Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 2 1

Chapter 2 Stress and Strain

2.0 INTRODUCTION
In the first Chapter we discuss the equations of statics, and how to determine the ground
reaction for any structure. The method can also be used to determine the internal loads carried
by the members or parts of a body. We now need to define how these internal loads are
distributed and carried by the material and the deformation they create.

2.1 STRESS (SI&4
th
p. 22-23, 3
rd
p. 22-23)
Consider an element of continuous (no voids) and cohesive (no cracks, breaks and defects)
material subjected to a number of externally applied loads as shown in Fig. 2.1a). It is
supposed that the member is in equilibrium.
F
F
n
F
t
Cross section: A A
F
1
F
2
F
3 F
5
F
4
Free Body Diagram
F
1
F
2
t
n

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.1 External and internal forces in a structural member

If we now cut this body, the applied forces can be thought of as being distributed over the cut
area A as in Fig. 2.1b). Now if we look at infinitesimal regions A, we assume the resultant
force in this infinitesimal area is F. In fact, F is also a distributed force. When A is
extremely small, we can say that the distributed force F is uniform. In other words, if we
look at the whole sectioned area, we can say that the entire area A is subject to an infinite
number of forces, where each one (of magnitude F) acts over a small area of size A. Now,
we can define stress.
Definition: Stress is the intensity of the internal force on a specific plane
passing through a point.
Mathematically, stress can be expressed as
A
F
lim
A

=
0
(2.1)
Dividing the magnitude of internal force F by the acting area A, we obtain the stress. If we
let A approach zero, we obtain the stress at a point. In general, the stress could vary in the
body, which depends on the position that we are concerning. The stress is one of most
important concepts that we introduced in mechanics of solids.

Normal and Shear Stress
As we known, force is a vector that has both magnitude and direction. But in the stress
definition, we only consider the magnitude of the force. Obviously, this may easily confuse
us. Lets still take patch A as an example. As we can see, force F is not perpendicular to
the sectioned infinitesimal area A. If we only take the magnitude of the force into account,
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 2 2

apparently, the stress may not reflect the real mechanical status at this point. In other words,
we need to consider both magnitude and direction of the force.

Now lets resolve the force F in normal and tangential direction of the acting area as Fig.
2.1b). The intensity of the force or force per unit area acting normally to section A is called
Normal Stress, (sigma), and it is expressed as:
A
F
lim
n
A

0
= (2.2)
If this stress pulls on the area it is referred as Tensile Stress and defined as Positive. If it
pushes on the area it is called Compressive Stress and defined as Negative.

The intensity or force per unit area acting tangentially to A is called Shear Stress, (tau), and
it is expressed as:
A
F
lim
t
A

0
= (2.3)

Average Normal Stress (SI&4
th
p. 24-31, 3
rd
p. 27-34)
To begin, we only look at beams that carry tensile or compressive loads and which are long
and slender. Such beams can then be assumed to carry a constant stress, and Eq. (2.2) can be
simplified to:
A
F
= (2.4)
We call this either Average Normal Stress or Uniform Uniaxial Stress.

Units of Stress
The units in the SI system is the Newton per square meter or Pascal, i.e. : Pa = N/m
2
.
In engineering, Pa seems too small, so we usually use:
Kilo Pascal KPa (=Pa10
3
) e.g. 20,000Pa=20kPa
Mega Pascal MPa (=Pa10
6
) e.g. 20,000,000Pa=20MPa
Giga Pascal GPa (=Pa10
9
) e.g. 20,000,000,000Pa=20GPa

Example 2.1: An 80 kg lamp is supported by a single electrical
copper cable of diameter d = 3.15 mm. What is the stress carried
by the cable.
To determine the stress in the wire/cable as Eq. (2.4), we need
the cross sectional area A of the cable and the applied internal
force F:

2 6
2 2
10 793 . 7
4
00315 . 0
4
m
d
A

=

= =


N . mg F 784 8 9 80 = = =
so MPa .
.
A
F
6 100
10 793 7
784
6
=

= =



Allowable Stress (SI&4
th
p. 48-49, 3
rd
p. 51-52)
From Example 2.1, we may concern whether or not 80kg would be too heavy, or say
100.6MPa stress would be too high for the wire/cable, from the safety point of view. Indeed,
stress is one of most important indicators of structural strength. When the stress (intensity of
force) of an element exceeds some level, the structure will fail. For convenience, we usually
adopt allowable force or allowable stress to measure the threshold of safety in engineering.
80kg
F
a a
Section
a-a
A
d
FBD
F
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 2 3


Moreover, there are following several reasons that we must take into account in engineering:
The load for design may be different from the actual load.
Size of structural member may not be very precise due to manufacturing and assembly.
Various defects in material due to manufacturing processing.

