LOGICAL FUNCTIONS

a simple method for designing such a circuit is found in a standard form of Boolean expression called the Sum-Of-Products, or SOP, form. As you might suspect, a Sum-OfProducts Boolean expression is literally a set of Boolean terms added (summed) together, each term being a multiplicative (product) combination of Boolean variables. An example of an SOP expression would be something like this: ABC + BC + DF, the sum of products "ABC," "BC," and "DF." Sum-Of-Products expressions are easy to generate from truth tables. All we have to do is examine the truth table for any rows where the output is "high" (1), and write a Boolean product term that would equal a value of 1 given those input conditions. For instance, in the fourth row down in the truth table for our two-out-of-three logic system, where A=0, B=1, and C=1, the product term would be A'BC, since that term would have a value of 1 if and only if A=0, B=1, and C=1:

Three other rows of the truth table have an output value of 1, so those rows also need Boolean product expressions to represent them:

Finally, we join the ese four Boo olean produ uct expressions togethe er by additio on, to create ea single B Boolean exp pression des scribing the truth table as a whole:

Now tha at we have a Boolean Sum-Of-Pro S oducts expre ession for th he truth tabl le's function n, we can easi ily design a logic gate or o relay log gic circuit ba ased on that t expression n:

For exam mple if you u want to write the Truth T tabl le of the fu unction

The result will be b the follo ow

X1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

X2 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

X3 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Y 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0

The circu uit diagram m with log gical elem ments of the function n is below.

BO OOLEA AN ALG GEBRAI IC PRO OPERTIE ES

Another r type of ma athematical identity, ca alled a "prop perty" or a "law," " descr ribes how differing variable es relate to each e other in a system m of number rs. One of th hese propert rties is know wn as the com mmutative property, and it applies equally to addition a and d multiplicat tion. In esse ence, the com mmutative property tells s us we can n reverse the order of variables v tha at are either added together or multiplied together without ch hanging the e truth of the e expressio n:

Along w with the com mmutative properties of f addition an nd multiplication, we ha ave the ass sociative property y, again app plying equally well to a addition and multiplication. This pr roperty tells us we can asso ociate group ps of added or multiplie ed variables s together with w parenth heses without altering the truth of o the equations.

Lastly, w we have the e distributiv ve property, illustrating how to exp pand a Boole ean express sion formed by the prod duct of a sum m, and in re everse show ws us how te erms may b be factored out of Boolean n sums-of-products:

To summ marize, here are the th hree basic p properties: commutativ c e, associativ ve, and distribut tive.

BOO OLEAN RULES S FOR SIMPLIFICAT TION

Boolean n algebra fin nds its most t practical u se in the sim mplification of logic circ cuits. If we translate a logic cir rcuit's function into sym mbolic (Bool lean) form, and apply c certain algebraic rules to the resultin ng equation to reduce t the number r of terms an nd/or arithm metic operations, the simp plified equation may be e translated d back into circuit c form for a logic c circuit perfo orming the sam me function with w fewer components c s. If equivalent function n may be ac chieved with h fewer compon nents, the re esult will be increased r reliability an nd decrease ed cost of m manufacture. To this e end, there are a several rules of Boo olean algebra presented in this sec ction for use in reducing g expressions to their simplest s for rms. The ide entities and properties already rev viewed in this chapter are very useful in Boolean sim mplification, and for the most part t bear simila arity to many id dentities and d properties s of "normal l" algebra. However, H th he rules sho own in this section s are all u unique to Bo oolean math hematics.

This rule e may be pr roven symb bolically by f factoring an n "A" out of the two ter rms, then ap pplying the rule es of A + 1 = 1 and 1A = A to achi ieve the fina al result:

Please n note how the rule A + 1 = 1 was u used to redu uce the (B + 1) term to o 1. When a rule like "A + 1 = 1" is expressed using u the le tter "A", it doesn't d mea an it only ap pplies to expressions contain ning "A". What the "A" stands for in a rule like e A + 1 = 1 is any Boo olean variable e or collectio on of variables. This is perhaps the e most diffic cult concept t for new students to master in Boolea an simplifica ation: apply ying standar rdized identities, prope rties, and ru ules to expressions not in standard form. For insta ance, the Boolean expr ression ABC C + 1 also re educes to 1 by means o of the "A + 1 = 1" identity. In this cas se, we recog gnize that th he "A" term m in the iden ntity's stand dard form ca an represent the entire "ABC" term in the ori iginal expre ession. The nex xt rule looks s similar to the t first one e shown in this t section, , but is actu ually quite different d and requires a mor re clever pro oof:

Note ho ow the last rule r (A + AB B = A) is us ed to "un-simplify" the e first "A" te erm in the expression, changin ng the "A" into an "A + AB". While e this may seem s like a backward step, s it certainly y helped to reduce the expression to something simpler! Sometimes s in mathem matics we must take "back kward" step ps to achiev e the most elegant solu ution. Know wing when to o take

such a s step and wh hen not to is s part of the e art-form of o algebra, just as a vic ctory in a ga ame of chess al lmost alway ys requires calculated c s sacrifices. Another r rule involv ves the simp plification of f a product-of-sums expression:

And, the e corresponding proof:

To summ marize, here are the th hree new ru les of Boole ean simplific cation expou unded in thi is section:

CIRCUIT SIMPL LIFICAT TION EX XAMPL LES

Let's be egin with a semiconduct s tor gate circ cuit in need of simplific cation. The " "A," "B," an nd "C" input sig gnals are as ssumed to be b provided from switches, sensors, or perhap ps other gat te circuits. Where these signals originate o is o of no concern in the task of gate r reduction.

Our first t step in sim mplification must be to write a Boo olean expres ssion for thiis circuit. Th his task is easily y performed step by ste ep if we star rt by writing g sub-expre essions at th he output of f each gate, co orresponding g to the res spective inpu ut signals fo or each gate e. Remembe er that OR gates g are equivalent to Boolean B addition, while AND gates are equivalent to Boole ean multipli ication. For exam mple, I'll wr rite sub-exp pressions at t the outputs of the first three gate es:

. . . then n another sub-expression for the n next gate:

Finally, the output ("Q") is see en to be equ ual to the ex xpression AB + BC(B + C):

Now tha at we have a Boolean expression e t to work with h, we need to t apply the e rules of Bo oolean algebra to reduce the t expressi ion to its sim mplest form m (simplest defined d as r requiring the fewest gates to o implement t):

The fina al expression, B(A + C), is much s impler than the origina al, yet perfo orms the sam me function n. If you would like to verify v this, y you may generate a tru uth table for r both expre essions and determine Q's status (the circuits' ou tput) for all l eight logic-state comb binations of A, B, and C, f for both circ cuits. The tw wo truth tab bles should be identical. Now, we e must gene erate a sche ematic diag ram from th his Boolean expression . To do this, evaluate e the expres ssion, follow wing proper r mathemati ical order of f operations s (multiplica ation before a addition, operations ins side parenth heses before e anything else), e and d draw gates for f each step. Re emember ag gain that OR R gates are equivalent to Boolean addition, w while AND ga ates are equivale ent to Boole ean multiplic cation. In th his case, we e would begin with the sub-expression "A + C", which is an OR O gate:

The nex xt step in ev valuating the e expressio n "B(A + C) )" is to mult tiply (AND g gate) the sig gnal B by the o output of the previous gate g (A + C C):

Obvious sly, this circuit is much simpler tha an the origin nal, having only two log gic gates instead of five. Such compone ent reductio on results in n higher ope erating spee ed (less dela ay time from m input signal tr ransition to output sign nal transitio n), less pow wer consumption, less c cost, and gr reater reliabilit ty. Electrom mechanical relay circuit ts, typically being slowe er, consuming more ele ectrical pow wer to operate, costing more, and having a shor rter average e life than th heir semicon nductor counterparts, benefit dramatic cally from B oolean simp plification. Let's L conside er an example circuit:

As befor re, our first step in reducing this c circuit to its simplest form must be e to develop pa Boolean n expression n from the schematic. s T The easiest way I've found to do th his is to follow the same st teps I'd norm mally follow w to reduce a series-parallel resisto or network t to a single, total resistan nce. For example, exam mine the foll owing resistor network k with its res sistors arranged in the sam me connectio on pattern as a the relay contacts in the former r circuit, and d corresponding total res sistance formula:

Remem mber that parallel p co ontacts are e equivale ent to Bool lean addit tion, while e series contact ts are equivalent to Boolean m multiplica ation. Writ te a Boole ean expres ssion for this s relay con ntact circu uit, follow wing the sa ame order of precede ence that you y would follow in reducing a series-p parallel res sistor netw work to a t total resist tance. It may be helpfu ul to write a Boolean n sub-expr ression to the left of f each ladd der "rung," " to help organize o your y expre ession-writ ting:

Now tha at we have a Boolean expression e t to work with h, we need to t apply the e rules of Bo oolean algebra to reduce the t expressi ion to its sim mplest form m (simplest defined d as r requiring the fewest relay co ontacts to im mplement):

The more mathema atically inclined should be able to see s that the e two steps employing the rule "A + AB B = A" may be combine ed into a sin ngle step, th he rule being g expandab ble to: "A + AB + AC + AD D + . . . = A" A

As you c can see, the e reduced circuit is muc ch simpler than t the original, yet p performs the e same logical f function: