Teaching of Science

TEACHING OF SCIENCE AT UPPER PRIMARY LEVEL
Distance Education Programme -Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (DEP-SSA)

(An IGNOU-MHRD, Govt. of India Project) IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi - 110 068
February 2010
Distance Edcation Programme-Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, IGNOU, 2010
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any other means - electronics, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission from the publishers. This book is an unpriced publication and shall not be sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher's consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published.
Printed at: Gita Offset Printers, C-90, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-I, New Delhi-110020
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Guidance Prof. K.R. Srivathsan Pro Vice-Chancellor, IGNOU Director, DEP-SSA, IGNOU Dr. S.S. Jena Former Project Director DEP-SSA, IGNOU
Academic Coordination Dr. Hema Pant Programme Officer DEP-SSA, IGNOU
Editors
Prof. S.C. Agarkar, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, TIFR, Mumbai
Dr. C.K. Ghosh, Director, Student Services Centre, IGNOU, New Delhi
Distance Education Programme -Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (DEP-SSA) (An IGNOU-MHRD, Govt. of India Project) IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi - 110 068
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Prof. S.C. Agarkar, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mankhurd, Mumbai 400 088 Mr. Binay Pattnaik, Consultant, TSG, EdCIL, New Delhi Dr. M.K. Dash, Programme Officer, DEPSSA, IGNOU, New Delhi
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CONTENTS Acknowledgement About the Module BLOCK 1 SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS Page No. vi-vii viii-xi 1 3-13 14-23 24-39 40-45 46-64
Unit 1 Acids, Bases and Salts Unit 2 Metals and Non-Metals Unit 3 Energy (Heat and Light) Unit 4 Plant Cell and Animal Cell Unit 5 Environment
BLOCK 2
SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES
65
Unit 1 Chemical Reactions Unit 2 Modified Root, Stem and Leaf Unit 3 Circulatory System Unit 4 Biodegradation, Solid waste management, Vermincomposting and Rainwater harvesting
67-76 77-89 90-99 100-116
BLOCK 3
SKILL OF PERFORMING SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS
117
Unit 1 Experiments in Science Unit 2 Respiration, Food adulteration, Transpiration and Use of Microscope Unit 3 Purification of Water, Artificial Greenhouse and Model of Rainwater Harvesting Unit 4 Science Corner
118-140 141-157 158-165 166-184
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), is a major initiative of the Government of India to universalize elementary education, in all the 35 States and Union Territories of the country. Distance Education Programme(DEP) has been carved out within the SSA by the Ministry of Human Resource Development, GOI, to augment its efforts in this mission using the open and distance learning mode. The Indira Gandhi National Open University which is the national apex body for maintaining and coordinating standards of open and distance education in the country, has been entrusted with the responsibility of providing the necessary training to elementary level functionaries working in DIETs, SCERTs, BRCs, CRCs. DEP-SSA, IGNOU, thus works as a national resource centre, to empower elementary level functionaries, in developing appropriate skills and competencies for qualitative enhancement of classroom practices and for effective curricular transactions. As a step in this direction DEP-SSA has developed a training module (self-instructional) for science teachers at upper primary school level, based on the constructivist pedagogy. The National Curriculum Framework 2005 has emphasized the constructivist approach which encourages students to use techniques like experiments, solving real world problems, reflective learning and engaging in debates and discussion with peers and teachers to arrive at new ideas and theories. Such a classroom culture facilitates independent thinking and fosters the urge to address and solve problems in multiple ways. The focus of curricular transactions shifts from rote learning and memorization to learning by doing, experiential learning, collaboration, discussions and exploration. An attempt is made in this module to sensitize science teachers towards such learner centric approaches for elementary level learners. DEP-SSA, IGNOU, acknowledges the contributions of the individuals and organizations involved in the development of this module. Department of School Education and Literacy, MHRD, Government of India, for entrusting DEPSSA with the responsibility of enhancing the professional competencies of elementary education functionaries of SSA. Prof. V.N. Rajasekharan Pillai, Vice Chancellor, IGNOU, for his constant motivation, encouragement and support throughout the year for all DEP-SSA activities. Prof. K.R. Srivathsan, Pro Vice Chancellor, IGNOU and Director DEP-SSA, for his invaluable guidance and untiring efforts through useful academic interventions for all DEP-SSA initiatives. Dr. S.S. Jena, former Project Director, DEP-SSA, and presently Chairman NIOS, for being the guiding spirit in this enterprise and for providing unflinching support, right from the stage of program designing, unit writing to editing of module. All members of the Programme Design Committee for their valuable inputs in giving the desired shape to the module.
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All members of the Expert Guidance team for a meticulous review of the module structure. Prof. S.C. Agarkar, Homi Bhabha Center for Science Education, TIFR, Mumbai, for content editing of the module. Dr. C.K. Ghosh, Director, Student Services Centre, IGNOU, for painstakingly doing the content, language and format editing of the module. All the faculty and staff of DEP-SSA, who were always forthcoming with their help and cooperation in bringing out this document. I sincerely hope that this training module will provide useful insights to all concerned with teaching science at the elementary school level. I look forward to your feedback and constructive suggestions for further improvement in the module.
February, 2010 Project Director DEP-SSA, IGNOU
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ABOUT THE MODULE Science education at the Upper Primary level should provide the opportunity of learning by doing to the children. The teacher should engage children in such activities that enable them to make sense of the world around. Learning experiences provided should be such that develop scientific concepts through activities, experiments, using easily available and inexpensive resources. The pedagogic practice at this stage should focus on meaningful investigations, based on hands-on experience, group discussions guided by the teacher and peer interactions. Acquisition of skills, scientific temper and appreciation for science should be the major concern, so that learning becomes a continuous process, even beyond school. NCF 2005 has emphasized the need to strengthen science education so that children are enabled to examine, analyze and develop the spirit of enquiry. In order to realize the goal of science education at elementary level, it is necessary to empower the science teachers and improve their professional skills. With this in mind, DEP-SSA has developed a teacher training module for science teachers at upper primary level in the self-instructional style. This document will serve as support material for science teachers since it is based on the NCERT science curriculum at upper primary level. The main objectives of the training module are to: improve professional competencies of teachers to teach science at upper primary stage. enable teachers to engage children in learning scientific concepts and principles through experiential learning. enable teachers to organize group activities, discussions, projects, to facilitate learning of elementary science in the classroom. facilitate teachers to develop interest, curiosity in learning science and build scientific temper in students at the elementary stage. The document, entitled "Teaching of Science at Upper Primary Level" is written in selfinstructional style. The module compiled in one volume, comprises 13 units, arranged in three blocks - Block 1, 2 and 3. A brief description of each Block is given below:
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BLOCK 1: SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS

This block consists of five units. Each unit deals with some scientific concepts. Teachers will undertake some activities and experiments and engage students in the classroom to arrive at these concepts. The five units in this Block are Unit 1: Acids, Bases and Salts The concepts of acids, bases and salts are discussed through activities. Understanding of these will lead to identification of substances as acids, bases and salts. Their properties and the process of neutralization and its applications in daily life are presented. Unit 2: Metals and Non-Metals Physical and chemical properties of metals and non-metals are described through various experiments and activities. The teacher can differentiate the concepts of metals and nonmetals on the basis of their properties. Common uses of metals and non-metals are also presented, based on daily life experiences. Unit 3: Energy (Heat and Light) The unit deals with the concepts of heat and light as forms of energy. Some strategies are presented which will enable the teachers to differentiate these concepts through examples and illustrations in the classrooms and describe their properties. Unit 4: Plant Cell and Animal Cell Structure of the cell and differences between plant and animal cell are presented. The concepts provided in the unit will enable teachers to prepare simple slides of plant (onion) cell and animal (cheek) cell and observe them under the microscope in the classroom. The activities will enable them to demonstrate these concepts in the classroom by engaging children and develop skill of observations & differentiation.
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Unit 5: Environment The unit discusses some current environmental issues, their causes, effects and preventive measures. Various concepts in the area of environment, like pollution and its types, green house effect, ozone hole and environment conservation are presented through activities. BLOCK 2: SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES Some scientific principles based on concepts discussed in the units of Block -1 are presented in this module. Some of the principles are explained using activities, experiments and discussions. These units will facilitate science teachers at the elementary school level to transact science lessons, using the 'Learning by doing' approach. A brief overview of each of the four units 1 to 4 of Block is presented below:Unit 1: Chemical Reactions The importance of physical and chemical changes in daily life is explained in this unit. Various types of chemical reactions which describe the chemical changes and balancing the chemical reactions are discussed through activities. The processes of crystallization and solubility are described. Unit 2: Modified Root, Stem and Leaf Teachers will be able to organize group activities with children in the classroom to explain the root system, shoot system and their various modifications. The unit also explains the various functions performed by the modified roots and stems. Unit 3: Circulatory System Principles of blood circulation are discussed in the unit. Several activities to be performed by students are presented through which they can recognize and identify different parts of the circulatory system of the human body. Some of the activities in the unit explain the process of blood circulation. Unit 4: Biodegradation, Solid Waste Management, Vermicomposting, Rain Water Harvesting. This unit aims to sensitize learners about the harmful effects resulting from the overuse and abuse of nature's resources. Some practices are discussed which help to identify and differentiate between healthy and harmful human activities. Experiments and activities are presented to explain the principles of biodegradation, vermicomposting, solid waste management and rain water harvesting.
BLOCK 3: SKILL OF PERFORMING SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS The primary objective of science education, particularly at the upper primary stage is to develop curiosity, critical thinking, logical reasoning and an appreciation for science. All the units (1 to 4) in this block deal with scientific experiments, with active involvement of students, in the classroom. A brief summary of each unit is presented below: Unit 1: Experiments in Science This unit explains strategies of teaching scientific experiments, through various experiments pertaining to separation of substances, reactions of acids, bases and salts and properties of metals and non-metals. The teacher will be empowered to perform scientific experiments in the classroom using multiple ways. Unit 2: Respiration, Food Adulteration, Transpiration and Use of Microscope The process of transportation of useful materials and excretion of wastes in plants and animals is described. Different types of transportation in plants and animals, and causes and types of food adulteration are explained through experiments and activities. Structure and use of microscope is presented. Unit 3: Purification of Water, Artificial Green House, Model of Rain Water Harvesting The experiments and working models described in this unit will further strengthen some concepts taught to the students in the previous blocks. The experiments relate to the concepts and principles pertaining to purification of water, rain water harvesting, greenhouse gas emissions and vermicomposting. Unit 4: Science Corner The unit discusses the need of a science corner in the elementary classroom. The activities discussed will enable the teachers to create a science corner in the classroom using low cost materials, specimens and models. The processes involved in building up the science corner through student involvement are described. Teachers will be equipped to perform activities that involve use of experimental cards, making charts, posters and develop a science kit for performing simple experiments.
