Cryptography

Name: T Sampathkumar Year: III/IV CSE , e-mail: [email protected] Name: Sudeep Year: III/IV CSE, e-mail : [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This paper introduces Cryptography Techniques. Cryptography is The science of protecting data & Network Security keeping information private and Secure from unauthorized Users. This paper gives the Fundamental Requirements for the Data Transmission, the security attacks like Interruption, Interception and Modification of the data Transmission. The Cryptographic Process explaining through a generalized function is discussed through which encryption and decryption is done by the various algorithms like RSA algorithm, Hash Functions and many cryptographic algorithms.

All these methods and means of communication have played an important role in our lives, but in the past few years, network communication, especially over the Internet, has emerged as one of the most powerful Methods of communication with an overwhelming Impact on our lives. Such rapid advances in Communications technology have also given rise to Security threats to individuals and organizations. Fundamental Requirements Confidential: Is the process of keeping information private and Secret so that only the intended recipient is able to understand the information. Authentication: Is the process of providing proof of identity of the sender to the recipient, so that the recipient can be assured that the person sending the information is who and what he or she claims to be. Integrity: Is the method to ensure that information is not tampered with during its transit or its storage on the network. Any unauthorized person should not be able to tamper with the information or change the Information during transit Non-repudiation: Is the method to ensure that information cannot be disowned. Once the nonrepudiation process is in place, the sender cannot deny being the originator of the data.

Introduction The Cryptanalysis is the process of attempting to discover the plain text and/ or the key. Applications of Various Cryptographic Technologies. Why & How to Provide Network Security in the Certificates issuing, The Validity & Trust for Certificate Services, Certificate Revocation in the Internet, Intranet and other Network Communications, the Applications of Network Security to the various Data Transfer techniques and protocols. From the dawn of civilization, to the highly networked societies that we live in Today communication has always been an integral part of our existence. Radio communication Network communication Mobile communication Telephonic communication

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What is Cryptography? The term cryptology has its origin in Greek Krypts lgos , which means hidden word. Cryptography is the science of protecting data, which provides means and methods of converting data into unreadable form, so that Valid User can access Information at the Destination. Cryptography is the science of using mathematics to encrypt and decrypt data. Cryptography enables you to store sensitive information or transmit it across insecure networks (like the Internet) so that it cannot be read by anyone except the intended recipient. While cryptography is the science of securing data, cryptanalysis is the science of analyzing and breaking secure communication. Cryptanalysts are also called attackers. Cryptology embraces both cryptography and cryptanalysis. Cryptography Terminology a) Plaintext: The original intelligible message. b) Cipher text: The transformed message. c) Cipher: An algorithm for transforming an intelligible message to unintelligible by transposition. d) Key: Some critical information used by the cipher, known only to the sender & receiver. e) Encipher :( Encode) the process of converting plaintext to cipher text using a cipher and a key. f) Decipher :( Decode) the process of converting cipher text back into plaintext using a cipher & key. g) Cryptanalysis: The study of principles and methods of transforming an unintelligible message back into an intelligible message without

Unauthorized user

Security Attacks Interruption: In an attack where one or more of the systems of the organization become unusable due to attacks by unauthorized users. This leads to systems being unavailable for use. Interception: An unauthorized individual intercepts the message content and changes it or uses it for malicious purposes. After this type of attack, the message does not remain confidential. Modification: The content of the message is modified by a third party. This attack affects the integrity of the message. So for maintaining the data secretly while communicating data between two persons or two organizations data is to be converted to other format and the data is to be transmitted. So now we deal with the Cryptography which is process of transmitting data securely without any interruption. Network security is the security of data transmission in the communication.

knowledge of the key. Also called code breaking h) Cryptology: Both cryptography and cryptanalysis i) Code: an algorithm for transforming an intelligible message into an unintelligible one using codes. j) Hash algorithm: Is an algorithm that converts text string into a string of fixed length. k) Secret Key Cryptography (SKC): Uses a single key for both encryption and decryption l) Public Key Cryptography (PKC): Uses one key for encryption and another for decryption m) Pretty Good Privacy (PGP): PGP is a hybrid cryptosystem. n) Public Key Infrastructure (PKI): PKI feature is Certificate authority.

security model has lost its significance. The advent of the internet and the web has raised the scale and frequency of network Security threats. Common Security Threats Identity interception: It means that someone might steal your identity and use it as their own. Masquerading. If you send your username and password in clear text form, someone might be able to grab it from the network and use it elsewhere with the intention of perpetrating fraud. Replay attack: They might capture your request of withdrawing 1000 dollars from your Bank account and then replay that request over the network. Data interception and manipulation: If someone can read your credit card information while it is on the wire, they could cause a lot of trouble for you. Repudiation: When someone performs a transaction and then deny it later can be a big problem in ecommerce. For example, if you are manufacturer of something and you received a 1 million dollar purchase request from a customer, you will want to make sure that person does not deny it after the transaction has been completed. We all know what denial of service means. Network Security Needs Security Needs of an Enterprise Single sign-on Internet and intranet Controlled access to corporate information Secure business transaction over Internet Centralized, easy to use security admin tools Transparency of security features Interoperable security systems

Network Security For Distributed computing Logical set of services distributed over the network Physical security model does not work anymore For Internet and Web Increase of security threat More stringent security for Ecommerce and B2B Why network security? When networks were not that pervasive, that is when computing devices were running in their own Islands, it was rather easy to deal with security. The only thing they needed to do was to lock the door. Now, as more and more computing devices are getting connected and more and more applications are being built as distributed applications, the physical

Various PKI schemes, Kerbos

Common Network Security Needs Authentication (Identity verification) Access control (Authorization) Data confidentiality (Privacy) Data integrity (Tamper-proofing) Non-repudiation (Proof of transaction) Auditing

Cryptographic Process Basic Process M is the original message K enc is encryption key M' is the scrambled message K dec is decryption key It is difficult to get M just by knowing M' E and D are related such that E(K enc , M) = M' D(K dec , M') = M D(K dec , E(K enc , M)) = M PlaintextM Cipher textM' Original PlaintextM Decryption functionD Encryption functionE So how does cryptographic process work? The idea is rather simple. Let's say you have plaintext M. By providing the encryption key and the encryption function you get cipher text, M'. The cipher text can be decrypted using a decryption function and a decryption key and the result is the original text. In cryptographic process the mathematical property is such that it is practically impossible to derive M from M' unless the key is known. Key Process Techniques Symmetric-Key Encryption: One Key Symmetric-key encryption, also called shared-key encryption or secret-key cryptography, uses a

single key that both the sender and recipient possess. This key, used for both encryption and decryption, is called a secret key (also referred to as a symmetric key or session key). Symmetric-key encryption is an efficient method for encrypting large amounts of data. But the drawback is to transfer the Key to Receiver as it is prone to security risks. Public-Key Encryption: Two Keys Two keysa public key and a private key, which are mathematically relatedare used in public-key encryption. To contrast it with symmetric-key encryption, public-key encryption is also sometimes called asymmetric-key encryption. In public-key encryption, the public key can be passed openly between the parties or published in a public repository, but the related private key remains private. Data encrypted with the public key can be decrypted only using the private key. Data encrypted with the private key can be decrypted only using the public key. In Figure 1, a sender has the receiver's public key and uses it to encrypt a message, but only the receiver has the related private key used to decrypt the message. Private Key Method Public Key Method Encryption is done with Public Key and Decryption with another key called Private Key. This is called Public Key Cryptography. Public-key cryptography algorithms RSA: The first, and still most common, PKC implementation, named for the three MIT

mathematicians who developed it Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman. RSA today is used in hundreds of software products and can be used for key exchange, digital signatures, or encryption of small blocks of data. RSA uses a variable size encryption block and a variable size key. The key-pair is derived from a very large number, n, that is the product of two prime numbers chosen according to special rules; these primes may be 100 or more digits in length each, yielding an n with roughly twice as many digits as the prime factors. The public key information includes n and a derivative of one of the factors of n; an attacker cannot determine the prime factors of n (and, therefore, the private key) from this information alone and that is what makes the RSA algorithm so secure. (Some descriptions of PKC erroneously state that RSA's safety is due to the difficulty in factoring large prime numbers. In fact, large prime numbers, like small prime numbers, only have two factors!) The ability for computers to factor large numbers, and therefore attack schemes such as RSA, is rapidly improving and systems today can find the prime factors of numbers with more than 140 digits. The presumed protection of RSA, however, is that users can easily increase the key size to always stay ahead of the computer processing curve. As an aside, the patent for RSA expired in September 2000 which does not appear to have affected RSA's popularity one way or the other. Diffie-Hellman: After the RSA algorithm

Diffie and Hellman came up with their own algorithm. D-H is used for secret-key key exchange only, and not for authentication or digital signatures. Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA): The algorithm specified in NIST's Digital Signature Standard (DSS), provides digital signature capability for the authentication of messages. Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC): A PKC algorithm based upon elliptic curves. ECC can offer levels of security with small keys comparable to RSA and other PKC methods. It was designed for devices with limited compute power and/or memory, such as smartcards and PDAs Hash functions An improvement on the Public Key scheme is the addition of a one way hash function in the process. A one-way hash function takes variable length input. In this case, a message of any length, even thousands or millions of bits and produces a fixed-length output; say, 160-bits. The hash function ensures that, if the information is changed in any way even by just one bit an entirely different output value is produced. Hash functions, also called message digests and one-way encryption, are algorithms that, in some sense, use no key Instead; a fixed-length hash value is computed based upon the plaintext that makes it impossible for either the contents or length of the plaintext to be recovered. Hash algorithms are typically used to provide a digital fingerprint of a file's contents often used to ensure that the file has not been altered by an intruder or virus. Hash functions are also commonly employed by many operating

systems so encrypt passwords. Hash functions, then, help preserve the integrity of a file. As long as a secure hash function is used, there is no way to take someone's signature from one document and attach it to another, or to alter a signed message in any way. The slightest change in a signed document will cause the digital signature verification process to fail. Applications Of Cryptography 1. Defense Services 2. Secure Data Manipulation 3. E Commerce 4. Business Transactions 5. Internet Payment Systems 6. Pass Phrasing 7. Secure Internet Comm. 8. User Identification Systems 9. Access Control 10. Computational Security 11.Secure access to Corp Data 12.Data Security. Public-Key Encryption for Digital Signatures A major benefit of public key cryptography is that it provides a method for employing digital signatures. Digital signatures enable the recipient of information to verify the authenticity of the information's origin, and also verify that the information is intact. Thus, public key digital signatures provide authentication and data integrity. A digital signature also provides non-repudiation, which means that it prevents the sender from claiming that he or she did not actually send the information. These features are every bit as fundamental to cryptography as privacy, if not more.

A digital signature serves the same purpose as a handwritten signature. However, a handwritten signature is easy to counterfeit. A digital signature is superior to a handwritten signature in that it is nearly impossible to counterfeit, plus it attests to the contents of the information as well as to the identity of the signer. Public-Key Encryption for Digital Certificates Digital certificates, or cert., simplify the task of establishing whether a public key truly belongs to the purported owner. A certificate is a form of credential. Examples might be your birth certificate. Each of these has some information on it identifying you and some authorization stating that someone else has confirmed your identity. Some certificates, such as your passport, are important enough confirmation of your identity that you would not want to lose them, lest someone use them to impersonate you. Digital Certificate A digital certificate is data that functions much like a physical certificate. A digital certificate is information included with a person's public key that helps others verify that a key is genuine or valid. Digital certificates are used to thwart attempts to substitute one person's key for another. A digital certificate consists of three things:

A public key. Certificate information. ("Identity" information about the user, such as name, user ID, so on.)

and

One or more digital signatures. The purpose of the digital signature on a certificate is to state that the certificate information has been attested to by some other person or entity. The digital signature does not attest to the authenticity of the certificate as a whole; it vouches only that the signed identity information goes along with, or is bound to, the public key. Thus, a certificate is basically a public key with one or two forms of ID attached, plus a hearty stamp of approval from some other trusted individual.

DES (Data Encryption Standard) -- 56 bit key Triple DES --112 bit key IDEA (International Data Encryption Algorithm) --128bit key

Public-key encryption algorithms (Asymmetric algorithms) Diffie-Hellman (DH): Exponentiation is easy but computing discrete logarithms from the resulting value is practically impossible

Cryptographic Technologies
Based on Layers Link layer encryption Network layer encryption IPSEC, VPN, SKIP Transport layer SSL, PCT(Private Communication Technology) Application layer PEM (Privacy Enhanced Mail) PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) SHTTP Cryptographic process can be implemented at various layers starting from the link Layer all the way up to the application layer. The most popular encryption scheme is SSL and it is implemented at the transport layer. If the encryption is done at the transport layer, any application that is running on the top of the transport layer can be protected. Based on Algorithms Secret-key encryption algorithms (Symmetric algorithms)