One simple method to consider such uncertainties is to use a number called the Factor of
Safety, F.S., which is a ratio of failure load F
fail
(found from experimental testing) divided by
the allowable one F
allow

allow
fail
F
F
. S . F = (2.5)
If the applied load is linearly related to the stress developed in the member, as in the case of
using A / F = , then we can define the factor of safety as a ratio of the failure stress
fail
to
the allowable stress
allow

allow
fail
S F

= . . (2.6)
Usually, the factor of safety is chosen to be greater than 1 in order to avoid the potential
failure. This is dependent on the specific design case. For nuclear power plant, the factor of
safety for some of its components may be as high as 3. For an aircraft design, the higher the
F.S. (safer), the heavier the structure, therefore the higher in the operational cost. So we need
to balance the safety and cost.

The value of F.S. can be found in design codes and engineering handbook. More often, we
use Eq. (2.6) to compute the allowable stress:
. .S F
fail
allow

= (2.7)

Example 2.2: In Example 2.1, if the maximum allowable stress for copper is

Cu,allow
=50MPa, please determine the minimum size of the wire/cable from the material
strength point of view.
Mathematically,
allow Cu
d
mg
A
F
,
2
4

= =
Therefore: mm
mg
d
allow Cu
469 . 4 10 469 . 4
4
3
,
= =

Obviously, the lower the allowable stress, the bigger the cable size. Stress is an indication of
structural strength and elemental size.

In engineering, there are two significant problems associated with stress as follows.

Problem (1) Stress Analysis: for a specific structure, we can determine the stress level.
With the stress level, we then justify the safety and reliability of a structural
member, i.e. known size A and load F, to determine stress level: A F =

Problem (2) Engineering Design: Inversely, we can design a structural member based on the
allowable stress so that it can satisfy the safety requirements, i.e. known materials
allowable stress
allow
and load F, to design the element size:
allow
F A
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 2 4

2.2 DEFORMATION (SI&4
th
p. 67-68, 3
rd
p. 70)
Whenever a force is applied to a body, its shape and size will change. These changes are
referred as deformations. These deformations can be thought of being either positive
(elongation) or negative (contraction) in sign as shown in Fig. 2.2.

Original length
F F
Deformation
(elongation)
Original length
F F
Deformation
(contraction)
(+) ()


Fig. 2.2 Deformation due to applied axial forces

It is however very hard to make a relative comparison between bodies or structures of different
size and length as their individual deformations will be different. This requires the development
of the concept of Strain, which relates the bodys deformation to its initial length.

2.3 STRAIN (SI p.68-69; &4
th
p. 67-69; 3
rd
p.71-72)
Normal Strain
The elongation (+ve) or contraction (ve) of a body per unit length is termed Strain.
A
B
S
A
B
S
(a) Before deformed (b) After deformed
F
3
F
2
F
1
n

Fig. 2.3 Generalized deformation due to applied forces

Lets take the arbitrarily shaped body in Fig. 2.3 as an example. Consider the infinitesimal
line segment AB that is contained within the undeformed body as shown in Fig. 2.3(a). The
line AB lies along the n-axis and has an original length of S. After deformation, points A
and B are displaced to A and B and in general the line becomes a curve having a length S
The change in length of the line is therefore S-S. We consequently define the generalized
strain mathematically as
S
S ' S
lim
A B

(BA along n) (2.8)

Average Normal Strain
If the stress in the body is everywhere constant, in other words, the deformation is uniform in
the material (e.g. uniform uniaxial tension or compression) as shown in Fig. 2.2, the strain can
be computed by
L
L
L
L L
Original
Original Deformed
=

= (2.9)
i.e. the change in length of the body over its original length,

Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 2 5

Unit of Strain
From Eqs. (2.8) and (2.9), we can notice that the normal strain is a dimensionless quantity
since it is a ratio of two lengths. Although this is the case, it is common in practice to state it
in terms of a ratio of length units. i.e. meters per meter (m/m)

Usually, for most engineering applications is very small, so measurements of strain are in
micrometers per meter (m/m) or (/m).

