentiating emotions, he is not able to see the effect of his thoughts on his emotions. The result is that he does not understand the goal of cognitive interventions. The therapist encourages him to observe bodily sensations and emotions
46
hoofdstuk 3.indd 46
10-03-2008 09:08:10
more closely, and helps him to put his experiences into words. The better he learns to differentiate his emotions, the more he discovers the connections between his thoughts and his emotions and the more he understands the objective of cognitive interventions. Regulating intense emotions: finding diversion and solace. Whereas some patients avoid feelings, for others it is important not to remain for too long in the feelings they experience. This can be accomplished by, for example, shifting the attention to something else, or by conjuring up a contrasting feeling. Combining activities of finding diversion with those of finding solace can be very effective. Rachel (15) discovers that lounging around in a rocking chair with a cup of tea and a childrens book, can be more effective than each one of these activities alone. On the help chart patients note down those diversion activities, which turn out to be effective. We have found that the effect of these diversion activities is greater if they are done mindfully. Jessica (26) notices that taking a walk has a positive impact on her mood if she is mindful of her surroundings. 5.3.3 Possible interventions with behavioural problems Below is a chart of the behavioural interventions therapists can select to target behavioural problems associated with DSH
Overview of interventions for behavioural problems: - Observing problems and setting priorities - Reinforcing existing problem solving skills - Implementing a step plan for dealing with problems - Reducing self-defeating behaviour - Acceptance of living circumstances which cannot be changed
Observing problems and setting priorities Patients who harm themselves experience more stressful events in comparison to other patients (de Wilde, 2000). They react also more passively to problems and tend to avoid them more often (Evans, Hawton, & Rodham, 2005), which causes problems to accumulate. The more problems accumulate, the greater the risk of self harm. When patients report a variety of problems, it is necessary to set priorities and to first deal with the problems which are connected most strongly with self harm. The therapist completes an inventory
47
hoofdstuk 3.indd 47
10-03-2008 09:08:10
chapter 3
of the patients coping skills and how they apply these to problem situations. Reinforcing existing problem solving skills One of the therapeutic goals is to reinforce existing problem solving skills, in order for patients to be better equipped to cope with difficult situations. Mariah (27): The girls I work with are just straight up rude. They are always talking about the way I dress. They are also saying I am fat and other ignorant stuff like if we were in high school. I am really getting frustrated with them and my patience is running low Therapist: I am very sorry to hear about your situation...it seems like little bits and pieces of high school will follow us for the rest of our lives. Mariah: Yes, I had rude people too when I was in high school but just ignored them because if they see that you are not getting upset then they will get bored with bugging you. Therapist: Could that be helpful in this situation too? Mariah: Yes, now that I think of it, ignoring them seems the best thing to do. Therapist: What else did you find helpful back then? Mariah: Well, I could try to focus on the girls I like to hang out with and not so much on the others. I could also respond playfully, with a jokethat might surprise them! Therapist: Wonderful how you use your imagination to deal with this situation. Implementing a stepped approach for dealing with problems Patients learn how to deal with problems step by step: (1) putting the problem into words, (2) brainstorming solutions, (3) choosing a solution, (4) implementing the solution and (5) evaluating the solution (Nezu, Nezu, & Perri, 1989). The therapist practices with patients the appropriate skills that are needed to arrive at a practical solution. Reducing self-defeating behaviour In addition to expanding problem solving skills, it is important to reduce self-defeating behaviour, since this increases the risk of self harm. Zoe (20) tells that she has a knife hidden beneath her bed. The therapist reminds her of the goals she has set. Therapist: you want to stop cutting yourself, yet you have a knife within reach. When things become hard for you, you can just reach for it. How do you see this? Zoe: The knife makes me feel safe; when I feel awful I can do something about it. Therapist: Exactly, you are used to reverting to cutting yourself when you feel bad. You have just started to deal in a different manner with your feeling of pain, such as using the help chart. I wonder if you get the chance to practice this new skill when the knife is in reach Zoe: Hmm, yes, the knife beneath the bed does make it more difficult, and it doesn t really fit with what I want to change
48
hoofdstuk 3.indd 48
10-03-2008 09:08:10
Other examples of behaviours which increase the risk of self-harm are the use of alcohol and drugs, mixing with friends or acquaintances who self-harm (also on the internet), or exposure to people who tend to bully or humiliate. Acceptance of living circumstances which cannot be changed Patients who harm themselves, often find themselves in difficult life circumstances. Some difficulties cannot be changed. Michael (18): I regret that I started using drugs. I lost a lot of friends because of it. Olivia (28): My grandfather molested me when I was seven. Nothing can change that. Ethan (20): It is so hard to be depressed for so long and not knowing when I ll feel better. Acceptance in some situations is the only realistic possibility. 5.3.4 Possible relational interventions Self-harm is often the result of relationship problems with others such as the partner, family and friends. The next paragraph covers relational problems and possible interventions.
Overview of interventions for relational problems: - Improving communication - Expanding social support - Creating a safe therapeutic relationship
Improving communication The communication within the partner and family is usually severely disrupted at the time of seeking help. There are many varying communication skills that might be helpful to the patient and their family. However, the emphasis within this particular treatment protocol is on assertion, listening intently, and responding towards others. Communication skills can be practiced in individual sessions, but also during family sessions, when the therapist can guide the communication between the family and the patient right then and there. Almost all patients who harm themselves find it difficult to express their feelings, since they have learned to keep these to themselves (Linehan, 1993). The focus of assertion is on expressing thoughts, feelings and needs in an adequate yet not aggressive manner such as I think/feel and I would like, instead of You are or You should If there is someone with whom the patient feels safe, such as a partner, parent or a friend, the
49
hoofdstuk 3.indd 49
10-03-2008 09:08:11
chapter 3
therapist will encourage the patient to tell this person how he/she feels, thinks, or needs. The focus of listening intently is on the thoughts, feelings and needs of others without passing judgement (You are stupid or Well, this isnt going anywhere! or nonverbal judgements such as rolling with the eyes or sighing disapprovingly). The focus of responding to feelings and thoughts of others is on empathy, by which both patient and partner or family place themselves in the role of the other, thinking about what the other has experienced and currently experiences and learning how to reflect that they understand what the other person feels or thinks (I understand that you are disappointed). Part of this is also accepting that there is justification in varying points of view (I understand how you see this, even though I do think differently). Expanding social support Patients need the support of others in order to overcome self-harm and suicidal behaviour. Through help and advice from the therapist, the patient creates an as large as possible network of support consisting of the partner, family, friends, General Practitioner, home room teacher and other important people (Leenaars, 2004). If patients find it difficult to ask for support, it is important to find out what prevents them from doing so. It could be thoughts of helplessness (No one can help me) or distrust (If I show others how I feel, they will hurt me) or shame (I dont want my parents to know that I am doing so badly). Creating a safe relationship with the therapist An important aspect of therapy for patients who harm themselves is creating a safe therapeutic relationship. The therapist should expresses empathy and not judge (Ellis, 2001), conveying to the patient that he/she is valued regardless of his or her behaviour. The therapeutic relationship is one of the most effective reinforcers. Conveying warmth, interest and concern enables the therapist to reinforce desired behaviour. Maintaining clear boundaries is an effective strategy to eradicate undesired behaviour. Limits put a sense of organization into the patients life, giving the patient clear boundaries regarding what is and what is not acceptable behaviour. Therapists may ask themselves: What limits do I need to set for the patients safety? What limits must I set to teach the patient socially appropriate behaviour? 5.3.5 The role of the partner, family and important others The treatment is first and foremost an individual one. However, the involvement of the partner or the (non-abusive) parent(s) in the therapeutic process is of great importance, since paying attention and showing sincere interest significantly counterbalances self-harm. During the course of treatment, the partner or parents learn how to pay attention and show empathy, as well as how to encourage desired behaviour and ignore undesired behaviour.
50
hoofdstuk 3.indd 50
10-03-2008 09:08:11
Family sessions can be planned depending on the needs of patients and parents.
Partner, parents and others who care about the patient, often have difficulty refraining from expressing feelings of powerlessness and anger when the patient harms him or herself. For them it may seem that they are doing it all wrong, no matter how hard they try. If they take away sharp objects, the patients may become angry (They dont understand at all). If they do nothing at all, anger may be invoked as well (My mother just lets me do it!). Partner and parents can learn to start up a discussion about the meaning of self-harm. This diverts the attention from forbidding the self-harm to sharing the feelings, and indirectly the risk of self-harm reduces. If patients learn to talk about their feelings, this will create room for the partner or parents to express their concern. Partner and parents can then make clear that they do not feel disgust or fear of the patient, but that they are merely overwhelmed by the injuries and the pain they must feel that drives them to self-harm. 5.3.6 Evaluating the effects of treatment The therapist notes during each session the number of episodes of DSH and suicidal behaviour that occurred during the past week, in order to monitor the changes which occur due to the influence of the therapy. In addition the therapist checks to see if the nature of the self-harm changes. How intrusive are the thoughts of self-harm or suicide? How severe are the injuries? Is the patient able to stop the self-harm once he or she started it? To what degree does the patient exercise control over self-harm? To what extent have the cognitive, emotional, behavioural and relational problems which maintained the behaviour been reduced? 5.4 Last phase of the treatment (sessions 11 and 12)
Structure of sessions 11 and 12: - Consolidating therapeutic changes - Preventing relapse - Checking which elements of the treatment the patient has found useful
Session 11 occurs one month after session 10, and session 12 occurs two months after session 11. In the final sessions, the emphasis lies on relapse prevention and the role which negative thoughts and negative feelings play. In accordance with MindfulnessBased Cognitive Therapy, the emphasis is on early recognition of signs of relapse (Segal,
51
hoofdstuk 3.indd 51
10-03-2008 09:08:11
chapter 3
Williams, & Teasdale, 2004). The therapist and patient brainstorm on future situations, which hold risk of relapse. By imagining these situations as much as possible and going through those scenarios (how would the patient feel/think/do?), it becomes clear whether they have been sufficiently equipped to deal with future difficulties. The therapy will be brought to a completion once the patient has confidence in being able to cope with all aspects of the situation. During the last session, there will be a reflection on the treatment: What was most useful? What do you want to remember to apply when facing difficulties? Patients will make a card which contains the most valuable insights and the most effective techniques. They can carry this card with them and pull it out at moments when they experience difficulties. 6 Traps and solutions In general, the therapist sees self-harm as a problem that needs to be dealt with, while patients see it as a solution to their problems. In our experience, we find that it is helpful to allow both visions to co-exist and to search for a shared understanding of self-harm, by, for example, looking at it as an effective short term solution for unbearable pain. From this shared vision, both therapist and patients can search for alternatives to self-harm. Another important characteristic of the treatment is a non-judgemental attitude towards patients, their partner and their family. Patients and their partner and parents usually find themselves stuck in negative judgements about themselves (Its all my fault) and each other (She is the cause of the problems in our family). During the course of treatments patients and their partner and parents learn to relate differently to negative feelings and thoughts. They learn to recognize negative feelings and thoughts at an early stage and look at them with a friendly, mild and accepting attitude. The therapist can only teach this new attitude if he or she approaches his or her own feelings and thoughts in the same non-judgemental way. This can be challenging, since the behaviour of patients and their family can sometimes evoke strong negative feelings. By recognizing these feelings without judging them, the therapist creates space to consider how he or she wants to respond. Therapists want to reduce the risk of suicide as much as possible. For this reason, therapists sometimes use so called no-suicide contracts. However, the effectiveness of these contracts has never been demonstrated (Rudd, Mandrusiak & Joiner, 2006). An alternative is the agreement card as described in paragraph 5.1.5. The agreement card emphasizes desired behaviour, including help seeking behaviour which prevents suicide. It is our experience that the use of an agreement card has a positive impact on the therapeutic relationship. Another major point is that the treatment manual assumes availability (by phone) of the therapist during office hours. However, Dialectical Behaviour Therapy offers the
52
hoofdstuk 3.indd 52
10-03-2008 09:08:11
possibility of contact outside office hours (Linehan, 1993; Miller et al., 2007). The choice for this is determined by the needs of the patient, the partner, the family, and the personal boundaries of the therapist. The question the therapist can ask is: to what extend am I prepared to help this patient before I start to feel uncomfortable? Do I feel good about expanding the availability for a clearly defined period of time (e.g., for the duration of the crisis)? Another point concerns what therapists can do once their personal boundaries are reached or breached. For example, when patients or their partner or parents call several times a day, or when patients or their family yell, threaten or physically attack the therapist. In all these cases it is important that the therapist sets clear boundaries (You may express anger, but I want you to stop calling me names). The therapist needs to apply natural consequences once the boundary has been crossed (If you dont stop yelling, I want you to go out in the hall to cool off. You can come back when you are able to sit here without yelling at me). These examples concerning setting boundaries show that the therapeutic relationship can demand a great deal of the therapist. Patients who harm themselves can evoke strong conflicting feelings, such as anger, disgust, or concern. Therapists can also feel the tendency to give up, just as their patients may have. Supervision and peer supervision (preferably twice a month) offer therapists the opportunity to share their experiences and to notice conflicting feelings in time. Supervision and peer supervision are important, especially when working with patients who exhibit complex problems.
53
hoofdstuk 3.indd 53
10-03-2008 09:08:11
chapter 4
hoofdstuk 4.indd 54
10-03-2008 10:10:43
Outcomes of a Randomized Controlled Trial of a Cognitive Behavioural Intervention for Deliberate Self-Harm Patients
Nadja Slee, Nadia Garnefski, Rien van der Leeden, Ella Arensman, & Philip Spinhoven
British Journal of Psychiatry 2008, 192 (3): 202-211
hoofdstuk 4.indd 55
10-03-2008 10:10:43
chapter 4
Abstract
This study investigated the efficacy of a short cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) intervention with 90 adolescents and adults (aged 15-35) who had recently engaged in Deliberate Self-Harm (DSH). Participants were randomly assigned to treatment as usual plus CBT or treatment as usual only. Assessments were completed at baseline and 3, 6 and 9 months follow-up. DSH patients who received CBT in addition to treatment as usual were found to have significantly greater reductions in DSH, suicidal cognitions, symptoms of depression and anxiety, and significantly greater improvements in self-esteem and problem solving ability than controls. These findings extend the evidence that a timelimited CBT intervention is effective for patients with recurrent and chronic DSH.
Introduction
In recent years, there has been a marked rise in the frequency of young people engaging in Deliberate Self-Harm (DSH) (Evans, Hawton, Rodham, & Deeks, 2005). Identifying those who are at risk for DSH is important because every episode of DSH increases the risk of future episodes and (Colman, Newman, Schopflocher, Bland, & Dyck, 2004), eventually, of suicide (Zahl & Hawton, 2004). In this article, the term DSH refers to self-harm as well as self-poisoning, with or without suicidal intent (Hawton, Zahl, & Weatherall, 2003). The risk of DSH increases when multiple risk factors are present (Colman et al., 2004). The presence of a severe psychiatric disorder such as major depression is among the strongest predictors of DSH (Fawcett, Clark, & Busch, 1993). Anxiety, especially if acute and intense, also has an important role (Busch, Clark, Fawcett, & Kravitz, 1993). In addition to anxiety, DSH patients describe feelings of chronic emptiness, alienation and isolation (Orbach, Mikulincer, Gilboa-Schechtman, & Sirota, 2003). In the context of these unpleasant experiences, they report thoughts of hopelessness (e.g. Glanz, Haas, & Sweeney, 1995), helplessness (e.g. DZurilla, Chang, Nottingham, & Faccini, 1998), of being a burden to loved ones (Brown & Vinokur, 2003), of unlovability and poor distress tolerance (Rudd, Joiner, & Rajab, 2001) and of low self-esteem (McAuliffe et al., 2006). Poor problem solving ability is assumed to interact with suicidal cognitions, increasing the risk of DSH (Townsend et al., 2001). Although inpatient treatment is the standard of care for DSH patients, it has never been found efficacious in a controlled clinical trial (Comtois & Linehan, 2006). Furthermore, controlled Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT) intervention studies for DSH are limited and their results are inconsistent. Tyrer et al. (2003) reported that brief CBT is no more effective than usual care when it comes to preventing repetition of DSH, whereas Brown
56
hoofdstuk 4.indd 56
10-03-2008 10:10:43
et al. (2005) reported positive effects of Cognitive Therapy (CT) on suicide attempts, depression and hopelessness. In addition, several controlled studies have established the efficacy of Dialectical Behavioural Therapy in reducing self-injury in (female) patients with borderline personality disorder (Linehan et al., 2006). Schema-Focused Therapy has also been found to reduce DSH effectively in patients with borderline personality disorder (Giesen-Bloo et al., 2006). Furthermore, CBT interventions with a problem solving component seem to have positive effects on DSH (Hawton et al., 1998). These findings are important, given the strong association between acts of DSH and the risk of suicide described above. In addition, given the association between negative emotions, suicidal cognitions, problem solving deficits and DSH, it is important to assess in more detail the impact of treatment on these correlates of DSH. In the study reported here the efficacy of a short, manualised CBT intervention for DSH was investigated. This intervention was based on a cognitive-behavioural model of maintenance factors of DSH (Slee, Arensman, Garnefski, & Spinhoven, 2007). The model assumed that vulnerability to DSH can be changed by changing suicidal and negative thinking and problem solving deficits. The intervention aimed to develop cognitive and behavioural skills for coping with situations that trigger DSH. Considering the wide range of psychiatric, psychological and social problems that patients present with, the intervention was intended to give therapists a clear framework to orient themselves within the therapy. At the same time, the intervention needed to be flexible enough to be of help to a broad range of patients, including those with high risk of repetition of DSH and high levels of psychiatric co-morbidity. This study was designed to determine the short and long-term efficacy of the intervention with respect to the rate of repetition of DSH as well as emotional problems, suicidal cognitions and problem solving deficits. It was predicted that the rate of DSH of those participants who received Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT) in addition to treatment as usual (TAU) would be lower than in patients who received TAU only, and also that participants from the CBT condition would have significantly lower scores for emotional problems (depression and anxiety) and suicidal cognitions, and significantly higher scores for functional cognitions (self-esteem) and behavioural skills (problem solving ability) following treatment, than participants from the TAU condition.
Method
Participants Patients aged 15-35 years were included in the study if they had recently engaged in Deliberate Self-Harm (DSH), defined as both self-poisoning (overdose) and self-injury
57
hoofdstuk 4.indd 57
10-03-2008 10:10:43
chapter 4
(Hawton, et al., 2003). Patients were excluded if they reported a severe psychiatric disorder (e.g. schizophrenia) requiring intensive inpatient treatment (as assessed during the baseline interview with a structured diagnostic interview: MINI., Sheehan & Lecrubier, 1992, 1994, 1998), were unable to converse in Dutch, had cognitive impairments, or lived outside the region of Leiden. The study was conducted at the Leiden University Medical Centre and the Rivierduinen mental health centre from March 2003 till April 2006. The initial sample consisted of 222 individuals who had visited the Leiden University Medical Centre or the local mental health centre because of DSH. Of these 222 people, 32% (n=72) could not be reached, because the name, address or phone number they had left were incorrect. Of the 68% (n=150) that were contacted, 12% (n=26) declined to participate and 11% (n=24) were excluded from the study. Reasons for exclusion were the index episode not being an act of DSH (n=3), being under 15 years old (n=1), being hospitalized for an extended period because of schizophrenia or alcohol or drug misuse (n=11), being unable to converse in Dutch (n=3), having cognitive impairments (n=2) or living abroad (n=4). As a result, 100 individuals (45% of the initial sample) were invited for the baseline interview. The flow of these participants through the study is illustrated in Figure 1. It shows that 10 people failed to meet the inclusion criteria. They were unable to converse in Dutch (n=2), had cognitive impairments (n=1) or were living outside the region of Leiden (n=5). Two more persons did not want to complete the baseline interview. The 90 individuals who entered the study were randomly assigned to 12 CBT sessions in addition to TAU (n=48) or to TAU only (n=42). Of the 48 people who were randomly assigned to the CBT condition, 8 (17%) left the study prior to the first session (just after the baseline interview), leaving 40 clients to enter treatment. All 40 clients who entered CBT completed the 12 sessions of CBT, as well as the assessments 3, 6 and 9 months after the baseline interview. Reasons for leaving the study just after the baseline interview were: not wanting to be in therapy (n=4), having started an alternative treatment (n=1), having moved (n=2) or having run away from home (n=1). Of the 42 clients who were randomly assigned to the TAU condition, 5 clients (12%) did not complete the 3-month follow-up interview, owing to severe psychiatric disorder (n=2), having moved out of region (n=1), being sentenced to prison (n=1) or reportedly being too busy (n=1). Three more persons did not complete the 6-month follow-up interview, owing to severe psychiatric disorder (n=1), no longer wishing to participate in the project (n=1) or having died by suicide (n=1). One person did not complete the 9-month followup interview because she had died by suicide, bringing the total leaving the study to 9 persons (21%). Participants completing and leaving the study did not differ demographically, on history of DSH or on any of the outcome variables at baseline.
58
hoofdstuk 4.indd 58
10-03-2008 10:10:44
Figure 1.
Flow of participants through the study
Assessed for eligibility (n= 100) Excluded (n=10) Enrollment Reasons: Being unable to converse in Dutch (n= 2) Having cognitive impairments (n=1) Is it Randomized? Yes (n=90) Living outside the region of Leiden (n=5) Not wanting to complete interview (n=2)
Allocation
Allocated to CBT (n= 48) Received allocated intervention (n= 40) Did not receive allocated intervention (n=8) Reasons: Not wanting to be in therapy (n=4), getting an alternative treatment (n=1), moving (n=2) or running away from home (n=1) Allocated to TAU (n= 42) Received allocated intervention (n= 42) Did not receive allocated intervention (n= 0)
Lost to follow-up (n= 0) Discontinued intervention (n= 0)
Follow-Up
Lost to follow-up (n= 9) Reasons: suicide (n=2), severe psychological problems (n=3), moving (n=1), being sentenced to prison (n=1), being too busy (n=2)
Analyzed (n= 40) Excluded from analysis (n= 8)
Analysis
Analyzed (n=42) Excluded from analysi (n= 0)
59
hoofdstuk 4.indd 59
10-03-2008 10:10:44
chapter 4
Procedure On visiting one of the participating centres, individuals who had recently engaged in DSH received a brochure with a complete description of the study. In this brochure it was announced that the person would be contacted by a member of the research team, who would provide further information on the study and would ask if the person were interested in participating. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and from parents of adolescents below the age of 16 years. After participants had given written consent they were interviewed in their home or at the medical centre. We allowed a week to pass between a persons index episode of DSH and entering the study, 2 weeks to pass between the index episode and the initial interview, and 3 weeks to pass between the index episode and the first session of CBT. Those who agreed to participate and were found to be eligible for the study were randomly assigned to 12 sessions of CBT in addition to TAU, or to TAU only. All participants were invited for subsequent assessments 3 months, 6 months and 9 months following the baseline interview. Like the baseline interviews, these interviews were conducted in the participants home or at the medical centre. The medical ethics committee of the Leiden University Medical Centre approved all procedures. Design Participants were randomly assigned to 12 sessions of CBT in addition to TAU (n=48) or TAU only (n=42). Randomisation to treatment was accomplished using a computer program and a random number generator provided by an independent investigator. Stratification was not used. Although masked assessments were conducted at baseline, masking the follow-up assessments was not possible, because participants were asked about their use of health care services at each assessment. In addition, information regarding treatment assignment was essential to provide care for individuals who were in crisis. The assessments were conducted by a an independent member of the research team who was not the participants therapist. Outcome measures The primary outcome measure of the study was the number of episodes of DSH in the past 3 months, which was assessed using a structured clinical interview. DSH was defined as including both deliberate self-poisoning (overdose) and self-injury (Hawton, et al., 2003). An overdose was defined as the deliberate ingestion of more than the prescribed or recommended amount of chemical substances with the intention of self-harm. Patients were also asked about incidents of deliberate self-injury, which was defined as intentional self-injury, irrespective of the apparent purpose of the act, and included cutting, scratching, punching, kicking and head-banging. In this definition, both the original parasuicide definition of the WHO/Euro study and the studys current nomenclature of
60
hoofdstuk 4.indd 60
10-03-2008 10:10:44
fatal and nonfatal suicidal behaviour are included, as well as habitual behaviours and self-injuries with no intent to die. In line with the definition of the WHO/Euro study, DSH associated with mental retardation is excluded (De Leo et al., 2004; Schmidtke et al., 2004). Thus, all behaviour that was self-initiated with the intent to harm the body (regardless of intent to die) was included. At each of the four assessments participants were asked about the number of episodes of DSH in the past 3 months. Other aspects of DSH were also recorded: suicide intent, motives, the antecedent events and consequences. However, only the number of episodes of DSH was selected as primary outcome measure. To investigate the reliability of the assessment of the number of episodes of DSH, the retrospective self-reports were compared with hospital records, as well as with information coming from the treatment sessions. The correlations between the three measures were high, with correlations ranging from .88 to .90. Scores of the number of episodes of DSH in the past 3 months range from 0-25. Secondary outcome measures assessed by patient self-report at the baseline, 3month, 6-month and 9-month assessments included depression, anxiety, self-esteem, suicidal cognitions and problem solving ability: (i) Depression was measured with the Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II) (Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996; van der Does, 2002): a 21-question depression scale with each answer rated 0-3. Scores range from 0-63. The test has high internal consistency with an alpha reliability of .91 (Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996; Beck, Steer, Ball, & Ranieri, 1996). In this study, we found an alpha reliability of .93. (ii) Anxiety was measured using a sub-scale of the Symptom Checklist-90 (Derogatis, Lipman, & Covi, 1973; Arindell & Ettema, 1986), which is a self-report clinical rating scale of psychiatric symptomatology. The anxiety subscale consists of 10 items total, assessing whether and to what extent participants reported symptoms of anxiety. Items are measured on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from not at all distressing (0) to extremely distressing (4). Individual subscale scores are obtained by summing the 10 items (range from 0-40). Previous studies have reported alpha-coefficients ranging from .71 to .91 for the anxiety subscale. In addition, test-retest reliabilities are found to be good and the subscale has been found to show strong convergent validity with other conceptually related scales (Arrindell & Ettema, 1986). In this study we found an alpha reliability of .93 for the anxiety subscale. (iii) Self-esteem was measured with the Robson Self-Concept Questionnaire, Short version (Robson, 1989, developed for the CASE Study, see De Wilde, 2005, for CASE NL): an 8-item questionnaire dealing with attitudes and beliefs that people have about themselves (Im glad I am who I am). All items are self-rated from 1-4 (strongly disagree-strongly agree). Scores range from 8-32. The original scale has good validity and reliability (Robson, 1989).
61
hoofdstuk 4.indd 61
10-03-2008 10:10:44
chapter 4
In this study we found an alpha reliability of .82. (iv) Suicidal cognitions were measured using the Suicide Cognition Scale (Rudd et al., 2001): 20 questions about core beliefs of Perceived Burdensomeness (I am a burden to my family), Helplessness (No one can help solve my problems), Unlovability (I am completely unworthy of love) and Poor Distress Tolerance (When I get this upset, it is unbearable), with each answer rated 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Scores on the total scale range from 20-100. Scores on the subscale Perceived Burdensomeness (2 items) range from 2-10, scores on the subscale Helplessness (5 items) range from 5-25, scores on the subscale Unlovability (6 items) range from 6-30 and scores on the subscale Poor Distress Tolerance (7 items) range from 7-35. In this study we found an alpha reliability of .96 for the total scale, of .74 for Perceived Burdensomeness, of .88 for Helplessness, of .90 for Poor Distress Tolerance and of .89 for Unlovability. (v) Problem Solving Ability was measured with the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS, subscale task oriented coping; Endler & Parker, 1990). This subscale consists of 16 items scored on a 5-point Likert scale, referring to the extent to which people make use of problem solving techniques in the face of stress (Make an extra effort) with answers ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very strongly). Scores range from 16-80. Across studies, the CISS has proved reliable. The internal consistency of the subscales is excellent (>.85) (Endler & Parker, 1990; Endler & Parker, 1994). In this study we found an alpha reliability of .93. In addition, demographic information was obtained, as well as information about the use of health care services. Baseline characteristics also included suicide intent and motives of the index episode of DSH. Suicide intent was assessed with the Suicide Intent Scale (SIS; Beck, Schuyler, & Herman, 1974), an instrument with sound psychometric properties. The SIS has 20 items, but only the first 15 items are used for calculating the score. Scoring for each item ranges from 0 to 2. Items 1 to 9 are concerned with the act itself, 10 to 15 with the thoughts and feelings associated with the act, and 16 to 20 with the subjects thoughts and feelings about suicide in the present. To assess motives for DSH, the Reasons for Overdose Scale was used (Hawton et al., 1982). The 10 motives presented were a subset of those originally developed by Bancroft, Skrimshire and Simkin (1976), including wanting to die, wanting to get relief and wanting to escape. Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which these motives were important to them at the time of the index episode. For screening purposes, psychiatric diagnosis was assessed using a short structured diagnostic interview with an administration time of approximately 20-30 min, the MiniInternational Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI, Sheehan & Lecrubier, 1992, 1994, 1998). In this study the Dutch translation of the clinician rated (CR) version of the MINI (van Vliet, Leroy, & Van Megen, 2000) was used. Validation of the MINI-CR against the Structured
62
hoofdstuk 4.indd 62
10-03-2008 10:10:45
Clinical Interview DSM-III-R- patient version (SCID-P) and the Composite International Diagnostic Interview for ICD-10 (CIDI) showed good to very good kappa values (Sheehan & Lecrubier, 1998). Intervention Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy In addition to usual care (e.g. prescribed psychotropic medication, psychotherapy, psychiatric hospitalisations), participants in the CBT condition received 12 out-patient CBT sessions specifically developed for preventing DSH. The sessions were provided on a weekly basis or as needed in case of crisis. Ten of the 12 sessions were given weekly; the last two were follow-up sessions. All together, the intervention lasted approximately 5.5 months. The central feature of this intervention was the identification and modification of the mechanisms that maintained DSH. Thus, the treatment started with the assessment of the most recent episode of DSH (e.g. circumstances at the time of the episode, motives and reasons for DSH, cognitions, emotions and behaviour prior to and at the time of the episode). The therapist and patient then investigated how emotional, cognitive and behavioural factors played a part in the maintenance of DSH. Specific maintenance factors that were addressed included dysfunctional cognitions, emotion regulation difficulties and poor problem solving. Near the end of therapy relapse prevention was addressed as well. The treatment is first and foremost an individual one. However, the involvement of the partner or the (non-abusive) parent(s) in the therapeutic process is of great importance, since DSH patients need the support of others to overcome DSH. A manual was written to standardise the intervention (available on request). To improve treatment compliance, therapists played an active part in keeping patients in treatment (e.g. calling patients to remind them of appointments). All therapists were experienced practitioners of CBT and accustomed to working with patients who engage in DSH. Before they took part in the research project, they received two days of training in the standardised protocol. To maintain the integrity of treatment, the therapists followed this treatment protocol. In addition, checklists and outlines were used in every session to foster correct execution of the treatment. At monthly meetings, the treatment sessions were reviewed and therapists could share their experiences with their colleagues. Issues that were discussed were reactions in the therapist elicited by episodes of DSH (e.g. sadness, worry, aversion) or problems with treatment compliance. The average number of patients treated by each of the therapists was 8 (range 7-9). Treatment as Usual For ethical reasons, participants of both conditions were free to pursue any form of usual care they deemed warranted. We recorded three forms of TAU: psychotropic
63
hoofdstuk 4.indd 63
10-03-2008 10:10:45
chapter 4
medication, psychotherapy and psychiatric hospitalisations. In addition, we recorded whether psychotherapy in TAU had a focus on DSH. However, we did not systematically record the specific types of psychotherapy or psychotropic medication the comparison condition received, nor did we record the specific types of psychotherapy or psychotropic medication those in the experimental condition received in addition to the DSH-focused CBT. As a result, we do not know whether the comparison group and experimental group were equivalent in this respect. Although we did not systematically record specific types of psychotherapy in TAU, most of the interventions involved a limited number (2-30) of sessions of individual psychotherapy such as CBT and interpersonal psychotherapy. Social skills training was also common, especially among adolescents and young adults. No treatment specific to DSH was reported. These treatments focused, instead, on specific psychiatric problems (e.g. depression) or on specific needs of the patient (e.g. problems with housing, finances, social isolation). Statistical Procedure The study design was constrained to a maximum of four measurements per participant. Given this restriction, a power analysis was performed to determine the sample size needed to detect between-group differences on the primary outcome measure: the number of episodes of DSH. Results obtained with the program PINT (Snijders & Bosker, 1993) indicated that a sample size of approximately 45 participants in each group would be sufficient to detect a difference in average time slope between the groups of .40 (corresponding with a small effect size) with adequate power (.80) and an alpha of .05. Sociodemographic characteristics and outcome measures of the groups were examined using t-tests or chi-square tests, as appropriate. Multilevel analysis (MLA) was used to analyze the development of each outcome measure over time. MLA is especially suitable to analyze repeated measure data because it takes into account the dependencies among observations nested within individuals. Another advantage to the methodology is its ability to handle missing data, which is also common to the type of longitudinal research discussed in this paper. Random coefficient models were fitted for all outcome measures, allowing for individual variation of intercepts and regression slopes. Fixed effects of Time, Condition and the interaction between Time and Condition were tested using two-tailed z-tests. Effects of baseline differences with regard to suicidal acts during the past 3 months on the development of all outcome measures over time were controlled for (Suicidal Acts X Condition X Time). Effects of baseline use of psychotropic medication and psychotherapy on the development of all outcome measures over time were also controlled for; Medication Use X Condition X Time and Psychotherapy X Condition X Time. Models were fitted using MLwiN (version 2.02; Rasbash, Steele, Browne, & Prosser, 2004).
64
hoofdstuk 4.indd 64
10-03-2008 10:10:45
In addition, effect sizes were calculated to facilitate comparison of improvement in the CBTcondition with improvement in the TAU condition. Effect sizes were derived by calculating the difference of the means on the outcome variables in CBT and TAU at 3month, 6-month or 9-month assessment, divided by the pooled standard deviation (see Thalheimer & Cook, 2002 for the program to calculate effect sizes). Furthermore, to give an indication of the differences between the conditions for a given variable at baseline, 3month, 6-month and 9-month assessment, significance levels were calculated using t-tests or chi-square tests.
Results
Sample description and baseline characteristics Demographic characteristics, psychiatric diagnosis and history of DSH for participants from the two conditions are reported in Table 1 and Table 2. There were no significant differences between individuals in the CBT condition (n=40) and TAU condition (n=42) on any of the demographic characteristics including gender, age, living situation, marital status, educational level, job status or nationality (see Table 1). In addition, no significant differences were found with regard to psychiatric co-morbidity, history of previous episodes of DSH, self mutilation in the past 3 months, or rate of leaving the study (see Table 2). However, there was a trend towards more suicidal acts in the past 3 months in TAU at baseline (t=-1.90, df = 80, p = .06), which variable was included in the MLA models. The baseline table also includes information on the nature of the index episode of DSH in both groups. The majority of the patients reported self-poisoning at index (87% in CBT and 91% in TAU, which is a non-significant difference). Suicide intent and motives at index did not differ significantly between the groups (see Table 2). We also investigated whether the groups differed significantly on use of health care services. There were no significant baseline differences, except for trends towards more medication use in TAU at baseline [chi]2(1, n = 82) = 3.12, p = .08 and trends towards more psychotherapy in TAU at baseline [chi]2(1, n = 82) = 4.74, p = .09. Both medication use and psychotherapy at baseline were included in the MLA models. Psychiatric hospitalisation was not included as a covariate in the MLA models, because psychiatric hospitalisations had not been reported at baseline (see Table 3). In addition, we used MLA to determine whether there were any baseline differences between the groups on the primary and secondary outcome measures (see Condition Effects in Table 4, 5 and 6). No significant group differences were found on any of these outcome measures (see Table 4, 5 and 6). The mean number of episodes of DSH during the last three months as reported at baseline was 14.42 (SD=10.51) in CBT and 11.62 (SD =11.42) in TAU; score range 0-25 (see Table 3).
65
hoofdstuk 4.indd 65
10-03-2008 10:10:45
chapter 4
Table 1. Characteristics of the study sample for CBT (n=40) and TAU (n=42)
t /[chi]2 p Gender (chi2 CBT TAU Mean age (t-test) CBT TAU Living situation (chi2) CBT TAU Marital status (chi2) CBT TAU 97% female (n=39) 91% female (n=38) 23.9 years (SD=6.4) 25.4 years (SD=4.5) 73% (n=29) lived alone, 27% (n=11) lived together with someone else 74% (n=31) lived alone, 26% (n=11) lived together with someone else 73% (n=29) unmarried, 8% (n=3) married, 17% (n=7) widowed, 2% (n=1) divorced 78% (n=33) unmarried, 5% (n=2) married, 10% (n=3) widowed, 7% (n=4) divorced 4.35 .36 1.07 .59 -1.18 .24 1.77 .18
Educational level (chi2) CBT primary school (27%, n=11), secondary school (34%, n=14), lower education , (13%, n=5), higher education/university (25%, n=10) TAU primary school (19%., n=8), secondary school (35%, n=15), lower education, (25%, n=10), higher education/university (21%, n=9) Job status (chi2) CBT 38% (n=15) went to school/studies, 25% (n=10) had a full-time or part-time job, 37% (n=15) lived on social security TAU 19% (n=8) went to school/studies, 27% (n=11) had a full-time or part-time job, 36% (n=15) lived on social security Nationality (chi2) CBT 90% (n=36) Dutch, 5% (n=2) other European, 5% (n=2) Turkish/Moroccan TAU 93% (n=39) Dutch, 5% (n=2) other European, 2% (n=1) Turkish 7.08 .42 11.84 .34 12.41 .13
Description of the primary and secondary outcome measures Table 3 shows the means and standard deviation of scores on the primary and secondary outcome measures at baseline, 3-month, 6-month and 9-month assessment, including significant group differences based on t-tests. In addition, it shows that during the study period, two persons in TAU died because of suicide. It also describes the use of health care services by patients in CBT and TAU and group differences based on chi-square tests.
66
hoofdstuk 4.indd 66
10-03-2008 10:10:45
Table 2. Characteristics of the study sample for CBT (n=40) and TAU (n=42)(continued)
t /[chi]2 Psychiatric co-morbidity (t-test) CBT on average 3.6 diagnoses per person (SD=3.0) TAU aon average 4.5 diagnoses per person (SD=4.1) Range of diagnosis (chi2) CBT 88% (n=35) mood-; 65% (n=26) anxiety-; 10% (n=4) eatingand 5% (n=2) somatoform disorder; 10% (n=4) alcohol/drug abuse TAU 90% (n=16) mood-; 46% (n=19) anxiety-; 24% (n=10) eatingand 3%(n=1) somatoform disorder 24%(n=10) alcohol/drug abuse History of DSH (chi2) 82% (n=33) in CBT and 70% (n=30) in TAU reported 10 or more previous episodes of DSH (self-poisoning and/or self-injury) Self mutilation past 3 months (t-test)1 Suicidal acts past 3 months (t-test)2 Index episode of DSH (chi2) CBT (92 %, n=37); TAU (57% , n=24) CBT (45%, n=18); TAU (81% , n=34) self-poisoning 83% (n=33) in CBT and 91% (n=38) in TAU; self-injury 17% (n=7) in CBT and 9% (n=4) in TAU Suicide Intent index episode (t-test)3 Motives index episode (chi2) range (0-30); CBT: 10.83 (6.65); TAU: 12.58 (6.84) get relief from a terrible state of mind (92%), want to die (67%), escape impossible situation (64%); similar for CBT & TAU Psychotropic Medication at baseline (chi2) 53% (n=21) of the patients in CBT and 71% (n=30) of the patients in TAU Psychotherapy at baseline (chi2) 43% (n=17) of the patients in CBT and 55% (n=23) of the patients in TAU 19.80 3.12 4.74 .14 .08 .09 4.69 8.27 .70 .94 .73 1.54 -1.91 .47 .13 .06 -1.15 p .25
1 2 3
Suicide Intent was measured with the Suicide Intent Scale; Motives were measured with the Reasons for Overdose Scale. Suicide Intent was measured with the Suicide Intent Scale; Motives were measured with the Reasons for Overdose Scale. Suicide Intent was measured with the Suicide Intent Scale; Motives were measured with the Reasons for Overdose Scale.
9-month outcome of treatment In Table 4 (MLA without the 8 early withdrawals, n=82), Table 5 (MLA with completers, n=73) and Table 6 (MLA with intent-to-treat/LOCF, n=90) fixed effects and corresponding standard errors are reported for the MLA models regarding the primary and secondaryoutcome measures2. The effect of Time indicates the overall increase or decrease for each of the outcome measures. The effect of Condition indicates the difference between CBT and
67
hoofdstuk 4.indd 67
10-03-2008 10:10:46
chapter 4
Table 3. Primary and secondary outcome measures: means and standard deviations at baseline and follow-up (n=82)
Baseline
N(CBT/TAU)
Primary outcome measure (t-tests)
3 months
40/37 M(SD)
6 months
40/34 M(SD) 5.30(9.44) 4.03(7.16) 1
9 months
40/33 M(SD) 1.18(4.22)* 4.58(8.37) 1
40/42 M (SD)
DSH in the past 3 months Suicide in the past 3 months