RSA: Multiplication of two large prime numbers is easy but factoring the resulting product is practically impossible

Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

a PKI is and what services are required to build a PKI. PKI concepts on Certificates Certificate: A public key certificate is a digitally signed statement used for authentication and secure exchange of information on the networks. The issuer and signer of the certificate is known as a certification authority (CA). Certificate has No, Validity, Uses of the Key pair (Public & Secret) Certification Authority: A certification authority (CA) is an entity trusted to issue certificates to a requesting entity. A CA verifies the requester's information according to the policy of the CA, and then uses its private key to apply its digital signature to the certificate. CA Policy: A CA issues certificates to requesters based on a set of established criteria. The set of criteria that a CA uses when processing certificate requests is referred to as CA policy. Typically, a CA publishes its policy in a document known as a Certification Practice Statement (CPS). Types of Certification Authorities Self-signed CA: The public key in the certificate and the key used to verify the certificate are the same Subordinate CA: The public key in certificate and the key used to verify the certificates are different. Rooted CA: This is trusted unconditionally by a client and is at top of a certification hierarchy. Registration: Registration is the process by which a certificate is issued to the subject, provided that the certificate is in compliance with the criteria established by the CA policy.

Certificate enrollment: The procedure that an end entity follows to request and receive a certificate from a CA. The certificate request provides identity information to the CA Certificate Revocation: Certificates have a specified lifetime, but CAs can reduce this lifetime by the process known as certificate revocation. The CAs publishes a certificate revocation list (CRL) that lists serial numbers of certificates that it considers no longer usable. Certificate Chain Validation: In a network, when we generate a request for a new certificate, the information in that request is first passed from the requesting program to Certificate Authority (CA) then passes the appropriate data to a program known as a cryptographic service provider (CSP) A CSP is an independent software module that performs cryptography operations, such as secret-key exchange, digital signing of data, and public-key authentication. Chain-building mechanism attempts to build a certification path (a certificate chain) from the end-entity certificate, such as a user certificate, up to a CA root certificate. Attacking Cryptography Cryptanalysis Cryptanalysis is the process of attempting to discover the plaintext and/ or the key. The types of Cryptanalysis attacks are Differential Cryptanalysis Attack: The differential cryptanalysis attack looks specifically at pairs of cipher texts whose plaintext has some specific differences. It analyzes these differences as the plaintext propagates through various rounds of Data Encryption Standards (DES) when they are

encrypted with the same key. Linear Cryptanalysis Attack: Linear Cryptanalys is attack was invented by Mitsuru Matsui in 1993. This method is based on the concept that if you XOR some of the plaintext bits together, XOR some cipher text bits together, and then XOR the results, you will get a single bit that is the XOR of some of the key bits. A large number of such plain/cipher texts pairs are used to guess the values of the key bits Brute Force Attack The simplest attack to decipher a DES key is the brute force attack. The brute force attack on the DES algorithm is feasible because of the relatively small key length (56 bit) and ever-increasing computational power of the computers. It can break through any cipher by trying all keys that possibly exist. However, in brute force attacks, the time taken to break a cipher is directly proportional to the length of the key. In a brute force attack, keys are randomly generated and applied to the cipher text until the legitimate key is generated. The Average Time Required for Exhaustive Key Search Conclusion Cryptography protects users by providing functionality for the encryption of data and authentication of other users. This technology lets the receiver of an electronic message verify the sender, ensures that a message can be read only by the intended person, and assures the recipient that a message has not be altered in transit. This paper describes the cryptographic concepts of symmetric key encryption, public-key encryption, types of encryption algorithms, hash algorithms, digital signatures, and key exchange. The Cryptography

Attacking techniques like Cryptanalysis and Brute Force Attack. This Paper provides information of Network Security Needs and Requirements. Cryptography is a particularly interesting field because of the amount of work that is, by necessity, done in secret. The irony is that today, secrecy is not the key to the goodness of a cryptographic algorithm. Regardless of the mathematical theory behind an algorithm, the best algorithms are those that are well known and well-documented because they are also well-tested and well-studied! In fact, time is the only true test of good cryptography; any cryptographic scheme that stays in use year after year is most likely a good one. The strength of cryptography lies in the choice (and management) of the keys; longer keys will resist attack better than shorter keys. References: Cryptography and Network Security By William Stallings. Introduction to Cryptography By Aysel Ozgur www.en.wikipedia.org. http://www-users.cs.umn.edu/
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