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Block
1
SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Unit 1 Acids, Bases and Salts Unit 2 Metals and Non-Metals Unit 3 Energy (Heat and Light) Unit 4 Plant Cell and Animal Cell Unit 5 Environment 3-13 14-23 24-39 40-45 46-64
UNIT 1
Structure 1.1 1.2 1.3
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
1.4
1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7.1 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.1
Introduction Objectives Acids 1.3.1 Properties of Acids 1.3.2 Basicity of Acids 1.3.3 Uses of Acids Bases 1.4.1 Properties of Bases 1.4.2 Acidity of Bases 1.4.3 Uses of Bases Indicators Salts Neutralization Neutralization in daily life. Let Us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress Glossary References INTRODUCTION
A common kind of ailment after you have heavy or spicy food is acidity. We say that there has been formation of acid in the stomach. It can be neutralized by the action of some base. Acids on the other hand play a crucial role in our life. A very common use is in cleaning the toilets. Bases are used profusely in the soap and detergent industry. In other words, we depend on bases for keeping other bodies, clothes clean. And we are all familiar with the common salt which we use for cooking. The word salt has a different connotation in chemistry. However, the common salt, sodium chloride is also a salt. In this unit, you will be able to identify and categorize substances into acids, bases and salts and learn their uses. You will also learn to prepare natural indicators from local resources for identification of acids and bases and their acidity and basicity. You will be able to explain the concept of neutralization and understand its application in daily life. 1.2. OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to identify acids, bases and salts. tell the important properties of acids, bases and salts. differentiate between acids, bases and salts prepare natural indicators from locally available substances.
Scientific Concepts
identify substances as acidic and basic based on their reactions with indicators identify applications of neutralization in daily life. 1.3 ACIDS
We shall begin our discussions with an activity. Activity - 1 You ask the students to recall the taste of different edible substances in their daily life and find out whether their tastes are similar or different. Mention the taste of each of these substances if they have never tasted them earlier. You can undertake the activity now. Caution: You will tell your students to observe these precautions Never taste a substance unless asked to do so. Never touch anything unless asked to do so. After undertaking the activity you may present the results in the following tabular form. Table 1.1: Classification of substances based on table (sour, salty, sweet, bitter) S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Substanc Vinegar Lemon juice Sugar Curd Common Salt Cocoa Grapes Amla Baking Soda Tamarind Taste (Sour/Bitter/Sweet/Salty) Sour Sour Sweet Sour Salty Bitter Sour Sour Bitter Sour
Acids are substances that give Hydrogen ion (H+) as the only positive ion on dissolving in water. The word acid is derived from the Latin word acidus which means sour. So, in chemistry, the group of compounds having sour taste and which gives H+ ions in solution are known as acids. HX = H+ + X(aq) (aq) (aq) All acids can be classified into the following categories A. Naturally occurring Acids The naturally occurring acids are weak acids. Many of our food items contain such weak acids in varying amounts. Activity 2 Students will sit in a circle.
Then you ask the students to tell the name of some fruits/vegetables, which taste sour. Further ask them - why these taste sour? With the help of students, you will consolidate: Lemons, oranges, raw-mangoes, etc. are sour in taste due to the presence of acids in them B. Mineral acids Mineral acids are strong acids. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Nitirc acid (HNO3), etc. are some commonly used mineral acids. These acids are called mineral acids because these are prepared from minerals. Mineral acids are very important from the industrial point of view. These are used in the manufacture of fertilizers, explosives, dyes etc. Activity 3 Students will be divided into groups To each group, give the juice of half a lemon and blue litmus paper Ask the students to put blue litmus paper in lemon juice Ask the students to note down the observation viz. change in color etc. With the help of students you will consolidate - acid turns blue litmus paper into red color. Today we encounter these directly or indirectly in daily life. o o o o o o All fruits contain acids and so do many common foods. Cold drinks contain some carbonic acid which gives tingling taste. Apples contain malic acid In lemon, oranges and grapes there is citric acid. Souring of milk produces lactic acid. Digestion of food in our body depends on the presence of hydrochloric acid. Properties of Acids All acids have a sour taste. All acids turn blue litmus red. Acids give Hydrogen ion (H+) on dissociation. e.g. H2SO4, HCl, HNO3 Concentrated mineral acids such as sulphuric acid, nitric acid attack human tissues, clothes, paper and metals. The naturally occurring acids attack metals slowly producing toxic compounds.
The property of an acid with reference to the replaceable hydrogen atom should not be used as the definition of acid. Otherwise, a salt like Sodium Hydrogen Sulphate (NaHSO4) may seem like an acid as it contains a replaceable H-atom which is replaced by Na, gives the salt, Na2SO4.
Acids, Bases and Salts
1.3.1
Every acid has replaceable hydrogen atom (s), which when replaced by metals or radicals, produces salts.
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Scientific Concepts
1.3.2
Basicity of Acids The number of replaceable hydrogen atoms in an acid is called the basicity of the acid. e.g. If an acid has one replacable H, its basicity is one or is monobasic e.g. HCl. Similarly H2SO4 is dibasic as it has two replacable H-atoms. The basicity of H3PO4 is three or it is a tri-basic acid and so on. Uses of Acids Hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acids are very important acids from the commercial point of view. Some important uses of these acids are mentioned below: Hydrochloric acid (HCl): i. For the preparation of chlorides and chlorine gas. ii. For cleaning iron sheets before galvanization iii. For extracting glue from bones. iv. In textile industry for dyeing Nitric acid (HNO3) : i. For preparing fertilizers, explosives, dyes and drugs ii. In the refining of gold and silver Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) i. For preparing fertilizers, detergents, plastics, synthetic fibres ii. In petroleum industry for refining. iii. In lead-acid batteries (as electrolyte).
1.3.3
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. Which colour will a litmus paper turn to if it is dipped in an acid?
1.
2.
Mention one use of each of HCl, H2SO4, and HNO3
Now that you have learnt about acids, let us go over to study bases.
1.4
BASES
Bases are substances that give hydroxyl (OH-) ions on dissolving in water. There are oxides and hydroxides, for example Na2O, NaOH. Bases are bitter in taste and soapy to touch. Metals like Na, K and Ca react with water and H2 gas is liberated in each case and NaOH, KOH and Ca (OH)2 are respectively formed. The bases which are soluble in water and contain hydroxide ions (OH-) in their molecules are called alkalies. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Potassium hydroxide (KOH), Calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH) 2) and Barium Hydroxide (Ba(OH)2) are alkalies. All alkalies are bases but all bases are not alkalies. For example, Na2O is a base but it is not an alkali. When you overeat or take highly spiced fried food your stomach gets upset and you take an antacid. Antacids are prepared from weak bases like aluminium hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide. 1.4.1 Properties of bases 1 Bases are compounds that contain hydroxyl groups 2 All bases give hydroxyl ions in solution. 3 Bases have bitter taste. 4 Bases and alkali solutions are soapy to touch 5 Bases turn red litmus blue. 6 Bases react with acids to give salt and water NaOH + HCl = NaCl + H2O Base acid salt water Activity 4 Ask the students to rub a little solution of caustic soda between their fingers. Ask them what type of feeling do they get? What do they infer? 1.4.2 Acidity of Bases The number of replaceable hydroxyl (OH-) ions in a base is called the acidity of that base, e.g. KOH and NaOH each have one replaceable hydroxyl group, hence its acidicity is one and we call it mono-acidic. Similarly, the acidity of Ca (OH) 2 is two, or it is diacidic. The acidity of Al (OH) 3 is three or it is tri-acidic and so on. 1.4.3 Uses of Bases The uses of some typical bases are described below: Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) (NaOH) : i. In soap and detergent industry ii. For the manufacture of rayon iii. In paper and pulp industry iv. For manufacturing other chemicals. Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) (Ca(OH)2 )
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Scientific Concepts
i. ii. iii. iv. v.
For white washing For the manufacture of bleaching powder In leather industry For neutralizing acidity of the soil For softening hard water
Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) i. As a cleansing agent ii. For preparing ammonium salts Aluminium Hydroxide (Al(OH)3 ) i) For preparing antacid CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. . 1. Give two examples each of acidic and basic substances and name the acid/base found in them.
Now that you have studied acids and bases, we shall take up discussion on Indicators. 1.5 INDICATORS
Let us start our discussion with an activity. Activity 5 Step 1 Take a blotting paper and rub the petals of China rose flower on it. Now cut the purple coloured blotting papers into thin strips. This will be the indicator (litmus paper) prepared from a natural substance (China rose) Take three glass beakers. To each add 20 ml water. Label them as cup 1, 2 and 3. In cup 2 add some vinegar and in cup 3 add baking soda. Place the three cups next to each other so the class can see them. Ask the class to record their observations when an indicator strip is dipped in each of these cups.
Step 2
Step 3 Step 4
Table 1.2: Reaction of Indicator with different types of substances (Acids, Bases & Salts) S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Test Solution Cup 1 Cup 2 (Vinegar) Cup 3 (Baking Soda) Cup 4 (Common Salt) Cup 5 (Sugar Solution) Cup 6 (Lemon Juice) Effect on indicator (litmus paper) No effect Turns dark pink Turns Green No effect No effect Turns dark pink Inference Neutral Acidic Basic Neutral Neutral Acidic
You will ask the students to name those substances, which had no effect on the indicator paper. These are neutral solutions, which are neither acidic nor basic. Another example of natural indicator is turmeric (haldi). Turmeric paste, made by mixing turmeric powder and some water, can be rubbed on a blotting paper and dried. This can be used as an indicator for acids and bases. Activity 5 Prepare a greeting card using turmeric paste. Take a white sheet of paper. Apply turmeric paste and allow it to dry. Draw a design on the dried paper with soap solution, using a cotton swab. What colour design do you get? Soap solution is basic and hence turmeric changes to red colour. Now answer this question CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Why does a turmeric stain on your white school dress turn red, when washed with soap?
Thereafter you will ask students to give names of indicators used in the laboratories. They are (i) Litmus Solutions and Litmus Paper (Blue and Red Litmus) (ii) Phenolphthalein Let us now learn about salts.