Secondary outcome measures1(t-tests)
CBT 14.42 (10.51) 5.63(9.04) TAU 11.62 (11.42) CBT TAU 5.65(9.24) -
Depression (BDI-II) Anxiety (SCL-90) Self-Esteem (RSCQ) Suicide-Cognitions Scale (SCS) Perceived burdens. (SCS) Helplessness (SCS) Poor distress tolerance (SCS) Unlovability (SCS) Problem-solving (CISS)
CBT 31.35 (12.85) 21.15 (13.48)* 16.58 (13.70)** 11.58 (12.12)** TAU 34.67 (14.01) 30.08(18.63) CBT 30.60 (8.67) 24.95(9.02) TAU 28.05 (10.51) 28.78(12.00) CBT 16.38 (3.24) TAU 15.38 (4.46) 18.13(4.35) 16.11(5.65) 28.56(18.62) 24.20(8.14) 29.03(11.57) 19.15(3.71)* 16.85(5.56) 29.61 (17.51) 19.78 (7.70)** 27.36(11.08) 20.58(4.36)** 16.70(5.10) 54.88(19.05) 3.88(2.03)** 5.76(2.35) 10.38(4.80)** 15.97(5.25) 11.65(5.73)** 17.52(6.77) 10.70(5.56)** 15.64(5.90) 36.25(11.50)** 26.24(13.13) 46% (n=18) 70% (n=29) 52% (n=21) 72% (n=30) 2%* (n=1) 21% (n=9)
CBT 58.33(14.86) 46.63(16.56)* 42.48(19.67)* 36.60(17.05)** TAU 63.29 (19.47) 59.70(24.48) 56.26(22.50) CBT 6.65(2.01) TAU 6.88 (2.33) CBT 15.85(4.97) TAU 17.55 (5.83) CBT 19.38(5.33) CBT 16.45(5.21) TAU 17.98 (6.14) 4.98(2.41) 6.24(2.82) 12.90(4.78)* 17.11(7.36) 15.13(5.92)* 13.63(5.56) 17.11(7.40) 4.75(2.67)* 6.21(2.57) 11.95(5.90)** 16.32(6.79) 13.65(6.61)* 18.09(7.88) 12.13(6.14)* 15.64(6.50) 32.55(11.66) 25.70 (13.99) 42%*(n=17) 57% (n=24) 28% (n=11) 72% (n=30) 6% (n=3) 16% (n=7)
TAU 20.88 (6.29) 19.24(7.84)
CBT 27.00(10.42) 31.18(11.05) TAU 25.76 (13.45) 26.97(13.19)
Use of health care services/usual care (chi2 tests)
Psychotropic Medication
CBT 53% (n=21) TAU 71% (n=30)
38%*(n=15) 59% (n=25) 21% (n=8) 83% (n=35) 2% (n=1) 14% (n=6)
Psychotherapy Psychiatric Hospitalisations
CBT 43% (n=17) TAU 55% (n=23) CBT none TAU none
* indicates signicance at .05 level; ** indicates signicance at .01 level

1
BDI-II is the Beck Depression Inventory II; SCL-90 is the Symptom Checklist-90; RSCQ is the Robson SelfConcept Questionnaire (short version); SCS is the Suicide Cognitions Scale; CISS is the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations.
68
hoofdstuk 4.indd 68
10-03-2008 10:10:46
TAU at baseline. The interaction effect (Time X Condition) indicates whether there is a significant difference between CBT and TAU upon the development of the outcome measures over time.
To control for baseline differences in suicidal acts during the past 3 months, the interaction of Suicidal Acts X Condition X Time was included in the models as well. In addition, to control for baseline differences in psychotropic medication use and psychotherapy, the interaction of Medication Use X Condition X Time and the interaction of Psychotherapy X Condition X Time were included in the models. Fixed effects were tested by two-tailed z-tests. Variance components are omitted here because they are not the primary focus of our study. MLA results without the 8 participants who left the study (n=82, see Table 4) showed that overall DSH, depression and suicidal cognitions (total scale and the subscales perceived burdensomeness, poor distress tolerance and unlovability) significantly decreased over Time. Self-esteem was shown to significantly increase over time. No significant effects were found for Condition, indicating that on average, there were no significant baseline differences between the groups on all outcome measures. The fixed effects of Time X Condition showed that there was a significant effect of condition upon the development (increase or decrease) of all outcome measures over time. For instance, the estimated value of -.576 in the model for DSH indicates that the individuals in the CBT condition, on average, show a significant difference in decrease of DSH compared to individuals in the TAU condition (see Table 4). The significant Time X Condition effects remain with different ways of handling withdrawals. MLA results using the completers sample (n=73, see Table 5) and the Last Observation Carried Forward (LOCF) method (n=90, see Table 6) showed a slightly smaller effect for Time on average, but a similar significant effect for Time X Condition as MLA without the 8 early withdrawals (n=82, see Table 4). The most conservative analysis (LOCF) showed the strongest effect for CBT on DSH (t= 2.843), while the more optimistic analysis without the 8 early withdrawals showed the weakest effect for CBT on DSH (t= -2.390). However, each of the three analyses led to the same significant effect of Time X Condition. Moreover, none of the effects of Suicidal Acts during the past 3 months X Condition X Time were significant, indicating that there were no effects of suicidal acts at baseline on the development of the outcome measures over time in the two conditions. In addition, none of the effects of Medication Use X Condition X Time were significant, indicating that there were no effects of medication use at baseline on the development of the outcome measures over time in the two conditions. Furthermore, none of the effects of Psychotherapy X Condition X Time were significant, indicating that there were no effects of psychotherapy at baseline on the development of the outcome measures over time in the two conditions. These interaction effects are omitted from the models. Table 4 (MLA without the 8 early withdrawals; n=82), Table 5 (MLA with completers; n=73) and Table 6 (MLA with LOCF method; n=90) present the results of a simple model
69
hoofdstuk 4.indd 69
10-03-2008 10:10:46
chapter 4
with only three fixed effects, which is preferable because it is easier to understand. In addition, effect sizes were calculated to facilitate comparison of improvement in the CBT condition with improvement in the TAU condition (see Table 4, 5 and 6). Effect sizes of .20 indicate small effects, effect sizes of .50 indicate medium effects, whereas values of .80 indicate large effects (Cohen, 1992). As can be derived from Table 4, 5 and 6, the effect sizes became larger during the follow-up period and at 9-months follow-up effect sizes were medium for the difference in DSH and large to very large for the differences on all other primary and secondary outcome measures between both treatment conditions. The use of parametric statistics with skewed data (the number of episodes of DSH) may have reduced the effect size estimates as presented in Table 4, 5 and 6. Visual inspection of means in Table 3 and effect sizes in Table 4, 5 and 6 suggests a curvilinear time trend for DSH in TAU, but a linear trend for DSH in CBT. However, the curvilinear trend did not prove to be significant. Therefore, we used a linear model for DSH in CBT as well as TAU.
Table 4
MLA Effects for Time, Condition and Time X Condition and Cohen's d effect sizes
for differences on outcome measures between CBT and TAU for n=82
Variables1
Time B(SE)
Condition2 B(SE)
Time X Condition B(SE)
Cohens d 3 months (post-treatment) n=40/37
Cohens d 6 months (follow-up) n=40/34 .06 .75 .22 .67 .56 .70 .62 .56 .50 .54
Cohens d 9 months (follow-up) n=40/33 .53 1.24 .82 1.03 .88 1.13 .96 .88 .83 .83
DSH Depression (BDI-II) Anxiety (SCL-90) Suicide Cognitions total (SCS) Helplessness (SCS) Poor distress tolerance (SCS) Unlovability (SCS) Self-esteem (RSCQ) Problem-solving (CISS)
-.794(.177)* -.515(.223)* -.065(.174
2.892(2.089) -.748(2.018)
-.576(.241)* -1.038(.235)* -1.497(.411)* -.175(.052)* -.457(.132)* -.514(.143)* -.349(.130)* .309(.089)* 1.068(.290)*
.0 .56 .37 .64 .49 .69 .60 .54 .41 .35
-4.047(2.956) -1.617(.302)*
-.835(.304)* -6.339(3.661) -.142(.089) -1.987(1.120)
Perceived burdensomeness (SCS) -.106(.039)* -.489(.465) -.328(.106)* -1.797(1.248) -.268(.097)* -2.074(1.168) .141(.066)* -.072(.215) .852(.810) .999(2.382)
* indicates signicance at .05 level

1
BDI-II is the Beck Depression Inventory II; SCL-90 is the Symptom Checklist-90; RSCQ is the Robson Self-Concept Questionnaire (short version); SCS is the Suicide Cognitions Scale; CISS is the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations. Condition means baseline differences between CBT and TAU
70
hoofdstuk 4.indd 70
10-03-2008 10:10:47
Use of health care services during the study period Chi-square tests were used to examine differences in the use of health care services during the study period. Table 3 shows that at baseline, 43% (n=17) of the patients in the CBT condition received psychotherapy. About half of these patients preferred to interrupt their regular psychotherapy schedule for a period of 3 months, which was the period in which 10 out of 12 CBT sessions took place. Between baseline and 3-month assessment, only 21% of the patients received CBT for DSH and regular psychotherapy at the same time. Between 3-month and 6-month assessment, 28% of the patients received CBT for DSH in addition to usual care (see Table 3). After the CBT intervention, 52% (n=25) of the patients continued or started with regular psychotherapy. Table 3 also shows that individuals in CBT used significantly less psychotropic medication from baseline to 3-month assessment [chi]2(1, n = 77) = 3.970, p = .046 and from 3-month to 6-month assessment [chi]2(1, n = 74) = 4.270, p = .039, but not from 6-month to 9-month assessment. From baseline to 6-month assessment, the number of psychiatric hospitalisations was lower in CBT (n=4) than in TAU (n=13), but this difference was not significant. However, between 6-month and 9-month
Table 5. MLA Effects for Time, Condition and Time X Condition and Cohen's d effect sizes for differences on outcome measures between CBT and TAU for completers (n=73)
Variables1
Time B(SE)
Condition2 B(SE)
Time X Condition B(SE)
Cohens d 3 months (post-treatment) n=40/33
Cohens d 6 months (follow-up) n=40/33 .05 .41 .46 .64 .56 .68 .58 .58 .47 .47
Cohens d 9 months (follow-up) n=40/33 .39 1.24 .82 1.03 .88 1.13 .96 .88 .83 .83
DSH Depression (BDI-II) Anxiety (SCL-90) Suicide Cognitions total (SCS) Helplessness (SCS) Poor distress tolerance (SCS) Unlovability (SCS) Self-esteem (RSCQ) Problem-solving (CISS)
-.728(.178)* -.458(.246) -.025(.179)
3.361(2.233) -2.613(3.189) -1.608(2.211)
-.604(.239)* -1.694(.331)* -1.102(.241)* -1.607(.412)* -.196(.052)* -.470(.134)* -.534(.143)* -.407(.129)* .326(.090)* 1.137(.293)*
.02 .50 .36 .58 .44 .66 .53 .49 .36 .35
-.747(.306)* -4.637(4.103) -.116(.100) -1.658(1.230)
Perceived burdensomeness (SCS) -.093(.039)* -.298(.529) -.308(.107)* 1.271(1.385) -.230(.096)* - 1.409(1.319) .139(.067)* -.163(.218) .683(.904) -.434(2.541)

1
71
hoofdstuk 4.indd 71
10-03-2008 10:10:47
chapter 4
assessment, significantly less people had been hospitalized in CBT (n=1) compared to TAU (n=7) [chi]2(1, n = 73) = 6.488, p = .011.
Table 6. MLA Effects for Time, Condition and Time X Condition and Cohen's d effect sizes for differences on outcome measures between CBT and TAU in the intent-to-treat group/ LOCF method (n=90)
Variables1 Time B(SE) Condition2 B(SE) Time X Condition B(SE) 3 months n=48/42 DSH Depression (BDI-II) Anxiety (SCL-90) Suicide Cognitions total (SCS) Helplessness (SCS) Poor distress tolerance (SCS) Unlovability (SCS) Self-esteem (RSCQ) Problem-solving (CISS) -.610(.163)* 2.225(2.069) -.033(.152) .865(1.993) -.637(.224)* -.945(.209)* -.156(.047)* -.403(.116)* -.487(.127)* -.328(.120)* .298(.079)* .996(.247)* .08 .56 .38 .61 .48 .64 .55 .56 .33 .38 6 months n=48/42 .15 .77 .47 .68 .56 .67 .61 .64 .48 .50 9 months (follow-up) n=48/42 .49 1.19 .77 .98 .82 1.00 .89 .89 .77 .77 (post-treatment) (follow-up) Cohens d Cohens d Cohens d
-.438(.218)* -3.996(2.809) -1.434(.299)* -.678(.267)* -6.077(3.633) -1.373(.367)* -.110(.084) -1.906(1.109)
Perceived burdensomeness (SCS) -.095(.034)* -.470(.462) -.247(.093)* - 1.643(1.233) -.226(.087)* -2.049(1.168) .106(.058)* -.144(.180) .742(.814) .917(2.412)