Sometimes for experiment work, strain is expressed as a percent, e.g. 0.001m/m = 0.1%.
A normal strain of 480m for a one-meter length is said:
= 48010
-6
= 480(m/m) = 0.0480% = 480 (micros) = 480s (micro strain)

Example 2.3: In Example 2.1, if it is measured that the cable was elongated by 1.35 mm due
to the weight of the light, what would its strain be?
s
.
.
900 10 900
5 1
00135 0
6
= = =



2.4 STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP, HOOKE'S LAW (SI&4
th
p.83-93; 3
rd

p.85-95)
Material Test and Stress-Strain Diagram
The material strength depends on its ability to sustain a load without undue deformation or
failure. The property is inherent in the material itself and must be determined by experiment.
One of the most important tests to perform in this regard is the tension or compression. To do
so, a bunch of standard specimen is made. The test is performed in universal test machine.
Shown in Fig. 2.4 is the specimen and test result of Stress-Strain Diagram.
F
F

Elastic Yielding Hardening Necking

Standard
Specimen
Yield stress
Ultimate
stress
u
Fracture
stress
f
Plastic behavior
Elastic
behavior

pl
Proportional
limit

Fig. 2.4 Material test and Stress-Strain Diagram

The Stress-Strain diagram consists of 4 stages during the whole process, elastic, yielding,
hardening and necking stages respectively. From yielding stage, some permanent plastic
deformation occurs. About 90% of engineering problems only concern the elastic deformation
in structural members and mechanical components. Only 10% of engineering work concerns
plastic and other nonlinear stage (e.g. metal forming). In this subject, we are only involved in
the linear elastic region, in which the relationship between the strain and stress is linear.

Hookes Law
The stress-strain linear relationship was discovered by Robert Hook in 1676 and is known as
Hooke's law. It is mathematically represented by Eq. (2.10),
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 2 6

E = (2.10)
where E is terms as the Modulus of Elasticity or Young's Modulus with units of N/m
2
or Pa.
For most of engineering metal material, GPa is used, e.g. mild steel is about 200GPa~210GPa.

2.5 POISSON'S RATIO (SI&4
th
Ed p104-105; 3
rd
Ed p107-108)
Definition
When a deformable body is stretched by a tensile force, not only does it elongate but it also
contract laterally, i.e. it would contract in other two dimensions as shown in Fig 2.5(a).
Likewise, a compressive force acting on a deformable body cause it to contract in the
direction of force and yet its sides expand laterally as in Fig. 2.5(b).
When the load P is applied to the bar it changes the bars length by and its radius by
r
. The
strain in axial direction and in lateral/radial direction are respectively
L
axial

=
r
r
lateral

=
In early 1800s, French scientist Poisson realized that within elastic range the ratio of these
two strains is a constant. We called the constant as Poissons ratio by v (Nu)
Axial
Lateral
Strain Axial
Strain Lateral
v

= = (2.11)

Original shape
Defrormed shape
F
F
r

r
L
L
+

Original shape
Defrormed
shape
F
F
L

L
r

r
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.5 Relationship of the axial strain with the lateral strain

The negative sign is used here since longitudinal elongation (positive strain) cause lateral
contraction (negative strain), vice versa. So Poissons ration is positive, i.e. v0.

Remarks
The lateral strain is caused only by axial force. No force or stress acts in lateral direction;
Lateral strain is the same in all lateral direction;
Usually 5 0 0 . v . For most linearly elastic material v=0.3;
Poissons ratio is a constant.

Strain in Lateral Direction
For bars subjected to a tensile stress
x
, the strains in the y and z planes are:
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 2 7

= =
= =
=
E
v
v
E
v
v
E
x
x z
x
x y
x
x

(2.12)
2.6 THERMAL STRAIN (SI&4
th
Ed p. 148-152; 3
rd
Ed p. 152-156)
Thermal Deformation
When the temperature of a body is changed, its overall size will also change. In other words,
temperature change may cause the dimension or shape change in the material. More specially,
if the temperature increases, generally a material expands. Whereas if the temperature
decreases, the material will contract. It is supposed that this is a common sense for anyone.
L

T
T
Ref
T
ref
+ T

x

x
x
y
z
T
Ref
T
ref
+ T
(a) Thermal deformation (b) Thermal and mechanical deformation

Fig. 2.6 Thermal and mechanical deformation

For the majority of engineering materials this relationship is linear. If we assume that the
material is homogeneous and isotropic, from experiment, we can find a linear relation
between thermal deformation and temperature change as:
L T
T
= (2.13)
where : : Coefficient of thermal expansion , units are strain per
o
C
T : algebraic change in temperature (
o
C ) (increase +; decrease )
T
: algebraic change in length (+ = elongation; = contraction)