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Scientific Concepts
1.6
SALTS
A substance formed by the neutralization reaction of an acid with base is called salt. Acids react with alkalies to form salt and water. This process is called neutralization reaction. In this process addition of acid destroys the alkaline property; addition of alkali destroys the acidic property. The resulting solution is neither acidic nor basic. NaOH + HCl = NaCl + H2O (Base) (Acid) (Salt) (Water) Activity 6 Take about 5 ml each of dil HCl, and dil. H2SO4 in different test tubes and add a piece of magnesium ribbon to each of the test tubes. What do you observe? Test the gas by bringing a burning splinter near the mouth of each test tube and write down your observations. Let us now study Neutralization 1.7 NEUTRALIZATION
We shall start with an activity. Activity 7 You will perform the following experiment and students will answer and record observation. 1 Take a test tube and fill it one fourth with dilute hydrochloric acid. 2 What is the colour of the solution? (Colourless) 3 Now add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicators. 4 What is the change in colour of solution (remaining colourless solution) 5 To this acidic solution, add a drop of sodium hydroxide solution and stir the solution. 6 Is there any change in colour of solution? 7 Continue adding sodium hydroxide solution drop by drop till the pink colour just appears. 8 Now add one more drop dilute hydrochloric acid. What do you observe? (solution becomes colourless) 9 Add a drop of sodium hydroxide solution. Do you observe change in colour? (Solution becomes pink) 10 What do you conclude? When the solution is basic, phenolphthalein gives pink colour and when solution is acidic it remains colourless. 11 What happens when an acidic solution is mixed with a basic solution? They neutralize the effect of each other and the resulting solution is neither acidic nor basic. 12 Touch the test tube from outside, soon after neutralization reaction, How does it feel? (Hot) In neutralization reaction, heat is always evolved which raises the temperature of the reaction mixture. 13 What is the new substance formed in neutralization reaction/(salt)
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14 Can you derive the definition of Neutralization? It can be defined as: The reaction between an acid and a base, to form salt and water, with the evolution of heat, is called neutralization. 15. Give the general equation for neutralization (Acid + Base = Salt + Water (Heat is evolved)) 1.7.1 Neutralization in Daily Life
We shall study neutralization in daily life using examples. Teacher will ask some questions based on students' daily life experiences Example 1: Indigestion/Acidity i) Does human body contain acids? Yes/No ii) Name two acids present in the body? (Fatty Acids, Hydrochloric Acid) iii) In which part of the human body do we find hydrochloric acid? (Stomach) iv) When do we experience (burning sensation) acidity? {Due to indigestion/overeating, too much acid is formed in the stomach} v) What medicine do you take to get relief from indigestion? {Antacid like Milk of Magnesia or Digene, The base present in the antacid (e.g. Magnesium hydroxide) neutralizes the acid in the stomach) Example 2: Ant Bite i) What do you apply to the skin, when an ant bites? (calamine lotion, moist baking soda} ii) Why do you feel the sting when the ant bites {the ant injects acid (formic acid) in the skin, which causes the sting and pain}. iii) Why does application of calamine or baking soda, bring relief from the sting. {Calamine which contains zinc carbonate and baking soda having sodium hydrogen carbonate, neutralizes the effect of formic acid) CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. What will happen when dilute hydrochoric acid is added to sodium hydroxide solution? 2. What will happen to the temperature of the reaction mixture in the test-tube?
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Scientific Concepts
1.8
LET US SUM UP
In this unit you learnt that Acids have sour taste and bases have bitter taste. Naturally-occurring acids are weak acids. These acids are present in many food items. Mineral acids are strong acids. These acids are obtained from minerals. Bases have bitter taste, soapy touch and strong bases are corrosive to skin. All bases release OH- ion in aqueous solution Bases turn red litmus to blue Indicators are substances which change colour with acidic and basic solution Turmeric and china rose are some natural indicators Substances which are neither acidic or basic are called neutral An acid and a base when mixed, neutralizes each other to form salt and water. 1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Answer 1 1. Blue litmus paper turns red 2. Uses of : HCl in textile industry for dyeing H2SO4 preparation of fertilizers HNO3 manufacture of explosives Answer 2 1. Acidic Substances Acid Basic Substances Acid
Grapes Tartaric acid Lime Water Calcium hydroxide
Curd Lactic Acid Soap Sodium Hydroxide
Answer 3 1. The soap solution is basic and when turmeric in the stain comes into contact with the base changes to red color. Answer 4 1 It will form Sodium Chloride, i.e. salt and water 2. The test tube becomes hot, i.e. the rise of temperature 1.10 Acid
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GLOSSARY An acid is a substance that gives H+ (hydrogen) ions in water. Acids have sour taste.
Base
A base is a substance that gives OH- (hydroxyl) ions in water. Bases are soapy to touch. A salt is a substance formed by the neutralization reaction of an acid and base. It is the reaction between an acid and base to produce salt and water with release of heat. It is a substance, which gives different colours when mixed with acid and base. The colours help one to identify acids and bases. It is neutral.
Salt
Neutralization
Indicator
1.11
REFERENCES
www.miamisci.org NCERT, Science Text Book for Class VII (2007), New Delhi
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Scientific Concepts
UNIT 2 METALS AND NON-METALS

Structure 2.1 2.2 2.3 Introduction Objectives Metals 2.3.1 Physical Properties 2.3.2 Occurrence and Use of Metals 2.3.3 Reactivity Series Non Metals 2.4.1 Physical Properties 2.4.2. Occurrence and Use of Non Metals Corrosion of Metals 2.5.1 Methods of Preventing Corrosion Let us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress Glossary References INTRODUCTION
2.4
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.1
You must have observed serious concern about security measures at sensitive places like airports, railway stations, and important tourist spots. The public congregating at such places are supposed to pass through a device called Metal Detector. It is because a thing like a sharp weapon gets detected. Such an item can only be created out of a metal. This indicates that metals have a special place in the study of materials. They are indeed distinct from the other variety, called non-metal. In this unit you will learn about the properties, uses and occurrence of metals and non-metals. We will also discuss about the corrosion of metals. 2.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to identify the metals and non-metals differentiate metals and non metals in accordance with their physical properties spell out the common use of metals and non-metals explain difference in reactivity of different metals describe the reason of corrosion of metals and its prevention 2.3 METALS Activity 1 Students will sit in a circle. You will ask them
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to write individually the list of things seen inside the classroom. Then you will divide students into small groups and ask them to prepare a final list of things seen inside the classroom. Out of this list, you will ask the students to identify the things which are metals. Each group will present the list of metals and you will lead the discussion. There are more than 114 different elements known to us today. Lavoisier broadly classified these elements into metals and non-metals by studying their properties. Of these only 22 are non-metals. Properties of metals are quite different from those of non-metals. A metal is an element which can form +ve ions (cations) by the loss of electrons. The number of electrons lost by an atom is known as the valency of the metal. Na = Na+ + e Mg = Mg+ + 2e Thus, sodium and magnesium are metals because they can form +ve ions by the loss of electrons. Now, let us study the physical properties of metals. 2.3.1 1. Physical properties of metals Metals have a metallic luster
Metals and Non-Metals
Activity 2 Collect pieces of some common metals like iron, copper, aluminum and magnesium. Observe their appearance and how they reflect light. The reflection is different for each metal. The shine of light on a metal is called metallic luster. 2. Metals are generally hard, though some are soft Most of them are hard like iron, aluminum etc. though potassium and sodium are soft and can be cut with a knife. Metals are malleable This means that the metals can be hammered into sheets.
3.
Activity 3 (whole class discussion) Students will sit in a circle You will ask the students, "Have you seen a blacksmith working in his foundry? How is he doing his work?" Open discussion will be made - Blacksmith beats iron metal into thin sheets for making various implements. What are the other metals, which can be hammered into thin sheets? It will be discussed in the class. Metals like aluminum, gold, silver etc. are hammered into sheets and used for making utensils and ornaments.
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Scientific Concepts
4.
Metals are ductile That means they can be drawn into wires. We all have seen electric wires made of copper and aluminium. Iron wires are used for fencing. Goldsmiths make gold thread by drawing gold into fine wires. This property of metals is called ductility. We say gold, silver, copper, aluminium and iron are ductile. Metals are good conductors of heat. We use vessels made of aluminium and copper for cooking because they are good conductors of heat.
5.
Activity 4 (Teacher demonstrated Activity) Take one iron rod. Try holding one end of an iron rod with the other end over fire. After a little time, what you will feel? You can feel the rise in temperature at your end of the rod also. Activity 5 Take three rods - copper, iron and aluminium of equal diameter and equal length. Insert the rods into an iron container, so that equal lengths of the rods are outside the container. Coat the free ends of the rods with wax. Fill the iron container with boiling water. Observe that heat is conducted by the iron rod. But, different metals take different time to conduct heat. Observations The wax on the rods starts melting. But the wax melts to different lengths on the three rods. It takes different time for the wax to completely melt on the three rods. 6. Metals are good conductors of electricity
Activity 6 Set up an electric circuit Hold a piece of copper metal between metallic crocodile clips. Notice that the bulb glows. Now repeat the experiment with a piece of iron, zinc, nickel, etc. Record the observation 7. Metals are sonorous
Activity 7 Take two spoons. One made of steel and other made of iron. Drop two spoons from a height. Observe the sounds they make. Which of them produces a ringing sound? All metals produce a ringing sound, i.e. all metals are sonorous.
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8.
Metals generally have a high tensile strength Tensile strength means the greatest longitudinal stress a substance can bear without tearing apart.
Activity 8 Take one piece of paper on plastic Try pulling both ends of the piece of paper on plastic. What you will observe - It will easily tear and break. Now try to break iron, copper and aluminum wire. They do not break. It shows that metals are strong. 9. Metals are usually solids Mercury is the only metal in liquid form at room temperature. All other metals exist in solid form at room temperature. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Give one example of a metal which (i) is liquid at room temperature. (ii) can be easily cut with a knife. (iii) is the best conductor of heat.
2.3.2 Occurrence and use of Metals A mineral from which a metal can be extracted conveniently and profitably is called an ore. Normally ores are found fixed with a lot of impurities such as soil and rocks. The quantities of impurities vary and where there are fewer impurities, they are called high-grade ores. The impurities are called gangue. Uses of Common Metals a. Uses of Iron: Iron is used for making pipes, sinks, cylinders, stoves, agricultural implements. It is also used for making cores of electromagnet. Iron is converted to different kinds of steels. The steel is used for making tools, ships, bridges, etc. b. Uses of Aluminum: It is used for making paints and mirrors, utensils, electrical wires, etc. Since it is a light metal, it is used for making the body of ships, cars, etc. c. Uses of copper: It is extensively used for making electric appliances, for making certain alloys like brass, bronze and German silver.