1
Discussion
This short cognitive-behavioural intervention was designed to supplement usual care following an episode of DSH. Our main study hypothesis, that CBT in addition to TAU would be more effective in reducing repetition of DSH than TAU alone, was supported. Furthermore, those who received CBT in addition to TAU were shown to have significantly greater reductions in depression, anxiety and suicidal cognitions, and significantly
72
hoofdstuk 4.indd 72
10-03-2008 10:10:48
greater improvements in self-esteem and problem solving ability. It is reasonable to assume that these positive findings are attributable to the effect of the CBT, given the random assignment as well as the absence of between group differences with respect to demographics, the number of episode of DSH, history of DSH, psychopathology and use of health care services. While this study confirms prior studies showing that DSH can be effectively treated by CBT (Giesen-Bloo et al., 2006; Linehan et al., 2006), the findings are among the first to suggest that these changes can occur with a brief intervention. Furthermore, this studys findings that time-limited CBT decreases DSH contrasts with the results reported by Tyrer et al. (2003). The difference in outcome could be attributed to the fact that all subjects who began CBT completed all sessions, a fact that probably contributed to its efficacy. The positive treatment effect on DSH is important given the high suicide risk following DSH
(Zahl & Hawton, 2004). The suicidal process (Van Heeringen, 2001) appears to have been at least partially deflected by the CBT intervention. It is especially important that these results are found for people with recurrent and chronic DSH, with high risk of repetition, and high levels of psychiatric co-morbidity. The theoretical model underlying the cognitive-behavioural intervention suggested that vulnerability to DSH was related to underlying suicidal cognitions and behavioural skills deficits (Slee et al., 2007). From this perspective, reduction in repetition of DSH following CBT might be seen as a consequence of the therapy reducing specific suicidal thoughts and problem solving deficits and increasing self-esteem. As expected, over the course of treatment, there were marked changes in suicidal cognitions as well as in selfesteem. The significant decrease in suicidal cognitions is especially important, since these are considered to be the main triggers of DSH, especially for individuals with recurrent and chronic DSH (Rudd et al., 2001). Given the central role of suicidal cognitions in repetition of DSH, the CBT aimed to increase the patients hope by systematically targeting cognitions of perceived burdensomeness, helplessness, poor distress tolerance and unlovability. This occurred as the therapist, while validating the patients emotions, modelled hopefulness and the ability to improve the current situation through the identification and modification of unhelpful thoughts as well through the use of effective problem solving skills. Helping patients with their current problems was another important element of treatment, because previous research had shown that DSH patients display poor problem solving ability, which seems to be independent of mood (McAuliffe et al., 2006) and relatively stable unless intervened upon (Raj, Kumaraiah, & Bhide, 2001). At the start of therapy, patients commonly reported feeling overwhelmed by the problems they were facing, believing they were lacking effective problem solving strategies. By identifying effective strategies they already used, the idea that control was already part of their repertoire was introduced. In addition, patients were encouraged to develop and use
73
hoofdstuk 4.indd 73
10-03-2008 10:10:48
chapter 4
new strategies (Nezu, Nezu, & Perri, 1989). As expected, patients problem solving skills significantly improved during treatment. It is remarkable that effects on secondary measures -particularly depression, suicidal cognitions and problem solving- were stronger than on the target variable DSH (the number of episodes of DSH in the past 3 months). Moreover, changes in these factors seems to precede changes in DSH. This suggests that the CBT primarily targeted depression, suicidal cognitions and problem solving and that the specific DSH effect (which was only apparent at 9-month assessment) was a secondary effect. This would be consistent with the assumption that repetition of DSH could be reduced by revising its maintenance factors (Slee et al., 2007). Given the emphasis in cognitive-behavioural therapy on challenging suicidal thinking and increasing problem solving ability, either of these might be the
mechanisms of change. The trajectory for the average patient in the CBT group showed a relatively rapid reduction on many outcome measures early in therapy and this reduction continued as therapy progressed and during the follow-up period. However, this rapid reduction is also found in the TAU group, as indicated by the strong effect of time in the MLA. This effect might be explained by the fact that people were in crisis when they entered the study; at that time, their risk of DSH was elevated, their mood was particularly low, suicidal cognitions were persistent, and they had great difficulty solving the problems they were facing. It has been argued that crises are by themselves time-limited, even in those exhibiting recurrent and chronic DSH (Rudd et al., 2001). However, the magnitude of the interaction effects in the MLA clearly show the unique additional effect of CBT. Furthermore, cognitions of helplessness and problem solving ability did not seem to change significantly over time in the TAU condition. Therefore, it seems that CBT emphasises these important risk factors and possible mediators of treatment effect. Targeting both cognitions of helplessness and problem solving difficulties might have made the intervention especially effective. Despite these generally positive findings, several limitations of this study deserve comment. A primary limitation is that the instrument used in the present study to assess the number of episodes of DSH during the last three months does not have well established psychometric properties. Validated instruments that cover the number of episodes of DSH as well as other aspects of DSH (e.g. circumstances of the act, motives, intent, consequences) were not available at the start of the project. A second limitation is the absence of an extended follow-up period. A longer followup period could clarify whether the positive treatment effects persist or even further develop over time. A follow-up period of 12 months would be advisable, because the risk of repetition of DSH (and completed suicide) is at its greatest during the first 12 months following an episode of DSH (Harriss & Hawton, 2005). A third limitation is the way in which usual treatment was specified. We recorded three
74
hoofdstuk 4.indd 74
10-03-2008 10:10:48
forms of such treatment: psychotropic medication, psychotherapy and psychiatric hospitalisations. We can conclude that both conditions received a comparable level of care within these general categories of treatment. However, we did not record specific types of psychotherapy or psychotropic medication in the TAU condition. Therefore, it is unclear if the conditions were equivalent in this respect. Future studies should record specific types of usual treatment received by people in the experimental and comparison condition. Furthermore, the effect of CBT was only demonstrated in relation to TAU. Therefore, it is unclear whether the treatment effects are attributable to specific ingredients of the CBT or to the total package of the CBT in addition to TAU. Moreover, since people in the TAU group did not always receive psychotherapy, it is conceivable that the treatment effects in the CBT group were non-specific. In addition, 52% of the patients in CBT continued with psychotherapy or started with psychotherapy after the DSH intervention had ended. Future research is necessary to identify variables that mediate treatment effects (e.g. specific cognitions) and to detect the active ingredients of the CBT (e.g. identifying and modifying suicidal cognitions) (Kraemer, Wilson, Fairburn, & Agras, 2002). A fourth limitation is the low recruitment rate (45%) and the relatively high rate of withdrawal from the CBT condition (17%), in which 8 patients left prior to treatment. However, session attendance of those who began the CBT was high. Furthermore, other studies also report that adherence to treatment is a well known problem among DSH patients, because of the severity of their psychological distress and the wide range of problems they face (e.g. social, financial, housing) (Berk, Henriques, Warman, Brown, & Beck, 2004). Importantly, the recruitment and withdrawal rates in this study did not exceed rates reported in similar studies. A fifth limitation concerns treatment integrity in the CBT condition. Treatment integrity could have been more systematically assessed by rating audio- or videotapes of the treatment sessions. Furthermore, the assessments were not carried out masked to treatment group, which might have influenced outcome. A sixth limitation is the way study withdrawals were handled. MLA uses all available data, but assumes that withdrawals occur at random, which is questionable in this population. As the assumption of randomness is unlikely, we also executed and reported the results with missing data estimated with the LOCF method (n=90). Both that analysis (n=90) and the analysis without the 8 withdrawals (n=82) led to a significant effect of Time X Condition. A significant effect of CBT for DSH was also observed in the completers sample (n=73). The true effect of the CBT is probably somewhere between the conservative LOCF method (n=90) and the more optimistic analysis without the 8 withdrawals (n=82). Remarkably, the LOCF method showed the strongest effect of CBT for DSH, which is contrary to our expectations. A further limitation is that the presence of personality disorders was not assessed
75
hoofdstuk 4.indd 75
10-03-2008 10:10:49
chapter 4
with a structured clinical interview. The presence of borderline personality disorder or a range of personality disorders is likely to have an impact on treatment outcome. A previous study showed that personality disturbance has an impact on repetition of DSH, patients with borderline personality disorder being most likely to repeat episodes quickly (Tyrer et al., 2004). Furthermore, with the absence of data on personality disorders, it remains unclear whether the study population has similar Axis II diagnoses as the patients described in the studies of Tyrer et al. (2003) and Linehan et al. (2006). However, patients in the present study strongly endorsed maladaptive beliefs associated with personality disorders, especially borderline and avoidant beliefs (Slee, Spinhoven, Garnefski, & Arensman, 2008), to a greater extent than patients with borderline personality disorder (Arntz, Dietzel, & Dreessen, 1999), which can be seen as an indication for the presence of personality disturbance. The high rate of repetition of DSH found in this study seems to confirm this. A last limitation is that this study primarily involved young females with Dutch nationality. This absence of diversity limits the generalisability of findings. In sum, our findings extend the evidence that CBT is effective in patients with chronic and recurrent DSH (Brown et al., 2005; Linehan et al., 2006). The results of the study are strengthened by the consistency of the results across several outcomes. Adding this short cognitive-behavioural intervention to usual care may provide us with an important tool to prevent repetition of DSH in people who are at risk. It might, for instance, be the first intervention in a stepped-care program, in which DSH is addressed first, followed by a treatment focusing on underlying personality characteristics, such as Schema Focused Therapy (Young, 1994) or Mentalization Based Treatment (Bateman & Fonagy, 2004). Replication of these findings using a longer follow-up period and more insight into underlying mechanisms of change is necessary.
In all models Time was included as a variable with values 0, 3, 6 and 9; Condition, Medication Use, Psychotherapy and Suicidal Acts were all included as dummy variables (condition: 0= TAU and 1=CBT; medication use: 0= no medication and 1= medication; psychotherapy: 0= no psychotherapy and 1=psychotherapy; 0=no suicidal acts and 1=suicidal acts).
2 In MLA the most commonly used estimation method is maximum likelihood. For this method it is necessary to assume normality for the dependent variable. The distribution of DSH does not satisfy the normality assumption. However, all conclusions are based on the interpretation of fixed effects. Simulation results (Hox, 2002; Maas & Hox, 2004) show that with the sample size in this study estimates of fixed effects and their standard errors are not seriously affected by non-normality of the residuals. Moreover, a comparison between the maximum likelihood standard errors and the so called robust standard errors, used as a tool to assess model misspecifications, showed that results for DSH can be considered reliable and can be interpreted correctly.
76
hoofdstuk 4.indd 76
10-03-2008 10:10:49
77
hoofdstuk 4.indd 77
10-03-2008 10:10:49
chapter 5
hoofdstuk 5.indd 78
04-03-2008 12:10:05
Emotion Regulation as Mediator of Treatment Outcome in Therapy for Deliberate Self-Harm
Nadja Slee, Philip Spinhoven, Nadia Garnefski, & Ella Arensman
Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, in press
hoofdstuk 5.indd 79
05-03-2008 16:38:19
chapter 5
Abstract
This study presents the outcomes of mediator analyses as part of a randomized controlled trial of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT) for young people who engage in Deliberate Self-Harm (DSH). The study involved 90 people, aged 1535 years, who were randomly assigned to CBT in addition to treatment as usual or to treatment as usual only. The findings showed that changes in DSH were partially mediated by changes in emotion regulation difficulties, particularly difficulties with impulse control and goal-directed behaviour. In addition, the potential mediating role of symptoms of depression, anxiety and suicidal cognitions was examined. Although the CBT intervention significantly reduced depression, anxiety and suicidal cognitions, these measures of symptom severity did not play a mediating role. These findings suggest that interventions for DSH should not primarily focus on mental disorders associated with DSH, but be DSH-specific and target specific emotion regulation difficulties.
Introduction
Emotion regulation has a central role in theories of Deliberate Self-Harm (DSH) (Linehan, 1993). The conceptualization of emotion regulation used here (see Gratz & Roemer, 2004) emphasizes the functional nature of emotional responses, with emotion dysregulation referring to maladaptive responses to emotions. Specifically, Gratz and Roemer (2004) broadly define emotion regulation as the awareness, understanding, and acceptance of emotions, as well as the ability to control behaviour in the context of emotional distress. Several lines of research have provided evidence consistent with the emotional dysregulation hypothesis for DSH. First, descriptive studies consistently show that compared with psychiatric and nonpsychiatric control participants, DSH patients (often diagnosed with borderline personality disorder) score significantly higher on self-report measures tapping emotion regulation difficulties, including lower emotional awareness and clarity(Leible & Snell, 2004; Levine, Marziali, & Hood, 1997; Slee, Garnefski, Arensman, & Spinhoven, 2008), lower acceptance of emotions (Slee et al., 2008), and difficulty controlling behaviour when experiencing negative emotions (Yen, Zlotnick, & Costello, 2002; Leible & Snell, 2004; Slee, et al., 2008). Furthermore, these patients make greater use of avoidant emotion regulation strategies (Bijttebier & Vertommen, 1999). A limitation is that these studies rely on self-report measures only, which may have resulted in underreporting or overreporting of emotion regulation difficulties. Second, an experimental investigation of distress tolerance among patients with borderline personality disorder revealed an unwillingness to experience unpleasant
80
hoofdstuk 5.indd 80
05-03-2008 16:38:19
emotions (Gratz, Rosenthal, Tull, Lejuez, & Gunderson, 2006), which is consistent with a recent theoretical model that describes the primary function of DSH as the avoidance of unpleasant emotions (Chapman, Gratz, & Brown, 2006). However, this study involved a small and homogenous sample of participants without mood disorders, limiting the generalisability of the results. Further support for the emotion regulatory function of DSH comes from research among female members of a Dutch DSH support organization. This study shows that negative emotions are highest immediately before the episode of DSH, drop markedly after, and increase again one day after the episode of DSH, while the reversed pattern is observed for positive emotions (Kamphuis, Ruyling, & Reijntjes, 2007). Although these findings are consistent with the emotional dysregulation hypothesis for DSH, the study sample is a self-selected group of support seeking females with DSH and borderline personality disorder. In addition, the study draws on introspection and retrospective self-report. Finally, during a 24 hour naturalistic psychophysiological ambulatory monitoring approach it was found that patients diagnosed with borderline personality disorder reported more negative emotions, fewer positive emotions, and a greater intensity of negative emotions than healthy controls (Ebner-Priemer et al., 2007). In a second study it was found that these patients, on average, took little time to fluctuate from a positive mood to a negative mood, which suggests affective instability (EbnerPriemer, Kuo et al., 2007). Affective instability is the feature of borderline personality disorder most strongly related to DSH. However, Stone et al . (2004) argue that the retrospective assessment of mood fluctuation, as demonstrated in the study of EbnerPriemer, Kuo et al. (2007), is problematic. Furthermore, the ambulatory monitoring studies only assess emotional experience and do not ask participants to report daily life stressors during the monitoring. As a result, we do not know if the participants exhibit heightened sensitivity to discrete stimuli and respond more intensively to events than controls (as would follow from Linehans theory of emotional dysregulation). Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for DSH is based on a theoretical model which assumes that vulnerability to DSH can be changed by changing emotion regulation deficits (Linehan, 1993; Slee, Arensman, Garnefski, & Spinhoven, 2007). Treatment is directed at developing emotion regulation skills for coping with situations that trigger DSH, and modifying cognitions and behaviour that interfere with effective emotion regulation. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for DSH are limited and their results are inconsistent. A RCT of brief CBT versus usual care showed that brief CBT was of limited efficacy in reducing DSH (Tyrer et al., 2003), whereas a RCT of Cognitive Therapy (CT) reported favourable outcomes with regard to the number of suicide attempts, depression severity and thoughts of hopelessness (Brown et al., 2005). The BOSCOT trial evaluated the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of CBT for suicidal patients with borderline personality disorder (Davidson et al., 2006; Palmer
81
hoofdstuk 5.indd 81
05-03-2008 16:38:19
chapter 5
et al., 2006). Compared with patients in the TAU group, patients assigned to CBT were
less likely to attempt suicide (Davidson et al., 2006). A RCT of Schema-Focused Therapy among patients with borderline personality disorder also reported positive outcomes with regard to the number of episodes of DSH (Giesen-Bloo et al., 2006). To date, Dialectical Behavioural Therapy is the only CBT intervention studied in more than one RCT and has consistently been found to reduce self-injury in (female) patients with borderline personality disorder (Linehan et al., 2006). Furthermore, a recent RCT showed that DSH patients who received CBT in addition to usual care had significantly greater reductions in DSH, suicidal cognitions, symptoms of depression and anxiety and significantly greater improvements in self-esteem and problem solving ability than controls (Slee, Garnefski, van der Leeden et al., 2008). However, as the evidence supporting the efficacy of CBT for DSH accumulates, there are no studies investigating the mechanism of action of CBT. Understanding the mechanisms through which CBT operates would advance the development of innovative treatment strategies. Identifying mechanisms of change promises not only to improve treatment but also to enhance understanding of the nature of DSH. If a treatment has its effects by influencing a particular process, this finding points to the importance of this process in the maintenance of the disorder. Analysing these mechanisms therefore also provides an indirect test of the theoretical model of mechanisms maintaining the disorder. On the basis of contemporary psychological theories of DSH, it makes sense to ask whether the changes resulting from CBT are mediated by changes in emotion regulation difficulties. The main objective of the present study was to investigate whether changes in specific emotion regulation difficulties in DSH patients treated with CBT indeed mediated treatment outcome. Considering the targets of CBT, it was expected that difficulties with impulse control, difficulties with goal-directed behaviours, lack of awareness of emotions and nonacceptance of emotions would be the most important mediators of treatment outcome. Few empirical studies have examined the association between particular aspects of emotion regulation difficulties and DSH. One study found that none of the correlations between DSH and aspects of emotion regulation differed significantly from one another (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). However, this study involved a non-clinical population of college students. In another study, a clinical group of young women who harmed themselves was compared with a group of young women without a history of DSH across various aspects of emotion regulation. Controlling for depression severity, nonacceptance of emotions independently predicted DSH (Slee, Garnefski, et al., 2008). Given the sparse empirical evidence on particular emotion regulation difficulties and DSH, our expectations of mediation are largely based on the targets of CBT. We expected four aspects of emotion
regulation to mediate treatment change: difficulties with impulse control, difficulties
82
hoofdstuk 5.indd 82
05-03-2008 16:38:20
engaging in goal-directed behaviours, lack of awareness of emotions and nonacceptance of emotions. In addition to these specific hypothesis, we explored the possible mediating role of lack of clarity of emotions and of limited access to emotion regulation strategies. Finally, we investigated the possible mediating role of symptom severity (depression, anxiety and suicidal cognitions). The hypothesis that the effects of CBT on DSH would be mediated by changes in specific emotion regulation difficulties was tested in accordance with the approach advocated by Baron and Kenny (1986). According to Baron and Kenny, a variable may be called a mediator to the extent that it accounts for the relation between the predictor and the criterion (Baron & Kenny, 1986, p. 1176). Figure 1 illustrates the Baron and Kenny approach. The first model shows the direct effect of the treatment condition on DSH (C). The second model represents mediation: C is the direct effect of the treatment condition on DSH after controlling for the mediator. The results reported here are from a clinical trial that examined the outcome of CBT on DSH (Slee, Garnefski, van der Leeden, et al., 2008). We perform the mediator analyses using the baseline and 9-month follow-up data from this trial in order to test whether change in specific emotion regulation difficulties predicts reduction of DSH at 9-months follow-up in those who received CBT in addition to treatment as usual (TAU) compared with TAU only.
Figure 1. Model of mediated intervention effects. Dotted lines indicate that the mediator variable was controlled for. = change
Condition C
DSH
Mediator A Condition C B DSH
83
hoofdstuk 5.indd 83
05-03-2008 16:38:20
chapter 5
Method
Patients and Procedure In order to be eligible, patients had to meet the following criteria: having recently engaged
in DSH and being aged 15-35. Patients were excluded if they reported severe psychiatric disorders requiring intensive inpatient treatment, were unable to converse in Dutch, had cognitive impairments, or lived outside the region of Leiden. Participants were recruited from March 2003 through April 2006 at the Leiden University Medical Centre and the local Mental Health Centre Rivierduinen. Those who agreed to participate and were found to be eligible for the study (n=90) were randomly assigned to 12 sessions of CBT in addition to TAU (n=48), or to TAU only (n=42). These participants were invited for subsequent assessments 3, 6 and 9 months following the baseline interview. For the present article, the baseline and 9-month follow-up measurements were used. Our analyses were based on the intent-to-treat sample (n=90). At baseline, there were no missing data. At 9-month follow-up, data were missing for 17 patients, all study withdrawals. Of the 17 participants who left the study, 8 left the study right after the baseline interview and 9 patients left during the course of the study. For each individual, missing values were replaced by the last observed value of that variable (using the socalled LOCF-method). To control for the impact of missing data and the use of the LOCF-
method on the mediation analyses, we performed the analyses both in the intent-to-treat sample (n=90) and in the completers sample (n=73). The completers sample consisted of the sample of 90 patients minus the 8 early withdrawals and the 9 patients who left during the course of the study. A complete description of the flow of participants through the study is given elsewhere (Slee, Garnefski, van der Leeden et al., 2008). Measures Demographics During a structured clinical interview demographic information was obtained regarding age, gender, living situation, marital status, educational level, job status and nationality. Outcome: DSH The primary outcome measure of the study was the number of episodes of DSH in the past 3 months, which was assessed using a structured clinical interview. DSH was defined as including both deliberate self-poisoning (overdose) and deliberate self-injury (Hawton, et al., 2003). An overdose was defined as the deliberate ingestion of more than the prescribed or recommended amount of chemical substances with the intention of self-harm. Patients were also asked about incidents of deliberate self-injury, which was
84
hoofdstuk 5.indd 84
05-03-2008 16:38:20
defined as intentional self-injury, irrespective of the apparent purpose of the act, and included cutting, scratching, punching, kicking and head-banging. In this definition, both the original parasuicide definition of the WHO/Euro study and their current nomenclature of fatal and nonfatal suicidal behaviour is included, as well as habitual behaviours and self-injuries with no intent to die. In line with the definition of the WHO/Euro study, DSH associated with mental retardation is excluded (De Leo et al., 2004; Schmidtke et al., 2004). Thus, all behaviour that was self-initiated with the intent to harm the body (regardless of intent to die) is included. The study does not distinguish between suicidal acts and self-injury. Emotion regulation difficulties as proposed mediators of treatment outcome The Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (DERS) (Gratz & Roemer, 2004) contains six dimensions of emotion regulation wherein difficulties may occur, including (a) Lack of Awareness of Emotional Responses (e.g., I pay attention to how I feel = reverse-scored item), (b) Lack of Clarity of Emotional Responses (e.g., I have difficulty making sense out of my feelings), (c) Nonacceptance of Emotional Responses (e.g., When Im upset, I feel ashamed with myself for feeling this way), (d) Limited Access to Emotion Regulation Strategies Perceived as Effective (e.g., When Im upset, I believe that there is nothing I can do to make myself feel better), (e) Difficulties Controlling Impulses when Experiencing Negative Emotions (e.g., When Im upset, I feel out of control), and (f) Difficulties Engaging in Goal-Directed Behaviours when Experiencing Negative Emotions (e.g., When Im upset, I have difficulty concentrating). All questions are self-rated from 1 (almost) never to 5 (almost) always. Scores on the subscales range from 5-25 (Clarity, Goals), from 6-30 (Awareness, Nonacceptance) and from 7-35 (Impulses, Strategies). All of the DERS subscales have adequate internal consistency, with alpha reliabilities of .80 or higher for each subscale (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). In this study we also found alpha reliabilities of .80 or higher for each subscale: .82 for Lack of Awareness, .87 for Lack of Clarity, .83 for Nonacceptance, .85 for Limited Strategies, .90 for Difficulties Controlling Impulses, and .80 for Difficulties Goals. Symptom severity (depression, anxiety and suicidal cognitions) as proposed mediators of treatment outcome Depression was measured with the Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II) (Beck, Steer & Brown, 1996): a 21-question depression scale with each answer rated 0-3. Scores range from 0-63. The test has high internal consistency with an alpha reliability of .91 (Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996; Beck, Steer, Ball, & Ranieri, 1996). In this study we found an alpha reliability of .93. Anxiety was measured with the Symptom Checklist-90 (Derogatis, Lipman & Covi,
85
hoofdstuk 5.indd 85
05-03-2008 16:38:21
chapter 5
1973; Arindell & Ettema, 1986), which is a self-report clinical rating scale of psychiatric symptomatology. It consists of 90 items in total, with 10 items for the subscale anxiety, 5point Likert, ranging from not at all distressing (0) to extremely distressing (4). Scores of this subscale range from 0-40. Previous studies have reported alpha-coefficients ranging from .71 to .91 for the anxiety subscale. In addition, test-retest reliabilities were found to be good and the subscale showed strong convergent validity with other conceptually related scales (Arrindell & Ettema, 1986). In this study we found an alpha reliability of .93 for the anxiety subscale. Suicidal cognitions were measured using the Suicide Cognition Scale (Rudd et al., 2001): 20 questions about core beliefs of Perceived Burdensomeness (I am a burden to my family), Helplessness (No one can help solve my problems), Unlovability (I am completely unworthy of love) and Poor Distress Tolerance (When I get this upset, it is unbearable), with each answer rated 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Scores on the total scale range from 20-100. Scores on the subscale Perceived Burdensomeness (2 items) range from 2-10, scores on the subscale Helplessness (5 items) range from 5-25, scores on the subscale Unlovability (6 items) range from 6-30 and scores on the subscale Poor Distress Tolerance (7 items) range from 7-35. In this study we found an alpha reliability of .96 for the total scale, of .74 for Perceived Burdensomeness, of .88 for Helplessness, of .90 for Poor Distress Tolerance and of .89 for Unlovability.
Treatment interventions Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy Intervention (CBT-condition) In addition to usual care (e.g. psychotropic medication, psychotherapy or psychiatric hospitalisations), participants in the CBT condition were to receive 12 outpatient CBT sessions specifically developed for preventing repeated DSH. Ten out of 12 sessions were given weekly; the last two sessions were follow-up sessions. Altogether, the intervention lasted 5.5 months. The central feature of this intervention was the identification and modification of the mechanisms that maintained the individuals self-harming behaviour. Thus, the treatment started with the assessment of the most recent episode of DSH. The therapist then specified how emotional, cognitive and behavioural factors played a role in the maintenance of DSH. Specific maintenance factors that were addressed included dysfunctional cognitions, emotion regulation difficulties and poor problem solving. Changing emotion regulation difficulties involved interventions geared toward mindfulness, acceptance and exposure with response prevention. Towards the end of therapy relapse prevention was addressed as well. A manual was written to standardize the intervention (available on request). All therapists were experienced practitioners of CBT and were experienced in working with patients who engage in DSH. Prior to taking part in the research project, they
86
hoofdstuk 5.indd 86
05-03-2008 16:38:21
received two days of training in the standardized protocol. At monthly meetings, the treatment sessions were reviewed and therapists could share their experiences with their colleagues. Treatment As Usual (TAU) Comparison Condition For ethical reasons, participants in this group were free to pursue any treatment they deemed warranted. Most of the interventions involved a limited number (between 2 and 30) of sessions of individual psychotherapy such as CBT and interpersonal psychotherapy. Social skills training was also common, especially among adolescents and young adults. No treatment specific to DSH was reported. These treatments focused on specific psychiatric problems (e.g. depression) or on other needs of the patient (e.g. problems with housing, finances, social isolation). In addition to psychosocial interventions, the majority of the patients received psychotropic medication. The number of psychiatric hospitalisations was also recorded. Data Analyses We examined baseline differences between patients in CBT and TAU in demographic characteristics, DSH, symptom severity, and emotion regulation difficulties using ttest analyses for continuous variables and chi-square tests for categorical variables. In addition, we examined differences in DSH, symptom severity and emotion regulation at 9-month follow-up between patients in CBT and TAU, using t-tests. Pearson correlations were calculated to examine the relationships between the subscales of emotion regulation difficulties and DSH, as well as symptom severity and DSH. The hypothesis that the effects of CBT on DSH would be mediated by changes in specific emotion regulation difficulties was tested in accordance with approach advocated by Baron and Kenny (1986). Baron and Kenny (1986) proposed a four step approach in which several regression analyses are conducted. First, treatment condition should predict change in the outcome (Path C). Second, treatment condition should predict change in the proposed mediator (Path A). Third, change in the mediator should be significantly associated with change in the outcome in the CBT condition (Path B). Fourth, the effect of treatment condition on change in the outcome should be attenuated when change in the mediator is statistically controlled (Path C) (see Figure 1). Separate linear regression analyses were used to examine mediation. In these analyses, corrections were made for the baseline scores of DSH and the proposed mediators by calculating residualized change scores. Residualized change scores are the 9-month follow-up scores after statistically correcting for any baseline differences on this measure using linear regression analysis.
87
hoofdstuk 5.indd 87
05-03-2008 16:38:21
chapter 5
Results
Group comparisons at baseline and 9-month follow-up Of the 90 patients, 93% were female. Their mean age was 24.2 years (SD=5.6), 92% had the Dutch nationality, 71% lived alone and 74% were unmarried. In addition, 29% went to school or studied, 24% had a full-time or part-time job and 38% lived on social welfare benefits. There were no significant differences between the CBT condition and TAU condition with regard to these demographics. Table 1 contains the means and standard deviations for DSH, symptom severity and emotion regulation difficulties in both groups at baseline and 9-month follow-up. T-tests showed no significant baseline differences on DSH, measures of symptom severity and measures of emotion regulation difficulties, except for lack of awareness of emotions, which was significantly more often reported in CBT than in TAU (t =2.99, df=88, p=.004) (see Table 1). The baseline difference in lack of awareness of emotions was controlled for at 9-month follow-up. Furthermore, at 9-month follow-up, significant group differences were found for all study variables, with patients in CBT reporting significantly lower scores of DSH, measures of emotion regulation difficulties and measures of symptom severity
(see Table 1). Pearson correlations between DSH and emotion regulation difficulties Correlations between subscales ranged between .01 (lack of clarity and DSH) and .72 (difficulties controlling impulses and difficulties with goals) (see Table 2). Contrary to our expectations, positive correlations were found for DSH and only half of the DERSsubscales: lack of awareness, limited access to strategies and difficulties with goaldirected behaviours. Pearson correlations between DSH and symptom severity measures Correlations between subscales ranged between .19 (DSH and suicidal cognitions) and .74 (depression and suicidal cognitions) (see Table 3). Pearson correlations between emotion regulation variables and DSH at 9-month follow-up Correlations between subscales ranged between .13 (lack of clarity and DSH) and .86 (difficulties with impulse control and difficulties with goal-directed behaviours) (see Table 4). Positive correlations were found between DSH and all of the DERS-subscales, except for lack of clarity.
88
hoofdstuk 5.indd 88
05-03-2008 16:38:21
Table 1. Means and standard deviations at baseline and 9-month follow-up for the treatment outcome and proposed mediators
CBT (n=42)
TAU (n=48)
CBT (n=42)
TAU (n=48)
baseline Variable M(SD) M(SD) Outcome DSH 14.63(10.49) 11.32(11.34)
9-month follow-up M(SD) M(SD)
2.06(6.04)
5.39(8.70)*
Proposed mediators: emotion regulation difculties (DERS-subscales) Lack of awareness of emotions Lack of clarity of emotions Nonacceptance of emotions Limited strategies Difculties impulse control 21.39(4.60) 17.59(4.02) 20.92(5.04) 22.63(5.60) 25.45(6.11) 18.34(5.07)* 16.71(5.24) 20.88(5.18) 23.59(6.03) 26.56(6.80) 19.76(3.65) 16.67(5.91) 12.98(5.21) 14.37(6.17) 15.98(6.85) 17.98(8.51) 14.82(5.52) 19.12(4.33)* 16.20(4.58)* 19.49(6.17)** 22.78(7.50)** 25.41(8.17)** 19.02(4.63)**
Difculties goal-directed behaviours 19.41(3.54)
Proposed mediators: symptom severity Depression (BDI-II) Anxiety (SCL-90) Suicidal Cognitions (SCS) * = p<.05; ** = p<.01; 32.53(16.13) 29.84(8.51) 58.61(14.12) 34.24(13.97) 28.27(10.55) 62.90(19.56) 14.33(13.70) 20.65(7.94) 40.29(18.61) 30.12(16.27)** 28.02(10.57)** 56.76(18.98)**
Table 2. Pearson correlations between the number of episodes of DSH at baseline and emotion regulation in DSH patients (n=90)
DSH DSH Lack of awareness of emotions Lack of clarity of emotions Nonacceptance of emotions Limited strategies Difculties impulse control Difculties goal-directed behaviours * Correlation is signicant at the .05 level (2-tailed) **Correlation is signicant at the .01 level (2-tailed) _____ Aware .29* _____ Clarity .01 .35** _____ Nonaccept. .19 .19 .34** ______ Strategies .23* .10 .25* .48** ______ Impulses .10 .08 .53** .40** .53** ________ Goals .17** .05 .26* .48** .55** .72** ______
89
hoofdstuk 5.indd 89
05-03-2008 16:38:22
chapter 5
Table 3. Pearson correlations between the number of episodes of DSH at baseline and measures of symptom severity (depression, anxiety and suicidal cognitions) in DSH patients (n=90)
DSH DSH Depression (BDI-II) Anxiety (SCL-90) Suicidal Cognitions (SCS) * Correlation is signicant at the .05 level (2-tailed) **Correlation is signicant at the .01 level (2-tailed) _____ Depression .28** _________ Anxiety .26* .53** _______ Suicidal Cognitions .19 .74** .51** ________________
Table 4. Pearson correlations between the number of episodes of DSH at 9-month followup and emotion regulation difficulties in DSH patients (n=90)
DSH DSH Lack of awareness of emotions Lack of clarity of emotions Nonacceptance of emotions Limited strategies Difculties impulse control Difculties goal-directed behaviours * Correlation is signicant at the .05 level (2-tailed) **Correlation is signicant at the .01 level (2-tailed) _____ Aware .30 _____ Clarity *.13 .62** _____ Nonaccept. .31** .54** .62** ______ Strategies .31** .57** .64** .81** ______ Impulses .27* .47** .71** .76** .81** ________ Goals .30** .47** .58* .75** .82** .86** ______
Effects of treatment on treatment outcome (DSH) (Mediation TestStep 1)

To test whether treatment condition predicted change in outcome (Path C), we used a linear regression analysis with treatment condition as the predictor variable (coded 0 for TAU and 1 for CBT) and the residual change score of DSH (which is the DSH score at 9month follow-up corrected for any baseline differences on this measure at baseline) as the outcome variable. Treatment condition predicted change in DSH at 9-month assessment (standardized =-.298, p=.004). Thus, the first requirement for mediation was fulfilled.
Effects of treatment on the proposed mediators (Mediation TestStep 2)