Thermal Strain
T
L
T
Thermal
= =

(2.14)

Coupled Strain Status
If we consider both mechanical strain

and thermal strain
T
in the structure as shown in Fig.
2.6(b), by referring to Eq. (2.12), the total strains in all directions would be computed as:

= + =
= + =
+ = + =
E
T
E
T
E
T
x
z T z
x
y T y
x
x T x

(2.15)

Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 2 8

2.7 ELASTIC DEFORMATION OF AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER
(SI&4
th
p.120-127;3
rd
p.122-129)
Now we are going to find the elastic deformation of a member subjected to axial loads. Lets
consider a generalized bar shown in Fig. 2.7, which has a gradually varying cross-sectional
are along its length L. For a more general case, the bar is subjected to concentrated loads at its
right end and also a variable external load distributed along its length (such as a distributed
load could be for example, to represent the weight of a vertical bar or friction forces acting on
bar surface). Here we wish to find the relative displacement of one end with respect to the
other.
x
P(x)
dx

dx (original length)
P(x)+dP
d (elongation of dx)
P
FBD
a
a
View a-a
A(x)
L


Fig. 2.7 Thermal and mechanical deformation

We pick a differential element of length dx and cross-sectional area A(x). FBD can be drawn
as middle of Fig. 2.7. Assume that resultant internal axial force is represented as P(x). The
load P(x) will deform the element into the shape indicated by the dashed outline.
The average stress in the cross-sectional area would be ( )
) (
) (
x A
x P
x =
The average strain in the cross-sectional area would be ( )
dx
d
x

=
Provided these quantities do not exceed the proportional limit, we can relate them using
Hooks law, i.e.
= E
Therefore
( )
|
.
|

\
|
=
dx
d
x E
x A
x P
) (
) (

Re-organize the equation, we have
( )
dx
x E x A
x P
d
) (
) (
=
For the entire length L of the bar, we must integrate this expression to find the required end
displacement
( )

=
L
dx
x E x A
x P
0
) (
) (
(2.16)
Where: = displacement between two points
L = distance between the points
P(x) = Internal axial force distribution
A(x) = Cross-sectional area
E(x) = Youngs modulus

Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 2 9

Constant Load and Cross-Sectional Area
In many engineering cases, the structural members experience a constant load and have a
constant cross-sectional area and made of one homogenous material, i.e.
P(x) = P = constant (no axially distributed load)
A(x) = A = constant (uniform area)
E(x) = E = constant (homogeneous material)
From Eq. (2.16), we have
EA
PL
= (2.17)

Multi-Segment Bar
If the bar is subjected to several different axial forces or cross-sectional areas or Youngs
moduli, the above equation can be used for each segment. The total displacement can be
computed from algebraic addition as

=
i i i
i i
E A
L P
(2.18)

Example 2.4: The composite bar shown in the figure is made of two segments, AB and BC,
having cross-sectional areas of A
AB
=200mm
2
and A
BC
=100mm
2
. Their Youngs moduli are
E
AB
=100GPa and E
BC
=210GPa respectively. Find the total displacement at the right end.

Step 1 FBDs for Segments AB and BC.
Assume the internal forces are in
tension.

Step 2 Equilibriums
Internal force in AB
0 0
1 2
= + = =

+
F F P F
AB x

kN P
AB
30 =
(Opposite to our assumption of tension,
so Segment AB is in compression)

Internal force in BC
0 0
1
= + = =

+
F P F
BC x

kN F P
BC
10
1
= = (in tension)


Step 3 Compute the total deformation by using Eq. (2.18)
6 9
3
6 9
3
10 100 10 210
2 . 4 10 10
10 200 10 100
4 10 30



+


= + = + =
BC BC
BC BC
AB AB
AB AB
BC AB AC
A E
L P
A E
L P

mm m
AC
4 004 . 0 002 . 0 006 . 0 = = + = (towards left)


4m 4.2m
F
1
=10kN
F
2
=40kN
A
B
C
E
1
A
1
E
2
A
2
F
1
=10kN
F
2
=40kN
C
E
1
A
1
E
2
A
2
B
P
AB
F
1
=10kN
C
P
BC
FBD1
FBD2
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 2 10