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Scientific Concepts
d. Uses of Lead: It is used for making lead pipes and containers for corrosive liquids. It is used in storage batteries. Underground telephone cables are protected by lead covering. Activity 9 Students will be divided into small groups To each group, 4 chits will be given. In each chit, iron, aluminum, copper & lead will be written. Students will discuss in groups and write down the uses of these metals. Each group will present it and follow up discussion will be made in the class. Now that you have learnt about the different physical properties and uses of metal, let us go over to study the chemical properties. 2.3.3 Reactivity series
All metals are not equally reactive. Some metals are more reactive than others. Metals which lose electrons more readily to form +ve ions are more reactive. Less reactive metals do not lose electrons easily. Some metals react vigorously with an element or compound, some react slowly, while some do not react at all. Based on their reactivity, metals have been arranged in a series in order of their decreasing reactivities. This order is called reactivity series. In this series, the most reactive metal is placed at the top and the least reactive metal at the bottom. Reactivity series of Metals K Na Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Pb H Cu Hg Ag Au Pt Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminum Zinc Iron Lead Hydrogen Copper Mercury Silver Gold Platinum Most Reactive
Reactivity decreases
Least Reactive
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1 Why sodium is kept immersed in kerosene oil?
Which is the most reactive metal?
Activity 10 Take an iron nail in a beaker containing a solution of CuSO4. Remove the nail after some time. What do you observe? There is a coating on the surface of the nail and the blue colour of CuSO4 has turned green. Fe + CuSO4 = FeSO4 + Cu In this reaction iron replaces Cu because iron is more reactive than Cu. Activity 11 Take a strip of copper in a solution of iron sulphate. Remove the strip of Cu after some time. What do you observe? The blue colour of CuSO4 is not changed. This means that Cu can not replace iron from iron sulphate solution. This proves Cu is less reactive than Fe. 2.4 NON-METALS
There are 22 elements which are non-metals out of these 11 exists as gas, 10 as solids and only one i.e. bromine occurs as liquid at room temperature. Some of the important non-metals are nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, helium, sulphur, bromine, carbon, neon etc.
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Scientific Concepts
2.4.1
Physical properties of non-metals.
1. Physical state: Non-metals exist in all the three states i.e. solid (carbon, phosphorous, sulphur), liquid (bromine) and gaseous (oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen). 2. Non-lustrous: Most of the non-metals are non-lustrous and dull such as sulphur, phosphorous. Graphite, diamond and iodine crystals are exceptions as they shine. 3. Soft and brittle: The solid non-metals are soft and brittle such as graphite, sulphur and iodine. Only diamond, a form of carbon is hard. In fact, diamond is the hardest substance. 4. Low-density, melting point and boiling point: Since most of the nonmetals are gases at room-temperature and are soft, their density is low and therefore, their melting and boiling points are also low. Diamond is an exception as it is hard and its density, melting and boiling points are high. 5. Non-metals are not malleable or ductile: Being soft and brittle, non metals can not be converted into thin sheets or wires 6. Bad conductors of heat and electricity: Non-metals do not possess free electrons to carry charge or heat and hence are poor conductors of heat and electricity. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Why are non-metals bad conductors of electricity?
2.4.2 Occurrence and uses of non-metals In free state, hydrogen is found in the mixed form with coal gas. Free hydrogen is found in the sun and stars. In combined form, hydrogen is found in natural gas, petroleum and in water. In free state, nitrogen is found in the air. In combined state, nitrogen is found as a constituent of animal and plant protein. In free state carbon is found as graphite, diamond and coal. In combined state it is found in many organic compounds.
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Hydrogen is used in the oxy-hydrogen torch which is used for welding purposes. A mixture of hydrogen and helium is used in weather observing balloons. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Name a non metallic element which conducts electricity?
Activity 12 Divide the students into groups Ask the two groups to sit face-to-face One group will tell the name of one non-metal and other group will tell its uses. Likewise the activity will go on. You will provide support whenever required CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. What happens when a strip of copper is immersed in a solution of iron sulphate?
2.5
CORROSION OF METALS
You must have seen a reddish-brown coating which forms on unprotected iron. This reddish-brown coating is called rust. Rust is caused by slow combustion reaction which occurs when iron is in contact with both oxygen and moisture. This surface chemical action in metals exposed to air and water is called corrosion. Both air and moisture must be present for corrosion to take place. The rusting of iron is an example of corrosion.
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Scientific Concepts
Effects of corrosion Rust is soft and flaky. Once a layer of rust is formed it flakes off, leaving a fresh surface to be attacked. This continuous processes result in thinning, weakening and eventually disintegrating the metal. Corrosion is thus a wasteful process. It also weakens the metals. 2.5.1 Methods of preventing corrosion Corrosion can be prevented if the contact between metal and air is cut off. Some of the methods are: a) Coating with oils & grease Iron & steel instruments and parts of various machines are kept smeared with oils when not in use as this prevents corrosion as the metal is not in contact with air. b) Coating with paints Coating railway coaches, bridges, automobiles, etc with paint prevents corrosion. c) Coating with other metals Sometimes metals are coated with non-corrosive metals Galvanising - A process of giving a thin coating of Zn on iron sheets to prevent rusting. Tinning - A process of giving a coating of tin. Electroplating - In this method metal surfaces are covered with another metal by using electric current & thus corrosion is stopped. Many presentation articles, medals etc are gold plated or silver plated electrolytically. Anodising - A process in which metals like Al, Cu, etc. are coated electrically with a thin and strong film of their oxides which protects them from corrosion. Alloying - An alloy is a homogenous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non-metal. If one of the metals is mercury, then the alloy is known as an amalgum. Some metals when alloyed with other metal become more resistant to corrosion. Stainless steel is an alloy of iron which does not rust. LET US SUM UP
2.6
In this unit you learnt that A metal is an element which can form positive ions by the loss of electron. Metals are generally hard. Metals are malleable and ductile Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity Non-metals exists in gaseous, solids and also in liquid form Non-metals are not malleable or ductile. Non-metals are bad conductor of heat and electricity. All metals are not equally reactive.
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2.7
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Answer 1 (i) Mercury (ii) Sodium (iii) Copper Answer 2 1. 2. Answer 3 1. Answer 4 1. Answer 5 1. 2.8 Sodium is very reactive when exposed to air or in water. Hence it is stored in kerosene oil. Potassium Non-metals are poor conductors of electricity because their valence shell does not contain free electrons except graphite. Carbon No reaction will take place because copper is less reactive than iron and therefore, cannot replace iron from iron sulphate.
GLOSSARY Property of metals by which they can be beaten into thin sheets. Property of metals by which they can be drawn into thin wires. Property of metals by which they produce a ringing sound. Substances which are hard, shiny and are good conductors of heat and electricity. Soft and dull substances which are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
Malleability Ductility Sonorous Metals Non-metals
2.9
REFERENCES
NCERT, Science Text Book for Class VIII (2008), New Delhi
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Scientific Concepts
UNIT 3 ENERGY (HEAT & LIGHT)

Structure 3.1 3.2 3.3 Introduction Objectives Concept of Hot and Cold 3.3.1 Hotness and coldness 3.3.2 Transfer of Heat Light: An Introduction 3.4.1 Reflection of light 3.4.2 Interaction of light with matter 3.4.3 Formation of Images Let Us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress Glossary References INTRODUCTION
3.4
3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.1
Teaching of science at school level must be related to experiences in dayto-day life. There are multiple ways of presenting a concept of science in a classroom. In this unit an attempt has been taken to explain strategies of teaching heat, temperature, light and its characteristics. Involving children in teaching learning process is quite challenging. Hence, the teacher should be quite resourceful in engaging children in the process of learning. This unit focuses on some fundamental concepts of science and its teaching learning strategies at elementary school level. 3.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to : explain the concept of heat, temperature and light in the classroom. differentiate between heat and temperature with simple examples. prepare children to develop scientific concept on heat, temperature and light. describe the properties of light and its significance 3.3 CONCEPT OF HOT AND COLD
Activity -1 (Demonstration by teacher followed by group activity) Let us take two beakers as 'A' and 'B'. As shown in the Fig.3. 1, half of beaker 'A' is filled with cold water and beaker 'B' with hot water. One child from the class may be asked to dip one hand in beaker 'A' and other hand in beaker 'B'. Let the child be allowed to express his
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Beaker 'A' (cold water)
Beaker 'B' (hot water)
Fig.3. 1: Beaker A & B containing cold and hot water respectively
feeling/experience in doing this task. Let us hear from the child about his feeling in left hand and right hand. The same activity may be repeated with another child You are expected to summarize the events in a tabular form on the blackboard with the help of children. For example Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Hot substance ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ Cold substance ________ ________ ________ ________ ________
Energy (Heat & Light)
Discuss and interact with children about the items recorded in the above table. This will help children to list large number of hot and cold substances from their own experiences. Activity 2 (Demonstrated by Teacher) Let us take three beakers and label them as 'A', 'B' and 'C' as shown in Fig.3. 2. We may take cold water in A, normal water in Beaker 'A' Beaker 'B' Beaker 'C' B and hot water in C. (Cold Water) (Normal Water) (Hot Water) i) Call one child from the class Fig. 3.2 : Beaker A, B & C with water at and ask him to dip one hand three different temperatures in A and other hand in B. Record the experience/feeling of the child on the blackboard. ii) Call another child and ask him to dip one hand in A and another hand in C, Record the experience/feeling of the child on the blackboard. iii) Call another child and ask him to dip one hand in B and other hand in C. Record the experience/feeling of the child on the blackboard. The responses of three children should be noted on the blackboard systematically in a tabular form. e.g.: A B C Child 1 Child 2 Child 3
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Scientific Concepts
Summarize the recorded observations to make the children understand the concept of hot and cold on discussion and interaction with children. Let us analyze the table critically to help children to develop clarity in understanding the concept of hot and cold. 3.3.1 Hotness and coldness Activity 3 (Demonstrated by teacher) Let us take some hot water in A, normal water in B and a mixture of hot and normal water in C, as shown in Fig 3.3 i) Call one child from the class Beaker A Beaker B Beaker C and ask to dip one hand in A hold water Mixture of hot and other hand in B. Record and cold water the experience/feeling of the Fig. 3.3 : Beaker A, B & C with water at three different temperatures child on the blackboard ii) Call another child and ask to dip one hand in A and other hand in C, record the experience/feeling of child on the blackboard iii) Call another child and ask to dip one hand in B and other in C, record the experience/feeling of the child on the blackboard. Summarize the recorded observations to make the children understand the concept of hot and cold and the concept of hotness and coldness as well, on discussion and interaction with children. Blackboard must be used systematically to present the answers of children. Analysis of the recorded facts can develop scientific enquiry and power of understanding of children on the concept of hotness and coldness. On the basis of conclusion, we can say that degree of hotness of A, B, C different from one another. Hotness of an object is called temperature. For measuring the hotness, we need an instrument called Thermometer. Showing a thermometer teacher is expected to explain its different part and its use. Using the thermometer, demonstrate the measurement of temperature in beaker A, B, & C. and explain children the measure of hotness in A, B, and C . This exercise can be performed in groups. Teacher can facilitate in analyzing results of different groups. This will facilitate children in handling scientific apparatus and conducting experiments.