To determine whether treatment condition (coded 0 for TAU and 1 for CBT) predicted change in the mediators (Path A), we used separate regression analyses with condition as the predictor variable and the residualized change score of each of the proposed mediators (emotion regulation difficulties and symptom severity) as the outcome variable.
90
hoofdstuk 5.indd 90
05-03-2008 16:38:23
Treatment condition predicted change in emotion regulation difficulties at 9-month assessment:lack of awareness (standardized =-.383, p<.001), lack of clarity (standardized =-.438, p<.001), nonacceptance of emotions (standardized =-.398, p<.001), limited strategies (standardized =-.439, p<.001), difficulties with impulse control (standardized =-.419, p<.001) and difficulties engaging in goal-directed behaviours (standardized =.387, p<.001). In addition, treatment condition predicted symptom severity: depression (standardized =-.523, p<.001), anxiety (standardized =-.444, p<.001) and suicidal cognitions (standardized =-.410, p<.001). Thus, the second requirement for mediation was fulfilled.
Relationship between change in the proposed mediators and change in outcome (Mediation TestStep 3)
The analyses of Step 3 were performed with the data of the patients who had received the CBT intervention. The data of the patients who received TAU only were not included in these analyses. To determine whether the residualized change scores of the mediators correlated with the residualized change score of DSH (Path B), we used separate linear regression analyses for each of the proposed mediators. Change in difficulties with impulse control predicted change in DSH (standardized =.285, p=.047). Change in difficulties engaging in goal-directed behaviours also predicted change in DSH (standardized =.319, p=.026). However, the other emotion regulation difficulties subscales did not predict change in DSH: lack of awareness (standardized =.206, p=.157), lack of clarity (standardized =.100, p=.492), nonacceptance of emotions (standardized =.231, p=.111) and lack of strategies (standardized =.207, p=.153). Furthermore, the residualized change scores of the measurements of symptom severity did not predict change in DSH either: depression (standardized =.018, p=.900), anxiety (standardized =-.006, p=.966) and suicide cognitions (standardized =.117, p=.423). Thus, the third requirement for mediation was only fulfilled for difficulties controlling impulses and for difficulties engaging in goaldirected behaviours.
Effects of treatment on DSH after controlling for the effects of the proposed mediators (Mediation TestStep 4)
To assess whether the predictive effects of condition on the outcome DSH (Path C) were significantly reduced when the mediator was statistically controlled (Path C), we used separate regression analyses for difficulties with impulse control and difficulties engaging in goal-directed behaviours. The residualized change score of DSH was entered as the dependent variable. The residualized change scores of the proposed mediators (difficulties with impulse control or difficulties engaging in goal-directed behaviours) and treatment condition (coded 0 for TAU
91
hoofdstuk 5.indd 91
05-03-2008 16:38:23
chapter 5
and 1 for CBT) were entered as predictor variables. Results are presented in Figure 2. Results indicated that the change in DSH was mediated by the change in difficulties with impulse control; condition was no longer a significant predictor of change in DSH (standardized =.208, p=.06) whereas difficulties with impulse control remained significant (standardized =.216, p=.05). The entire mediation model accounted for 12.8% of the change in DSH. However, the difference between C (standardized = -.298) and C (standardized =.208) is small (see Figure 2). The results also indicated that change in DSH was mediated by change in difficulties engaging in goal-directed behaviours; condition was no longer a significant predictor of DSH (standardized =-.196, p=.07) whereas difficulties engaging in goal-directed behaviours remained significant (standardized =.264, p=.02). The entire mediation model accounted for 14.9% of the change in DSH. As for difficulties with impulses, the difference between C (standardized = -.298) and C (standardized =-.196) for difficulties engaging in goal-directed behaviours is small (see Figure 2). The above analyses are based on the intent-to-treat sample (n=90). Analyses with the completers sample (n=73) led to similar results for each of the four steps of Baron and Kenny (1986).
Figure 2. Path models of mediated intervention effects with DSH and two of the DERSsubscales: difficulties with impulse control and difficulties with goal-directed behaviours. Dotted lines indicate that the mediator variable was controlled for. = change
Dotted lines indicate that the mediator variable was controlled for. = change
Condition C = -.298**
DSH
Condition C = -.298**
DSH
Impulses A = -.419*** Condition C =-.208 B = .216* DSH A = -.387*** Condition
Goals B = .264* DSH C =-.196
* = p<.05; ** = p<.01; *** = p<.001
92
hoofdstuk 5.indd 92
05-03-2008 16:38:24
Discussion
Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for DSH seems to be an effective intervention for DSH
as shown in previous studies (Brown et al., 2005; Linehan et al., 2006; Slee et al., 2008). Despite the demonstrated efficacy of CBT for DSH, very little is known about the mediating variables that lead to the reduction of DSH. What mediates treatment in this time-limited CBT? The theoretical model of DSH predicts that emotion regulation difficulties are important mediators of treatment change (Slee, Arensman et al., 2007). Consistent with the mediation hypothesis, our findings show that change in difficulties with impulse control and change in difficulties engaging in goal-directed behaviours partially mediate reduction in DSH. However, although the observed effects formally satisfy the Baron and Kenny conditions for partial mediation, the effects of the mediators are small. This suggests that the mediators are not a sufficient or necessary condition for the treatment effect to occur. Furthermore, only two of the four emotion regulation variables that were expected to mediate change were found to mediate treatment effect. Clearly, there is a need for further testing. Nevertheless, reduction of impulse control difficulties and difficulties engaging in goal-directed behaviours (partially) mediated change. These findings seem to suggest that these specific aspect of emotion regulation could be relevant targets of treatment. The process of CBT might involve the modulation of emotional arousal, reducing impulsivity and facilitating behaviour that is in accordance with desired goals (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). Although the CBT intervention consisted of a number of different therapeutic elements to target emotion regulation difficulties, only difficulties with impulse control and difficulties with goal-directed behaviours were found to partially mediate treatment effect. These findings might suggest that the primary focus of the CBT had been on the ability to control behaviour in the context of emotional distress, and not so much on the awareness and acceptance of emotions. The high rate of repetition of self-harm found in the present study sample might have asked for greater use of interventions focusing on behavioural control. Awareness and acceptance of emotions might constitute a worthwhile treatment focus when patients are no longer in crisis. For example, Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy is aimed at relapse prevention of DSH when patients are no longer acutely depressed (Williams, Duggan, Crane, & Fennell, 2006). Future studies could compare an intervention similar to the CBT intervention of the present study with a mindfulness-based intervention in order to investigate whether the effectiveness of CBT and mindfulnessbased interventions can be attributed to different underlying mechanisms. Besides these findings on specific emotion regulation difficulties, there are some other results that deserve attention. Although the CBT intervention significantly reduced depression, anxiety and suicidal cognitions, these measures of symptom severity did not
93
hoofdstuk 5.indd 93
05-03-2008 16:38:24
chapter 5
play a mediating role. Before the introduction of DSH-specific treatments such as Dialectical
Behaviour Therapy (Linehan, 1993; Miller, Rathus, & Linehan, 2007) and Cognitive Therapy for suicidal patients (Berk et al., 2005), DSH was treated indirectly by treating associated mental disorders, such as depression (Miller et al., 2007). Since the CBT intervention in the present study focused on emotion regulation difficulties associated with repetition of DSH and not on depressive or other disorders, the results of this study seem to indicate that a treatment focusing on emotion regulation difficulties can be used successfully to reduce symptom severity as well as DSH. These findings are consistent with DSH-specific therapies, suggesting that reduction of DSH can best be established by addressing emotion regulation difficulties. However, when interpreting these results, it must be taken into account that six variables representing emotion regulation and only three variables assessing symptom severity were tested. Therefore, the likelihood of chance positive findings was much higher for the first group of variables than for the second. Future studies might include an equal number of each group of variables to rule out the possibility of chance positive findings. According to the theoretical ideas presented in the introduction, DSH is due to deficits in emotion regulation. Surprisingly, however, the correlations reported in Table 2 show that only half of the emotion regulation variables assessed were significantly related to DSH at baseline and correlations were rather small. Interestingly, difficulties with impulse control, one of the variables found to partially meet criteria for mediation, did not show a significant correlation with DSH at all. This raises the question whether this variable can be regarded as a mediator for the reduction in DSH if it is not related to DSH at baseline. The lack of significant correlations is a challenge to the underlying theoretical model. The results might suggest that emotion regulation difficulties are correlated with DSH in the general population or general clinical samples, but do not specifically predict the severity of DSH in samples that all show high levels of DSH. The fact that there are significant correlations between DSH and emotion regulation difficulties post-treatment may be consistent with this view as there is a greater variance in DSH at this stage. It is also important to discuss the possible role of third variables. There are a number of variables that might explain some of the treatment effects, such as DSM-IV axis II diagnoses and dose and type of treatment received as part of TAU. However, in the present study, the presence of personality disorders was not assessed with a structured clinical interview. Therefore, personality disorders can not be ruled out as a third variable. With regard to dose and type of treatment received as part of TAU, previous analysis showed that both conditions received a comparable level of psychotherapy, psychotropic medication and psychiatric hospitalisations in TAU (see Slee et al., 2008). However, we did not record specific types of psychotherapy or psychotropic medication in TAU. Therefore, it is unclear if the conditions were equivalent in this respect and whether TAU has influenced the mediator analyses.
94
hoofdstuk 5.indd 94
05-03-2008 16:38:24
Given the limitations of the present study, there is a need for more studies on the same emotion regulation variables. If future studies will replicate these findings and find stronger evidence for specific mediators, it might be interesting to follow the advice of Kraemer et al. (2002) and develop treatment enhanced in those components associated with the mediators to see whether we can identify the active ingredients of the intervention (e.g. teaching emotion regulation skills). The benefits of uncovering mechanisms of change would be considerable. Although this CBT intervention is based on the theoretical assumption that a reduction in DSH is the result of changes in emotion regulation difficulties, other mechanisms of change may also be at work. For instance, Michel and Valach (2001) suggest that a shared mechanism underlying effective treatments of DSH is a strong therapeutic alliance, which allows for a meaningful discourse about DSH, whereas Bateman and Fonagy (2004) point to the importance of enhancement of mentalization (i.e., the ability to understand and reflect upon ones own and others internal states and their relationship to behaviours). Given the CBTs emphasis on a strong therapeutic alliance as well as on understanding emotions, either of these may be mechanisms of change of the present CBT intervention. Future research may clarify the exact underlying mechanisms. There are also some other limitations that deserve attention. First, it remains unclear whether the mediation effects would also have been found in individuals who were excluded from the study. In addition, the study primarily involved young females of Dutch nationality and with a history of chronic DSH. This absence of diversity limits the generalisability of findings. Second, the study does not distinguish between suicidal acts and self-injury. Therefore, it is unclear if different mediators can be found for these behaviours. Third, session-by-session assessment of emotion regulation difficulties might have given more insight in maintaining factors of DSH. In addition, more frequent assessments would have allowed us to perform a mediation analysis along the lines of Kraemer et al. (2002). Finally, although the proposed mediators were all measured by reliable and valid self-report questionnaires, their assessment could have been improved by using experimental tests of emotion regulation in addition to self-reports. In conclusion, a manualised time-limited CBT intervention for DSH changes difficulties with goal-directed behaviours and difficulties with impulse control, which partially mediate reduction in DSH. Furthermore, since depression, anxiety and suicidal cognitions did not seem to play a mediating role, there is further evidence for DSH-specific interventions aimed at decreasing emotion regulation difficulties. However, since the mediation effects are small, there is a need for further testing.
95
hoofdstuk 5.indd 95
05-03-2008 16:38:25
chapter 6
hoofdstuk 6.indd 96
04-03-2008 12:10:50
Childhood Abuse Predicts Psychopathology and Treatment Outcome in Deliberate Self-Harm Patients
Nadja Slee, Philip Spinhoven, Nadia Garnefski, & Ella Arensman
Manuscript submitted for publication
hoofdstuk 6.indd 97
02-03-2008 22:19:51
chapter 6
Abstract
The objective of the study was to examine the association of childhood abuse with psychopathology and the impact of childhood abuse on treatment outcome in Deliberate Self-Harm (DSH) patients. The study involved 90 DSH patients, aged 1535 years, who were randomly assigned to 12 sessions of cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) in addition to treatment as usual (TAU) or to TAU only. Assessment of childhood abuse showed that 47% of the patients had a history of physical abuse, 46% had a history of sexual abuse and 29% had a history of combined physical and sexual abuse. Those with a history of childhood physical abuse, sexual abuse and combined abuse showed the most severe psychological and psychiatric problems at baseline. Despite the more severe initial impairment, individuals with a history of abuse responded equally well to the CBT intervention. However, the results also indicate that participants with sexual abuse in their past reduced their DSH to a significantly greater extent in the CBT condition compared to the TAU only condition. The results suggest the need to address emotion regulation difficulties and problem solving deficits for this subgroup of DSH patients. CBT seems to be the best choice for DSH patients with extensive abuse histories.
Introduction
Early traumatic experiences tend to have long-lasting negative effects on psychological well-being (Herman, 1992). In particular, there seems to be a clear link between abuse in childhood and Deliberate Self-Harm (DSH) during adolescence and adulthood (see Evans, Hawton, & Rodham, 2005 for a review). The term Deliberate Self-Harm includes deliberate self-poisoning and deliberate self-injury (Hawton, Zahl, & Weatherall, 2003). Childhood physical and violent sexual abuse seem to pose the greatest risk of future DSH (Joiner et al., 2007), and people with histories of combined physical and sexual abuse have been found to exhibit the most severe symptomatology (Ryan, Watanabe, Hoyt, Kilmer, & Cauce, 2000). The relationship between physical and sexual abuse and DSH persists when controlling for other adverse childhood experiences (Ystgaard, Hestetun, Loeb, & Mehlum, 2004) and the effects of psychiatric disorders (Enns et al., 2006). These findings suggest that a history of childhood abuse is an important aetiological factor in DSH as well as an important clinical characteristic. There is an extensive body of research on the possible consequences of childhood abuse among DSH patients. Childhood abuse is associated with repetition of DSH (Forman, Beck, Brown, Berk, & Henriques, 2004), alcohol and drug abuse (Favaro, Ferrara, & Santonastaso, 2007), intimate partner violence (Seedat, Stein, & Forde, 2005), depression,
98
hoofdstuk 6.indd 98
02-03-2008 22:19:51
hopelessness, anger and low self-esteem (Osvath, Vrs, & Fekete, 2004), high levels of dissociation (Low, Power, Duggan, Jones, & MacLeod, 2000), reduced memory specificity (Sinclair, Crane, Hawton, & Williams, 2007) and maladaptive beliefs (Arntz, Dietzel, & Dreesen, 1999). Despite the strong impact of childhood abuse among DSH patients, very few studies have examined whether the presence of a history of abuse limits an individuals response to treatment. Two studies found that although DSH patients with a history of abuse had more severe initial impairment, they benefited equally well from treatment (Pettigrew & Burcham, 1997; Arnold et al., 2003). A third study found that a history of sexual abuse predicted poor treatment outcome 7 years after the index episode of DSH (Sderberg, Kullgren, & Salander Renberg, 2004). However, the relationship between a history of abuse and treatment outcome for DSH has never been studied in a randomized controlled clinical trial. As a consequence, it remains unclear whether a history of abuse is a predictor of the course of DSH in general or a predictor of the outcome of a specific treatment in particular. The present study focused on the relationship between abuse history, level of symptoms and treatment outcome among 90 DSH patients who had participated in a randomized controlled trial of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT) (Slee, Garnefski, van der Leeden, Arensman, & Spinhoven, 2008). The first objective of the study was to examine the frequency of different types of childhood abuse in the study population. The second objective was to examine whether group differences existed between patients with a history of childhood abuse and non-abused patients with regard to psychopathology, including DSH, depression, anxiety, dissociation, maladaptive beliefs and psychiatric diagnoses. A further objective was to examine whether group differences existed between patients with different subtypes of childhood abuse. The third objective was to examine whether DSH patients with a history of childhood abuse responded equally well to treatment compared to patients without abuse histories. If individuals with abuse histories have unique problems at baseline that predict poor outcome on repetition of DSH, such findings are likely to have important clinical and research implications.
Method
Patients and procedure In order to be eligible, patients had to meet the following criteria: having recently engaged in DSH and being aged 15-35. DSH was defined as including both deliberate self-poisoning (overdose) and deliberate self-injury (Hawton, Zahl, & Weatherall, 2003). An overdose was defined as the deliberate ingestion of more than the prescribed or recommended amount
99
hoofdstuk 6.indd 99
02-03-2008 22:19:51
chapter 6
of chemical substances with the intention of self-harm. Deliberate self-injury was defined as intentional self-injury, irrespective of the apparent purpose of the act (e.g. suicide, relief from pain, punishment of self/others), and included cutting, scratching, punching, kicking, and head-banging (not related to mental retardation). In this definition, both the original parasuicide definition of the WHO/Euro study and their current nomenclature of fatal and nonfatal suicidal behaviour is included, as well as habitual behaviours and self-injuries with no intent to die. In line with the definition of the WHO/Euro study, DSH associated with mental retardation is excluded (De Leo et al., 2004; Schmidtke et al., 2004). Thus, all behaviour that was self-initiated with the intent to harm the body (regardless of intent to die) was included. Patients were excluded if they reported severe psychiatric disorders requiring intensive inpatient treatment, were unable to converse in Dutch, had cognitive impairments, or lived outside the region of Leiden. Participants were recruited from March 2003 through April 2006 at the Leiden University Medical Centre and the local Mental Health Centre Rivierduinen. During their visit to one of these centres they had received a brochure with a complete description of the study. In this brochure it was announced that they would be contacted by a member of the research team, who would provide further information on the study and would ask if they were interested to participate. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and from parents of adolescents below the age of 16 years. After they had given written consent, they were interviewed in their home or at the medical centre (all within two weeks from the index episode). Those who agreed to participate and were found to be eligible for the study (n=90) were randomly assigned to 12 sessions of CBT in addition to TAU (n=48), or to TAU only (n=42). These participants were invited for subsequent assessments 3, 6 and 9 months following the baseline interview. In CBT, 8 patients dropped out just after the initial interview and before the start of treatment. However, all patients who started with the CBT completed all sessions. In TAU, 9 patients dropped out during the study period of 9 months. A complete description of the flow of participants through the study is given elsewhere (Slee et al., 2008). Our analyses were based both on the intent-to-treat sample (n = 90) and completers sample (n=73). The study was approved by the local ethics committee. Measures Demographics and psychiatric diagnosis During a structured clinical interview demographic information was obtained, as well as information on psychiatric diagnosis, which was assessed using a short structured diagnostic interview with an administration time of approximately 20 to 30 minutes: the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI, Sheehan & Lecrubier, 1992, 1994, 1998). In this study the Dutch translation of the clinician rated (CR) version of the
100
hoofdstuk 6.indd 100
02-03-2008 22:19:51
MINI (van Vliet, Leroy, & Van Megen, 2000) was used. Validation of the MINI-CR against the Structured Clinical Interview DSM-III-R- patient version (SCID-P) and the Composite International Diagnostic Interview for ICD-10 (CIDI) showed good to very good kappa values (Sheehan & Lecrubier, 1998). Psychological problems: DSH, depression, anxiety, dissociation and maladaptive beliefs DSH was assessed using a structured clinical interview. At each of the four assessments, patients were asked whether they had engaged in DSH during the past 3 months. Assessment of DSH included not only the number of episodes in the past 3 months, but also suicide intent and motives, the antecedent events or stressors (e.g. argument with parents or partner), pre-act behaviour (e.g. drinking or using drugs, resisting urges, degree of planning, warning others), and post-act behaviour and consequences (e.g. shame, regret, relief). For the purpose of the present study, only the number of episodes of DSH is used. To investigate the reliability of the assessment of the number of episodes of DSH, the retrospective self-reports were compared with hospital records, as well as with information coming from the treatment sessions. The correlations between the three measures were high, ranging from .88 to .90. Depression was also assessed at each of the four assessments. It was measured with the Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II) (Beck, Steer & Brown, 1996): a 21-question depression scale with each answer rated 0-3. Scores range from 0-63. The test has high internal consistency with an alpha reliability of .91 (Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996; Beck, Steer, Ball, & Ranieri, 1996). In this study we found an alpha reliability of .93. Anxiety was measured at each of the four assessments with the Symptom Checklist90 (Derogatis, Lipman & Covi, 1973; Arindell & Ettema, 1986), which is a self-report clinical rating scale of psychiatric symptomatology. It consists of 90 items in total, with 10 items for the subscale anxiety, 5-point Likert, ranging from not at all distressing (0) to extremely distressing (4). Scores of this subscale range from 0-40. Previous studies have reported alpha-coefficients ranging from .71 to .91 for the anxiety subscale. In addition, test-retest reliabilities were found to be good and the subscale showed strong convergent validity with other conceptually related scales (Arrindell & Ettema, 1986). In this study we found an alpha reliability of .93 for the anxiety subscale. Dissociation was measured at each of the four assessments using the Dissociative Experiences Scale Taxon (DES-T; Waller, Putnam, & Carlson, 1996), which is a self-report questionnaire that consists of 8 of the 28 items of the original DES scale (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986; Dutch version by Boon & Draijer, 1995): 3, 5, 7, 8, 12, 13, 22 and 27. These items are thought to identify pathological dissociation (Waller et al., 1996). For each of the DES-T items, respondents were asked to indicate the percentage of the time (ranging from 0% to 100%) that they experience a specific phenomenon (e.g., Feeling as though ones
101
02-03-2008 22:19:52
chapter 6
body is not ones own). The range of scores is 0 to 80. The DES has very good validity and reliability, and good overall psychometric properties (Carlson & Putnam, 1993; Carlson et al., 1993). In this sample, we found an alpha reliability of .89 for the DES-T. Maladaptive beliefs were assessed at baseline and at 9-month assessment using the Personality Disorder Belief Questionnaire (PDBQ, Dreessen, Arntz & Weertman, 1996) that contains 12 subscales of 20 beliefs, each hypothesized to be typical for the 12 DSM-IV personality disorders. The beliefs are partly formulated on the basis of the work of Beck et al. (2004) and partly on the basis of the authors own clinical experience with patients with personality disorders. The beliefs have to be rated on a 100-mm Visual Analogue Scale in terms of strength of belief. Item ratings are expressed in millimetres, with a higher score meaning stronger belief in the formulated statement (minimum score = 0, maximum score = 100). Because the assessment time was limited, we measured only six subscales corresponding to the most frequently diagnosed personality disorders in this population: Borderline (e.g. Ill never get what I want), Paranoid (e.g. Others will try to use me or manipulate me if I dont watch out), Obsessive-Compulsive (e.g. It is important to do a perfect job on everything), Histrionic (I should be the center of attention), Dependent (Im helpless when Im left on my own), and Avoidant (e.g. If people get close to me, they will discover the real me and reject me). PDBQ-subscales have good internal consistencies, with alpha reliabilities ranging from .83 to .96 (Weertman, Arntz, Schouten & Dreessen, 2005). In our study we found an alpha reliability of .93 for Borderline, of .96 for Paranoid, .93 for Obsessive-Compulsive, .90 for Histrionic, .93 for Dependent and .95 for Avoidant. Childhood abuse Childhood abuse was assessed at baseline using the Stressful and Traumatic Events Questionnaire (STEQ), developed and validated by Kerkhof, Barnasco, Bille-Brahe, Platt and Schmidtke (1989) and Arensman (1997). It was designed as part of the EPSIS WHO/ EURO Multicentre Study. The questionnaire examined different experiences during three distinct periods: childhood and early adolescence (< 15 years), late adolescence and adulthood (> 15 years) and during the 12 months prior to the episode of DSH. The questionnaire consists of96 items concerning stressful and traumatic events as well as more subjective experiences. For the purpose of this study, the list of items was reduced to 8 traumatic events: physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect, losses of significant others, physical and psychiatric disorders of family members and other stressful events such parental divorce. In this study, the focus is on the potential moderating role of childhood physical, sexual and emotional abuse before the age of 15, as well as on combined physical and sexual abuse. With regard to physical abuse, patients were asked if someone had beaten you or punished you with a hard object. With regard to sexual
102
02-03-2008 22:19:52
abuse, patients were asked if someone had sexual intercourse with you when you did not want to. With regard to emotional abuse, patients were asked if someone had yelled at you or said insulting or hurtful things to you. For a question to be given a positive rating, detailed information concerning the abuse had to be provided. Treatment interventions Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy Intervention (CBT-condition) In addition to usual care (e.g. prescribed medication or psychotherapy), participants in the CBT condition were to receive 12 outpatient CBT sessions specifically developed for preventing repeated DSH. Ten out of 12 sessions were given weekly; the last two sessions were follow-up sessions. All together, the intervention lasted 5.5 months. The central feature of this intervention was the identification and modification of the mechanisms that maintained the individuals self-harming behaviour. Thus, the treatment started with the assessment of the most recent episode of DSH (e.g. circumstances at the time of the episode, motives and reasons for DSH, cognitions, emotions and behaviour prior to and at the time of the episode). The therapist then specified how emotional, cognitive and behavioural factors played a role in the maintenance of DSH. Specific maintenance factors that were addressed included dysfunctional cognitions, emotion regulation difficulties and poor problem solving. Towards the end of therapy relapse prevention was addressed as well. A manual was written to standardize the intervention (available on request). In order to improve treatment compliance, therapists played an active role in keeping patients in treatment (e.g. calling patients to remind them of appointments). All therapists were experienced practitioners of CBT and were experienced in working with patients who engage in DSH. Prior to taking part in the research project, they received two days of training in the standardized protocol. To maintain the integrity of treatment, the therapists followed this treatment manual. In addition, checklists and outlines were used in every session to foster correct execution of the treatment. At monthly meetings, the treatment sessions were reviewed and therapists could share their experiences with their colleagues. Recurrent issues that were discussed were reactions in the therapist elicited by episodes of DSH (e.g. worry, aversion) and problems with treatment compliance. Treatment As Usual (TAU) Comparison Condition For ethical reasons, participants in this group were free to pursue any treatment they deemed warranted. Most of the interventions involved a limited number (between 2 and 30) of sessions of individual psychotherapy such as cognitivebehavioural therapy
and interpersonal psychotherapy. Social skills training was also common, especially among adolescents and young adults. No treatment specific to DSH was reported. These
103
02-03-2008 22:19:52
chapter 6
treatments focused on specific psychiatric problems (e.g. depression) or on other needs of the patient (e.g. problems with housing, finances, social isolation). In addition to psychosocial interventions, the majority of the patients received prescribed psychotropic medication. The number of psychiatric hospitalisations was also recorded. Data analysis To examine the frequency of childhood emotional, sexual, physical, or combined physical as reported at baseline, descriptive statistics were used. To examine whether differences existed between CBT and TAU in the reporting of these different types of abuse, chi-square tests were performed. To examine whether DSH patients with a history of abuse significantly differed from DSH patients without a history of abuse on separate baseline psychiatric diagnoses and on total number of psychiatric diagnoses, respectively chi-square tests and a t-test were performed. Differences between the abuse and no-abuse groups (CBT+TAU) in repetition of DSH, depression, anxiety, dissociation or maladaptive beliefs were tested by means of Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA). The relationship of DSH at 9month follow-up with childhood abuse was analysed with separate hierarchical multiple regression analyses both in the intent-to-treat (n = 90) and completers sample (n = 73).
Results
Demographic characteristics at baseline The CBT group consisted of 48 patients (96% females) with a mean age of 23.1 years (SD=6.3), 92%(n=44) had the Dutch nationality, 69% (n=33) lived alone and 70% (n=34) were unmarried. In addition, 42% (n=20) went to school or studied, 23% (n=11) had a fulltime or part-time job and 38% (n=18) lived on social welfare benefits. Of these patients, 79% (n=38) reported 10 or more previous episodes of DSH (self-poisoning and/or selfinjury). With regard to the index episode of DSH, 85% (n=41) reported self-poisoning and 15% (n=7) reported self-injury. The TAU group consisted of 42 patients (91% females, n=38) with a mean age of 25.5 years (SD=4.5). 93% (n=39) had the Dutch nationality, 74 % (n=31) lived alone and 78% (n=33) were unmarried. In addition, 19% (n=8) went to school or studied, 27% (n=11) had a full-time or part-time job and 36% (n=15) lived on social welfare benefits. Of these patients, 70% (n=30) reported 10 or more previous episodes of DSH (self-poisoning and/or self-injury). With regard to the index episode of DSH, 91% (n=38) reported self-poisoning and 9% (n=4) reported self-injury. There were no significant differences between the CBT condition and TAU condition with regard to these demographics. Prevalence of childhood abuse as reported at baseline
104
02-03-2008 22:19:52
As can be seen in Table 1, a substantial proportion of the patients reported childhood abuse (<15 years): 47% (n= 42) of the patients suffered from physical abuse, 46% (n=41) suffered from sexual abuse and 29% (n=26) of the patients had a history of combined physical and sexual abuse. Since emotional abuse was found among almost all patients (96%, n=86), this variable was excluded from further analysis. There were no significant differences between the CBT condition and TAU condition with regard to the reporting of sexual, physical or combined abuse.
Table 1. History of childhood abuse as reported at baseline in CBT and TAU groups: Chi tests
CBT (n=48) Childhood Physical Abuse Childhood Sexual Abuse Combined Abuse 45.8% (n=22) 45.8% (n=22) 29.2% (n=14)
TAU (n=42) 47.7% (n=20) 45.2% (n=19) 28.6% (n=12)
Chi .029 .003 .004
p .87 .96 .95
Clinical comparisons at baseline for patients with and without childhood abuse Table 2 presents the baseline data concerning psychiatric diagnoses and psychiatric comorbidity of DSH patients with a history of sexual, physical or combined abuse (CBT+TAU) and DSH patients without a history of abuse (CBT+TAU). Frequencies of psychiatric diagnoses were much higher for abused DSH patients than for non-abused DSH patients. Looking at specific subtypes of childhood abuse, chi-square tests revealed that patients with a history of abuse, whether it was physical abuse, sexual abuse or combined abuse, significantly more often fulfilled the criteria for PTSD than non-abused patients. T-tests revealed that patients with sexual abuse, physical abuse and combined abuse also had a significantly higher number of different psychiatric diagnoses than patients without a history of abuse. Furthermore, it is important to note that there were no significant differences between patients with a history of sexual, physical or combined abuse. In addition, individuals in CBT and TAU did not differ with regard to psychiatric co-morbidity or any of the specific psychiatric diagnoses. Table 3 presents the baseline differences concerning DSH, depression, anxiety, dissociation and maladaptive beliefs between DSH patients with and without an abuse history (CBT+TAU). Considering the F tests (and post hoc LSD tests) associated with the MANOVAs for these variables, abused patients had significantly higher baseline scores on number of DSH acts as reported at baseline, depression, anxiety and dissociation as well as on most of the maladaptive beliefs compared with non-abused patients. Patients
105
02-03-2008 22:19:52
chapter 6
with a history of combined physical and sexual abuse had the highest scores of all groups. However, the post-hoc LSD tests revealed no significant differences between patients with a history of sexual, physical or combined abuse. Furthermore, it is important to note that individuals in CBT and TAU did not differ at baseline with regard to DSH, depression, anxiety, dissociation and maladaptive beliefs, with the exception that individuals in CBT reported significantly more dependent beliefs (t=2.101, df=80, p=.04).
Table 2. Childhood abuse and psychiatric diagnoses: Chi tests (separate diagnoses) and t-test (total number of diagnoses)
Sexually Abused1 (n=39)

Physically Abused2 (n=39)

59% (n=23) PTSD* 33.3% (n=13) Panic Disorder 10.3% (n=4) Social Phobia 5.1% (n=2) OCD 7.7% (n=3) GAD 46.2% (n=18) Major Depression 25.6% (n=10) Dysthymia 15.4% (n=6) Hypomania 10.3% (n=4) Bipolar Disorder 17.9% (n=7) Bulimia Nervosa 22.9% (n=9) Anorexia Nervosa 17.9% (n=7) Alcohol Dependence 5.1% (n=2) Alcohol Abuse 5.1 % (n=2) Substance Abuse 5.7% (n=2) Psychotic Disorder 2.9% (n=1) Somatoform Disorder
Combined Abuse3 (n=25)

60% (n=15) PTSD* 40% (n=10) Panic Disorder* 16% (n=4) Social Phobia 4% (n=1) OCD 4.3% (n=1) GAD 52% (n=13) Major Depression 28% (n=7) Dysthymia 12% (n=3) Hypomania 4% (n=1) Bipolar Disorder 24% (n=6) Bulimia Nervosa 13% (n=3) Anorexia Nervosa 26.1% (n=7) Alcohol Dependence 8.7% (n=2) Alcohol Abuse 8% (n=2) Substance Abuse 5.3% (n=1) Psychotic Disorder 8 % (n=2) Somatoform Disorder
No Childhood Abuse (n=33)

12.1% (n=4) PTSD 18.2% (n=6) Panic Disorder 9.1% (n=3) Social Phobia 3% (n=1) OCD 3% (n=1) GAD 39.4% (n=13) Major Depression 30.3% (n=10) Dysthymia 3% (n=1) Hypomania 3% (n=1) Bipolar Disorder 12.1% (n=4) Bulimia Nervosa 9.4% (n=4) Anorexia Nervosa 9.1% (n=3) Alcohol Dependence 6.1% (n=2) Alcohol Abuse No Substance Abuse 3% (n=1) Psychotic Disorder 3% (n=1) Somatoform Disorder
64.1% (n=25) PTSD* 35.9% (n=14) Panic Disorder 15.4% (n=6) Social Phobia 7.7% (n=3) OCD 7.7% (n=3) GAD (n=15) Major Depression 35.9% (n=14) Dysthymia 15.4% (n=6) Hypomania 2.6% (n=1) Bipolar Disorder 20.5% (n=8) Bulimia Nervosa 10.5% (n=4) Anorexia Nervosa 23.1% (n=9) Alcohol Dep. 5.3% (n=2) Alcohol Abuse 5.1% (n=2) Substance Abuse 2.6 (n=1) Psychotic Disorder 7.9% (n=3) Somatoform Disorder
38.5%
10.3% (n=4) Substance Dependence 17.9% (n=7) Substance Dependence 16% (n=4) Substance Dependence 9.1% (n=3) Substance Dependence
Total number of psychiatric diagnoses M=3.38 (SD=2.71)** *p<.05, **p<.01;