2.8 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE MEMBERS LOADED AXIALLY
(SI&4
th
Ed p. 134-139; 3
rd
Ed p. 137-142)
Statically Determinate and Indeterminate
When a bar is supported at one end and subjected to an axial force P at the other end as shown
in Fig. 2.8(a), there is only one unknown reaction force F
A
. By using the equations of statics,
the unknown reaction can easily be determined. So such a system with the same number of
unknown reactions as equations of statics is called statically determinate. i.e. known
reactions can be determined strictly from equilibrium equations.
F
A
P
(a) Statically determinate
P
(b) Statically indeterminate
F
A
F
B
C
B
A A
B
L
AC
L
CB
L

Fig. 2.8 Statically determinate and indeterminate structures

If the bar is also restricted at the free end as shown in Fig. 2.8(b), it has 2 unknown reactions
F
A
and F
B
, one known force P and one equation of statics as:
0 0 = + = = +

P F F F
B A y

P F F
B A
= + (2.19)
It cannot be solved if do not introduce more other conditions. If the system has more
unknown forces than equations of statics it is called statically indeterminate.

Compatibility Conditions
What we need is an additional equation that specifies how the structure is displaced due to the
applied loading. Such an equation is usually termed the compatibility equation.

Since there are 2 unknown and only 1 equation of statics herein, what we need is an
additional equation that specifies how the structure is displaced due to the applied loading.
Such an equation is usually termed the compatibility equation or kinematic conditions.

In order to determine the compatibility for this example we need to determine how point C is
going to move, and how much point B moves in relation to point A. Now, since both ends of
the bar are fully fixed, then the total change in length between A and B must be zero.

Basically the amount that length AC elongates CB contracts as shown in Fig. 2.9, so the
equation can be written as:
0 = +
CB AC
(2.20)
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 2 11

F
A
C
B
A
=0
C
=
AC
+
CB
=0
F
A

AC
C
C
P
AC
F
A
FBD
B
C
C
Elongated
Contracted

CB
F
B
P
CB
FBD

Fig. 2.9 Compatibility condition

Lets respectively look at the free body diagram for segment AC and CB as in Fig. 2.9.
(indeed FBD can be in any level of structural system or structural members).
For segment AC,
0 0 = = = +
AC A
y
P F F
A AC
F P = Tension (+)
AC AC
AC A
AC AC
AC AC
AC
E A
L F
E A
L P
= = elongation (+) (2.21)

For segment CB,
0 0 = + = = +
CB B
y
P F F
B CB
F P = Compression ()
CB CB
CB B
CB CB
CB CB
CB
E A
L F
E A
L P
= = contraction () (2.22)
Compatibility condition:
0 =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + =
CB CB
CB B
AC AC
AC A
CB AC
E A
L F
E A
L F
(2.23)
Combining Compatibility equation (2.23) with the equation of statics (2.19), we now can
solve for the two unknowns F
A
and F
B
as,

= +
=
P F F
E A
L F
E A
L F
B A
CB CB
CB B
AC AC
AC A
0
(2.24)
i.e. P
E A
L
E A
L
E A
L
F
CB CB
CB
AC AC
AC
AC AC
AC
B
+
= P
E A
L
E A
L
E A
L
F
CB CB
CB
AC AC
AC
CB CB
CB
A
+
=
If Const E A E A
CB CB AC AC
= = , we have
P
L
L
F
AC
B
= and P
L
L
F
CB
A
= (2.25)

Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 2 12

Example 2.5: Two bars made of Copper and Aluminum are fixed to the rigid abutments.
Originally, there is a gap of 5mm between the ends as shown in the figure. Determine average
normal stress in both bars if increase the temperature from 10C to 210C.
Copper Aluminum

cu
=17 10
-6
E
cu
=110GPa

al
=2310
-6
E
al
=69GPa
T
0
=10
o
C
T=210
o
C
T= 200
o
C
0.4m 0.8m
0.005m
d = 0.01m

T,cu

F,cu

T,Al

F,Al
F
F
Thermally expanded
T,cu
due to T
T
Mechanical force push it back by
F,cu
Copper
Copper
Aluminum
Aluminum
d = 0.01m
T

5 2 2
10 85 7 01 0
4
14 3
4

= =

= . .
.
d A m
2
and C T
o
200 10 210 = =
Lets firstly look at the copper bar. When the bar system is heated up from 10C to 210C, the
copper bar expand towards right by
Cu , T
. After the copper bar touch to the aluminum bar, a
mechanical force F will develop, which will prevent the copper bar from expanding further.
We assume that due to such a mechanical force, the copper bar is pressed back by
Cu , F
. The
real total deformation of copper bar will be computed as
Cu F Cu T Cu , ,
= (elongation +, Contraction )
Similarly, we have
Al , F Al , T Al
= (elongation +, Contraction )
Because these two expanding bars should fill the gap, we prescribe a compatibility condition as
005 0.
Cu Al
= + (2.26)
From these two equations, we have
( ) ( ) 005 0.
Al , F Al , T Cu , F Cu , T
= +
i.e. 005 0.
A E
L F
TL
A E
L F
TL
Al Al
Al
Al Al
Cu Cu
Cu
Cu Cu
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

N
A E
L
A E
L
TL TL
F
Al Al
Al
Cu Cu
Cu
Al Al Cu Cu
2 . 206
10 85 . 7 10 69
8 . 0
10 85 . 7 10 110
4 . 0
005 . 0 8 . 0 200 10 23 4 . 0 200 10 17 005 . 0
5 9 5 9
6 6
=

+

+
=
+
+
=




The average normal stress can be computed as
MPa .
.
.
A
F
63 2
10 85 7
2 206
5
=

= =


Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 2 13

= = =


=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

mm m
A E
L F
TL
Cu Cu
Cu
Cu Cu Cu F Cu T Cu
35 . 1 10 35 . 1 10 55 . 9 10 36 . 1
10 85 . 7 10 110
4 . 0 2 . 206
4 . 0 200 10 17
3 6 3
5 9
6
, ,


= = =


=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

mm m
A E
L F
TL
Al Al
Al
Al Al Al F Al T Al
65 . 3 10 65 . 3 10 05 . 3 10 68 . 3
10 85 . 7 10 69
8 . 0 2 . 206
8 . 0 200 10 23
3 6 3
5 9
6
, ,




2.9 AVERAGE SHEAR STRESS (SI&4
th
Ed p. 32-39; 3
rd
Ed p. 35-41)
The intensity or force per unit area acting tangentially to A is called Shear Stress, (tau), and it
is expressed as in Eq. (2.3) as:
A
F
lim
t
A

0
= (2.3)
In order to show how the shear stress can develop in a structural member, lets take a block as
an example. The block is supported by two rigid bodies and an external force F is applied
vertically as shown in Fig. 2.10. If the force is large enough, it will cause the material of the
block to deform and fail along the vertical planes as shown.

A FBD of the unsupported center segment indicate that shear force V=F/2 must be applied at
each section to hold the segment in equilibrium.
F
F
F
V
V
A
B
C
D
Sectioned area A
Block
Rigid Rigid


Fig. 2.10 Average shear stress

0 2 0 = = = +

F V F
y

2 / F V =

The average shear stress distributed over each sectioned area that develops the shear force is
defined by
A
V
avg
= (2.27)

avg
= assume to be the same at each point over the section
V = Internal shear force
A = Area at the section
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 2 14

2.10 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS (SI&4
th
Ed p. 156-161; 3
rd
Ed p. 159-163)
For a uniform cross-sectional bar that is applied an axial force, both experiment and theory of
elasticity find that the normal stress will be uniformly distributed over the cross-section

Stress Concentration
However, if we drill a hole for some reasons in the component, the typical example is to build
a connection with other structural elements. For such a case, if we cut from the holes center
plane, we find that the stress distribution is no longer uniform, as in Fig. 2.11(a). It may
distribute over such a smaller area in highly uneven pattern. We call this phenomenon as
Stress Concentration.

Stress Concentration Factor
In engineering practice, though, the actual stress distribution does not have to be determined.
Instead, only the maximum stress at these sections must be known, and the member is then
designed to resist this highest stress when the axial load is applied. The specific values of the
maximum normal stress at the critical section can be determined by experimental methods or by
advanced mathematical techniques using the theory of elasticity. The results of these
investigations are usually reported in graphical form (as in Fig. 2.11(c)) in terms of Stress
Concentration Factor K.
avg
K

max
= (2.28)
in which
avg
=P/A is the assumed average stress as in Fig. 2.11(b). Provided K has been known
from the figures or tables (as in Fig. 2.11(c)), and the average normal stress has been calculated
from
avg
=P/A, where A is the smallest cross-sectional area. Then from the above equation the
maximum stress at the cross section can be computed as:
' A
P
K K
avg max
= = (2.29)
(a)
(b)
(c)
P
P
A
S
t
r
e
s
s

C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

F
a
c
t
o
r

K
w
2r
r/w

Fig. 2.11 Stress concentration

Stress concentration occurs in the case that there is a sudden change in cross-sectional area.
By observing Fig. 2.11(c), it is interesting to note that the bigger the ratio of change in the
sectional area, the higher the stress concentration.