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3.3.2
Transfer of heat
Activity 4: (To be demonstrated by teacher) Let us take two troughs as shown in Fig. 3.4 and label them as 'A' and 'B'. Fill three-fourth of trough 'A' with hot boiled water (troughs may be placed on a tripod stand and a Bunsen burner may be placed below the Beaker A Beaker B boiled water cold water trough A to boil water. Once the Fig. 3.4: Beakers A & B with hot and cold water respectively water starts boiling remove the burner) and fill three-fourth of B with cold water. Insert thermometer in trough 'A' and another in trough 'B'. Thermometer may be fixed through clamp stands as shown in the figure. Time 1 Min 2 Min 3 Min 4 Min 5 Min 6 Min Temp of Beaker 'A' Temp of Beaker 'A'
Temperature of troughs A & B be noted separately with the help of children. Prepare a table and ask children to note the temperature, at an interval of one minute. Teacher is expected to note the temperature of A and B on the blackboard as per the following table Summarize the recorded observations on discussion and interaction with children. Discussion should include decrease in trend of temperature in A and increase in temperature of B. Teacher is expected to develop questioning ability /enquiry ability of children through discussion and interaction with children. Observation Temperature of Beaker 'A' Temperature of Beaker 'B' : __________ : __________
Discuss and interact with children on the basis of following lines: 1. What do you find over a period of 6 mins in beaker A? 2. Why temperature of beaker 'A' decreases gradually? 3. What do you find over a period of 6 mins in beaker A?
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Scientific Concepts
4. Why temperature of beaker 'B' increases gradually? 5. From this what conclusion can be drawn? Heat is transferred from beaker A (hotter end) to beaker B (colder end). The process of transfer of heat from hotter end to colder end is called conduction There is an U-shaped iron rod used in this experiment. What is the use of the metallic connector from A to B ? Substance which helps in conduction of heat from hotter to colder end is called conductors CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Name some objects from real life, which conduct heat.
Instead of iron rod what else can be used? Let us discuss this question with children. Activity 5 Repeat the same experiment (Activity 4) using a U-shaped 'wooden' connector from A and B instead of a metallic rod. Discuss and interact with children about their observation and experience and help them to draw conclusion from the experiment, like we have done in Activity 4. A substance which cannot conduct heat from hotter end to colder end is called insulators. Heat can not be conducted form one body to another body through wood. Is there any other substance like wood through which heat can not be conducted?
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Name some objects from your real life experience, which do not conduct heat.
Activity 6 Let us take a beaker containing three-fourth of it with water as shown in Fig 3.5 .Insert two thermometers as shown in figure. One thermometer 'A'is dipped up to the lower surface and other is just dipped at the upper level. The beaker may be heated with Bunsen burner /spirit lamp and note the reading of thermometer 'A' and 'B' separately, after a definite time interval in a tabular form.
Fig. 3.5: Water being heated in a beaker with two thermometers to show difference of temperature at two different levels
Time 1 Min 2 Min 3 Min 4 Min 5 Min 6 Min
Temp of Beaker 'A'
Temp of Beaker 'A'
Summarize the recorded observations with the discussion and interaction with children. Analyse in detail about the rate of rise in temperature in A and B. Ask children to find the difference in rate of rise of temperature in A and B and state their observations. Children may be asked to give their observations in group. Teacher is expected to analyse the observations of each group and summarise them as follows: Observation Temperature noted through two thermometers is different at each time. Gradually there is increase in temperature of both thermometer A and B. Always temperature noted through thermometer A is higher than that of thermometer B.
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Scientific Concepts
On the basis of the above observations each group may be asked to answer the following questions: Could you compare the temperature of water at lower part of the beaker with that of water at upper part of beaker? Could we say heat is transferred from bottom of the beaker to top of the beaker? From this what conclusion can be drawn? Similarly transfer of heat from hotter end to colder end and through gas (air) can also be demonstrated by lighting a candle.
Process of transfer of heat from hotter end to colder end through liquid is called convection On the basis of discussion with children ask them to prepare a list of examples to explain the phenomenon of convection from their experiences 1. 2. For conduction and convection there is the need of a medium, Solid in case of conduction and liquid in case of convection CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Windows of the houses in coastal areas are generally made to face the sea. Give reason
Transfer of heat without any medium Is it possible for the transfer of heat from one end to another end without any medium? Activity 7 Let us explain to children the use of a room heater/ fire in a container. We may ask children why we use room heater/fire in a container. What do we generally feel when we on the switch of room heater? Then explain children why do you feel so?
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Answers of each question should be followed by discussion and interaction with other children Activity 8 Let us take a utensil and heat the same with a Bunsen burner/spirit lamp and place it at the centre of a room. We may ask children to take their hands near the utensil (without touching). What do they feel? Why do they feel so? After some time (about 15 min.) ask children to touch the utensil. What do you feel? Why does the utensil become cold? Discuss and interact with children about the process and help them to understand how conduction of heat takes place without medium. The process of transfer of heat without any medium is called radiation Could you give some more example of radiation related to the phenomenon of real life situation? CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Generally people use umbrella with black color cloth when they go out. Give reasons.
3.4 3.4.1
LIGHT: AN INTRODUCTION Reflection of light
Activity 9 Let us take a beaker and fill three-fourth of it with water. The beaker may be kept on a table without any disturbance. Ask one or two child to look into the water from the top (upper face) of the beaker. What do you see? Teacher is expected to write the answers of children on the blackboard. Discuss and interact with children how they are able to see their face through the surface of water. And then ask could you give some more example of object through which you can see your own face? 1. Shining stainless utensils
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Scientific Concepts
2.
Stem plate
Your face that is visible through surface of water, polished/shining surface is called image Activity 10 (To be demonstrated by teacher) Let us take a mirror and place it on a table as shown in the Fig 3. 6. In front of the mirror (at certain distance from the mirror) place an object. Let us ask children one by one to observe the object and the mirror carefully. What do you see through the mirror? Do you find any thing inside the mirror?
Fig. 3.6: Reflection of an object in a mirror
Source: NCERT 2009: Science Textbook for class VII
The same object appear inside the mirror is called image of the object. Could you compare the distance of the object from the mirror with the distance of the image from the mirror? Distance of the object from the mirror is equal to the distance of the image from the mirror. Activity 11 (To be performed in group) Perform the experiment taking a chessboard as shown in Fig 3.7 and have discussion and interaction with children about the position of the object, its size etc. Children may be asked to see the image of the object through the mirror and then discuss with them about the size of the image and its distance from the mirror etc.
Fig. 3.7: Process of reflection using chess board and mirror
Teacher is expected to help children to repeat the experiment with changing the position of the object on the chess board. Use of chess board will certainly help children to assume object distance and image distance without any measurement. Compare the image of the object with that the object itself, what do you observe? Image of the object formed through the polished surface (mirror) is exactly same as that of the object Let us take a pencil and keep it in front of the mirror and observe its image. Name the object
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_______________
Name the image Compare the size of the Object with that of the image
_______________ _______________
Let us ask one child to take the object very near to the mirror slowly. 'Observe the movement of image' and its position. Ask another child to take the object 2 cm nearer to the mirror slowly and observe the movement of image and its position. Ask another child to take the object 5 cm away from the mirror slowly and observe the movement of image. Summarize the whole activity with discussion and interaction with children to make the child realize that size of the object = size of the image when the object is placed in front of a plane mirror. At the same time distance of the object from the mirror = distance of the image from the mirror. 3.4.2 Interaction of light with matter
Activity 12 (To be demonstrated by teacher) At the center of a darkroom, let us place a table, keep a beaker on it. Three-fourth of the beaker may be filled with water. Let us keep the beaker undisturbed on the table. Cover the beaker with an opaque object (cardboard) with a small hole at the centre. From the upper surface, allow light (from a torch) to fall on the through the hole at an angle as shown in the Fig 3.8. Children are advised to observe at the ceiling of the room.
Fig. 3.8: Reflection of light through an opaque object
Teacher may discuss with children in asking questions like what do they see on the ceiling? Observations of different child may be noted on the blackboard. Repeat the activity by allowing the light to fall at different angles on the upper surface of water and ask children to observe the image formed on the ceiling of the room. Activity 13 Let us fix a mirror on the wall of dark room. Repeat the above activity by allowing the light through a torch to fall at different places on a mirror fixed at the wall. Teacher is expected to ask children one by one what do they observe on the opposite wall of the room? Explain to the children the process and help them to draw any conclusion from their observation. Teacher can repeat the same experiment by focusing light through a torch on the opaque wall and ask children to draw their
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Scientific Concepts
observations. Now teacher is expected to discuss children to compare two sets of observations from two different experiments, to make children understand the concept of interaction of light with matter. When light falls on a polished surface, the surface changes the direction of light. This is due to interaction of light with matter On the basis of the Activity 12 and 13, one can explain how the direction of light changes when allowed to fall on a polished surface. We can say that the change in direction of light by a plane polished surface is called reflection On the basis of discussion with children ask them to give some other examples of reflection of light from their experiences. 1. 2. 3.4.3 Formation of Images: Plane Mirror
Activity 14 (To be demonstrated by teacher) ``Let us take a candle and a plane mirror. Perform the experiment placing the candle at different position in front of the mirror as shown in Fig.3.9 and ask children to see its image at different distance from the mirror. It is important to note the characteristics of the images formed Fig. 3.9: Process of reflection when the object is placed at different Source: NCERT 2009: Science Textbook for class VII positions in front of the mirror. On the basis of discussion and interaction with children, write their observations on the black board. 1. 2. 3. Size of the candle is equal to its image. Flame of the candle is appearing on the top and flame of image also appears on top. Distance of the candle from the mirror is equal to distance of its image from the mirror Such image is said to be erect and virtual.