1 2 3
M=3.38 (SD=3.38)*
M=3.52 (SD=2.89)**
M=1.85 (SD=1.79)
Sexual Abuse versus No Childhood Abuse Physical Abuse versus No Childhood Abuse Combined Abuse versus No Childhood abuse
106
02-03-2008 22:19:53
Table 3. Means and standard deviations of DSH, depression, anxiety and maladaptive beliefs before treatment for individuals with and without a history of childhood abuse
Baseline Sexually abused1 (n=39) M(SD) DSH Depression Anxiety Dissociation Beliefs-total Subscales (range 0-100): Borderline Beliefs Paranoid Beliefs Obs. Comp. Beliefs Histrionic Beliefs Dependent Beliefs Avoidant Beliefs
*p<.05, **p<.01;
1 2 3
Baseline Physically abused2 (n=39) M(SD) 15.77(10.72)* 35.38(13.60)** 32.51(9.25)** 17.54(16.14)** 450.22(209.77)
Baseline Combined abuse3 (n=25) M(SD) 17.92(9.72)** 38.92(12.80)** 34.92(9.38)** 22.92(15.04)** 492.20(205.78)*
Baseline No childhood abuse (n=33) M(SD) 10.15(10.44) 26.15 (12.68) 23.09(8.15) 6.36(10.20) 350.36(220.98)
17.13(10.19)** 38.74 (11.46)** 34.15(8.37)** 18.56(14.89)** 477.15(182.87)*
94.08(38.08)** 80.72(44.17)** 75.92(37.71) 54.31(29.19)* 76.26(39.02)* 95.87(40.31)**
89.22(44.38)* 77.35(52.60)* 72.16(34.69) 51.59(31.42) 71.76(37.66) 88.14(45.26)
98.68(42.49)** 86.48(51.22)** 74.48(35.64) 56.76(31.67)* 79.64(39.87) 96.16(44.17)*
65.58(41.40) 49.70(45.37) 65.55(44.92) 39.27(34.18) 61.00(45.69) 69.27(46.35)
Sexual Abuse versus No Childhood Abuse Physical Abuse versus No Childhood Abuse Combined Abuse versus No Childhood abuse
9-month follow-up outcome of repetition of DSH The relationship of DSH at 9-month follow-up with childhood abuse was analysed with separate hierarchical multiple regression analyses both in the intent-to-treat (n=90) and completers sample (n=73). In all analyses DSH at baseline was forced into the equation in the first step and treatment condition in the second step. In the third step sexual abuse, physical abuse or combined abuse were forced into the equation, and in the last step the interaction of one of these forms of abuse with treatment condition. In none of the analyses evidence for multicollinearity was found. In the intent-to-treat sample DSH at baseline accounted for 13.5% of the variance in DSH at follow-up (F change (1.88) = 13.71, p < .001), while treatment condition explained an additional 7.9% of the variance (F change (1.87) = 8.73, p < .01). In none of the analyses were sexual abuse, physical abuse or combined abuse
107
02-03-2008 22:19:53
chapter 6
predictive of DSH at follow-up above and independent of DSH at baseline and treatment condition in the third step. However, the interaction of sexual abuse with treatment condition accounted for 4.7% of the variance in DSH above and independent of DSH at baseline: treatment condition and sexual abuse (F change (1.85) = 5.47, p < .05). In the final model only DSH at baseline (beta = .38, p < .001) and the interaction of sexual abuse with treatment condition (beta = -.38, p < .05) were independent significant predictors of DSH at follow-up (see Table 4). In the other multiple regression analyses, the interaction of physical abuse or combined abuse with treatment condition did not prove to be predictive of DSH at 9-month follow-up. Repeating these analyses in the completers sample yielded almost identical results. In these analyses the interaction of sexual abuse with treatment condition accounted for 5.2% of the variance in DSH scores at follow-up (F change (1.68) = 4.61, p < .05) in the fourth step of the regression analysis with DSH at baseline (beta= .40, p < .001) and the interaction of sexual abuse with treatment condition (beta = -.41, p < .05) being the only significant independent predictors in the final model. The effect size of the difference in residualized change scores for DSH between sexually abused participants from the CBT and TAU condition was very large (d = 1.2), while the magnitude of the difference in residualized change scores between non-sexually abused participants from both conditions was small (d = .17). These results indicate that participants with sexual abuse in their past in particular reduced their DSH to a significantly greater extent in the CBT condition compared to the TAU only condition.
Table 4. Summary of hierarchical linear regression analysis predicting deliberate self-harm (DSH) at 9-month follow-up on the basis of DSH at baseline, treatment condition, sexual abuse and the interaction of sexual abuse with treatment condition (n=90)
Variable Step 1 DSH at baseline Step 2 Treatment condition Step 3 Sexual abuse Step 4 Sexual abuse X condition * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p <.001 -.38 -2.34* .23 1.60 26.1 7.52*** 4.7 5.47* -.08 -.61 21.4 7.80*** .00 .04 .38 3.97*** 21.4 11.82*** 7.9 8.73** B t R2 13.5 F 13.71*** R2 13.5 F Change 13.71***
108
02-03-2008 22:19:53
Discussion
The results of this study highlight a number of important clinical points. Consistent with leading theories of DSH (Linehan, 1993), most patients in the study sample had a history of childhood abuse, with physical abuse and sexual abuse being reported by 47% and 46% of the patients and combined abuse being reported by 29% of the patients. These frequencies are higher than those found in an epidemiological study of suicide attempters that used the same methodology (Osvath et al., 2004), but lower than those found among patients diagnosed with borderline personality disorder (Arntz et al., 1999). The high frequency of childhood emotional abuse is in accordance with Linehans theory (Linehan, 1993), underlining the impact of lack of emotional validation of the child by caregivers in the aetiology of borderline personality disorder and DSH. Results show that DSH patients with a history of childhood abuse have multiple psychological and psychiatric problems. Compared to non-abused patients, abused patients had more severe DSH (looking at the number of episodes), depression, anxiety, dissociation and maladaptive beliefs, as well as higher levels of PTSD and psychiatric comorbidity. Those with a history of combined physical and sexual abuse had the highest scores on all measures, although the differences between the abuse subtypes were not significant. These findings partly confirm the results of a previous study showing that patients with histories of both physical and sexual abuse exhibit the most severe symptomatology, including depression, dysthymia and attempted suicide (Ryan et al., 2000). The commonality of the effects of physical and sexual abuse has been attributed to the shared elements of powerlessness, terror, betrayal, and overstimulation experienced in abusive environments (Wind & Silvern, 1992). Despite the more severe initial impairment, the CBT intervention was just as effective for individuals with a history of childhood physical, sexual abuse and combined abuse as for individuals without a history of abuse . These results are encouraging, suggesting the robustness of the intervention, which is consistent with the results of two previous studies (Pettigrew & Burcham, 1997; Arnold et al., 2003). The finding that individuals with a history of sexual childhood abuse had a poorer outcome on repetition of DSH following usual care may suggest that those with a history of sexual abuse have special needs. Indeed, compared with non-abused patients, these patients were found to have significantly more psychological and psychiatric problems, including trauma-related problems such as PTSD and dissociation. It has been argued that the most effective way of treating the severe and chronic problems of sexually abused patients is by using experiential techniques (e.g. imagery and role play) which are thought to enable patients to experience new views and emotions on what happened in the past (Arntz & Weertman, 1999). Since the CBT intervention in the present study focused on emotion regulation
109
02-03-2008 22:19:53
chapter 6
difficulties associated with repetition of DSH and not on exploring and reinterpreting memories of early childhood, the results of this study seem to indicate that a treatment focusing on current problems can also be used successfully in sexually abused DSH patients. Emotion regulation difficulties have been conceptualized as a relatively distinct feature of the consequences of childhood abuse that are supposed to derive from the abuses disruptive impact on the achievement of the developmental goals of emotion regulation and interpersonal relatedness (Van der Kolk, 1996). To influence the vulnerabilities in emotion regulation, the CBT intervention aimed to enhance emotional awareness, distress tolerance and problem solving skills. Learning to trust ones ability to cope with difficulties and feeling in control over ones life may be particularly important for sexually abused patients, who felt powerless at the time of the abuse. Better equipped to cope with daily stress, they no longer need to engage in maladaptive coping such as dissociation. A recent study in a non-clinical sample shows a direct relationship between a decrease in perceived stress and a decrease in dissociative phenomena (de Wachter, Pouw, Strubbe, Lange, & Vanderlinden, 2006). However, it is still unclear whether methods focusing on present emotion regulation difficulties have positive long-term effects for abused DSH patients. Future research may indicate whether methods focusing on the present are equally effective for abused DSH patients as methods directed at childhood trauma. The study has several limitations. First, given that this was a clinical sample, the findings may not be generalized to individuals with DSH in the community. For example, the prevalence of abuse may be higher and the level of psychological problems may be greater in a clinical sample. Second, despite solid empirical evidence for the instrument used to measure childhood abuse, retrospective reporting of childhood abuse raises concern about the accuracy of participant recall. In addition, patients may feel uncomfortable disclosing experiences of abuse. However, the interview was administered in the context of a broader interview which allowed rapport to be established and this might have facilitated the process of disclosure. Third, it is unclear whether the positive treatment effects are attributable to specific ingredients of the CBT or to the total package of the CBT in addition to TAU. Future research is necessary to identify variables that mediate treatment effects (e.g. specific emotion regulation difficulties) and to detect the active ingredients of the CBT (e.g. building emotion regulation skills) (Kraemer, Wilson, Fairburn, & Agras, 2002). Very few studies have examined whether the presence of a history of abuse limits an individuals response to treatment. Despite some limitations, this study found evidence that a time-limited CBT intervention that does not address abuse directly is not associated with more negative outcome in a population of DSH patients with a history of childhood abuse. CBT seems to be the best choice for DSH patients with extensive abuse histories.
110
02-03-2008 22:19:53
Additional analyses also showed that individuals differing in demographic, psychiatric and psycho logical characteristics equally benefited from the CBT.
111
02-03-2008 22:19:53
chapter 7
02-03-2008 22:26:01
The Influence of Cognitive Emotion Regulation Strategies and Depression Severity on Deliberate Self-Harm
Nadja Slee, Nadia Garnefski, Philip Spinhoven, & Ella Arensman
Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, in press
02-03-2008 22:26:01
chapter 7
Abstract
Elaborating on previous studies on emotion regulation and Deliberate Self-Harm (DSH), the present study distinguished between strategies of cognitive content (e.g., suicidal cognitions of Perceived Burdensomeness, Helplessness, Poor Distress Tolerance) and cognitive process (e.g., Nonacceptance of Emotional Responses, Lack of Awareness of Emotional Responses). Young women who harmed themselves (n=85) were compared with young women without a history of DSH (n=93) across a broad range of strategies. Significant group differences were found for all measures, even when depression severity was controlled for. In addition, logistic regression analyses showed that both cognitive content strategies and cognitive process strategies made significant independent contributions to the prediction of group membership. Controlling for depression severity, Suicidal Cognitions and Nonacceptance of Emotional Responses independently predicted DSH. The strong association between suicidal cognitions and DSH seems to indicate the important role of these cognitions in recurrent and chronic DSH. The strong association between nonacceptance of emotional responses and DSH underscores the notion that DSH can be a way to avoid emotional problems. These findings are discussed in relation to recent cognitive-behavioural interventions and specific therapeutic techniques to further insight into how these interventions might work.
Introduction
Deliberate Self-Harm (DSH) mainly occurs in the context of depressed mood or heightened arousal. In this context the persons mind is thought to rapidly become dominated by suicidal thinking, which increases the risk of DSH (Williams, Duggan, Crane, & Fennell, 2006). This seems to be especially true for individuals with a long history of DSH. In these individuals, an episode of DSH is often triggered internally (Rudd, 2004). It might have been a fleeting thought or image that triggered the episode. Helping a person to understand and monitor the process of internal triggering seems to be essential to effectively deal with future crises. Different therapeutic techniques can be used to help patients to get a better understanding of this process. In traditional Cognitive Behaviour Therapy cognitions are considered to be the central pathway to DSH. Hence, patients learn to identify and restructure specific suicidal thoughts (Rudd, Joiner, & Rajab, 2001), distorted thinking (e.g. overgeneralized and dichotomous interpretations) and irrational negative beliefs or schemas about themselves and the world (Alford & Beck, 1997; Young, Klosko, & Weishaar, 2003). In more recent cognitive-behavioural approaches such as Dialectical Behaviour
114
02-03-2008 22:26:02
Therapy, Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy patients learn to become aware of their thoughts and feelings, noticing the effects of negative thinking on the body and to explore this directly, rather then ruminating about or suppressing negative thoughts and feelings. Through this attitude of mindfulness and acceptance, patients are thought to become less avoidant and reactive to their thoughts and feelings, which may prevent repeated episodes of DSH occurring (Linehan, 1993; Hayes, Stosahl, & Wilson, 1999; Hayes, Follette, & Linehan, 2004; Williams et al., 2006). So, both traditional and modern cognitive-behavioural therapies seem to agree about the central role of cognitions in DSH. These therapies all look for ways to help patients to regulate their emotions through thoughts. In line with the distinction between more traditional and more recent cognitive-behavioural therapies, a distinction can be made between cognitive content and cognitive processes in DSH. First, cognitive content refers to thoughts and appraisals available to introspection and for self-report (Kendall & Ingram, 1989). Individuals who engage in DSH often report cognitions of hopelessness (e.g. Glanz, Haas, & Sweeney, 1995; McGee, Williams, & Nada-Raja, 2001), helplessness (Bancroft, Hawton, & Simkin et al., 1979; DZurilla, Chang, Nottingham, & Faccini, 1998), of being a burden to loved ones (Joiner et al., 2002; Brown & Vinokur, 2003), low self-esteem (McGee, Williams, & Nada-Raja, 2001; Grholt, Ekeberg, Wichstrm, & Haldorsen, 2005), self-criticism and self-blame (Donaldson, Spirito, & Farnett, 2000; Fazaa & Page, 2003; Garnefski, Kraaij, & Spinhoven, 2001), catastrophizing (Garnefski et al., 2001) and perfectionism (Donaldson et al., 2000). It has been argued that when mood deteriorates the mind of DSH patients becomes dominated by suicidal cognitions of unlovability, helplessness, poor distress tolerance and perceived burdensomeness: I am completely unworthy of love, Nobody can help me to solve my problems, I cant stand this pain anymore, I do not deserve to live (Rudd et al., 2001; Williams et al., 2006). These cognitions might attenuate the motivation to inhibit the urge to engage in DSH (Rudd et al., 2001). Second, with regard to cognitive processes, several aspects can be distinguished, such as the extent to which emotions are tolerated or accepted (Gratz & Roemer, 2004), the extent to which people are aware of their emotions (Gratz & Roemer, 2004) and the extent to which they engage in rumination (Garnefski, Teerds, Kraaij, Legerstee, & van den Kommer, 2004; Watkins & Teasdale, 2004). Preliminary findings suggest that lack of awareness of emotions and nonacceptance of emotions have predictive value for repeated DSH (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). Furthermore, rumination exacerbates depression (NolenHoeksema, 1991), increases the likelihood, severity and duration of depression (NolenHoeksema, 2002) and has been found to mediate the relationship between cognitive vulnerability and suicidal ideation (Smith, Alloy, & Abramson, 2006). However, a mindful, non-judgemental attitude towards depression related emotions, cognitions and bodily
115
02-03-2008 22:26:02
chapter 7
sensations is thought to prevent escalation of negative thoughts into suicidal thinking and repetition of DSH (Williams et al., 2006). Wells and Matthews (1994) describe a similar cognitive process called detached mindfulness. This type of processing is expected to facilitate the development of a metacognitive mode, in which thoughts are not seen as realities, but as mental events (Wells, 2002). The primary objective of the present study was to investigate the relationship between the use of different cognitive emotion regulation strategies and DSH in young women. More specifically, the cognitive content strategies and the cognitive process strategies used in a group of young women who engage in DSH were compared to those of young women without a history of DSH. The first goal was to focus on the extent to which group differences existed on these strategies. It was hypothesized that members of the clinical group would report higher scores on Suicidal Cognitions (helplessness, perceived burdensomeness, poor distress tolerance, unlovability), Self-Blame, Catastrophizing, Lack of Awareness of Emotions and Nonacceptance of Emotions, as most of the previous research showed relationships of these aspects with DSH (Donaldson et al., 2000; Garnefski et al., 2001; Rudd et al., 2001; Joiner et al., 2002; Gratz & Roemer, 2004). It was also expected that those who had not engaged in DSH would have higher scores on measures for positive Self-Concept and Positive Reappraisal, as most of the previous research had shown positive relationships of these strategies with a positive mood (Garnefski et al., 2001; McGee et al., 2001; Grholt et al., 2005). The differences were expected to hold when depression severity was controlled for. The second objective was to examine which of the cognitive emotion regulation strategies were relatively best able to distinguish between the groups. We studied the unique contribution of both cognitive content and cognitive process strategies in predicting DSH. It was expected that these cognitive strategies would account for a considerable amount of the variance and that Suicidal Cognitions (helplessness, perceived burdensomeness, poor distress tolerance, unlovability), Self-Blame and difficulties with emotion regulation (e.g. Nonacceptance of Emotions, Lack of Clarity of Emotions, Difficulty Controlling Impulses when Emotional) would be significantly related to clinical group membership, while a positive Self-Concept and Positive Reappraisal would be significantly related to the group without a history of DSH (Donaldson et al., 2000; Garnefski et al., 2001; McGee et al., 2001; Grholt et al., 2005). While looking for the strongest cognitive predictors of DSH we also controlled for depression severity, since these cognitions may fluctuate with negative mood but they may also represent a more trait-like vulnerability component consistent over time. By disentangling the influence of cognitions and depression, we hoped to gain a better understanding of the unique influence of cognitive emotion regulation on DSH, independent from and above the influence of depression severity.
116
02-03-2008 22:26:02
Method
Clinical group The present study is part of a larger study among 100 young people (age 15-35, 89% female) who had been referred to the Leiden University Medical Centre or mental health care centre in Leiden following an episode of DSH (Slee, Garnefski, van der Leeden, Arensman, & Spinhoven, 2008). DSH was defined as including both deliberate self-poisoning (overdose) and deliberate self-injury (Hawton, Zahl, & Weatherall, 2003), regardless of intent to die. Consent for participation was obtained from all participants and from parents of adolescents below the age of 16 years. Participants were interviewed in their home or at the local hospital within two weeks of the index episode. The present study focused on young women with DSH because a previous study in the area of Leiden had shown that the average rate of DSH among females aged 15-24 was quite high, with a rate of 179 per 100.000 (Arensman, Kerkhof, Hengeveld, & Mulder, 1995). For the purpose of the present study, individuals were excluded if they were male (n=10), decided not to participate (n=2), were unable to converse in Dutch (n=2), or were cognitively impaired (n=1), which brings the total number of women included in the study to 85 (mean age=24.0, SD=5.6). Most women had a long history of DSH. Two thirds reported ten or more previous episodes of DSH. The study had the approval of the ethics committee of the Leiden University Medical Centre. Comparison group of females without a history of DSH The comparison group of females without a history of DSH was recruited in three different schools for higher vocational training. Altogether, 123 female students were invited to participate in the research project. Those who agreed to participate were given a written questionnaire that they filled out during school hours (about 45 min in total), under supervision of a graduate psychology student and a teacher. The students were guaranteed anonymity in relation to their parents, teachers and fellow-students. Consent for participation was obtained from all the participants and from parents of adolescents below the age of 16 years. Twenty-two percent (n=27) reported having engaged in DSH in the past. These students were excluded from the study. Three more students decided not to participate, which brings the total number of students included in the comparison group to 93 (mean age=23.3 years, SD=8.3). Assessment measures For both groups demographic information was obtained. Any previous acts of DSH were also recorded. The participants completed a depression scale and several measures of cognitive content and cognitive process.
117
02-03-2008 22:26:02
chapter 7
Measure of depression severity Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II) (Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996): a 21-item depression scale with each answer rated 0-3. Scores range from 0-63. The BDI has high internal consistency with an alpha reliability of .91 (Beck et al., 1996; Beck, Steer, Ball, & Ranieri, 1996). In this study we found an alpha of .93 for the clinical group and an alpha of .80 for the comparison group. Measures of Cognitive Content (I) Suicide Cognition Scale (Rudd et al., 2001): 20 questions about core beliefs of Perceived Burdensomeness (e.g., I am a burden to my family), Helplessness (e.g., No one can help solve my problems), Unlovablity (e.g., I am completely unworthy of love) and Poor Distress Tolerance (e.g., When I get this upset, it is unbearable), with each answer rated 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Scores range from 20-100. No data have been published yet on the internal consistency of the scale. In the clinical group we found alpha reliabilities of .65 (Perceived Burdensomeness), .88 (Helplessness), .88 (Unlovability) and .90 (Poor Distress Tolerance). The alpha reliability for the total scale was .95. In the comparison group we found alphas of .67 (Perceived Burdensomeness), .79 (Helplessness), .87 (Unlovability) and .83 (Poor Distress Tolerance). The alpha reliability for the total scale was .93. Even the lowest value of .65 for Perceived Burdensomeness is still acceptable when the number of items (2) is considered. (II) Robson Self-Concept Questionnaire, Short version (Robson, 1989): an 8-item questionnaire dealing with attitudes and beliefs that people have about themselves (Im glad I am who I am). All items are self-rated from 1-4 (strongly disagree-strongly agree). Scores range from 8-32. The full scale has good validity and reliability (Robson, 1989). In the clinical group we found an alpha of .81. In the comparison group we found an alpha of .77. (III). Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ) (Garnefski, Kraaij, & Spinhoven, 2002b): a 36-question instrument to assess what people tend to think after the experience of stressful life events. Items are scored on a Likert-scale ranging from 1(almost) never to 5 (almost) always. The instrument includes nine scales. Based on previous research from Garnefski et al. (2001), three scales had been selected: Self-Blame (e.g., I feel that I am the one to blame for it), Positive Reappraisal (e.g., I think that the situation also has its positive sides), and Catastrophizing (e.g., I often think that what I have experienced is the worst that can happen to a person). Scores on the subscales range from 4-20. Research has shown that all subscales have good internal consistencies (Garnefski et al., 2002b). In a patient sample alpha reliabilities of .72 to .85 were found. In a late adolescent sample alpha reliabilities of .68 to .79 were found. In the clinical group we found alpha
118
02-03-2008 22:26:02
reliabilities of .73 to .92. In the comparison group we found alphas of .74 to .81. Measure of cognitive process Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (DERS) (Gratz & Roemer, 2004): 36 questions about difficulties in emotion regulation. It contains six dimensions of emotion regulation wherein difficulties may occur, including (a) Lack of Awareness of Emotional Responses (e.g., I pay attention to how I feel = reverse-scored item), (b) Lack of Clarity of Emotional Responses (e.g., I have difficulty making sense out of my feelings), (c) Nonacceptance of Emotional Responses (e.g., When Im upset, I feel ashamed with myself for feeling this way), (d) Limited Access to Emotion Regulation Strategies Perceived as Effective (e.g., When Im upset, I believe that there is nothing I can do to make myself feel better), (e) Difficulties Controlling Impulses when Experiencing Negative Emotions (e.g., When Im upset, I feel out of control), and (f) Difficulties Engaging in Goal-Directed Behaviours when Experiencing Negative Emotions (e.g., When Im upset, I have difficulty concentrating). All questions are self-rated from 1 (almost) never to 5 (almost) always. Scores on the subscales range from 5-25 (Clarity, Goals), from 6-30 (Awareness, Nonacceptance) and from 7-35 (Impulses, Strategies). All of the DERS subscales have adequate internal consistency, with alpha reliabilities of .80 or higher for each subscale (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). In the clinical group we found alpha reliabilities of .82 or higher for each subscale: .82 for Lack of Awareness, .88 for Lack of Clarity, .83 for Nonacceptance, .84 for Limited Strategies, .90 for Difficulties Controlling Impulses, and .82 for Difficulties Goals. In the comparison group we found alphas of .73 for Lack of Awareness, of .65 for Lack of Clarity, of .70 for Nonacceptance, of .68 for Limited Strategies, of .72 for Difficulties Controlling Impulses, and of .75 for Difficulties Goals. Data analysis Sociodemographic characteristics of the groups were examined using the t-test or chi-square test, as appropriate. To examine the extent to which the cognitive emotion regulation strategies were reported by the clinical and comparison group, means and standard deviations were calculated. Cohens d effect sizes were also calculated for all variables. Furthermore, to find out whether an overall multivariate difference existed in the reporting of cognitive strategies between the clinical and comparison group, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed, with and without depression severity as a covariate. Pearson correlations were calculated to examine the relationships between the measurements for emotion regulation and symptoms of depression among the two populations. To identify which of the variables made a unique contribution in distinguishing the two groups, four logistic regression analyses were performed: One with depression severity alone, one with cognitive content strategies, one with cognitive
119
02-03-2008 22:26:03
chapter 7
process strategies and one with depression severity and the significant cognitive strategies from the previous analyses.
Results
Differences in demographic characteristics between the clinical and comparison group Individuals in the clinical group did not differ from individuals in the comparison group with regard to age (t=.66, df=176, p=.51) living situation ( =6.23, df=5, p=.28) or educational level (=15.15, df=8, p=.06). Differences in reporting of cognitive emotion regulation strategies between the clinical and comparison group. To study the extent to which the cognitive strategies were reported by the clinical group and comparison group, means and standard deviations were calculated for both groups. The results are shown in Table 1 (measures of cognitive content) and 2 (measures of cognitive process). In these tables two F-values are given: the first is the F-value when depression severity is not taken into consideration (F), the second is the F-value when depression severity is used as a covariate (F cov.). Significant differences between the clinical and comparison group were found for all the measures of cognitive emotion regulation, even when depression severity was controlled for. Cohens ds are given here as well and they reflect large differences between the two groups (range: 0.53 2.93). Pearson correlations between the measures of cognitive content, cognitive process and depression severity among the clinical and comparison group Correlations between subscales ranged between -.008 (awareness and goals) and .81 (suicidal cognitions and depression) in the clinical group and -.001 (suicidal cognitions and self-blame) and .66 (impulses and strategies) in the comparison group (see Table 3 and 4). Prediction of clinical and comparison group membership: logistic regression analysis. When depression severity was entered in the first logistic regression analysis (method=enter), it yielded a significant model ( = 198.83, df =1, p < .001), explaining 67% of the variance (Cox & Snell R), correctly classifying 95% of the cases. In the second analysis, the five cognitive content strategies were entered as independent variables (method=stepwise). The model that resulted was significant ( = 220.39, df =3, p < .001), explaining 71% of the variance (Cox & Snell R), correctly classifying 96% of the cases.
120
02-03-2008 22:26:03
Table 1. Group differences on measures of cognitive content

Group BDI-II1 Suicidal Cognitions Self-Concept Self-Blame Positive reappraisal Catastrophizing clinical comparison clinical comparison clinical comparison clinical comparison clinical comparison clinical comparison **indicates signicance at .01 level
1
M (SD) 33.78 5.53 61.74 25.46 15.60 25.55 13.36 8.74 9.98 13.97 9.21 7.54 (13.31) (4.29) (16.70) (22.04) (3.87) (3.02) (4.01) (3.22) (3.64) (3.52) (3.67) (2.92)
F 376.12** 373.17** 373.08** 72.64** 55.42** 11.41**
Fcov.
Cohens d 2.93
200.96** 86.80** 19.68** 26.29** 16.12**
2.92 2.91 1.29 1.12 0.51
Beck Depression Inventory II
Table 2. Group differences on measures of cognitive process
Group Lack awareness Lack clarity Nonacceptance Limited strategies Difculties impulses Difculties goals clinical comparison clinical comparison clinical comparison clinical comparison clinical comparison clinical comparison
M (SD) 20.14 (5.04) 16.59 (4.49) 17.34 (4.59) 8.78 (2.84) 21.10 (5.09) 10.31 (3.76) 23.26 (5.84) 11.57 (3.38) 26.17 (6.17) 12.74 (4.16) 19.74 (3.50) 12.19 (4.09)
F 24.41** 225.09** 268.38** 265.46** 293.73** 178.936**
Fcov. 7.40* 22.00** 30.67** 75.35** 34.67** 24.492**
Cohens d 0.75 2.28 2.44 2.49 2.59 1.99
*indicates signicance at .05 level; ** indicates signicance at .01 level
121
02-03-2008 22:26:03
chapter 7
Table 3. Pearson correlations between cognitive content strategies and depression severity for clinical group (n=85: below diagonal) and comparison group sample (n=93: above diagonal)
BDI-II
SCS
SelfConcept
SelfBlame .03 -.001 -.11 _______ .16 -.20
Catastroph.
Positive Reappraisal
Beck Depression Inventory II Suicide Cognitions Scale Self-Concept Self-Blame Catastrophizing Positive reappraisal
______ .81** -.68** .43** .39** -,473**
.18 ______ -.71** .43** .40** -.49**
-.39** -.39** _______ -.48** -.33** .55**
.04 -.03 .06 .40** _________ -.18
-.20 -.15 .28** .42** .20 ________
*indicates signicance at .05 level; ** indicates signicance at .01 level
Table 4. Pearson correlations between cognitive process strategies and depression severity for clinical sample (n=85: below diagonal) and comparison group (n=93: above diagonal)
BDI-II Beck Depression Inventory II Lack of awareness Lack of clarity Nonacceptance Limited strategies Difculties impulses Difculties goals _____ .24** .32** .46** .59** .47** .47**
Aware .16 ______ .32** .15 .10 .02 -.008
Clarity .44** .40** _______ .33** .26* .48** .18
Nonaccept. .31** .12 .40** _______ .52** .40** .48**
Strategies .41** .28** .50** .53** ______ .56** .56**
Impulses .29** .03 .42** .44** .66** ______ .68**
Goals .37** -.20 .32** .37** .47** .66** _____
*indicates signicance at .05 level; **Correlation is signicant at the .01 level
Suicidal Cognitions, Self-Concept and Self-Blame appeared to have a significant, independent contribution to the prediction of group membership (see Table 5). In the third analysis, the six cognitive process strategies were entered as independent variables (method=stepwise), yielding a significant model too ( = 187.30, df =3, p < .001), explaining 66% of the variance, correctly classifying 99% of the cases. Lack of Clarity, Difficulties Controlling Impulses and Nonacceptance appeared to have a significant, independent contribution to the prediction of group membership (see Table 5). A fourth and final logistic regression analysis (method=stepwise) was performed with the significant predictors of the previous steps: Depressive symptoms, Suicidal Cognitions, Self-Concept, Self-Blame, Lack of Clarity, Difficulty Controlling Impulses and Nonacceptance. The results showed
122
02-03-2008 22:26:03
that this final model was also significant ( = 226.82, df =3, p < .001) explaining 73% of the variance, correctly classifying 98% of the cases. Suicidal Cognitions and (to a lesser extent) Nonacceptance appeared to have a significant, independent contribution to the prediction of group membership over and above depression severity (see Table 5).
Table 5. Separate logistic regression analyses with depressive symptoms and cognitive emotion regulation strategies as variables to distinguish clinical (n= 85) and comparison (n=93) group membership
Predictors B Depressive Symptoms Content Suicidal Cognitions Self-Concept Self-Blame Catastrophizing Positive Reappraisal Process Lack of Awareness Lack of Clarity Nonacceptance Limited Strategies Difculties Impulses Difculties Goals
Analysis I SE Wald p B
Analysis II SE Wald p B
Analysis II SE Wald p B
Analysis IV SE Wald p .013
.46 .09 27.56 .000
.44 .18 6.19
.35 .12 .41 .17 -------
8.75 5.53 -----
.003 .003 .019 NS NS
.60 .30 3.97 --- --- ----- --- ---
.046 NS NS
-.78 .26 9.12
-- --.37 .12 -- ---- ---
---
NS ---- --NS .078 NS .44 .44 3,10 ---- ---
9.99 .002 ----NS NS
.27 .09 9.40 .002 .27 .08 11.05 .001
Discussion and conclusions

The present study examined the relationship between the use of specific cognitive emotion regulation strategies, depression severity and DSH. Although previous studies have clearly shown that cognitive strategies are related to DSH, this is the first study to distinguish between specific strategies of cognitive content and process and to include a wide range of cognitive strategies in the same study. As expected, individuals in the clinical group had significantly higher scores on Suicidal Cognitions, Self-Blame, Catastrophizing, Lack of Awareness of Emotional Responses and Nonacceptance of Emotional Responses. These results are consistent with previous
123
02-03-2008 22:26:03
chapter 7
research findings (Donaldson et al., 2000; Garnefski, et al., 2001; Rudd et al., 2001; Gratz & Roemer, 2004). In addition, they had significantly higher scores on Lack of Clarity of Emotional Responses, Limited Access to Emotion Regulation Strategies, Difficulties Controlling Impulses and Difficulties Engaging in Goal-Directed Behaviours. As expected, the comparison group had higher scores on positive Self-Concept and Positive Reappraisal, which is in line with previous research showing positive relationships of these strategies with a positive mood (Garnefski et al., 2001; McGee et al., 2001; Grholt et al., 2005). It is noteworthy that the group differences remained significant even when depression severity was controlled for. In addition, the present study examined the unique contribution of the separate strategies to predict DSH. It was shown that three cognitive content strategies (Suicidal Cognitions, Self-Concept and Self-Blame) and three cognitive process strategies (Lack of Clarity, Nonacceptance, and Difficulty Controlling Impulses) independently distinguished the groups. Cognitive content strategies and cognitive process strategies each explained a considerable proportion of the variance, similar to the variance explained by depression severity. After looking at the separate effect of cognitive strategies and depression severity, we looked at their interrelatedness. The table with bivariate correlations showed a high correlation between depression severity and Suicidal Cognitions in the clinical group. The observation of covariation between depressive symptoms and suicidal cognitions is consistent with the concept of the suicidal mode in the theory of Rudd et al. (2001). This theory describes how cognitive and affective systems together may form selfperpetuating cycles of DSH. However, after controlling for depression severity, Suicidal Cognitions (and to a lesser extent Nonacceptance) still appeared to have a significant, independent contribution to the prediction of DSH. This suggests that these cognitions are more than epiphenomena of depression. Alternatively, they seem to be important internal triggers of DSH. This is consistent with research showing that suicidal cognitions, once they have become a feature of depression, can become one of its most persistent features across episodes (Williams, Crane, Barnhofer, Van der Does, & Segal, 2006) and may become increasingly independent of depression (Witte, Fitzpatrick, Warren, Schatschneider, & Schmidt, 2006). Since the present study focused on women with a long history of DSH, the strong effect of suicidal cognitions may indicate that these cognitions may have become increasingly more accessible with every episode. As a result, even relatively small increases in depressed mood might have gained the capacity to activate suicidal cognitions (Williams, Crane, et al., 2006), increasing vulnerability to recurrences and later episodes of DSH that are more autonomous of external triggers (Post, 1992; Van Heeringen, Hawton, & Williams, 2000). DSH also appeared to be associated with Nonacceptance of Emotions. Nonacceptance
124
02-03-2008 22:26:03
of emotions is a key element in a recent theoretical model of DSH, which describes the primary function of DSH as the avoidance of unpleasant emotions (Chapman, Gratz, & Brown, 2006). According to this model, avoiding emotions through DSH increases the likelihood that an individual will experience a rebound effect consisting of more frequent and more intense emotions. This is thought to trigger DSH, and the cycle may repeat itself. To help to clarify the psychological mechanisms underlying this vicious cycle of DSH, future research might look at data of patients diaries describing the external triggers (e.g. interpersonal conflict), the internal triggers (e.g. intense emotions, cognitions of low distress tolerance and behavioural skill deficits), the avoidance response (DSH), and its consequences (temporary relief). A study among eating disordered patients with DSH shows the utility of assessment of these external and internal triggers of DSH for research and clinical practice (Claes, Vandereycken, & Vertommen, 2002). The findings may have several important clinical implications. For instance, they suggest that psychotherapeutic interventions aimed at preventing repetition of DSH may best focus on both depressive symptoms and cognitive strategies. There is evidence that cognitive therapy is able to unlink negative cognitions (e.g. thoughts of worthlessness or self-blame) from other symptoms of depression such as low mood (Beevers & Miller, 2005). The data also imply that it may be beneficial for therapists to target specific suicidal cognitions (e.g. hopelessness, helplessness, unlovability, poor distress tolerance) and other negative self-referent thoughts (e.g. self-blame, low self-esteem). Such interventions are likely to have beneficial effects on depressed mood and may also reduce the probability that suicidal cognitions will become a persistent feature during future depressive episodes (Williams, Crane, et al., 2006). The potential relevance of these interventions is confirmed by a prospective study among depressed patients showing that a decline in depression and in cognitions of hopelessness appeared to reverse the process to DSH (Sokero et al., 2006). Our findings also show the relevance of cognitive processes in DSH. In particular, Lack of Clarity of Emotional Responses, Nonacceptance of Emotional Responses and Difficulty Controlling Impulses appeared to distinguish between the clinical and comparison group, and may be important targets for intervention. Changing these cognitive processes therapy might involve interventions geared toward mindfulness, acceptance and exposure with response prevention. Indeed, lack of clarity, nonacceptance and impulse control difficulties are key targets in more recent therapies such as Dialectical Behaviour Therapy, Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy, and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (Linehan, 1993; Hayes et al., 1999; Williams et al., 2006), which include a variety of interventions to enhance acceptance of current experience and to reduce experiential avoidance. For example, mindfulness practice invites individuals who avoid unpleasant emotions to foster an interested, kindly and accepting stance in relation to these emotions
125
02-03-2008 22:26:04
chapter 7
and to the response of avoidance and nonacceptance itself. Through mindfulness practice they may learn to relate differently to cognitive processes that might otherwise fuel suicidal crises (Linehan, 1993; Hayes et al., 1999; Williams et al., 2006). In addition, the experiential avoidance model highlights the utility of teaching behavioural skills for regulating unpleasant emotions (Chapman et al., 2006). An important question for further research is whether these more recent therapies reduce cognitive reactivity and relapse to a greater extent than traditional cognitive therapy. In addition, even though the importance of cognitive strategies has already been adapted into traditional and more recent cognitive-behavioural treatments for DSH (e.g. Linehan, 1993; Rudd et al., 2001; Williams et al., 2006) there is still a need for randomized controlled trials with sufficient power to detect treatment differences (Rudd et al., 2001). Even less is known about specific mechanisms that may underlie treatment effects (e.g. Kazdin & Nock, 2003). Studies into potential mechanisms of change in cognitivebehavioural therapy of DSH might help to get a better understanding of the factors that maintain it. A limitation of the present study is that the assessment of cognitive emotion regulation and depression severity was based on self-report only, which may have caused some bias in the form of overreporting or underreporting. Furthermore, due to the cross-sectional nature of the study, causality can not be inferred and longitudinal studies are needed to understand the order of association between cognitions, depression, and DSH. In addition, it would be interesting to study these cognitive strategies in other populations of DSH patients, such as older women or males. Finally, replication of this study with a comparison group of depressed participants without DSH could help to clarify the specificity of these cognitive strategies for DSH. It is hoped that this study will prompt further research into the influence of cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depression on DSH.
126
02-03-2008 22:26:04
The use of the term strategies does not imply an instrumental or motivational function of
beliefs.
T o avoid multicollinearity problems in multiple regression analyses, special attention will be paid to the mutual correlations among variables that are significantly correlated with the outcome variable. If variables not only appear to show significant correlations with the outcome, but also to show high mutual correlations (.60 and higher), multicollinearity problems can be expected.
A nalyses with the separate subscales of the Suicide Cognition Scale (SCS) showed that all its subscales were significantly associated with group membership (history of DSH vs. no history of DSH), with a correlation of .80 for perceived burdensomeness, a correlation of .76 for helplessness, a correlation of .82 for poor distress tolerance and a correlation of .78 for unlovability. In addition, the subscales had high intercorrelations (ranging from .85 to .92). It is because of these high intercorrelations that we decided to work with the total scale of the SCS. Inclusion of these highly intercorrelated SCS subscales in the regression analyses would lead to problems of multicollinearity
127
02-03-2008 22:26:04
chapter 8
04-03-2008 12:11:33
Summary and General Discussion
02-03-2008 22:27:01
chapter 8
The studies presented in this thesis aimed to contribute to the understanding of DSH and to the development of evidence-based psychotherapeutic interventions to treat this complex human problem. This chapter starts with a summary of the major findings from the studies reported in this thesis, followed by general conclusions and a discussion of their methodological strengths and limitations. Finally, recommendations for future research and clinical implications of this thesis will be presented. 8.1 Summary The questions addressed in Chapter 2 were: What do DSH patients need? How can we be more effective in treating DSH? To detect essential ingredients for treatment, three different cognitive-behavioural theories of DSH were reviewed: (1) the cognitivebehavioural theory Linehan (1993) developed to reduce DSH in patients with borderline personality disorder, (2) the cognitive theory of Berk et al. (2004), and (3) the cognitivebehavioural theory of Rudd et al. (2001). A critical discussion of these theories led to the formulation of four mechanisms of change that could guide therapists in their work with patients who engage in DSH: (1) a trusting patient-therapist relationship, (2) building emotion regulation skills, (3) cognitive restructuring (4) behavioural skills training. The three therapies might work by targeting these mechanisms of change. However, the specific mechanisms behind the favourable outcomes of the therapies are still unclear. Consequently, the ultimate aim here was to provide a framework that encourages practitioners to look for these mechanisms of change in the context of their work with DSH patients. In particular, the framework may help therapists to decide what to do when patients fail to progress and their approach does not seem to work. With this framework therapists can quickly identify the specific cognitive, emotional, behavioural or interpersonal aspects most needingand most amenable tochange. Building on the theoretical framework described in Chapter 2, we developed a timelimited (12 session) cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) intervention for DSH patients. The intervention aims to reduce DSH by targeting cognitive, emotional, behavioural and interpersonal problems. The intervention consists of three phases. In the early phase of treatment (session 1 and 2), DSH is assessed, treatment goals are formulated and therapist and patient make agreements about the conditions for treatment. In the middle phase of treatment (session 3-10), the treatment focuses on cognitive, emotional, behavioural and interpersonal problems that maintain DSH. In the last phase of treatment (session 11 and 12) the emphasis is on relapse prevention. A detailed description of the intervention was given in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 described the outcomes of the randomized controlled trial of the CBT intervention outlined in Chapter 3. The CBT intervention was designed to supplement usual care following an episode of DSH. The study involved 90 people (95% females),
130
02-03-2008 22:27:02
aged 1535 years, who were randomly assigned to CBT in addition to treatment as usual (TAU) or to treatment as usual only. The main study hypothesis, that CBT in addition to TAU would be more effective in reducing repetition of DSH than TAU only, was supported. Furthermore, those who received CBT in addition to TAU were shown to have significantly greater reductions in depression, anxiety and suicidal cognitions, and significantly greater improvements in self-esteem and problem solving ability. It is reasonable to assume that these positive findings are attributable to the effect of the CBT, given the random assignment as well as the absence of between group differences with respect to demographics, DSH, history of DSH, psychopathology and use of health care services. It is encouraging that these results are found for people with recurrent and chronic DSH, with high risk of repetition, and with high levels of psychiatric co-morbidity. On the basis of contemporary psychological theories of DSH, it makes sense to ask whether the changes resulting from CBT are mediated by changes in emotion regulation difficulties. However, this assumption had never been studied in a randomized controlled trial. The aim of the study described in Chapter 5 was to investigate whether changes in emotion regulation in DSH patients treated with CBT indeed mediated treatment outcome, as assessed in the randomized controlled trial described in Chapter 4. The findings showed that during the course of treatment, changes in DSH were partially mediated by changes in emotion regulation difficulties, particularly difficulties with impulse control and goal-directed behaviours. In addition, the potential mediating role of depressive symptoms, symptoms of anxiety and suicidal cognitions was examined. Although the CBT intervention significantly reduced depression, anxiety and suicidal cognitions, these measures of symptom severity did not play a mediating role. These findings suggest that interventions for DSH should not primarily focus on mental disorders associated with DSH, but be DSH-specific and target specific emotion regulation difficulties. Very few studies have examined whether DSH patients differing in demographic characteristic, psychological and psychiatric problems and in particular a history of childhood abuse respond equally well to treatment. To address this important issue, the study described in Chapter 6 examined the impact of these factors on treatment outcome as assessed in the randomized controlled trial of the CBT intervention (see Chapter 4). Patients differing in demographics, psychological problems and psychiatric problems benefited equally from the intervention. Assessment of childhood abuse showed that 47% of the patients had a history of physical abuse, 46% had a history of sexual abuse, 96% had a history of emotional abuse and 29% had a history of combined physical and sexual abuse. Those with a history of childhood physical abuse, sexual abuse and combined abuse suffered from the most severe psychological and psychiatric problems at baseline.
However, despite the more severe initial impairment, individuals with a history of abuse responded equally well to the CBT intervention. This seems to indicate that a CBT
131
02-03-2008 22:27:02
chapter 8
intervention that does not address abuse history directly but focuses on current problems can be used successfully in abused DSH patients. However, those who had a history of sexual abuse had a poorer outcome on repetition of DSH in the TAU condition, suggesting the need to address emotion regulation difficulties and problem solving deficits in abused DSH patients. CBT seems to be the best choice for DSH patients with extensive abuse histories. Chapter 7 described the relationship between the use of different cognitive strategies to regulate emotions and DSH. Young women who harmed themselves (n=85) were compared with young women without a history of DSH (n=93) across several measures of cognitive content (e.g., perceived burdensomeness, helplessness, poor distress tolerance) and cognitive processes (e.g., lack of clarity of emotional responses, lack of awareness of emotional responses, nonacceptance of emotional responses). Significant group differences were found for all measures, even when depression severity was controlled for. In addition, logistic regression analyses showed that cognitive content strategies of suicide cognitions, self-concept and self-blame made significant, independent contributions to the prediction of group membership, as did cognitive process strategies of lack of clarity of emotional responses, difficulties controlling impulses and nonacceptance of emotional responses. Controlling for depression severity, suicidal cognitions and (to a smaller extent) nonacceptance of emotional responses independently predicted DSH. The strong association between suicidal cognitions and DSH seems to indicate the important role of these cognitions in recurrent and chronic DSH. The association between nonacceptance and DSH underscores the notion that DSH can be a way to avoid emotional problems. These findings were discussed in relation to recent CBT interventions, specifically Cognitive Therapy, Dialectical Behaviour Therapy, Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, to further insight into how these interventions might work.
8.2 General conclusions The studies presented in this thesis found evidence for the efficacy of a time-limited CBT intervention for DSH patients. The finding that in this study a time limited CBT has decreased DSH contrasts with the results reported by Hawton et al. (1998) and Tyrer et al. (2003). The difference in outcome could be attributed to the fact that all subjects who had started with the CBT completed all sessions, a fact that probably contributed to its efficacy. These results replicate recent positive findings with another DSH-specific CBT intervention (Berk, Henriques, Warman, Brown, & Beck, 2004; Brown, Ten Have, Henriques, Xie, Hollander, & Beck, 2005). Furthermore, the studies in this thesis show that CBT does not only reduce DSH, but also associated problems, such as depression, anxiety, suicidal cognitions, low self-esteem, problem solving deficits (see Chapter 4) and
132
02-03-2008 22:27:02
emotion regulation difficulties (see Chapter 5). In addition, the studies contribute to our understanding of emotion regulation difficulties in the development and perpetuation of DSH. Emotion regulation difficulties were found to partially mediate therapeutic change (see Chapter 5). Depressive symptoms, symptoms of anxiety and suicidal cognitions, on the other hand, were not found to mediate treatment outcome (see Chapter 5). These findings suggest that although it is important for interventions to take into account the complexity and severity of co-morbid disorders, the primary focus should be on emotion regulation difficulties. Moreover, building emotion regulation skills seems to be a particularly important ingredient of therapy with sexually and physically abused patients. 8.3 Methodological strengths and weakness of the studies. This section describes the methodological strengths and weaknesses of the studies presented in this thesis, in particular the treatment outcome study. The key questions are internal validity, external validity, construct validity and statistical conclusion validity. Internal validity
A treatment is called internally valid if the treatment itself, rather than extraneous influences, is considered to account for the results (Kazdin, 1998). The way randomization was conducted ensured as good as possible internal validity. However, internal validity is compromised by the absence of a specified TAU and/or a no-treatment comparison condition. We recorded three forms of TAU: psychotropic medication, psychotherapy and psychiatric hospitalisations on the basis of self-report by the patient themselves. In addition, we recorded whether psychotherapy in TAU had a focus on DSH. We can conclude that patients in both conditions received a comparable level of care within these broad categories of treatment (see Chapter 4). However, we did not systematically record the specific types of psychotherapy or psychotropic medication the comparison condition received, nor did we record the specific types of psychotherapy or psychotropic medication the experimental condition received next to the DSH-focused CBT, the main reason being that we did not have the research capacity to collect more specific data on medical consumption among the different care givers in TAU. Therefore, it is unclear if the conditions were equivalent in this respect. In addition, it is unclear whether the treatment effects are attributable to specific ingredients of the CBT or to the total package of the CBT in addition to TAU. For ethical reasons, a no-treatment control condition is not possible in studies among DSH patients. However, a specified TAU condition might help to detect the active ingredients of the CBT. Another issue with regard to internal validity is the way study withdrawals were handled. Multilevel analysis (MLA) uses all available data, but assumes that withdrawals occur at
133
02-03-2008 22:27:02
chapter 8
random, which is questionable in this population. As the assumption of randomness is unlikely, we also executed and reported the results with the completers sample (n=73), the sample without the 8 early withdrawals (n=82) and the intent-to-treat sample (n=90). These different analyses led to similar findings (see Chapter 4). These convergent findings give credibility to our data. A last issue with regard to internal validity involves the timing of the baseline interview. Patients who entered the study were in crisis. At that time, the risk of DSH was elevated, their mood was particularly low, suicidal cognitions were persistent, and they had great difficulty solving the problems they were facing. It has been argued that crises are by themselves time-limited, even for those exhibiting recurrent and chronic DSH (Rudd et al., 2001). Taking into account the statistical phenomenon of regression towards the mean, patients with extremely high scores at baseline can be expected to have less extreme scores by the next assessment for purely statistical reasons. However, the magnitude of the interaction effects in the MLA clearly show the unique additional effect of CBT (see Chapter 4). External validity External validity refers to the extent that the results can be generalized beyond the conditions of the study to other populations, settings and conditions (Kazdin, 1998). To maximize external validity, the sample selection procedures of the study had prioritized a psychologically and socioeconomically diverse sample of DSH patients, reflecting clinical practice. The prediction study described in Chapter 6 showed that no variables could predict lack of treatment effect of the CBT intervention. However, mostly young women of Dutch nationality participated in the studies in the thesis. Various sources of research indicate that patterns of DSH vary by age (Chan, Banerjee, & Draper, 2007; Hawton & Harriss, 2006; Hawton et al., 2007), gender (Gratz, Conrad, & Roemer, 2002; Roy & Janal, 2006) and culture (van Bergen, Saharso, Smit, & Kerkhof, 2007). Therefore, the results of the present studies cannot easily be generalized to an older, male, culturally diverse population. However, having a sample with mostly females also reduced heterogeneity, which may be useful given the literature on sex differences in, for example, emotion dysregulation (Gratz et al., 2002). Another observation is that most participants had a long history of DSH. So-called first-evers were almost absent. Previous research in the same region of the Netherlands had given a different picture of the patient population (Arensman, 1997). Changes in the clinical profile of DSH patients have also been noticed in other countries. For example, a 30-year cohort comparison of suicide attempters in the USA found marked increases in psychopathology, with present-day suicide attempters making suicide attempts at about four times the rate of the earlier cohort in the year following the index episode (Henriques,
134
02-03-2008 22:27:02
Brown, Berk, & Beck, 2004). Possible explanations for these changing profiles include increased alcohol and drug use, decreases in the levels of social cohesion in society and changes in health care systems. Although the sample selection procedure of the present study was similar to that of previous studies (e.g. Arensman, 1997), the sample mainly consisted of females with a long history of DSH, an extensive abuse history, and severe psychological and psychiatric problems. These characteristics of the study sample are relevant to the interpretation of many findings in this thesis. They are particularly relevant to the outcome of the CBT trial (see Chapter 4), since individuals with a high rate of repetition are perhaps more likely to show a reduction in overall repetition rates than individuals where repetition is an uncommon event. In addition, the characteristics of the sample have implications for treatment. For example, in Chapter 4 it is stated that inpatient treatment is the standard care for DSH patients, but this is only true for patients with chronic DSH who are in crisis. Most DSH patients are treated in the community by their GP or mental health professionals. Furthermore, the characteristics of the study sample may explain why the prevalence rates for a history of abuse are so high and the association between abuse history and psychopathology is so strong (see Chapter 6). However, it is not clear how the sample selection procedure has led to the inclusion of this specific group of DSH patients. There are a number of variables, which could be considered as potential influences, such as the referral policy of the General Practitioner (GP) and recruitment within Mental Health Center Rivierduinen. Except in a medical emergency, the GP is usually the first person who learns about an episode of DSH. Patients can not contact mental health services directly, but need to ask their GP to arrange for a meeting with a mental health practitioner. In milder cases of DSH, GPs may decide to provide support themselves (e.g. with regular appointments and/or psychotropic medication). In addition, in the present study, patients were not only recruited from a general hospital population, but also from a mental health center population. As a result, the sample may differ from a general hospital DSH population. Recruitment within Mental Health Center Rivierduinen may have led to a selection of more chronic DSH patients. Therapists may have been more likely to inform chronic DSH patients (those who had not responded to previous treatments) about the possibility to participate in the present trial than patients with milder forms of DSH.
Construct validity While internal validity refers to having evidence that the study caused the outcome, it does not tell whether the study influenced what was intended -this is a construct validity issue (Kazdin, 1998). To maximize construct validity, it was important to think through the
concepts under study, so that the CBT intervention was a good operationalization of what we wanted and that the outcome measures reflected what we wanted them to reflect.
135
02-03-2008 22:27:03
chapter 8
For example, the studies presented in this thesis included many new, theory-guided, and DSH-specific self-report questionnaires, such as a measure of suicidal cognitions (Rudd et al., 2001) and a measure of emotion regulation difficulties (Gratz & Roemer, 2004). On theoretical grounds, it was hypothesized that CBT in addition to TAU, would yield a larger effect both on DSH and presumed mediating variables such as emotion regulation difficulties than TAU only would. The first hypothesis with regard to differential treatment effects was confirmed (see Chapter 4). Furthermore, mediation analyses revealed that emotion regulation difficulties partially mediated treatment outcome, whereas symptom severity did not (see Chapter 5). These results contribute to a better understanding of specific mediators of treatment change. Furthermore, the results are consistent with theoretical assumptions regarding the advantages of a DSH-specific treatment over a treatment focusing on mental disorders. Another issue concerns the conceptual confusion in the field of suicidology. Researchers agree that important differences exist between people who consider DSH, people who have once engaged in DSH, and people with chronic DSH. However, some studies do not provide a definition of the concept under study or use terms interchangeably. In addition, many of these studies do not provide enough information on the study population. In order to understand, treat and prevent DSH, it is important to accurately specify the subtypes of DSH. However, there are many obstacles to coming to consensus, including concepts such as intent, motivation and lethality (Linehan, 1997; Linehan, Comtois, Brown, Heard, & Wagner, 2006; Silverman, 2006). Still, suggestions are made to elucidate these
issues (Linehan et al., 2006; Silverman, 2006; Claes & Vandereycken, 2007). For example, Claes and Vandereycken (2007) propose a functionalist approach, which starts with a microanalysis of the meaning (motives, functions) of a particular episode of DSH for a Table 1. Proportions of patients who did and did not self-harm during the follow-up period
(between 6 and 9-month assessment)
CBT (n=40) Valid 0 1 2 3 >4 Total N 31 4 2 1 2 40 Percent 77.5 10.0 5.0 2.5 5.0 100
TAU (n=42) N 24 1 1 16 42 Percent 57.5 2.4 2.4 37.7 100
136
02-03-2008 22:27:03
particular patient. Such a functionalist approach may be the cornerstone of effective therapeutic management and prevention of DSH. A related issue is the frequency of DSH, and how this can be assessed. Both infrequent self-harm and habitual self-harm are impulsive acts, and the difference between them seems to be a matter of degree. For research purposes, it is important to specify how habitual self-harming behaviour is assessed. In this study, repetitive acts of self-harm were recorded as a single episode of DSH if they occurred within a clear time frame (e.g. one evening). We found that people have a hard time remembering the exact number of acts of self-harm within a single episode of DSH, since they often use multiple methods of DSH (e.g. overdosing, cutting), till the acts have brought about a release of tension. Recording episodes of DSH in stead of counting acts of self-harm may give more reliable results. Another advantage of recording episodes of DSH is that they can usually be linked to a precipitating event. Statistical conclusion validity Statistical conclusion validity refers to the extent to which a relation is shown, demonstrated, or evident, and how well the investigation can detect effects if they exist (Kazdin, 1998). The study produced a wealth of data and offered many possibilities for statistical analysis. Multilevel analysis (MLA) was chosen to study the development of DSH over time (see Chapter 4). Another possibility is to calculate actual proportions of patients who did and did not self-harm during the period following receipt of CBT in addition to TAU or TAU only (in the period between 6-month follow-up and 9-month follow-up). These descriptive data show whether most individuals continue to self-harm, and it is just the frequency of self-harm that is reduced, or whether most individuals no longer engage in DSH, which may have different implications for the longer term prognosis regarding DSH. Table 1 shows that over three-quarters of patients who had received CBT (77.5%, n=31) had not harmed themselves during follow-up. In addition, the majority of those patients who had harmed themselves had done this one or two times in a three month period, which is a marked reduction considering the high rate of repetition of DSH found at baseline. Of note is that only 2 patients (0.5%) reported 4 or more episodes of DSH. It seems that the large majority of the patients who received CBT has a good prognosis regarding DSH. Table 1 also shows that more than half of the patients in TAU (57.1%, n=31) did not selfharm during the follow-up period. However, the reduction of self-harm in TAU is less pronounced, especially because over a third of patients in TAU (38.1%, n=16) report 4 or more episodes of DSH during the follow-up period. The study design was constrained to a maximum of four measurements per participant.
Given this restriction, a power analysis was performed to determine the sample size needed
137
02-03-2008 22:27:03
chapter 8
to detect between-group differences on the primary outcome measure: the number of episodes of DSH during the last three months. Results obtained with the program PINT (Snijders & Bosker, 1993) indicated that a sample size of approximately 45 participants in each group would be sufficient to detect a difference in average time slope between the groups of .40 (corresponding to a small effect size) with adequate power (.80) and an alpha of .05. One hundred individuals were invited for the baseline interview. Ten people failed to meet the inclusion criteria. The 90 individuals who entered the study were randomly assigned to 12 CBT sessions in addition to TAU (n=48) or to TAU only (n=42). With 90 participants, suicide can not be studied as a study outcome. It has been argued that interventions to reduce repetition of DSH could have an impact on suicide rates (Gunnell & Frankel, 1994). In the present study, there were no suicides in the CBT condition and two suicides in TAU (see Chapter 4). The CBT intervention of Brown et al. (2005) also showed a trend towards lower levels of suicide (Crawford, Thomas, Khan, & Kulinskaya, 2007). However, Crawford et al. (2007) argue that the relatively modest reduction in repetition of DSH as found in the Brown et al. (2005) trial cautions against the view that this therapy is likely to be associated with marked reductions in levels of subsequent suicide. The same might apply for the present CBT intervention, since the power of the study was inadequate to detect differences in suicide rate between conditions. In addition, the relative rarity of suicide following DSH in the short term means that even large trials of people who engage in DSH lack sufficient power to explore effects on suicide (Gunnell & Frankel, 1994; Crawford et al., 2007). Results of a meta-analysis do not provide evidence that additional psychosocial interventions following self-harm have a marked effect on the likelihood of subsequent suicide (Crawford et al., 2007). A final issue is that validated instruments of the number of episodes of DSH were not available at the start of the project. To investigate the reliability of the assessment of the number of episodes of DSH, the retrospective self-reports were compared with hospital records, as well as with information coming from the treatment sessions. The correlations between the three measures were high, with correlations ranging from .88 to .90. Secondary outcome measures were also assessed with reliable and valid self-report instruments. However, to get a more detailed understanding of the concepts under study, future studies might include measures of physiological arousal and expressive behaviour, in addition to self-reports. Moreover, most data were retrospectively collected. Retrospective reporting raises concerns about the accuracy of participants recall. An electronic diary may have potential as a research tool. In recent years, Schwartz and Stone (1998) have pioneered a technique known as ecological momentary assessment in which multiple data entries are requested each day and the subject is asked to record how they feel at that point in time. Ecological momentary assessment may be well suited to investigate links between moment-to-moment changes in mood and repetition of DSH.
138
02-03-2008 22:27:04
8.4 Future directions In this section, implications of the research on DSH will be addressed in terms of future directions in research and treatment. Some of the suggestions for future research have already been raised in the chapters and are now recapitulated. What are the most active ingredients of the CBT intervention ? Our findings show that change in difficulties with impulse control and change in difficulties engaging in goal-directed behaviours partially mediate reduction in DSH. However, although the observed effects formally satisfy the Baron and Kenny (1986) conditions for mediation, the effect of the mediators is small. Clearly, there is a need for further testing. Other mechanisms of change may also be at work, since the relationship between different treatment components seems to be complex. According to Langs three systems model (Lang, 1988), there are physiological, behavioural, and cognitive aspects to psychological problems. Producing change in one system is thought to induce change in the other two. For example, behavioural activation works directly on the behavioural system, but may also produce change in the cognitive and physiological systems. Likewise, change in suicidal cognitions may produce changes in physiological arousal associated with negative emotions. So, each component of the CBT intervention might work on different systems. Furthermore, the combination of cognitive, emotional and behavioural techniques may be more effective than either of them alone. Alternatively, it might be that the effectiveness of this treatment largely depends on the therapists expertise with the broad range of therapeutic techniques. In addition, non-specific therapeutic factors (e.g. the quality of the therapeutic relationship) may underpin treatment change. The discussion of potential active ingredients of CBT can also be found among proponents of traditional and more recent CBT interventions. Proponents of the recent so-called Third Wave CBT (Linehan, 1993; Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2002) lay an increased emphasis on attentional control, emotion regulation and skills training. At the same time, these recent developments have led to a decreased emphasis on the rational challenge of the content of thoughts (see Chapter 7). An important question for future research is whether these more recent interventions reduce DSH to a greater extent than traditional CBT interventions. What are the most important emotion regulation difficulties to target in treatment? Acceptance of emotions was a key concept of the CBT intervention. Patients were invited to foster an interested, kindly and accepting stance in relation to negative emotions. As such, an emphasis was placed on the control of behaviour when emotions are present, rather than the control of emotions themselves. As expected, those who received CBT in addition to TAU were shown to have significantly greater reductions in nonacceptance of
139
02-03-2008 22:27:04
chapter 8
emotional responses. However, nonacceptance of emotions did not mediate treatment outcome (see Chapter 5). This is surprising, since acceptance of emotions is suggested to be a protective factor for DSH (Chapman, Gratz, & Brown, 2006). Furthermore, nonacceptance of emotions distinguished young women who self-harmed from young women without a history of DSH (see Chapter 7). Nevertheless, the findings showed that not nonacceptance of emotions, but impulse control difficulties and difficulties engaging in goal-directed behaviours partially mediated the treatment effect (see Chapter 5). The different studies in this thesis seem to point to the importance of different emotion regulation difficulties. How can these contradictory findings be explained? First, although power was adequate to detect changes in DSH, the number of participants is relatively small. As a result, potential mediators could have been missed. Second, the relationship between DSH and nonacceptance of emotions described in Chapter 7 was only marginally significant. Third, the difficulty of identifying mediators of therapeutic change may also reflect the quality of measures of emotion regulation. A combination of self-report, physiological and behavioural measures might reveal a mediating role of nonacceptance of emotions. Fourth, the different subscales had high intercorrelations, which may also have influenced the findings. To what extent should emphasis be placed on learning patients new skills and to what extent should patients be helped to learn to accept themselves? The CBT intervention combines acceptance-based strategies and problem solving strategies, although the relative frequency of each depends on the particular patient and the current situation and vulnerability of a patient. It has been argued that many treatment impasses are due to an imbalance of one strategy over the other (Miller, Rathus, & Linehan, 2007). According to Dialectical Behaviour Therapy, the entire focus of changebased therapies can be aversive for patients with histories of invalidating experiences, since by necessity the focus contributes to and elicits self-invalidation (Linehan, 1993). However, therapies that focus exclusively on validation and acceptance can prove equally problematic, because DSH patients experience life as painful and often this pain is experienced as unbearable. Our findings seem to confirm that both acceptance-based strategies and problem solving strategies are essential components of DSH interventions. The association between nonacceptance of emotions and DSH (see Chapter 7) seems to underline the importance of acceptance-based therapeutic strategies. However, we also found evidence that CBT can effectively change problem solving deficits (see Chapter 4). In addition, difficulties with impulse control and difficulties with goal-directed behaviour have been found to partially mediate treatment outcome (see Chapter 5). Future research is required to determine the specific contribution of the acceptance- and skills-training components to the therapeutic process.
140
02-03-2008 22:27:04
Will one DSH intervention ultimately suffice in the treatment of all DSH patients or are several varieties of treatments needed? Intentionally, the sample selection procedures of the study had prioritized a psychologically and socioeconomically diverse sample, because a diverse group of patients would best reflect clinical practice. This included patients with different levels of psychiatric comorbidity and a wide range of psychosocial problems. The CBT intervention seemed equally effective for DSH patients differing in demographic characteristic, psychological and psychiatric problems, and history of childhood abuse, which suggests the robustness of the intervention (see Chapter 5). The strength of the treatment may be that it integrates components from different therapeutic approaches (e.g. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, Dialectical Behaviour Therapy, Problem-solving Therapy) and delivers them in an integrated and systematic manner. Coordination of multiple interventions is achieved by emphasizing the treatment frame of addressing the cognitive, emotional, behavioural and interpersonal problems associated with DSH. A multi-component treatment approach seems to be most suitable for this multi-problem group of patients. The intervention gives therapists the flexibility to tailor the treatment plan to the needs of an individual patient. Future studies may reveal if a single-component treatment approach to DSH (e.g., with a focus on problem solving or a focus on mindfulness skills) is equally effective as this multicomponent-treatment approach. How should assessment of DSH be conducted? At the start of the project, a valid and reliable instrument that covered all aspects of DSH (e.g. past episodes, circumstances of the index episode, motives, intent, consequences) was not available. Instead, the present study combined a whole series of instruments to capture the totality of DSH. The development of a proper measure could be an important goal for future research. Not only could a proper measure equip psychotherapists to conduct the best possible assessment of past episodes of DSH, but a proper assessment could also set the stage for treatment planning. Furthermore, such a measure is essential if research on DSH is to proceed, since the field of DSH is still characterized by definitional confusion (Silverman, 2006). Recently, a more comprehensive instrument has been developed to assess the multiple factors associated with suicide attempts and nonsuicidal self-injury: The Suicide Attempt Self-Injury Interview (SASII) (Linehan, et al., 2006). Preliminary findings show that the SASII is a reliable and valid measure. Another strength of the SASII is that it allows researchers to assess the suicide intent of an act independent of the method or lethality of the act itself, preventing the definitional confusion mentioned above. Since the SASII also assesses variables related to contextual characteristics of the episode, including antecedent events, preact behaviours, and states of mind and consequences, essentially,
141
02-03-2008 22:27:04
chapter 8
the SASII conducts a behavioural analysis of each self-injurious act, which makes it not only helpful for research purposes but also for clinical work with individual patients. While the SASII assesses past acts of DSH, it does not predict risk of future DSH or suicide. To develop such an instrument, it might be relevant to study the most serious cases of DSH in more detail, since they may be suitable as a proxy for suicide in research studies and could improve suicide prevention. However, the reluctance of severely suicidal patients to be interviewed may be a difficulty for future research (Douglas, Cooper, Amos, Webb, Guthrie, & Appleby, 2002). What is the link between childhood abuse and DSH in adolescence or adulthood? Developmental models of DSH suggest the role of childhood abuse in the pathogenesis of self-harming behaviour (Yates, 2004). From this perspective, abuse undermines positive adaptation on many levels, which necessitates the use of alternative regulatory strategies such as DSH. On a cognitive level, it has been hypothesized that if children are abused by significant others, fundamental assumptions are formed such as the idea of being inherently bad or that nobody can be trusted (Arntz, 1994). In one of the few studies on this topic, a small study of patients with borderline personality disorder, cluster C- personality disorder and controls, maladaptive borderline beliefs were found to mediate the relationship between childhood abuse and borderline pathology (Arntz, Dietzel, & Dreesen, 1999). Future studies could examine other aspects of personality as a possible link between childhood abuse and DSH. For example, previous research has shown that childhood abuse contributes to the development of DSH, but that lack of secure attachment helps maintain it (Van der Kolk, Perry, & Herman, 1991). Combining clinical and neurobiological findings might also be useful, since neurobiological studies indicate that trauma may have long lasting neurobiological effects that may contribute to the development of psychopathology (De Bellis et al., 1999a; De Bellis et al., 1999b), including borderline personality disorder (Rinne et al., 2002). A better understanding of the pathway to DSH could help to identify vulnerability and protective factors with greater precision, thereby improving treatment for DSH patients. How about resilience? Resilience is an important psychological process that is thought to protect against the development of psychiatric disorders. Resilience is associated with a quality of bouncing back and moving on in life after adversity, it is associated with a strong belief that whatever life brings the individual will persevere and it is associated with adaptability, social support, sense of humour and self-esteem (Earvolino-Ramirez, 2007). To date, only one study has examined the relation between resilience and DSH. The outcomes showed that patients who had attempted suicide had significantly lower resilience scale scores
142
02-03-2008 22:27:04
than patients who had never attempted suicide (Roy, Carli, & Sarchiapone, 2007). This suggests that low resilience may be a risk factor for DSH. Likewise, it has been argued that the risk of DSH following traumatic experiences may be counterbalanced by resilience factors such as social support, but there is not much literature actually evaluating the impact of these factors on DSH (Lewinsohn, Rohde, & Seeley, 1993; Resnick et al., 1997; Maris, 2002; Kidd et al., 2006). In order to test the mediating role of resilience, it will be essential to examine its effects prospectively. The resilience factors to be considered could include positive cognitions, emotion regulation skills and problem solving ability, because these could reveal how traumatic experiences are dealt with. In addition to psychological measures of resilience, biological measures could be part of the research, such as structural and functional brain imaging (Rutter, 2007). The purpose of including biological measures is that it allows research on resilience to broaden its horizon and examine gene X environment interactions. Future research may also show that resilience has its limits and that there are enduring biological effects of childhood abuse that are difficult to reverse. How can DSH be prevented? Now that there is evidence for the efficacy of a time-limited CBT intervention, a remaining question is how DSH can be identified at an early stage or even be prevented. First, it is important that DSH is recognized. Childhood DSH is often mistaken for accidents. Therefore, it would be helpful to initiate DSH and suicide awareness programs for all school staff and parents at the elementary school level (Fish, 2000). If parents, school staff, general practitioner or emergency staff find out that a child has harmed him or herself, it is important that they arrange for a psychological assessment. Depending on the individual situation, the child might then be referred to a paediatrician or psychotherapist. It is critical that psychiatrists, paediatricians and psychotherapists receive proper training in effective treatments for DSH, as well as in suicide risk assessment. Effective treatments may lower the risk of future episodes, prevent the development of chronic DSH and deflect the suicidal process. Second, there is a need for greater attention on preventive work with children, adolescents and their families. Early intervention, support, and training for parents with special difficulties (e.g., mental disorders) could have great preventive significance for DSH. For example, it has been found that children of mothers with borderline personality disorder are at greater risk of emotional, behavioural and somatic problems (Barnow, Kessler, Freyberger, Spitzer, & Grabe, 2006). Preventive efforts may reduce the risk factors in the lives of children and adolescents and strengthen the resources of families and young people. Parenting programmes have been shown to decrease childrens psychopathology, including DSH (Toumbourou & Gregg, 2002; Anderson, Vostanis, OReilly, 2005; Edwards,
143
02-03-2008 22:27:05
chapter 8
Hughes, Hutchings, Cilleachair, & Bywater, 2007), and to increase maternal care and parent-child communication (Toumbourou & Gregg, 2002). It is promising that parenting programmes have an impact on risk and protective factors relevant to DSH and suicide. However, parenting programmes often lack sustainable treatment effects (Anderson et al., 2005). Furthermore, prevention of DSH and suicide does not depend only on an understanding of how to prevent psychopathology, but also on knowledge concerning how other social, economic and medical factors affect risk (Gunnell & Lewis, 2005). Third, given the clear link between abuse in childhood and DSH during adolescence and adulthood (see Evans, Hawton, & Rodham, 2005 for a review), it is important that suspected abuse cases are reported to the investigating agency Advies en Meldpunt Kindermishandeling (AMK). Health care professionals need to be aware of the paradoxical patterns that suggest sexual abuse, such as passivity, acting out, or detachment and a reluctance to talk about the abuser. These behaviours may be seen in many adolescents, but when they are observed in combination with depression, drug use, hypersexual behaviour, or isolation, there is cause for concern (Harner, 2005). In addition, physicians and nurses need to be trained to recognize signs of physical abuse (Ziegler, Sammut, Piper, 2005; Stirling, 2007). Fourth, recent studies on help seeking behaviour of adolescents with DSH show that friends are most likely to know about an episode of DSH (Evans, Hawton, & Rodham, 2005). Therefore, adolescents need to be provided with education and advice on how best to help friends with problems, including DSH or thoughts of suicide. This could be done in the context of mental health education programmes in schools. It should include advice on when an adolescent needs to seek help for a peer from adults. Finally, concern has been raised about Internet sites dealing with suicide and their potential negative influence on adolescent suicidal behaviour. However, the Internet may also provide opportunities for suicide prevention. For example, there are websites for young people who experience emotional difficulties such as low mood (e.g., www. zwaarweer.nl). Furthermore, these websites give links to help lines (e.g., www. kindertelefoon.nl). 8.5 Clinical implications Although there is growing evidence for the efficacy of psychotherapeutic interventions for DSH, dissemination of the effective treatments for DSH is limited due to a lack of treatment manuals and training opportunities in the efficacious treatments. While research designs are usually described in scientific journals, there is often little information on the specific manuals of the treatments studied. Books and book chapters describe treatments for DSH, but these interventions have not always been studied in randomized controlled trials. Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (Linehan, 1993; Miller, Rathus, & Linehan, 2007),
144
02-03-2008 22:27:05
Mentalization Based Therapy (Bateman & Fonagy, 2004) and Schema Focused Therapy (Young, 1994; Giesen-Bloo et al., 2006) are some of the few well-studied treatments with published manuals. These interventions are also some of the few treatments for which training is currently available. The present dissertation aimed to contribute to the dissemination of effective treatments for DSH by providing a treatment manual of the studied CBT intervention (see Chapter 3). Besides the lack of manuals and training, there are several other implications of this dissertation that are worth considering for clinical practice. First, many clinicians assume that inpatient treatment is the most effective treatment for a patient who has become suicidal or has made a suicide attempt. The overview of effective CBT treatments as given in Chapter 4 highlights that while inpatient treatment is the standard of care for chronic DSH patients, it has never been found effective in a clinical trial (Comtois & Linehan, 2006). In addition, hospitalisation has serious disadvantages compared to outpatient treatment. Not only is hospitalisation associated with high costs, it may also make a person feel more severely ill, because he or she is no longer in touch with aspects of daily life that are worth living for. Furthermore, a lack of stimulation and interaction with others has been found to increase the risk of DSH (Nijman & Campo, 2002). Third, the results of controlled studies indicate that outpatient treatments targeting DSH directly are effective in reducing the risk of future DSH. Both Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (Linehan, 1993) and Cognitive Therapy for suicidal patients have showed these effects (Brown et al., 2005) (see Chapter 2 and 4). Similarly, the present DSH-intervention is not a diagnosis-specific intervention, but targets emotion regulation difficulties, suicidal cognitions and problem solving deficits, independent of psychiatric diagnosis. This leads to the question how the DSH intervention would fit into the diagnosis-specific programs (Zorgprogrammas) as currently offered by mental health centers in the Netherlands. One possible solution might be to integrate the CBT intervention in a stepped-care program, in which DSH is addressed first, followed by a treatment focusing on underlying personality characteristics, such as Schema Focused Therapy (Young, 1994) or Mentalization Based Therapy (Bateman & Fonagy, 2004), or group therapy for young adults. Fourth, another important clinical implication is related to compliance. Many factors may contribute to a high rate of non-compliance among DSH patients. In addition to the complexities in the therapist-patient relationship, exploration of the feelings underlying DSH can evoke strong fears. If patients are informed about the possibility that strong unpleasant emotions may arise during treatment, and are helped to develop emotion regulation skills, they might be more likely to stay in therapy. A fifth implication for clinical practice is related to the use of no-suicide contracts. Reviewing the literature on the use of no-suicide contracts in clinical practice with
145
02-03-2008 22:27:05
chapter 8
DSH patients, Rudd, Mandrusiak and Joiner (2006) conclude that there is no empirical foundation for their effectiveness. The authors provide a so-called commitment-totreatment statement as a possible alternative to the no-suicide contract. The treatment manual described in Chapter 3 includes such a commitment-to-treatment statement. In line with the proposal of Rudd et al. (2006), it is defined as an agreement between the patient and therapist in which the patient agrees to make a commitment to the treatment process and living by: (1) identifying the roles, obligations and expectations of both the therapist and the patient in treatment: (2) communicating openly about all aspect of treatment including suicide and: (3) using the so-called crisis-plan (e.g., taking good care of oneself, taking protective measures, contacting emergency services if needed). The advantage of the commitment-to-treatment statement above a no-suicide contract is that it does not restrict the patients rights with respect to the option of suicide. Instead, it emphasises a commitment to living. In our experience, the use of a commitment-totreatment statement strengthens the therapeutic process. The low drop out rate found in the present study may be partially the result of the use of a commitment-to-treatment statement. However, this hypothesis has not been formally tested. Consequently, it is still unclear whether a commitment-to-treatment contract differs from a no-suicide contract with respect to treatment compliance, satisfaction with treatment and the prevalence of DSH or suicide. Future research should compare the effectiveness of commitment-totreatment statements and no-suicide contracts. Sixth, the strong association between suicidal cognitions and DSH as described in Chapter 7 implies that it may be beneficial for therapists to target specific suicidal cognitions. The CBT intervention described in Chapter 3 aimed to increase the patients hope by systematically targeting cognitions of perceived burdensomeness, helplessness, poor distress tolerance and unlovability. This occurred as the therapist, while validating the patients emotions, modeled hopefulness and the ability to improve the current situation through the identification and modification of unhelpful thoughts as well as through the use of effective problem solving skills. The potential relevance of these interventions is confirmed by the positive treatment outcomes presented in Chapter 4. Seventh, the strong association between emotion regulation difficulties and DSH as described in Chapter 7 implies that it may also be beneficial for therapists to target specific emotion regulation difficulties. Changing these emotion regulation difficulties in CBT involved interventions geared toward mindfulness, acceptance and exposure with response prevention (see Chapter 3). For example, patients were invited to foster an interested, kindly and accepting stance in relation to negative emotions. The potential relevance of these interventions is confirmed by the finding that changes in emotion regulation difficulties partly mediate changes in DSH (see Chapter 5). Moreover, building emotion regulation skills seems to be a particularly important ingredient in therapy with
146
02-03-2008 22:27:05
sexually abused patients (see Chapter 6). Eighth, DSH patients can evoke strong negative feelings in the therapist. One way therapists may use any negative feelings evoked by the patient in a session is to recognize that the same feelings are likely present in the patients family relationships and friendships. As such, it is important that the therapist helps the patient to become aware of thoughts and behaviours common to DSH that might negatively affect interpersonal relationships (e.g. thoughts of helplessness, thoughts of being a burden to loved ones, social isolation). Such guidance may help to maintain and develop the social support network of the patient over time. Chapter 3 gives suggestions to improve the communication between the patient and relevant others. Ninth, working with DSH patients, it is important to be realistic about the goals for therapy and the standard for evaluation. Obviously, complex and deeply ingrained problems require more than 12 sessions of CBT. Part of the effectiveness of the CBT intervention might be that only those problems are discussed that have a direct relationship to DSH. Being explicit about the goals of therapy and not skipping from problem to problem makes therapy more effective. Furthermore, this may teach patients to prioritize. Finally, the multi-component treatment approach to DSH was generally well accepted by the therapists who worked with it, possibly because the intervention gives therapists the flexibility to tailor the treatment plan to the needs of an individual patient. A study of a single component treatment (e.g. problem solving training or mindfulness training) may be less acceptable to therapists, because DSH patients usually present with multiple problems. It might be hard for therapists to work with a treatment protocol that focuses on only one problem area (e.g., problem solving deficits) and uses only one technique (e.g. building problem solving skills). Future studies may reveal if a single-component treatment approach is equally acceptable to therapists as this multi-componenttreatment approach. As may have become clear from the summary and discussion above, many questions still remain unanswered. Hopefully, this thesis makes a contribution to our knowledge of DSH and the possibilities for treatment. It is hoped that this thesis will inspire further research on this important human problem.
147
02-03-2008 22:27:05
hoofdstuk 9_REFERENCES.indd 148
10-03-2008 09:18:23
References
10-03-2008 09:18:23
References
References
Alford, B.A., & Beck, A.T. (1997). The integrative power of cognitive therapy. New York: The Guilford Press. Anderson, L., Vostanis, P., & OReilly, M. (2005). Three-year follow-up of a family support service cohort of children with behavioural problems and their parents. Child Care and Health Development,31, 469-477. Arensman, E. (1997). Attempted suicide: Epidemiology and classification ; dissertation, Leiden University. Arensman, E., Kerkhof, A.J.F.M., Hengeveld, M.W., & Mulder, J.D. (1995). Medically treated suicide attempts: a four year monitoring study of the epidemiology in The Netherlands . Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 49, 285-289. Arindell, W.A., & Ettema, J.H.M. (1986). Dutch translation of the SCL-90. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger. Arnold, E.M., Griffith, D.P., Meadows, K., Kirk, R.S., Roberts, A.C., & Julian, J. (2005). Treatment of incarcerated, sexually-abused adolescent females: an outcome study. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 12, 123-139. Arntz, A. (1994). Treatment of borderline personality disorder-A challenge for cognitivebehavioral therapy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 419-430. Arntz, A., Dietzel, R., & Dreesen, L. (1999). Assumptions in borderline personality disorder: specificity, stability and relationship with etiological factors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 545-557.
Arntz, A., & Weertman, A. (1999). Treatment of childhood memories: Theory and practice. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 715-740. Bancroft, J., Hawton, K., Simkin, S., Kingston, B., Cumming, C., & Whitwell, D. (1979). The reasons people give for taking overdoses: a further inquiry. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 52, 353-365. Bancroft, J.H.J., Skrimshire, A.M., & Simkin, S. (1976). The reasons people give for taking overdoses. British Journal of Psychiatry, 128, 538-548. Barnow, S., Kessler, C., Freyberger, H.J., Spitzer, C., & Grabe, H.J. (2006). Individual characteristics, familial experience, and psychopathology in children of mothers with borderline personality disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,45,965-972. Bateman, A., & Fonagy, P. (1999). The effectiveness of partial hospitalisation in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: a randomised controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1563-1569. Bateman, A.W., & Fonagy, P. (2000). Effectiveness of psychotherapeutic treatment of personality disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 138-143. Bateman, A., & Fonagy, P. (2001). Treatment of borderline personality disorder with psychoanalytically oriented partial hospitalisation: an 18-month follow-up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 36-42. Bateman, A.W., & Fonagy, P. (2004). Psychotherapy for borderline personality disorder: mentalization based treatment. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
150
10-03-2008 09:18:24
References
Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 11731182. Beck, A.T. (1967). Depression. New York: Harper & Row. Beck, A.T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: International Universities Press. Beck, A.T. (2003). Dysfunctional problem solving in borderline personality disorder. Cognitive Therapy Today, 8. Retrieved December 18, 2003, from http: //www.beckinstitute.org/ Feb03/index.html Beck, J.S. (2005). Basisboek cognitieve therapie. Baarn: HB Uitgevers.
Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Becker, R.E., Heimberg, R.G., & Bellack, A.S. (1987). Social skills training treatment for depression. New York: Pergamon. Beevers, C.G., & Miller, I.W. (2005). Unlinking negative cognition and symptoms of depression: evidence of a specific treatment effect for cognitive therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 68-77. Berk, M.S., Henriques, G.R., Warman, D.M., Brown, G.K., & Beck, A.T. (2004). A cognitive therapy intervention for suicide attempters: An overview of the treatment and case examples. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 11, 265-277 Bijttebier, P., & Vertommen, H. (1999). Coping strategies in relation to personality disorders. Personality and Individual Differences, 26, 847856. Bolger, N., Davis, A., & Rafaeli, E. (2003). Diary
Beck, A.T. , Freeman A. and associates (1990). Cognitive therapy of personality disorders. New York: The Guilford Press.
methods: capturing life as it is lived. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 579-616. Boon, S., & Draijer, N. (1995). Nederlandse
Beck, A.T., Rush, A.J., Shaw, B.F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Beck, A.T., Schuyler, D., & Herman, I. (1974). Development of suicidal intent scales. In A.T. Beck, H.L.P. Resnik & D.J. Lettieri (Eds.), The prediction of suicide (pp. 45-48). Bowie, Maryland: Charles Press. Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., Ball, R., & Ranieri, W.F. (1996). Comparison of Beck Depression Inventories IA and II in Psychiatric Outpatients. Journal of Personality, 67, 588-597. Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., & Brown, G.K. (1996). Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory II. San
vertaling Dissociative Experiences Scale. In: Screening en diagnostiek van dissociatieve stoornissen. Lisse: Swets Zeitlinger. Brodsky, B.S., Malone, K.M., Ellis, S.P., Dulit, R.A., & Mann, J.J. (1997). Characteristics of borderline personality disorder associated with suicidal behavior. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1715-1719. Brown, G.K., Ten Have, T., Henriques, G.R., Xie, S.X., Hollander, J.E., & Beck, A.T. (2005). Cognitive therapy for the prevention of suicide attempts. A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 294, 563570.
151
10-03-2008 09:18:24
References
Brown, S.L., & Vinokur, A.D. (2003). The interplay among risk factors for suicidal ideation and suicide: The role of depression, poor health, and loved ones messages of support and criticism. American Journal of Community Psychology, 32, 131-141. Burgess, S., Hawton, K., & Loveday, G. (1998). Adolescents who take overdoses: Outcome in terms of changes in psychopathology and the adolescents attitudes to their care and to their overdoses. Journal of Adolescence, 21, 209218. Burton, C., Weller, D., & Shape, M. (2007). Are electronic diaries useful for symptom research? A systematic review. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 62, 553-561. Busch, K.A., Clark, D.C., Fawcett, J., & Kravitz, H.M (1993). Clinical features of inpatient suicide. Psychiatric Annals, 23, 256-262. Camus, A. (1952). Retour Tipasa. Gallimard.
Chapman, A.L., Gratz, K.L., & Brown, M.Z. (2006). Solving the puzzle of deliberate selfharm: The experiential avoidance model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 371-394. Claes, L., & Vandereycken, W. (2007). Selfinjurious behavior: differential diagnosis and functional differentiation. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 48, 137-144. Claes, L., Vandereycken, W., & Vertommen, H. (2002). Therapy-related assessment of self-harming behaviors in eating disordered patients. A case illustration. Eating Disorders: Treatment and Prevention, 10, 269-279. Cloitre, M., Stovall-McClough, K.C., Miranda, R., & Chemtob, C.M. (2004). Therapeutic alliance, negative mood regulation and treatment outcome in child abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 411-416. Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological
Carlson, E.B., & Putnam, F.W. (1993). An update on the Dissociative Experiences Scale. Dissociation, 6, 16-25. Carlson, E., Putnam, F., Ross, C., Torem, M., Coons, P., Dill, D. et al. (1993). Validity of the Dissociative Experiences Scale in screening for multiple personality disorder: A multicenter study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 10301036. Cedereke, M., & jehagen, A. (2005). Prediction of repeated parasuicide after 112 months. European Psychiatry , 20, 101-109. Chan, J., Banerjee, S., & Draper, B. (2007). Deliberate self-harm in older adults: a review of the literature from 1995 to 2004. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22, 720-732.
Bulletin, 112, 155-159. Colman, I., Newman, S.C., Schopflocher, D., Bland, R.C., & Dyck, R.J. (2004). A multivariate study of predictors of repeat parasuicide. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 109, 306-312. Comtois, K.A., & Linehan, M.M. (2006). Psychosocial treatments of suicidal behaviours: A practice-friendly review. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 161-170. Cooper, J., Kapur, N., Webb, R., Lawlor, M., Guthrie, E., Mackway-Jones, K. et al. (2005). Suicide after deliberate self-harm: A 4-year cohort study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 297-303. Crawford, M.J., Thomas, O., Khan, N., & Kulinskaya, E. (2007). Psychosocial
152
10-03-2008 09:18:24
References
interventions following self-harm. Systematic review of their efficacy in preventing suicide. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, 11-17. Davidson, K., Norrie, J., Tyrer, P., Gumley, A., Tata, P., Murray, H.,et al. (2006). The effectiveness of cognitive behaviour therapy for borderline personality disorder: results from the BOSCOT trial. Journal of Personality Disorders, 20, 450-465. De Bellis, M.D., Baum, A.S., Birmaher, B., Keshavan, M.S., Eccard, C.H., Boring, A.M. et al., (1999a). Developmental traumatology part I: Biological stress systems. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 1259-1270. De Bellis, M.D., Keshavan, M.S., Clark, D.B., Casey, B.J., Giedd, J.N., Boring, A.M. et al., (1999b). Developmental traumatology part II: Brain development. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 1271-1284. De Leo, D., Bille-Brahe, U., Kerkhof, A., & Schmidtke, A. (2004). Suicidal behavior. Gottingen, Germany: Hogrefe & Huber. Derogatis, L.R. (1977). SCL-90: Administration, Scoring and Procedure Manual-I for the Revised Version. John Hopkins University School of Medicine, Clinical Psychometrics Research Unit. Baltimore, MD.
Sons. De Wilde, E. (2005). Een onderzoek naar zelfbeschadigend gedrag onder jongeren: CASE NL. Rotterdam: Cluster Jeugd van de GGD Rotterdam. Donaldson, D., Spirito, A., & Farnett, E. (2000). The role of perfectionism and depressive cognitions in understanding the hopelessness experienced by adolescent suicide attempters. Behavioral Science, 31, 99-111. Douglas, J., Cooper, J., Amos, T., Webb, R., Guthrie, E., & Appleby, L. (2002). Nearfatal deliberate self-harm: characteristics, prevention and implications for the prevention of suicide. Journal of Affective Disorders, 79, 263-268. Dreessen, L., Arntz, A., & Weertman, A. (1996). Personality Disorder Belief Questionnaire (Version 1.0). Maastricht, the Netherlands: Maastricht University. DZurilla, T.J., Chang, E.C., Nottingham, E.J., & Faccini, L. (1998). Social problem-solving deficits and hopelessness, depression, and suicidal risk in college students and psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 54, 1091-1107. Earvolino-Ramirez, M. (2007). Resilience: A
De Wachter, D., Pouw, J, Strubbe, E., Lange, A., & Vanderlinden, J. (2006). The influence of Current stress on dissociative experiences: an exploratory study in a non-clinical population. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation,7, 87-96.
De Wilde, E.J. (2000). Adolescent suicidal behaviour: a general population perspective. In K. Hawton & K. van Heeringen (Eds), The international handbook of suicide and attempted suicide (pp. 249-259). Chichester, John Wiley &
Concept Analysis. Nursing Forum, 42, 73-82. Ebner-Priemer, U.W., Kuo, J., Kleindienst, N., Welch, S.S., Reisch, T., Reinhard, I. et al. (2007). State affective instability in borderline personality disorder assessed by ambulatory monitoring. Psychological Medicine, 37, 961-970. Ebner-Priemer, U.W., Welch, S.S., Grossman, P., Reisch, T., Linehan, M.M., & Bohus, M. (2007). Psychophysiological ambulatory assessment
153
10-03-2008 09:18:25
References
of affective dysregulation in borderline personality disorder. Psychiatry Research, 150, 265-275. Edwards, R.T., Hughes, D.A., Hutchings, J., Cilleachair, A., & Bywater, T. (2007). Parenting programme for parents of children at risk of developing conduct disorder: cost effectiveness analysis. British Medical Journal, 334, 682-683. Ellis, T.E. (2001). Psychotherapy with suicidal patients. In D. Lester (Ed.), Suicide prevention: Resources for the millennium (pp. 129-151). Philadelphia: Brunner-Routledge. Endler, N.S., & Parker, J.D.A. (1990). Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations: CISS. Manual. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems. Endler, N.S., & Parker, J.D.A. (1994), Assessment of multidimensional coping: task, emotion, and avoidance strategies. Psychological Assessment, 6, 5060. Enns, M.W., Cox, B.J., Afifi, T.O., De Graaf, R., Ten Have, M., & Sareen, J. (2006). Childhood adversities and risk for suicidal ideation and attempts: a longitudinal population-based study. Psychological Medicine, 36, 1769-1778. Evans, E., Hawton, K., & Rodham, K. (2004). Factors associated with suicidal phenomena in adolescents: A systematic review of populationbased studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 957-979. Evans, E., Hawton, K., & Rodham, K. (2005). In what ways are adolescents who engage in self-harm or experience thoughts of selfharm different in terms of help-seeking, communication and coping strategies? Journal of Adolescence,28,573-587.
Evans, E., Hawton, K., & Rodham, K. (2005). Suicidal phenomena and abuse in adolescents: a review of epidemiological studies. Child Abuse and Neglect, 29, 45-58. Favaro, A., Ferrara, S., & Santonastaso, P. (2007). Self-injurious behavior in a community sample of young women: relationship with childhood abuse and other types of self-damaging behaviours. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68, 122-131. Fawcett, J., Clark, D.C., & Busch, K.A. (1993). Assessing and treating the patient at risk for suicide. Psychiatric Annals, 23, 245-255. Fazaa, N., & Page, S. (2003). Dependency and self-criticism as predictors of suicidal behavior. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 33, 172185. Fergusson, D.M., Woodward, L.J., & Horwood, L.J. (2000). Risk factors and life processes associated with the onset of suicidal behaviour during adolescence and early adulthood. Psychological Medicine, 30, 23-39. Fish, K.B. (2000). Suicide awareness at the elementary school level. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services,38, 20-23. Forman, E.M., Beck, A.T., Brown, G.K., Berk, M.S., & Henriques, G.R. (2004). History of multiple suicide attempts as a behavioral marker of severe psychopathology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 437-443. Fortune, S., & Hawton, K. (2005). Deliberate self-harm in children and adolescents: a research update. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 18, 401-406. Friedberg, R.D. & McClure, J.M. (2002). Clinical practice of cognitive therapy with children and
154
10-03-2008 09:18:25
References
adolescents. The nuts and bolts. London: The Guilford Press. Garnefski, N., Kraaij, V., & Spinhoven, Ph. (2001). Negative life events, cognitive emotion regulation and emotional problems. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 1311-1327. Garnefski, N., Kraaij, V., & Spinhoven, Ph. (2001). De relatie tussen cognitieve copingstrategien en symptomen van depressie, angst en sucidaliteit. Gedrag en Gezondheid, 29, 148-158. Garnefski, N., Kraaij, V., & Spinhoven, Ph. (2002b). Manual for the use of the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. Leiderdorp, The Netherlands: DATEC. Garnefski, N., Teerds, J., Kraaij, V., Legerstee, J. & van den Kommer, T. (2004). Cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depressive symptoms: differences between males and females. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 267-276. Giesen-Bloo, J., van Dyck, R., Spinhoven, Ph., van Tilburg, W., Dirksen, C., van Asselt, T., et al. (2006). Outpatient psychotherapy for borderline personality disorder: A randomized trial of schema focused therapy versus transference focused psychotherapy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 649-658. Glanz, L.M., Haas, G.L., & Sweeney, J.A. (1995). Assessment of hopelessness in suicidal patients. Clinical Psychology Review, 15, 49-64. Gratz, K.L., Conrad, S.D., & Roemer, L. (2002). Risk factors for deliberate self-harm among college students. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72, 128140.
regulation and dysregulation: development, factor structure, and initial validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioural Assessment, 26, 41-54. Gratz, K.L., Rosenthal, M. Z., Tull, M.T., Lejuez, C.W., & Gunderson, J.G. (2006). An experimental investigation of emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 850-855. Grholt, B., Ekeberg, ., Wichtenstrm, L., & Haldorsen, T. (2005). Suicidal and nonsuicidal adolescents: Different factors contribute to self-esteem. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 35, 525-535. Gunnell, D., & Frankel, S. (1994). Prevention of suicide: aspirations and evidence. British Medical Journal, 308, 1227-1233. Gunnell, D., & Lewis, G. (2005). Studying suicide from the life course perspective: implications for prevention. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 187, 206-208. Gunnell, D., Middleton, N., Whitley, E., Dorling, D., & Frankel, S. (2003). Why are suicide rates rising in young men but falling in the elderly? -a time-series analysis of trends in England and Wales 1950-1998. Social Science and Medicine, 57, 595-611. Hall, W.D., Mant, A., Mitchell, P.B. Rendle, V.A., Hickie, I.B., & McManus, P. (2003). Association between antidepressant prescribing and suicide in Australia, 1991-2000: trend analysis. British Medical Journal, 326, 1008. Harner, H.M. (2005). Childhood sexual abuse,
Gratz, K.L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion
teenage pregnancy, and partnering with adult men: exploring the relationship. Journal of
155
10-03-2008 09:18:25
References
Psychosocial Nursing Mental Health Services, 43, 2028. Harrington, R., Pickles, A., Aglan, A., Harrington, V., Burroughs, H., & Kerfoot, M. (2005). Early adult outcomes of adolescents who deliberately poisoned themselves. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,45, 337-345. Harriss, L., & Hawton, K. (2005). Suicidal intent in deliberate self-harm and the risk of suicide: the predictive power of the Suicide Intent Scale. Journal of Affective Disorders, 86, 225-233. Hawton, K. (1997). Attempted suicide. In. D.M. Clark & C.G. Fairburn (Eds.). Science and practice of cognitive behaviour therapy (pp. 285-313). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hawton, K., Arensman, E., Townsend, E., Bremner, S., Feldman, E., Goldney, R., et al. (1998). Deliberate self-harm: systematic review of efficacy of psychosocial and pharmacological treatments in preventing repetition. British Medical Journal, 317, 441-447.
Hawton, K., & Kirk, J. (1989). Problem solving. In K. Hawton, P.M. Salkovskis, J. Kirk & D.M. Clark (Eds.), Cognitive behaviour therapy for psychiatric problems: a practical guide (pp. 406426). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hawton, K., & Van Heeringen, K. (Eds.) (2000). The International Handbook of Suicide and Attempted Suicide. Chichester: Wiley & Sons. Hawton, K., Zahl, D., & Weatherall, R. (2003). Suicide following deliberate self-harm: Longterm follow-up patients who presented to a general hospital. British Journal of Psychiatry, 182, 537-542. Hayes, S.C., Follette, V.M., & Linehan, M.M. (Eds.). (2004). Mindfulness and acceptance: Expanding the cognitive-behavioral tradition. New York: Guilford Press. Hayes, S.C., Strosahl, K., & Wilson, K.G. (1999). Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: An Experimental Approach to Behavior Change. New York: Guilford Press. Henriques, G.R., Brown, G.K., Berk, M.S.,
Hawton, K., Bergen, H., Casey, D., Simkin, S.,Palmer, B., Cooper, J., et al. (2007). Selfharm in England: a tale of three cities. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 42, 513-521.
& Beck, A.T. (2004). Marked increases in psychopathology found in a 30-year cohort comparison of suicide attempters. Psychological Medicine, 34, 833-841. Herman, J.L. (1992). Trauma and recovery. New
Hawton, K., Cole, D., OGrady, J., & Osborn, M. (1982). Motivational aspects of deliberate self-poisoning in adolescents. British Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 286-291. Hawton, K., & Harriss, L. (2006). Deliberate self-harm in people aged 60 years and over: characteristics and outcome of a 20-year cohort. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 21, 572-581.
York: Basic Books. Hox, J.J. (2002). Multilevel analysis: techniques and applications. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., Mahwah, NJ. Hultn, A., Jiang, G.-X., Wasserman, D., Hawton, K., Hjelmeland, H., De Leo, D., et al. (2004). Repetition of attempted suicide among teenagers in Europe: frequency, timing and risk factors. European Child and Adolescent
156
10-03-2008 09:18:25
References
Psychiatry, 10, 161-169. Isacsson, G. (2000). Suicide prevention-a medical breakthrough? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 102, 113-117. Johnson, J.G., Cohen, P., Gould, M.S., Kasen, S., Brown, J., & Brook, J.S. (2002). Childhood adversities, interpersonal difficulties, and risk for suicide attempts during late adolescence and early adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 741-749. Joiner., T.E. et al., Rudd, M.D., & Lester, D. (2002). Perceived burdensomeness and suicidality: Two studies on the suicide notes of those attempting and those completing suicide. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 21, 531-545. Joiner, T.E., Sachs-Ericsson, N.J., Wingate, L.R., Brown, J.S., Anestis, M.D., & Selby, E.A.(2007). Childhood physical and sexual abuse and lifetime number of suicide attempts: A persistent and theoretically important relationship. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 539-547.
disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 38-46. Kamphuis, J.H., Ruyling, S.B., & Reijntjes, A.H. (2007). Testing the emotion regulation hypothesis among self-injuring females. Evidence for differences across mood states. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, in press. Kazdin, A.E. (1998). Research design in clinical psychology. Needam Heights, M.A.: Allyn & Bacon. Kazdin, A.E., & Nock, M.K. (2003). Delineating mechanisms of change in child and adolescent therapy: Methodological issues and research recommendations. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 44, 1116-1129. Kendall, P.C., & Ingram, R.E. (1989). Cognitivebehavioral perspectives: Theory and research on depression and anxiety. In P.C. Kendall & D. Watson (Eds.), Anxiety and depression: Distinctive and overlapping features. New York: Guilford Press.
Kerfoot, M., Dyer, E., Harrington, V., Woodham,
Kapur, N., Cooper, J., King-Hele, S., Webb, R., Lawlor, M., Rodway, C., et al. (2006). The repetition of suicidal behavior: A multicenter cohort study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67, 1599-1609.
A., & Harrington, R. (1996). Correlates and short-term course of self-poisoning in adolescents. British Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 3842. Kerkhof, A., Bernasco, W., Bille-Brahe, U.,
Kapur, N., Cooper, J., Rodway, C., Kelly, J., Guthrie, E., & Mackway-Jones, K. (2005). Predicting the risk of repetition after self harm: cohort study. British Medical Journal,330, 394395. Kaufman, N.K., Rohde, P., Seeley, J.R., Clarke, G.N., & Stice, E. (2005). Potential mediators of cognitive-behavioral therapy for adolescents with comorbid major depression and conduct
Platt, S., & Schmidtke, A. (1989). WHO/EURO Multicentre Study on Parasuicide. European Parasuicide Study Interview Schedule (EPSIS). Leiden, Leiden University, Department of Clinical, Health and Personality Psychology. Kraemer, H.C., Wilson, T., Fairburn, C.G., & Agras, W.S. (2002). Mediators and moderators of treatment effects in randomized clinical trials. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 877-883.
157
10-03-2008 09:18:26
References
Lang, P.J. (1979). A bio-informational theory of emotional imagery, Psychophysiology 16, 495512. Lang, P.J. (1988). What are the data of emotion?. In: V. Hamilton, G.H. Bower and N. Frijda, Editors, Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation, NATO ASI, Series D, 44, 173191. Kluwer: Dordrecht.
behavioral treatment of chronically parasuicidal borderline patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 1060-1064. Linehan, M.M., Camper, P., Chiles, J.A., Strosahl, K., & Shearin, E. (1987). Interpersonal problem solving and parasuicide. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 11, 1-12. Linehan, M.M., Comtois, K.A., Brown, M.Z.,
Leenaars, A.A. (2004). Psychotherapy with suicidal people: a person-centred approach. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Leible, T.L., & Snell, W.E., Jr. (2004). Borderline personality disorder and multiple aspects of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 393404. Levine, D., Marziali, E., & Hood, J. (1997). Emotion processing in borderline personality disorders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 185, 240246. Linehan, M.M. (1993a). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: The Guilford Press. Linehan, M.M. (1993b). Skills training manual for treating borderline personality disorder. New York: The Guilford Press. Linehan, M.M. (1997). Behavioral treatments of suicidal behaviors. Definitional obfuscation and treatment outcomes. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 836, 302328.
Heard, H.L., & Wagner, A. (2006). Suicide Attempt Self-Injury Interview (SASII): Development, Reliability, and Validity of a Scale to Assess Suicide Attempts and Intentional SelfInjury. Psychological Assessment,18, 303312. Linehan, M.M., Comtois, K.A., Murray, A.M., Brown, M.Z., Gallop, R.J., Heard, H.L., et al. (2006). Two-year randomized controlled trial and follow-up of dialectical behavior therapy vs therapy by experts for suicidal behaviors and borderline personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 757-766. Linehan, M.M., Heard, H.L., & Armstrong, H.E. (1993). Naturalistic follow-up of a behavioural treatment for chronically parasuicidal borderline patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 971-974. Linehan, M.M., Tutch, D.A., Heard, H.L., & Armstrong, H.E. (1994). Interpersonal outcome of cognitive behavioural treatment for chronically parasuicidal borderline patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1771-1776. Low, G., Power, M., Duggan. C., Jones, D.,
Linehan, M.M. (2002). Dialectische gedragstherapie bij borderline persoonlijkheidsstoornis. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger. Linehan, M.M., Armstrong, H.E., Suarez, A., Allmon, D., & Heard, H.L. (1991). Cognitive-
& MacLeod, A. (2000). Childhood trauma, dissociation and self-harming behaviour: a pilot study. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 73, 269-278. Lynch, T.R., Chapman, A.L., Rosenthal, M.Z., Kuo, J.R., & Linehan, M.M. (2006). Mechanisms
158
10-03-2008 09:18:26
References
of change in dialectical behaviour therapy: Theoretical and empirical observations. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 459-480. Maas, C.J.M., & Hox, J.J. (2004). Robustness issues in multilevel regression analysis. Statistica Neerlandica, 58, 127-137. Mann, J.J., Waternaux, C., Haas, G.L., & Malone, jnK.M. (1999). Toward a clinical model of suicidal behaviour in psychiatric patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 181-189 McAuliffe, C., Corcoran, P., Keeley, H.S., Arensman, E., Bille-Brahe, U., De Leo, D., et al. (2006). Problem solving ability and repetition of deliberate self-harm: a multicentre study. Psychological Medicine, 36, 45-55. McGee, R., Williams, S., & Nada-Raja, S. (2001). Low self-esteem and hopelessness in childhood and suicidal ideation in early adulthood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 281-291. Michel K., & Valach, L. (2001). Suicide as goaldirected action. In K. van Heeringen (Ed.): Understanding suicidal behaviour: The suicidal process approach to research and treatment (pp.230-254). Chichester: Wiley & Sons. Miller, A.L., Rathus, J.H., & Linehan, M.M. (2007). Dialectical behavior therapy with suicidal adolescents. New York: The Guilford Press. Nezu, A., Nezu, C., & Perri, M. (1989). Problemsolving therapy for depression: Theory, research, and clinical guidelines. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Nijman, H.L.I., & Campo, J.M.L.G. (2002). Situational determinants of inpatient self-harm. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior,32, 167175.
Nixon, M.K., Cloutier, P.E., & Aggarwal, S. (2002). Affect regulation and addictive aspects of repetitive self-injury in hospitalized patients. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1333-1341. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 569-582. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2002). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 504-511. OConnor, R.C. (2003). Suicidal behavior as a cry of pain: Test of a psychological model. Archives of Suicide Research, 7, 297-308. Orbach, I. (2001). Therapeutic empathy with the suicidal wish: Principles of therapy with suicidal individuals. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 55, 166-184. Orbach, I., Mikulincer, M., Gilboa-Schechtman, E., & Sirota, P. (2003). Mental pain and its relationship to suicidality and life meaning. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 33, 231241. Osvath, P., Vrs, V., & Fekete, S. (2004). Life events and psychopathology in a group of suicide attempters. Psychopathology, 37, 36-40. Palmer, S., Davidson, K., Tyrer, P., Gumley, A., Tata, P., Norrie, J., et al. (2006). The costeffectiveness of cognitive behavior therapy for borderline personality disorder: results from the BOSCOT trial. Journal of Personality Disorders, 20, 466481. Persons, J.B. (1989). Cognitive therapy in practice: A case formulation approach. New
159
10-03-2008 09:18:26
References
York: W. W. Norton. Persons, J.B., Davidson, J., & Tompkins, M.A. (2001). Essential Components of CognitiveBehavior Therapy for Depression. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing hormone challenge in female borderline personality disorder subjects with a history of sustained childhood abuse. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 1102-1112. Robson, P.J. (1989). Development of a new self-
Pettigrew, J., & Burcham, J. (1997). Effects of childhood sexual abuse in adult female psychiatric patients. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 31, 208-213. Post, R.M. (1992). Transduction of psychological stress into the neurobiology of recurrent affective disorder. American Journal of Psychology, 149, 999-1009. van Praag H.M. (2003). A stubborn behaviour: the failure of antidepressants to reduce suicide rates. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 4, 184-191.
report questionnaire to measure self-esteem. Psychological Medicine, 19, 513-518. Rodham, K., Hawton, K., & Evans, E. (2004). Reasons for deliberate self-harm: comparison of self-poisoners and self-cutters in a community sample of adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 80-87. Roy, A., Carli, V., & Sarchiapone, M. (2007). Low resilience in suicide attempters. Archives of Suicide Research, 11, 265-269. Roy, A., & Janal, M. (2006). Gender in suicide
Raj, M.A.J., Kumaraiah, V., & Bhide, A.V. (2001). Cognitive-behavioural intervention in deliberate self-harm. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 104, 340-345.
attempt rates and childhood sexual abuse rates: is there an interaction. Suicide and LifeThreatening Behavior, 36, 329-336. Rudd, M.D. (2004). Cognitive therapy for
Rasbash, J., Steele, F., Browne, W., & Prosser, B. (2004). A user's guide to MLwiN, version 2.0 [Computer software]. London: University of London, Institute of Education, Centre for Multilevel Modelling. Reinecke, M.A., & DuBois, D.L. (2001). Socioenvironmental and cognitive risk and resources: Relations to mood and suicidality among inpatient adolescents. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly, 15, 195-222. Rinne, T., de Kloet, R.E., Wouters, L., Goekoop, J.G., de Rijk, R.H., & van den Brink, W. (2002). Hyperresponsiveness of hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal axis to combined
suicidality: An integrative, comprehensive, and practical approach to conceptualization. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 34, 59-72. Rudd, M.D., Ellis, T.E., Rajab, M.H., & Wehrly, T. (2000). Personality types and suicidal behavior: An exploratory study. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, 30, 199-212. Rudd, M.D., Joiner, T., & Rajab, M.H. (2001). Treating suicidal behaviour. An effective, timelimited approach. New York: The Guilford Press. Rudd, M.D., Mandrusiak, M., & Joiner, T.E. (2006). The case against no-suicide contracts: the commitment to treatment statement as a practice alternative. Journal of Clinical
160
10-03-2008 09:18:27
References
Psychology: In Session, 62, 243-251. Rutter, M. (2007). Resilience, competence, and coping. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 205-209. Ryan, K.D., Watanabe, H., Hoyt, D.R., Kilmer, R.P., & Cauce, A.M. (2000). Psychological consequences of child maltreatment in homeless adolescents: untangling the unique effects of maltreatment and family environment. Child Abuse & Neglect,24, 333-52.
Liu, K.S., Paty, J.A., & Kassel, J.D., et al.(2002). Immediate antecedents of cigarette smoking: an analysis from ecological momentary assessment, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 531545. Silverman, M. M. (2006). The language of suicidology. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 36, 519-532. Schmidtke, A., Bille-Brache, U., De Leo, D., &
Sandin, B., Chorot, P., Santed, M.A., Valiente, R.M., & Joiner, T.E. (1998). Negative life events and adolescent suicidal behaviour: a critical analysis from the stress process perspective. Journal of Adolescence, 21, 415-426. Sansone, R.A., Gaither, G.A., & Songer, D.A. (2002). Self-harm behaviors throughout the life cycle: A pilot study of inpatients with borderline personality disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 43, 215-218. Segal, Z.V., Williams, J.M.G., & Teasdale, J.D. (2002). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression. A new approach to preventing relapse. London: The Guilford Press. Segal, Z.V., Williams, J.M.G., & Teasdale, J.D. (2004). Aandachtgerichte cognitieve therapie bij depressie. Een nieuwe methode om terugval te voorkomen. Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Nieuwezijds. Schwartz, J.E., & Stone, A.A. (1998). Strategies for analyzing ecological momentary assessment data. Health Psychology, 17, 616. Shea, S.C. (2002). The practical art of suicide assessment. A guide for mental health professionals and substance abuse counsellors. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Shiffman, S., Gwaltney, C.J., Balabanis, M.H.,
Kerkhof, A. (2004). Suicidal behaviour in Europe. Gottingen, Germany: Hogrefe & Huber. Seedat, S., Stein, M.B., & Forde, D.R. (2005). Association between physical partner violence, posttraumatic stress, childhood trauma, and suicide attempts in a community sample of women. Violence and Victims, 20, 87-98. Sheehan, D.V., & Lecrubier, Y. (1992, 1994, 1998). Mini-International Psychiatric Interview. M.I.N.I. PLUS. English version 5.0.0. DSM-IV. University of South Florida--Tampa. Sinclair, J.M.A., Crane, C., Hawton, K., & Williams, J.M.G., (2007). The role of autobiographical memory specificity in deliberate self-harm: Correlates and consequences. Journal of Affective Disorders, in press. Skegg, K. (2005). Self-Harm. Lancet, 366, 14711481. Slee, N., Arensman, E., Garnefski, N., & Spinhoven, Ph. (2007). Cognitive behavioral therapy for Deliberate Self-Harm. Crisis, 28, 175-182. Slee, N., Garnefski, N., Spinhoven, Ph. & Arensman, E. (2008). The influence of cognitive emotion regulation strategies and depression severity on Deliberate Self-Harm. Suicide and
161
10-03-2008 09:18:27
References
Life-Threatening Behavior. In press. Slee, N., Garnefski, N., Van der Leeden, R., Arensman, E., & Spinhoven, Ph. (2008). Outcomes of a randomized controlled trial of a cognitive behavioral intervention for Deliberate Self-Harm patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 192, 202-211. Slee, N., Spinhoven, Ph., Garnefski, N., & Arensman, E. (2008). Childhood trauma predicts psychopathology and treatment outcome in Deliberate Self-Harm patients. Manuscript submitted for publication. Slee, N., Spinhoven, Ph., Garnefski, N., & Arensman, E. (2008). Emotion regulation as mediator of treatment outcome in a randomized controlled trial of cognitivebehavioural therapy for Deliberate SelfHarm patients. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy. In press. Smith, J.M., Aloy, L.B., & Abramson, L.Y. (2006). Cognitive vulnerability to depression, rumination, hopelessness, and suicidal ideation: Multiple pathways to self-injurious thinking. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 36, 443-454. Snijders, T.A.B., & Bosker, R.J. (1993). Standard errors and sample sizes in two-level research. Journal of Educational Statistics, 18, 237-260. Sderberg, S., Kullgren, G., & Salander Renberg, E. (2004). Childhood sexual abuse predicts poor outcome seven years after parasuicide. Social Psychiatry Psychiatric Epidemiology, 39, 916-920.
95, 95-102. Speckens, A.E.M., & Hawton, K. (2005). Social problem solving in adolescents with suicidal behavior: A systematic review. Suicide and LifeThreatening Behavior, 35, 365-387. Stirling, J. (2007). Beyond Munchausen syndrome by proxy: identification and treatment of child abuse in a medical setting. Pediatrics,119, 1026-1030. Thalheimer, W., & Cook, S. (2002, August). How to calculate effect sizes from published research articles: A simplified methodology. Retrieved August 31, 2005 from http://worklearning.com/effect_sizes.htm. Teasdale, J.D., Segal, Z.V., & Williams, J.M.G. (1995). How does cognitive therapy prevent depressive relapse and why should attentional control (mindfulness) help? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 25-39. Ten Have, M., de Graaf, R., van Dorsselaer, S., Verdurmen, J., van t Land, H., & Vollebergh, W.(2006).Suicidaliteit in de algemene bevolking: gedachten en pogingen. Resultaten van The Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study(NEMESIS). Utrecht: Trimbos Instituut Toumbourou, J.W., & Gregg, M.E. (2002). Impact of an empowerment-based parent education program on the reduction of youth suicide risk factors. Journal of Adolescence Health,31, 277-285. Townsend, E., Hawton, K., Altman, D.G.,
Sokero, P., Eerola, M., Rytsl, H., Melartin, T., Leskel, U., Lestel-Mielonen , P., et al. (2006). Decline in suicidal ideation among patients with MDD is preceded by decline in depression and hopelessness. Journal of Affective Disorders,
Arensman, E., Gunnell, D., Hazell, P., et al. (2001). The efficacy of problem solving treatments after deliberate self-harm: metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials with respect to depression, hopelessness and
162
10-03-2008 09:18:27
References
improvement in problems. Psychological Medicine, 31, 979-988. Tyrer, P., Schmidt, U., Knapp, M., Jones, V., Tom, B., Byford, S., et al. (2004). Differential effects of manual assisted cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of recurrent deliberate self-harm and personality disturbance: the POPMACT study. Journal of Personality Disorders,18, 102-116. Tyrer, P., Thompson, S., Schmidt, U., Jones, M., Knapp, M., Davidson, J., et al. (2003). Randomized controlled trial of brief cognitive behaviour therapy versus treatment as usual in recurrent deliberate self-harm: the POPMACT study. Psychological Medicine, 33, 969-976. Van Bergen, D.D., Saharso, S., Smit, J.H., & Kerhof, A.F.J.M. (2007). Gender and cultural patterns of suicidal behavior: young Hindustani immigrant women in The Netherlands. Crisis, 27, 181-188.
suicidal behaviour. The suicidal process approach to research, treatment and prevention, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Van Heeringen, K., Hawton, K., & Williams, J.M.G. (2000). Pathways to suicide: an integrative approach. In: K. Hawton and K. van Heeringen, Editors, The international handbook of suicide and attempted suicide. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester, England, pp. 223-234. Van Heeringen, C., & Kerkhof, A.J.F.M. (red.) (2000). Behandelingsstrategien bij sucidaliteit. Houten: Bohn Stafleu van Loghum. Verheul, R., van den Bosch, L.M., Koeter, M.W., de Ridder, M.A., Stijnen, T., & van den Brink, W. (2003). Dialectical behaviour therapy for women with borderline personality disorder: 12-month randomised clinical trial in the Netherlands. British Journal of Psychiatry, 182, 135-140. Vliet, I.M. van, Leroy, H., & Van Megen, H.J.G.M.
Van den Bosch, M.C., Verheul, R., Schippers, G.M., & van den Brink, W. (2002). Dialectical Behavior Therapy of borderline patients with and without substance use problems. Implementation and long-term effects. Addictive Behaviors, 27, 911-923. Van der Does, A.J.W. (2002). Handleiding bij de Nederlandse bewerking van de BDI-II. San Antonio, TX / Lisse: The Psychological Corporation/Swets Test Publishers. Van der Kolk, B.A. (1996). The complexity of adaptation to trauma. Self-regulation, stimulus, discrimination and characterological development. In B.A. van der Kolk, A.C. McFarlane & L. Weisaeth (Eds), Traumatic Stress. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 182-214. Van Heeringen, K. (Ed.) (2001). Understanding
(2000). M.I.N.I. PLUS. M.I.N.I. Internationaal Neuropsychiatrisch Interview. Nederlandse Versie 5.0.0. Leiden: Leids Universitair Medisch Centrum. Waller, N., Putnam, F., & Carlson, E. (1996). Types of dissociation and dissociative types: A taxonomic analysis of dissociative experiences. Psychological Methods, 1, 300-321. Watkins, E.R., & Teasdale, J.D. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive self-focus in depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82, 1-8. Weertman, A., Arntz, A., Schouten, E., & Dreessen, L. (2005). Influences of Beliefs and Personality Disorders on Treatment Outcome in Anxiety Patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 936-944.
163
10-03-2008 09:18:27
References
Wells, A. (2002). GAD, metacognition and mindfulness: an information processing analysis. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9, 95-100. Wells, A., & Matthews, G. (1994). Attention and emotion: a clinical perspective. Hove, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd. Williams, J.M.G. (1984). The psychological treatment of depression. A guide to the theory and practice of cognitive-behaviour therapy. London: Croom Helm. Williams, M. (1997). Cry of pain: Understanding suicide and self-harm. Penguin: London. Williams, M. (2002). Suicide and attempted suicide. London: Penguin Books. Williams, J.M.G., Barnhofer, T., Crane, C., & Beck, A.T. (2005). Problem solving deteriorates following mood challenge in formerly depressed patients with a history of suicidal ideation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 421-431. Williams, J.M.G., Crane, C., Barnhofer, T., Van der Does, A.J.W., & Segal, Z.V. (2006). Recurrence of suicidal ideation across depressive episodes. Journal of Affective Disorders, 91, 189-194.
Witte, T.K., Fitzpatrick, K.K., Warren, K.L., Schatschneider, C., & Schmidt, N.B. (2006). Naturalistic evaluation of suicidal ideation: Variability and relation to attempt status. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1029-1040. Yang, B., & Clum, G.A. (1996). Effects of early negative life experiences on cognitive functioning and risk for suicide: a review, Clinical Psychology Review, 16, 177-195. Yates, T.M. (2004). The developmental psychopathology of self-injurious behavior: Compensatory regulation in posttraumatic adaptation. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 3574. Yen, S., Zlotnick, C., & Costello, E. (2002). Affect regulation in women with borderline personality disorder traits. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190, 693696. Young, J.E. (1994). Cognitive therapy for personality disorders: a schema-focused approach (Rev. Ed.). Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Press. Young, J.E., & Klosko, J.S. (1994). Reinventing your life: How to break free from negative life patterns and feel great again. New York: Penguin Group. Young, J.E., Klosko, J.S., & Weishaar., M.E.
Williams, J.M.G., Duggan, D.S., Crane, C., & Fennell, M.J.V. (2006). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for prevention of recurrence of suicidal behavior. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 201-210. Wind, T.W., & Silvern, L. (1992). Type and extent of child abuse as predictors of adult functioning. Journal of Family Violence, 7, 261281.
(2003). Schema therapy: A practitioner's guide. New York: Guilford Press. Ystgaard, M., Hestetun, I., Loeb, M., & Mehlum, L. (2004). Is there a specific relationship between childhood sexual and physical abuse and repeated suicidal behavior? Child Abuse and Neglect, 28, 863-875. Zahl, D.L., & Hawton, K. (2004). Repetition of deliberate self-harm and subsequent suicide
164
10-03-2008 09:18:27
References
risk: long-term follow-up study of 11583 patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 185, 70-75. Ziegler, D.S., Sammut, J., & Piper, A.C. (2005). Assessment and follow-up of suspected child abuse in preschool children with fractures seen in a general hospital emergency department. Journal of Paediatric Child Health,41, 251-255.
165
10-03-2008 09:18:28
hoofdstuk 10_nederlandse samenva166 166
02-03-2008 21:37:30
Nederlandse Samenvatting Dankwoord Curriculum Vitae
02-03-2008 21:37:30
Samenvatting
Samenvatting
Zelfbeschadiging omvat alle gedragingen waarbij letsel wordt toegebracht aan het eigen lichaam, zoals snijden, branden, krassen, hoofdbonken, overdosering en het innemen van giftige stoffen, ongeacht de intentie (Hawton, Zahl, & Weatherall, 2003). En op de 20 jongeren tussen de 15 en 20 jaar heeft er ervaring mee (de Wilde, 2005). Bij volwassenen tussen de 18 en 34 jaar is dat ongeveer n op de 35 (Ten Have et al., 2006). De aard van de verwondingen die mensen zichzelf toebrengen zegt weinig over het achterliggende motief. Achter een lichte verwonding kan een doodswens schuilgaan, terwijl iemand die veel pillen slikt dat kan doen om door anderen gehoord te worden. Pas als je weet waarom iemand zich verwondt, kun je de ernst van de situatie inschatten. Mensen die zichzelf beschadigen doen dit echter meestal in het geheim. Schaamte speelt hierbij een grote rol. Slechts een klein percentage zoekt hulp, waardoor de omvang van zelfbeschadiging zich voor een groot deel onttrekt aan het oog van de hulpverlening (Evans, Hawton, & Rodham, 2005). Bekend is dat zelfbeschadiging toeneemt in de puberteit en een piek bereikt bij de leeftijd van 15 jaar (Schmidtke et al., 1996). Als hulp uitblijft kan zelfbeschadiging verergeren. Bovendien is zelfbeschadiging een sterke voorspeller voor sucide. Hoewel het risico op sucide het hoogst is tijdens de eerste 6 maanden na zelfbeschadigend gedrag (Cooper et al., 2005), blijft het nog tientallen jaren verhoogd, vooral als de psychiatrische en psychosociale problemen van jongeren zich voortzetten in de volwassenheid (Harrington et al., 2005). Onderzoek laat zien dat zelfbeschadiging vaak impulsief is (Rodham, Evans, & Hawton, 2004), en volgt op ruzies met ouders of partner, het verbreken van een relatie, of problemen op school of op het werk. In veel gevallen treedt zelfbeschadiging op in de context van depressieve klachten, angstklachten en gedragsproblemen (Burgess, Hawton, & Lovday,1998; Kerfoot et al., 1996). Bovendien hebben mensen die zichzelf beschadigen dikwijls zeer pijnlijke en schokkende ervaringen meegemaakt, zoals seksueel misbruik en mishandeling binnen het gezin (Evans, Hawton, & Rodham, 2005). Behandelingen van zelfbeschadigend gedrag kunnen in twee groepen worden ingedeeld: behandelingen die zich richten op de onderliggende psychiatrische klachten en behandelingen die specifiek gericht zijn op zelfbeschadigend gedrag. Bij aanvang van het onderzoeksproject was er voor beide invalshoeken enige evidentie uit empirisch onderzoek. De meeste studies hadden echter ernstige methodologische tekortkomingen, zoals kleine onderzoeksgroepen en het ontbreken van random toewijzing aan condities. De huidige studie is opgezet om de effectiviteit te onderzoeken van een cognitieve gedragstherapie (CGT) die specifiek gericht is op zelfbeschadigend gedrag bij adolescenten en (jong) volwassenen (15-35). Gezien de ernst en complexiteit van zelfbeschadiging is het van groot belang dat de
168
02-03-2008 21:37:30
Samenvatting
kennis over effectieve behandelingen voor zelfbeschadiging toeneemt. Het verbeteren van behandelingen voor zelfbeschadigend gedrag is dan ook het belangrijkste doel van dit proefschrift. Het proefschrift combineert theorie, onderzoek en praktische adviezen voor de therapeutische praktijk. Het behandelt vragen als: Hoe kunnen we de theoretische kennis over risicofactoren vertalen naar de klinische praktijk? Is een kortdurende CGT die zich specifiek richt op zelfbeschadigend gedrag effectief? Wat maakt de CGT effectief? Is de kortdurende CGT voor alle clinten even effectief? Verschillen mensen die zichzelf beschadigen van mensen zonder voorgeschiedenis van zelfbeschadiging op het gebied van emotieregulatie? Tot zover de achtergrond van het onderzoek zoals beschreven in de algemene inleiding van hoofdstuk 1. Hoofdstuk 2 gaat over vraag hoe theoretische kennis over risicofactoren vertaald kan worden naar de therapeutische praktijk. Om de belangrijkste ingredinten voor een effectieve cognitief-gedragsmatige behandeling van zelfbeschadigend gedrag op te sporen, worden drie cognitief-gedragsmatige theorien besproken: de theorien van Linehan (1993), Berk en anderen (2004) en Rudd en anderen (2001). Een kritische analyse van deze theorien leidt tot de formulering van vier essentile ingredinten voor cognitieve gedragstherapie bij zelfbeschadigend gedrag: (1) een veilige therapeutische relatie, (2) het vergroten van emotieregulatievaardigheden, (3) het vergroten van functionele cognities en (4) het vergroten van probleemoplossingsvaardigheden. De werkzaamheid van deze behandelingen zou verklaard kunnen worden door deze vier elementen. Dit is echter nooit onderzocht. Het belangrijkste doel van hoofdstuk 2 is dan ook om therapeuten een theoretisch kader te bieden dat houvast geeft bij het werken met clinten met zelfbeschadigend gedrag. Het theoretische kader kan uitkomst bieden als een therapie vastloopt, omdat therapeuten dan na kunnen gaan welk van de ingredinten te weinig aan bod is gekomen. Op basis van dit theoretische kader hebben we een kortdurende CGT ontwikkeld voor zelfbeschadigend gedrag. Hoofdstuk 3 beschrijft deze kortdurende CGT (12 sessies van 45 minuten). De behandeling bestaat uit 3 fasen. In de vroege fase (sessie 1 en 2) wordt de zelfbeschadiging in kaart gebracht, worden doelen gesteld en maken de therapeut en de clint afspraken. In de middenfase van de behandeling (sessie 3 t/m 10) is de aandacht gericht op de cognitieve, emotionele, gedrags- en relationele problemen die zelfbeschadiging in stand houden. In de laatste fase van de behandeling (sessie 11 en 12) ligt het accent op preventie van terugval en de rol die negatieve gedachten en negatieve gevoelens hierbij spelen. Hoofdstuk 4 beschrijft de uitkomsten van de effectstudie naar de kortdurende CGT. De studie bestond uit 90 mensen (95% vrouwen), in leeftijd varirend van 15-35 jaar, die random werden toegewezen aan twee groepen: n groep kreeg CGT als aanvulling op reguliere hulp, de andere groep kreeg alleen reguliere hulp. Na afloop van de behandeling rapporteerden
169
02-03-2008 21:37:30
Samenvatting
mensen die aanvullend CGT hadden gekregen niet alleen minder zelfbeschadigend gedrag, maar ook minder depressieve klachten, angstklachten en sucidale gedachten. Bovendien was hun zelfvertrouwen toegenomen en waren ze beter in staat om met dagelijkse problemen om te gaan. Het lijkt aannemelijk dat de positieve uitkomsten toegeschreven kunnen worden aan de CGT, omdat de clinten random waren toegewezen aan n van beide groepen en de groepen bij aanvang van de studie niet van elkaar verschilden wat betreft psychologische en psychiatrische klachten. Het is bemoedigend dat deze positieve resultaten zijn gevonden bij clinten met ernstige psychiatrische klachten en een lange voorgeschiedenis van zelfbeschadiging. Deze resultaten lijken te bevestigen dat zelfbeschadiging benvloed kan worden door het aanpakken van disfunctionele gedachten, problemen met emotieregulatie, vaardigheidstekorten en relationele problemen. Een belangrijke vervolgvraag is hoe de CGT voor zelfbeschadigend gedrag precies werkt. Recente theorien over zelfbeschadiging roepen de vraag op of de werkzaamheid van de CGT zou kunnen liggen in het verminderen van problemen met emotieregulatie. Deze vraag is echter nooit onderzocht in een gerandomiseerde en gecontroleerde studie. Het doel van de studie die in hoofdstuk 5 beschreven wordt is om te onderzoeken of veranderingen in emotieregulatie inderdaad de uitkomst van de behandeling mediren. De resultaten lieten zien dat veranderingen in zelfbeschadigend gedrag deels werden gemedieerd door veranderingen in problemen met emotieregulatie. Bovendien werd onderzocht of depressieve klachten, angstklachten en sucidale gedachten een medirende rol speelden. Hoewel deze klachten sterk verminderden onder invloed van de CGT, speelden ze geen medirende rol. Deze bevindingen suggereren dat hoewel het belangrijk is om in behandelingen voor zelfbeschadiging rekening te houden met aanwezige psychiatrische klachten, de behandeling primair gericht zou moeten zijn op problemen met emotieregulatie. Een andere belangrijke vraag is voor wie de CGT geschikt is. Het doel van de studie in hoofdstuk 6 was om te onderzoeken of de CGT effectief is voor clinten met uiteenlopende demografische, psychologische en psychiatrische kenmerken en in het bijzonder misbruik en mishandeling in de kindertijd. Clinten die verschilden op demografische, psychologische en psychiatrische kenmerken bleken evenveel baat te hebben bij de therapie. Onderzoek naar misbruik of mishandeling in de kindertijd (< 15 jaar) liet zien dat 46% van de clinten was mishandeld, 46% was seksueel misbruikt, 96% was emotioneel verwaarloosd en 29% rapporteerde een combinatie van mishandeling en seksueel misbruik in de kindertijd. Clinten met een voorgeschiedenis van mishandeling, misbruik, of een combinatie van mishandeling en misbruik, hadden bij aanvang van behandeling de ernstigste psychologische en psychiatrische klachten. Toch bleken zij evenveel baat te hebben bij de CGT als clinten zonder voorgeschiedenis van mishandeling of misbruik. Het lijkt erop dat een CGT die niet specifiek is gericht op de verwerking van traumas uit de
170
02-03-2008 21:37:30
Samenvatting
kindertijd werkzaam kan zijn bij clinten met een verleden van vroege traumas. Uit de resultaten blijkt echter ook dat clinten met een voorgeschiedenis van seksueel misbruik minder baat hebben bij reguliere behandelingen dan clinten zonder traumatische voorgeschiedenis. Dit lijkt erop te wijzen dat juist deze clinten veel baat hebben bij de ingredinten van de CGT, zoals het verbeteren van emotieregulatievaardigheden. CGT lijkt daarom de behandeling van eerste keus. Hoofdstuk 7 beschrijft de relatie tussen het gebruik van verschillende cognitieve strategien om emoties te reguleren en zelfbeschadigend gedrag. Jonge vrouwen die zichzelf beschadigen (n=85) werden vergeleken met jonge vrouwen zonder geschiedenis van zelfbeschadiging (n=93) op verschillende maten voor de inhoud van cognities (bijv. gedachten van hulpeloosheid, anderen tot last te zijn, gedachten liefde onwaardig te zijn) en cognitieve processen (bijv. gebrek aan helderheid over emoties, problemen met impuls controle, het niet-accepteren van emoties). Voor alle uitkomstmaten werden significante groepsverschillen gevonden, zelfs wanneer er gecontroleerd werd voor de ernst van depressieve klachten. Vervolgens lieten logistische regressie analyses zien dat specifieke maten voor de inhoud van cognities, in het bijzonder sucidale gedachten, weinig zelfvertrouwen en jezelf de schuld geven, een significante, onafhankelijke bijdrage leverden aan de voorspelling van zelfbeschadigend gedrag. Een vergelijkbaar resultaat werd gevonden met betrekking tot cognitieve processen, in het bijzonder: gebrek aan helderheid over emoties, problemen met impuls controle, en het niet-accepteren van emoties. Wanneer er voor de ernst van depressieve klachten gecontroleerd werd, voorspelden sucidale gedachten en het niet-accepteren van emoties -onafhankelijk van elkaar- zelfbeschadigend gedrag. Het sterke verband tussen sucidale gedachten en zelfbeschadigend gedrag lijkt erop te wijzen dat deze gedachten een belangrijke rol spelen bij terugval en chroniciteit van zelfbeschadigend gedrag. Het sterke verband tussen het niet-accepteren van emoties en zelfbeschadigend gedrag sluit aan bij theorien die stellen dat zelfbeschadigend gedrag de functie heeft om emoties niet te voelen. Deze bevindingen worden besproken in relatie tot recente CGT interventies, in het bijzonder Dialektische Gedragstherapie, Aandachtsgerichte Cognitieve Therapie en Acceptatie en Commitment Therapie. In het achtste hoofdstuk worden de belangrijkste bevindingen van de studies in dit proefschrift nog eens samengevat. Ook komen de beperkingen van de studies aan de orde. Tenslotte worden aanbevelingen gedaan voor verder onderzoek en worden de implicaties voor de klinische praktijk besproken.
171
02-03-2008 21:37:30
Dankwoord
Dankwoord
Een bekentenis: Lang voordat het proefschrift voltooid was werkte ik aan een eerste opzet voor het dankwoord. Een heimelijk genoegen, want het schrijven van het dankwoord behoor je tot het laatst te bewaren. Met plezier dacht ik terug aan alle mensen die ik de afgelopen vijf jaar had ontmoet. Nu is het zover. Dit is het moment waarop ik de vele mensen die aan deze studie hebben bijgedragen kan bedanken. De clinten vormen de basis van de studie. Jullie ben ik zeer dankbaar. Alles bij elkaar hebben we meer dan duizend uur met elkaar gesproken. Ik prijs me gelukkig dat ik jullie heb mogen leren kennen. Ieder van jullie heeft een uniek verhaal, maar uit alle verhalen spreekt het verlangen naar een ander, beter leven. Ik hoop dat de uitkomsten van deze studie jullie ten goede zullen komen. Denkend aan alle clinten die ik heb ontmoet, is er een persoon in het bijzonder die ik wil bedanken, en dat is Annemieke. We leerden elkaar kennen toen ik je thuis kwam opzoeken om je te interviewen. Dat was het begin van een bijzondere correspondentie. De afgelopen vier jaar stuurde je me talloze brieven, gedichten en fotos. De foto van jou met je hond Ronnie tegen je aangedrukt zal ik nooit vergeten. Op de achterkant schreef je: Mijn hond en ik in een gemene wereld. Door de vele gesprekken en brieven heb ik van dichtbij meegemaakt hoe je ondanks zeer moeilijke levensomstandigheden aan verbetering blijft werken. Ik heb bewondering voor je veerkracht. Je inspireerde me om te blijven zoeken naar werkzame elementen voor therapie. Ik had het geluk om binnen Rivierduinen mensen te ontmoeten die in staat waren anderen zeer vaardig hulp te bieden. Mijn dank gaat uit naar alle therapeuten die meewerkten aan de studie, in het bijzonder Marie-Louise Goslings, Pien van den Kieboom, Hanny van de Kruijs, Nettie van der Luit, Edward Sodderland, John van Westerlaak (allen rijnVeste), Yvonne Baars, Patricia Degener, Ingrid Heijnenkamp, Yvonne Noij en Jos Steemers (allen Rijnhout). Onze intervisiebijeenkomsten (natuurlijk met stroopwafels) waren altijd warm en vrolijk. Ik heb ze als zeer plezierig ervaren. Henk van de Langkruis (teammanager Rivierduinen), Sjoerd Colijn (praktijkopleider Rivierduinen), Erik van Duijn (psychiater Rivierduinen) en Lilian Tham (Jeugd Rivierduinen), jullie hebben je aan de studie verbonden. Dank voor de prettige samenwerking.
Zonder de medewerkers van Rivierduinen en het Leids Universitair Medisch Centrum, en in het bijzonder de medewerkers van het secretariaat, had de studie niet kunnen worden
172
02-03-2008 21:37:30
Dankwoord
uitgevoerd. Dank voor jullie hulp. De dataverwerking was een enorme klus. Inez en Jos, dank voor de zorgvuldige manier waarop jullie te werk zijn gegaan. Dank ook aan alle studenten die data hebben verzameld bij een vergelijkingsgroep van de algemene bevolking. Beste Rien, zonder jouw deskundigheid, rust en humor was ik zeker gestruikeld over de grote hoeveelheid data (die overigens wel netjes waren geordend, want we stelden tevreden vast dat data-analyse gebaat is bij een enigszins dwangmatige aanpak). Dank voor je hulp. Ik kon me geen beter gezelschap wensen. Nicole en Sachlan van De Amsterdam Kamer: jullie kennen de juiste remedie tegen acute stress: samen koffie drinken en daarna lekker naar huis. Deze aanpak is effectief gebleken: mijn proefschrift is af. Behalve in het onderzoeksveld ben ik de afgelopen jaren werkzaam geweest bij de afdeling Kinderen en Jeugd van Rivierduinen in Alphen aan den Rijn. Zo kreeg ik de gelegenheid om te proeven aan het werk van therapeut. De combinatie van onderzoek en klinisch werk inspireerde me. Dank Magda Jasperse, Yt de Jonge en Marco Meijer voor jullie vertrouwen en voor de ruimte die jullie me gaven om de verschillende werkzaamheden te combineren. Mijn dank gaat in het bijzonder uit naar mijn supervisoren Wim Meertens en Pien van den Kieboom. Wim, jouw plezier in het begeleiden van jongeren werkte aanstekelijk! En Pien, hoe blij was ik toen jij instemde om mij te superviseren! Ik heb veel van je geleerd en denk met plezier terug aan de ontspannen en vrolijke supervisie-uurtjes. Het laatste deel van het dankwoord wil ik wijden aan de vrienden van buiten de onderzoekswereld en aan mijn familie. Lieve Caroline, ik vind het heel fijn dat je als paranimf naast me zal staan op 24 april. Alles is goed als we samen zijn. Of het nu 8 uur s morgens is bij verse jus, of midden in de nacht, als we er maar steeds niet toe komen om te gaan slapen omdat we elkaar zoveel te vertellen hebben. Het mooie gevoel dat we het beste voor elkaar willen. Als jij gelukkig bent, ben ik dat ook. En als ik je vertel over een verre reis of een nieuwe liefde, ben je net zo blij als ik. Je bent een schat! Ik hoop dat we heel oud worden. Dan moet ik (hoop ik) nog altijd lachen als jij je weer ns heel druk maakt om iets kleins, en blijven we ons over van alles verwonderen. Want dat vind ik zo bijzonder aan jou, dat je straalt van levensvreugde. Dat het altijd zo mag blijven!
173
02-03-2008 21:37:31
Dankwoord
Lieve Lize-Marie, ik ben heel blij dat je er bent, en dat we elkaar door die blikvangers van witte laarsjes hebben ontmoet. Je bent me heel dierbaar. Het gelukkige gevoel dat we aan een half woord genoeg hebben om elkaar te begrijpen. Telkens als ik je schilderijtje zie maakt mijn hart een sprongetje. Wie kan zoiets moois maken? Een herinnering aan een droomlandschap, een wensbeeld... Je lijkt wel duizend oogjes te hebben voor wat anderen nodig hebben. Door jou ontdekte ik de Contemplatieve Psychologie, en ook dat was precies raak. Dankjewel...! Lieve Jolien, lieve Christien, dank voor jullie vriendschap door de jaren heen! Na een jaar als kluizenaartje, heb ik weer alle tijd voor gezellige etentjes met jullie, oftewel het klassieke veldwerk. Gelukkig bestaat er voor antropologisch veldwerk geen onderzoeksprotocol. Wat uit dit veldwerk voortkomt hangt in grote mate af van onszelf en het toeval. Door gelukkig toeval zijn jullie binnenkort allebei moeder. Jolien en Tom, ik verheug me erop om guide-parent te worden van jullie eerste kindje. Lieve Elly, op dinsdag werken we altijd samen. Gezellig! En nu zijn we ook nog buren! Dearest Susan, Alice, Marie, Christy and Nick, Im so glad weve met. Without this bond of hearts, travelling through Bhutan would have been a completely different experience. Im absolutely thrilled about our plans for next year. I wish we will all be together again. Lieve Elsbeth, de afgelopen jaren heb ik je leren kennen als iemand die heel oprecht is. Je leeft volgens je eigen overtuigingen. Dat bewonder ik. Dank je voor alle keren dat je me hieraan herinnert, dat je me wakker schudt! Ik ben heel blij dat je me terzijde staat bij de verdediging van mijn proefschrift. My dear friends from Contemplative Psychology, working with you has led me to believe that what is most personal to each one of us is the very element that speaks most deeply to others if it is shared or expressed. In so fully being who you are, you inspire me. Stefan, Morten och Susanne: Massa massa krlek frn mig! Dola: Maith dom mo chuid Gaeilge bhriste. Nl agam ach beaginn Gaeilige Brilliant! Slinte chugat! Cead mle filte! And most importantly: Mo gr th. Ma chre Valrie, Dominique et Anne-Emmanuelle: Je vous embrasse bien fort. Hej Sren! Skl! To Jan, in the language of music and sound, all my love. Janny en Gon: Liefs! En een warme omhelzing voor An en Lidia.
174
02-03-2008 21:37:31
Dankwoord
I would also like to express my heartfelt appreciation for my teachers from Contemplative Psychology: Paul Cashman, Petra Drummer, Gisela von Keiser-Grenkowitz, Barbara Mrtens and Melissa Moore. Your teachings are the primary inspiration for my life and work. Op deze plaats wil ik ook mijn tante Elles en mijn nicht Ester bedanken. Lieve Elles, telkens als ik opkeek van het computerscherm zag ik jouw kaartjes met aanmoedigingen. Inmiddels is het een grote verzameling. Zo lief van je. Dank je wel. Lieve S, het jaartal 2008 lijkt in chattaal wel op zon brilletje waarmee je alles om je heen scherper gaat zien: 08. Dit boekje een kwartslag draaien Zie je wat ik bedoel? Zie je ook nieuwe mogelijkheden aan de horizon verschijnen? De nieuwe mogelijkheden- ik verheug me erop. Al was het de afgelopen jaren wel heerlijk om me met jou te kunnen verkneukelen over de opmerkelijke kanten van onderzoek doen-gewoon humoristisch. Gesprekken als deze: Leg nog s n keer uit wat je nou precies wil, met je onderzoek. Kop op! Nog maar 3.5 jaar! Ja dokter, allemaal vage klachten. En de buren maar denken dat ik nog lekker aan het studeren ben En nu op naar het feest!
Het laatste dankwoord is voor mijn zus en ouders. Jullie zijn er altijd voor me. Dat is mijn grootste geluk. Mijn lieve zus, ik hou zoveel van je. Je hebt me steeds gesteund (en ook stevig door elkaar gerammeld toen het nodig was). Dank je wel lieve P! En je weet: Tot in den doet Lieve mamma (Elles), ik hou heel veel van je. Door jou is het heerlijk om thuis te komen: neerploffen op de bank voor de open haard, met alle dieren erbij, en natuurlijk een wijntje..! Lieve mamma (Carry), ik hou zoveel van je. De warmte die ik voel als we samen zijn is alles wat ik me kan wensen. Je bent me zo lief.
Nadja
175
02-03-2008 21:37:31
Curriculum Vitae
Curriculum Vitae
Nadja Slee was born on January 30, 1979 in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. In 1997, after completing secondary education (VWO) at the Berger Scholengemeenschap in Bergen, she studied Clinical Psychology and Medical Anthropology at the University of Amsterdam. She graduated cum laude in Clinical Psychology in 2001. In March 2002 she started the research project that has led to the present thesis. From 2003 till 2007 she worked parttime as a clinician in mental health centre Rivierduinen while in a post-doctorate training for cognitive-behavioural therapist.
176
02-03-2008 21:37:31

Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy For Deliberate Self-Harm

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy For Deliberate Self-Harm

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy For Deliberate Self-Harm

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What is the purpose of this study?

What is the purpose of this study?

What treatment protocol is described?

What treatment protocol is described?

Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for Deliberate Self-Harm

PrintPartners Ipskamp, Enschede

Design: cover & layout: Esther Beekman (www.estherontwerpt.nl)