Observations 1. Size of the candle is equal to its image. 2. Flame of the candle is appearing on the top and flame in the image also appears on the top. 3. Distance of the candle from the mirror is equal to distance of the image from the mirror. (Such image is said to be erect)
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Activity 15 Let us ask one child from the class to stand in front of a plane mirror by raising his right arm and observe the image formed through the plane mirror Teacher is expected to discuss with children on the basis of following questions: 1. Which hand of Object (object is the child) has been raised (left/right) 2. Which hand of the image has been raised (left/ right) Let us ask the child to hold his left ear and see the image and collect observations about change in sides on the basis of discussion and interaction with children. The same experiment can be repeated with two/three other children. Discuss and interact with children about the object and the images formed at different instances. Let us facilitate the children to summarie the result in groups and note their responses on the blackboard and then generalize on the basis of analysis. In a plane mirror sides of image appears to be interchanged i.e. left appears right and vice-versa. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Give an example of the phenomenon of interchange of side used in our day-today-life.
Formation of image through Spherical mirror Activity 16 Let us take a bright, polished spoon and ask a child to see his face through the outer side of steel spoon as shown in the Fig 3.10 and ask Could you see your image? Now taking a pen in front of outer surface of steel a spoon ask a child Do you get the image of the pen through the spoon ? Repeat the activity using the inner surface of the steel spoon and ask to observe the images.
Fig. 3.10 : Reflection through spherical surface
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Scientific Concepts
The curve of shining/polished surface of a spoon acts as a mirror called curved mirror/spherical mirror. Teacher may show some concave and convex mirrors to children to help them to understand the concept The outer surface of a polished spoon called convex surface i.e. the reflecting surface is convex. (Teacher is expected to demonstrate the same with a convex mirror) The inner surface of a polished spoon called concave surface i.e. the reflecting surface is concave. (Teacher is expected to demonstrate the same with a concave mirror) CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Note the characteristics of image through a convex surface (using outer surface of spoon) (i) (ii) (iii) Formation of images by lenses Let us get some lenses and ask children to touch and feel them. Taking some spectacles we can ask children to touch and feel the glass used in them. Let us show a convex lens to children and ask them to examine it with regard to its shape, size etc. Lenses that are thickest at the middle than edges are called convex lens. Teacher can demonstrate the same
Fig. 3.11 : Image formation through converging and diverging lenses
Lenses that are thicker at the edge than the middle are called concave lens. Teacher can demonstrate the same using a convex lens All lenses are transparent and light can pass through it.
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Activity 17 Let us take a convex lens and a glass and keep it on the table. Cover the glass with a cardboard and make two small holes. Let us allow light to fall on it. A white drawing sheet may be kept on the opposite side of the lens and adjust its portion to get a bright spot on it. Observation Reflection of light after falling on the convex lens bends inwards. i.e. converges towards each other. (The lens is called converging lens) now change the position of torch and accordingly adjust the position of drawing sheet to get the sharp image. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 7 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Perform the similar activity (Activity 17) taking a concave lens and state your observation on the characteristics of image formed.
LET US SUM UP In this unit, you learnt: Teaching strategies for concepts of heat, temperature, heat transfer. Concept of light and its interactivity with matter Presenting the above concepts through several examples and classroom activities that are learner-centric. ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer 1 1. i) steel and silver spoon, ii) key of a lock, iii) a piece of iron rod, iv) water etc. Answer 2 1. i) Plastic scale, ii) plastic comb, iii) wood piece, etc Answer 3 1. Air present above the sea level is generally cold. Land mass air is getting heated up quick and goes up. To fill the gap cold air from above the level of sea blows towards the land (by the process of convection). Therefore to get the cold air the windows are generally made to face towards sea.
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Answer 4 1. Good absorbers are good radiators. Black color cloth used in a umbrella absorb heat from the sun and radiate the same back to the atmosphere (by the process of radiation) at the same rate. So we feel little comfort in using umbrella having a black cloth. Answer 5 1. The word AMBULANCE is generally written in the laterally inverted form in front of a vehicle. It is because the driver of a vehicle ahead of an ambulance looks through the mirror and can read it as 'AMBULANCE' (It is because of the phenomenon of lateral inversion.) and can allow the ambulance to pass. Answer 6 1. i) Image always formed at a point, ii) image may be real or virtual, iii) image is not magnified Answer 7 1. Readers are expected to give their own comment. however the common observations are; i) point image is formed, ii) Image is virtual, etc GLOSSARY Conduction Conductors Insulators Convection Radiation Transfer of heat from the hotter end to the colder end of a body Substances which help in heat transfer from hotter to colder end of the body, e.g. metals Substances which cannot conduct heat from hotter to colder end of a body, e.g. wood, rubber The process of heat transfer from a hotter to colder end in a liquid The process of heat transfer in the absence of any Medium
REFERENCES Agrawal, O. P. (1999) IIT Chemistry, Jai Prakash Nath Publication, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh Kumar, N. (1998) Comprehensive Physics, Laxmi Publication, New Delhi Nanda, R. N., et.al; (1997) Textbook of Modern Chemistry, Kalyani Publication, Ludhiana, Punjab
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NCERT (2008) Science Textbook for Class VIII; National Council of Education Research and Training, New Delhi NCERT (2009) Science Textbook for Class VII; National Council of Education Research and Training, New Delhi Sharma, K. N. (1999) ISC Physics, Kalyani Publication, Ludhiana, Punjab
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UNIT4 PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL

Structure 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.1 Introduction Objectives Cell Structure 4.3.1 Comparison of Plant Cell and Animal Cell Size of Cell Let Us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress Glossary References INTRODUCTION
It is important to understand about the basic functional unit of an organ in a living organism called the cell. Robert Hooke in 1665 observed the small structures from cork sections under simple microscope which looked like bee hive (honey comb). He called them cell (Greek Kytore = cell, latin cella - hollow space). Cell was discovered in this way. Living beings are classified as plants and animals. Developed animals have definite size and shape while plants have both different size and shape. In this unit you will learn the concept of cell, its structure and differences between plant and animal cell. 4.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:Define a cell Explain the structure of a cell Prepare simple slide of onion peel Observe the structure of onion cells under a microscope. Differentiate between plant and animal cell. Illustrate with examples the differences in shapes and size of cells 4.3 CELL STRUCTURE
Activity 1 With the help of a microscope, observe the onion peel or cauliflower leaf peel. You will see the cells and basic components very clearly. You have to just place a small piece of a thin onion peel in a drop of water on a glass slide and observe under the microscope. You can add a drop of methylene blue also. Fig 4.1 : Structure of Onion Peel
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Activity 2 Collect a honey comb from a tree or a building when the honey bee's box is or compartments as they were seen in the cork slice. Cells in the living organisms are complex living structures unlike non-living bricks. There are millions of living organisms. They Brick Wall are of different shapes and sizes. Their organs also vary in shape, size and number of cells. Even a single celled organism like amoeba, performs all the necessary functions that multicellular organism performs. The microscopic structural, fundamental and functional unit of living beings is called cell. Structural and functional unit means its proper functioning of body so that the organism can lead its life successfully. Cells of living organism could be observed only after the discovery of a improved microscope. Have you seen a building? Both, bricks in a building and cells in the living organism are basic structural units. The building though built of similar bricks, have different designs, shapes and sizes. Similarly, in the living world, organisms differ from one and another but they all are made up of the basic structural unit - the cell. There is a walled-like structure surrounding all the living and non-living substances called the cell wall or cell membrane. The living substance surrounded by all wall is called protoplasm. Protoplasm is a colourless, semi-transparent, semi-liquid colloidal complex compound in which other important structures of the cell are present. Protoplasm is made up of by the combination of cytoplasm and the nucleus. Nucleus is the control centre of the activities of the cell. The part of protoplasm which is found between the cell wall and the nucleus is called cytoplasm. The liquid inside the nucleus is called as nucleoplasm. Cytoplasm is a jelly like thick liquid in which various important structures like (components or organelles) nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, ribosomes, golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum, centriole, vacuoles and many non-living substances are found. 4.3.1 Comparison of Plant Cell and Animal Cell
Plant Cell and Animal Cell
Activity 3 For example, look at the Diagrams A and B. You will see that the shape of one is hexagonal and the other one is nearly circular. If we discuss about the basic structures of both you will find some similarities as well as some differences also.
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DIAGRAM A (Plant Cell)
DIAGARAM B (Animal Cell) CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Write down the points, which show the difference in diagram A and B
There are three parts in a typical cell :(i) Cell surface (ii) Cytoplasm (iii) Nucleus
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The cell surface includes cell wall and the cell membrane. Animal cells do not have a cell wall. Instead a plasma membrane is there, which surrounds the cytoplasm from all four sides. Animal cells are of various shapes, which depends on structures of specific animals. Cells are rectangular, spherical elongated and round in shape. Choloroplasts are not found in animal cells, likewise vacuoles are minute or in less quantity or absent also. Centrioles are found (see diagram B) in the cytoplasm with stored food in the form of glycogen. Some other essential organelles are also found in cells. In addition to all membrane there is an outer thick layer in cells of plants called cell wall. This additional layer surrounding the cell membrane is required by plants for protection against variations in temperature, high wind speed, atmospheric moisture etc. Chloroplasts are present but no centrioles are present in a plant cell. The stored food is present in the form of starch in the plant cell. Other organelles like nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria, golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum are present. Vacuoles are large in shape and size. (see diagram A) CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Write the difference between plant cell and animal cell.
4.4
SIZE OF CELL
The size of cells in living organisms may be small as a millionth of a metre or may be as large as a few centimeters. However, most of the cells are microscopic in size and are not visible to the unaided eye. They need to be enlarged or magnified by a microscope. The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre in bacteria. The largest cell measuring 170 mm x 130 mm is the egg of an ostrich. The egg represents a single cell and is big enough to be seen by the unaided eye. The size of the cell has no relation with the size of the body of the animal or plant. It is not necessary that the cells in the elephant be much bigger than those in the rat. The size of the cell is related to its functions. For example nerve cells, both in the elephant and rat, are long and branched. They perform the same function that of transferring messages.
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4.5
LET US SUM UP
After reading this unit you learned that The smallest living part of an organism is the 'Cell'. Cells exist in different shapes and sizes. Number of cells varies in all organisms. Animal cells do not have cell wall, chloroplasts and big central vacuoles, which are present in plant cells. All cells have three main parts: (i) cell membrane, (ii) cytoplasm, which contains the organelles and (ii) the nucleus. 4.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Answer 1 1. (a) In diagram A cell wall and plasma membrane are seen but in diagram B cell wall is not there. (b) In diagram A big vacuoles are seen but in diagram B they are very small or absent. (c) Chloroplasts are there in diagram A and absent in diagram B (d) No centrioles in diagram A but present in diagram B. Answer 2 1. Write down the difference between plant and animal cell. S. No. 1 2 3 4 4.7 Cell Cell Membrane Cell Wall Protoplasm Cytoplasm Points Cell wall Vacuoles Chloroplasts Centrioles GLOSSARY The basic structural and functional unit in a living organism The boundary which encloses the cytoplasm and nucleus of the cell The outer thick layer in addition to the cell membrane in plant cell The colourless semi transparent colloidal substance found in the cell The protoplasm found between the nucleus and cell membrane. Plant Cell Present Small or large are present Present in cytoplasm Absent Animal Cell Absent Very small or absent Absent Present
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Nucleus Chloroplast
The central dense round body in the centre of the cell which controls the functions of the cell. The green coloured plastids found in the cytoplasm of leaf cells
4.8
REFERENCES
High School Science, Part -3 Intermediate Botany Intermediate Zoology
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UNIT 5 ENVIRONMENT
Structure 5.1 5.2 5.3 Introduction Objectives Concept of Environmental Pollution 5.3.1 Air Pollution 5.3.2 Water Pollution 5.3.3 Land Pollution Acid Rain 5.4.1 Causes of Acid Rain 5.4.2 Effect of Acid Rain, 5.4.3 Preventive Measures Ozone Layer Depletion 5.5.1 Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion 5.5.2 Effects of ozone depletion Green-House Effect 5.6.1 Green-House Gases Global Warming 5.7.1 Effects of Global Warming 5.7.2 Control of Green House Gases and Global Warming Efforts Made to Conserve and Improve Environment 5.8.1 International level 5.8.2 National level 5.8.3 Individual and community level Natural Calamities 5.9.1 Floods 5.9.2 Cyclones 5.9.3 Droughts 5.9.4 Earthquakes Let us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress Glossary References INTRODUCTION
5.4
5.5
5.6 5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.1
Nature's beauty
Polluting environment
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This unit describes the meaning, causes, effects and preventive measures related to current environmental issues like acid rain, global warming etc. The activities, topics for bulletin board are aimed to sensitize the students to environmental concerns and inspire them to explore further. This unit will help you to explain different environmental issues to your students according to their level of comprehension, analytical ability, language skills and knowledge of other related subjects. We have devoted one section towards discussion of natural calamities. 5.2 OBJECTIVES
Environment
After going through this unit you will be able to explain concept of environmental pollution, types of pollution, acid rain, causes and effects of acid rain and their control with related activities. describe ozone layer depletion, effects of depletion and control measures. describe greenhouse effect and global warming, their causes, effects and preventive measures. discuss methods of environment protection in communities. identify and perform activities for environment protection campaign in schools and communities. 5.3 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION:
Have you seen a Traffic Policeman at a crossing wearing mask? What happens when a fire in chulla extinguishes? What is the scene at a busy road? All the three incidents indicate the emission of smoke from automobiles and chullas etc. How will you feel if you are forced to breathe in such atmosphere? It is the addition of any undesirable substance to air, water and soil either by natural process or human action which affects the quality of environment. Depending upon the type of environment its pollution is generally of three types. I II III Air Pollution Water Pollution Land Pollution
5.3.1 Air Pollution is the addition of undesired substances in air by human activity or by natural means that are harmful to human existence. Given below are the examples. a) Natural Resources like volcanic eruption, forest fire and decay of organic matter. The toxic gases are released. b) Human activities like burning of coal, combustion of oil, smoke from industries and stone crushers. Toxic gases and other pollutants are released in the atmosphere.
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Effects of Air Pollution 1. Particulate matter like soot dust, cause irritation of respiratory tract and diseases like asthma. 2. Cotton dust from industries causes lung fibrosis. 3. CO2 is a green house gas and causes greenhouse effect. 4. Carbon Monoxide causes laziness, exhaustion 5. Sulphur dioxide causes acid rain. 6. Emission of chlorofluorocarbons causes Ozone layer depletion. Activity 1 Collect leaves of some plant from polluted area (e.g. busy road) and from clean area (garden). Wash the samples separately in bowl of water. The colour of water is dark in leaves from polluted area due to mud on the leaf surface. Compare the length and breadth of leaves. Let us discuss some effects of pollution in detail. 5.3.2 WaterPollution
You might have observed the bad smell, impurities, and change in colour in your drinking water. The rivers Ganga and Yamuna are being used for pouring industrial and other wastes. The results are alarming. The recent news of pollution of Budha Nullah in Punjab depicted clear indications of increase in mineral content of ground water resulting in diseases like cancer, arthritis flourisis, and paralysis. Definition: It is the degradation of quality of water due to addition of substances, chemicals that makes it unfit for human use. Activity 2 for Teacher 1. Arrange a visit of students to a nearby water treatment plant and discuss some more purification methods and modern methods to get pure drinking water 2. Organize a debate on impacts of sewerage system. 5.3.3 Land pollution: The change in physical, chemical and biological properties of soil due to addition or removal of substances which reduce its productivity. 5.4 ACID RAIN
My mother always abides me to take bath in first rain. We feel watery eyes and itching sensation in metro cities. It was shocking to read the news about red rain in Kerala and Yellow rain in Mainpuri in U.P. The details of news indicated at industries were set up near the residential areas and the chemicals from the industries got released in the atmosphere for which the rain became colored.
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5.4.1 Caused of Acid Rain As the name suggests it is acidic rain because several chemical industries produce oxides of sulphur and nitrogen. In air sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide (NO2) combine with water to form sulphurus acid and nitrous acid which come down with rain water. Sources of SO2 are industrial fuel and smoke.
Environment
Fig. 5.4.1 : Diagrammatic representation of Acid Rain
When acids dissolved in water fall down in the form of rain drops, it is called acid rain. The pH of rain water is below 5.7. 5.4.2 Effects of Acid Rain It damages the quality of soil and water and plants on earth, destroys fruits and vegetables and oxygen content of water, and causes discoloration and deterioration of buildings. The threat to Taj Mahal in Agra from the toxic gas sulphur-di-oxide emission from Mathura Refinery is a live example of the effect of Acid Rain. 5.4.3 Preventive Measures
Following measures should be taken to prevent acid rain 1. 2. Wet scrubbers to separate the toxic gases should be used. Factories should be located away from historical monuments and residential areas.
Activity 3 Ask the students to observe the effects of first rain in their homes The dirty floors, roofs etc. get cleaned itself due to the acidic nature of rain. Do they also observe such kind of effect? The industrial city of Kanpur releases lots of wastes in air and water Organize a debate in class on causes and effects of such wastes Activity 4 Organize a visit to industry and observe if any preventive measures are taken to control the pollutants. Hold a group discussion and find out what steps can be taken to prevent the emission of harmful gases. Make a questionnaire with following questions i) What is produced in the industries?
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ii) iii) iv) v)
How far is the industry from the residential area? What types of wastes are generated? Do they use filters? Are the chimneys situated at considerable height
Activity 5 Ask the students to collect the rain water in their locality .With the help of pH paper observe the pH of that water and record the results .Discuss with the students. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Name the following (Figures in the brackets indicate the number of letters) i. Industrial gas causing acid rain (14) ii. Gas combines with water to form HNO3 (15) iii. Refinery emitting SO2 (7) iv. In acid rain pH decreases/increases (9) v. Monument damaged due to acid rain (8).
5.5
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
Let us list some of the things used to protect ourselves from adverse weather conditions, e.g. a house, clothes are worn to protect the body from excess heat and cold, using an umbrella or rain coat during rainy season etc. Our earth also has a protective covering. The atmosphere is a transparent, colorless, gaseous covering, around the earth. It is divisible into different layers. These are troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. One of them is stratosphere. This
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layer of earth is present from 10-45 kms above the equator. Stratosphere has a blanket of ozone layer to protect the earth's life from harmful radiations of sun. This layer of ozone is also called as Ozonosphere. Maximum concentration of ozone is at the height of 23-25kmsfrom the earth over equator and 11-16 kms over the poles. Ozone has warming effect due to absorption of UV rays and conversion of their energy into heat. How will the life be if the ozone layer gets removed from the stratosphere? All the radiations will directly come on earth including ultraviolet radiations. Destruction of ozone is, Destruction of life zone. Depletion destroys the life, Health, skin and eyes. The above mentioned lines clearly indicate the importance of ozone layer. Ozone is the form of oxygen made up of three atoms of oxygen. It is naturally present in stratosphere. Definition: Thinning of Ozone layer in stratosphere is called ozone depletion. 5.5.1 Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion Ozone depletion is caused by pollutants like CFCs (Chlorofluoro carbons), chlorine, nitrogen oxides, carbon tetrachloride and chloroform, etc. 1. CFC: These are compounds of carbon with chlorine and fluorine which are mainly responsible for ozone layer depletion. CFCs are used in refrigerators, air conditioners, jets, etc. They are added in atmosphere due to leakage or disposal of old products. CCl4 (Carbon Tetrachloride): It is used as a liquid base in deodorant and room freshener. It is highly stable, i.e. it does not react and dissociate easily. It goes up in the atmosphere and combines with ozone and splits it into O2 and O. UV (Ultra-Violet) radiations: UV rays break them down into chlorine, fluorine and carbon. Chlorine breaks ozone into oxygen. One chlorine atom is capable of breaking thousands of ozone molecules. Nitrogen Oxide: Nitrogen oxide is emitted (released) from jet planes, industries, nitrogen rich fuels, livestock waste, fertilizers and during production of nylon.
Environment
2.
3.
4.
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5.5.2 Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion Thinning of ozone allows harmful radiations to reach the earth surface. Excessive exposure to UV radiation is linked to a number of health problems like skin cancer, cataracts and weakened immune system. . Ozone Hole Due to the effect of pollutants, Ozone layer thickness is decreasing. There is a large hole in the ozone layer. It was found in 1985 by Farman etal over Antartica. A smaller hole also occurs in stratosphere on Arctic region. With the approach of summer, ozone concentration begins to build up, till it reaches maximum in winter. Activity 6 List all the gadgets and instruments that use CFC, CCl4 etc in their formation. Collect information regarding the latest developments among different countries about the harmful effects of CFCs. Make a comparative account of some traditional and modern instruments. List some modern instruments which are CFC free. Activity 7 Encourage the students for celebrating ozone day by performing various activities like Essay Writing Competition, Slogan Writing and Painting. Also ask them to list some more important days celebrated as a matter to protect our environment and earth. Also try to let them find out their purpose of celebration. Activity 8 Organize painting competition on ozone depletion in class to create awareness among students. A slogan competition can also be organized to promote and motivate the students to reduce emission of CFC like pollutants. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. 2. Write the full form of CFC. __________________________________________________ Choose the correct answer: (i) Ozone layer is destroyed due to (a) CFC (b) NH3 (c) SO2
(d) H2O
(ii) Depletion of ozone layer will affect (a) Photosynthesis (b) Buildings (c) Fishes (d) Respiration (iii) Ozone depletion will result in penetration of (a) UV rays (b) Infrared rays (c) Microwaves (d) Radio waves (iv) Skin cancer is caused due to (a) UV (b) Infrared rays (c) Visible light
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(d) Radiowaves
5.6 GREENHOUSE EFFECT Whenever I visit Mumbai in winters, I need less woolen clothes than at my native village. The glassy building and emission from industries makes the surrounding warm. Various ecological problems like environmental pollution, deforestation, energy crises have badly affected the healthy face of world. The result is warming of earths, atmosphere. It is a problem of global concern and is the biggest issue of 21st century.
Environment
A Greenhouse
A greenhouse Greenhouse - A house made from glass or poly fibre sheet that absorbs the visible light and infrared rays and prevents them to go back to the atomosphere is called greenhouse. Such houses are made in cold countries and hilly areas where the average temperature is very low. These houses are used to grow such plants which require high temperature and humidity. Concept of Greenhouse Effect The solar radiations are composed of different wavelengths. Earth surface receives solar radiations which consist of Ultra Violet, visible rays and Infrared rays. Most of ultraviolet (UV) rays are absorbed by the ozone layer. Therefore, they are not able to reach the earth's atmosphere. Infra red rays are absorbed by water vapors and CO2 present in the air. Visible radiations come to earth. The infrared radiations have heating effect due to high wavelength. The visible radiations are also blocked due to high concentration of some gases and water vapors. Due to absorption, the infrared are redirected back to earth in all directions resulting in warming of earth's surface and the atmosphere. The green house gases form a blanket over the earth. They control the escape of heat from earth's surface. Definition of Greenhouse Gases Due to Greenhouse Gases (CO2, CH4, CO) the earth's surface is kept warm and this phenomenon is called Greenhouse Effect.
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5.6.1 Greenhouse Gases CO2 and certain other gases like methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide and CFC responsible for greenhouse effect are called greenhouse gases. Concentration of these gases has increased in the atmosphere and they prevent the solar radiation to go back. They are transparent solar radiations but retain and partially reflect back long wave heat radiations. The trend of increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases (GHG) since pre-industrial times are described below: Carbondioxide (CO2): The normal concentration of CO2 is 0.033 % in atmosphere. The concentration of CO2 above 0.03% has adverse effect on our climate and living organisms. The main sources through which CO2 is released in the atmosphere are Burning of fossil fuels, Decay and decomposition of dead organisms, Respiration of living organisms Forest Fires Domestic cooking Automobile exhausts Thermal Power Plants Volcanic Eruptions CO2 is the most abundant (60%) greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Methane It is produced by incomplete decomposition of organic matter in the absence of O2 . The sources of methane are Fresh water wetlands Flooded rice fields Biomass burning Methane has global warming potential 63 times to that of CO2 Activity 9 Divide the class in two groups. Identify one monitor in each group. Ask him to play the role of Chairman/Mayor of city. Tell him about global warming and sources of GHG. Hold a debate in class. Ask them about their style of working and ideas to control this problem. Activity 10 In many districts of Punjab, Haryana and UP, the agricultural scientists are advising the farmers to shift from paddy cultivation to other crops. Find out the reason behind that.
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Organize the students in groups and assign them a project of survey of paddy cultivation area in the country and to calculate the amount of methane released. 5.7 GLOBAL WARMING You have already been introduced to the issue of global warming. Let us now study some of the effects. 5.7.1 Effects of Global Warming:
Environment
The global warming caused due to greenhouse gases will affect the weather, sea level, distribution of organisms, food production and fishery resources in oceans etc. 1. Effects on Weather and Climate: The global average temperature has increased by 0.80C by 2005. Due to increase in temperature - moisture carrying capacity increases, resulting in warming of troposphere. And remaining areas will become drier and suffer from greater water shortage problems. Sea Level Rise: Increase in temperature will lead to melting of ice from polar caps and glaciers. Thermal expansion of oceans will occur. This will cause sea level to rise by 8 inches resulting in flooding of low lying coastal areas. Effect on distribution of Organisms: Some species will extinct e.g. Coral reefs, some will migrate. Species like weeds, pests will prosper. There will be impact on plants such as early flowering and fruiting of plants. Effects on Agriculture: Frequency and duration of droughts will increase. Transportation and respiration rate will increase. Crop production will decrease. Human Health: Hot and humid climate will cause respiratory diseases. Control of GHG and Global Warming
2.
3.
4.
5.
5.7.2
Global Warming can be checked by reducing the concentration of CO2, CH4 etc. in the atmosphere. Some steps to control global warming are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. CO2 is main greenhouse gas. The amount of CO2 can be reduced by plantation (reforestation) of trees Alternate resources of energy should be used in place of fossil fuels. Artificial/Synthetic nitrogen containing fertilizers should be used minimally. Old refrigerators, ACs should be discarded and properly destroyed. Substitute of CFCs should be developed.
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Activity 11 Help the students and involve them in planting trees in your schools. You can also encourage them to plant one tree on their birthday and take charge of its maintenance. Discuss the importance of Van Mahotsav with them. Activity 12 Ask the students to make an artificial greenhouse at home using poly fiber sheet as cover and place plants inside it. Let them record the temperature and humidity of greenhouse and compare the difference from external surroundings. Organize a discussion in the class on their findings. Activity 13 Put up newspaper clippings related to waste accumulation, production of methane due to its degradation and its dangers on bulletin board. Also make a scrap book of these clippings. 5.8 EFFORTS MADE TO CONSERVE AND IMPROVE ENVIRONMENT 5.8.1 1. International Level:
UNEP: United Nations Conference on Environment and development at Stockholm, June 1972 urged to work towards development in harmony with nature. Montreal Protocol (1987): 27 industrialized countries agreed to limit production and consumption of CFC to half the level of 1986. Earth Summit: Rio Declaration in June 1992 at Brazil, insisted on controlled development keeping in view the sustainability environment. Antarctic Treaty (1952) Ban on military activity and nuclear explosion. Kyoto Agreement: The Kyoto Protocol was agreed at the third conference of the parties (COP3) in December 1997 in the Japanese city of Kyoto.
2. 3. 4. 5.
The goal of the Kyoto Protocol was that industrialized countries should reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by at least 5% compared to the 1990 level, calculated as an average over the period of obligation, 2008 - 2012. The industrialized countries have differing obligations under the Kyoto Protocol. The European Union has agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 8%. The USA agreed to an obligation of 7%, Canada and Japan 6%, Russia and New Zealand may emit the same as in 1990, whereas Norway and Iceland may emit 1% and 10% more respectively. Apart from CO2, the Kyoto Protocol also includes the five other greenhouse
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gases. There are methane, nitrous oxide and the industrial gases HFCs, PFCs and SF6. 5.8.2 1. 2. 3. 4. National Level:
Environment
Conversion of public transport vehicle to CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) Environmental Protection Act framed after Bhopal gas tragedy covers aspects for protecting environment. Forest Act: Setting Management and Protection of forests. Pollution Act: Central Pollution Control Board enforces rules for pollution control and plans projects for conservation of environment. Individual and Community Level:
5.8.3
We can also reduce consumption by recycling Waste saving water, fuel and electricity. planting more trees using CNG vehicles avoiding use of plastic bags. avoiding throwing of garbage and not to litter at open. learning about environmental issues through media avoiding use of spray and deodorants. changing the instruments using alternatives of CFC Activity 14 Divide class into two groups and discuss about polluted areas in India and provide reasons for same, other group to find ways to control and reduce pollution. Put the result on the Bulletin Board. Activity 15 1. Make a list of themes on world environment day 5, June from 20012008. Analyse and comments on different themes. 2. Organise and coordinate eco-clubs and create environment awareness. 3. Discuss with students about Montreal protocol (an agreement) to reduce CFC products by 50% in 1998. Today 175 countries have signed Montreal protocol. 4. Ask students to collect information about Kyoto, Japan Protocol, 1997 for mitigating global changes. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. i. ii. iii. iv.
Match the following: Global Warming Green House Gas Sea Level Rise Melting of Ice
a) b) c) d)
Global Warming Rise in Temperature Methane Green House Gases
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5.9 NATURAL CALAMITIES: Did you know? Worst flood in history - 900,000 dead (Yellow river-China-1887) Deadliest earthquake-1,100,000dead(Egypt, Syria and the Mediterranean Worst drought ever-9,000,000dead(China-1876-1879) Cyclone hit coastal Orissa in October 1999, killing more than 10,000 people Earthquake in Gujarat on Jan 26,2001 killing 30,000 people Tsunami on Dec 26, 2004 near Sumatra killing 300,000 people A calamity is a sudden misfortune of great magnitude. It is a condition which arises suddenly, and the capacity to cope is unexpectedly overwhelmed by the events Calamities can be natural like earth quakes, floods, cyclones, droughts, etc. Types of Natural Calamities: 5.9.1 Floods
A scene of flood
The term "flood" is a general or temporary condition of partial or complete inundation of normally dry land areas from overflow of inland or tidal waters or from the unusual and rapid accumulation or runoff of surface waters from any source. What Causes Flood? Heavy down pour in the form of rain bringing down more water than can be disposed off by combined factors of natural and man made systems, causes flooding. The rivers overflow embankments may be breached. Generally rains following storm and hurricane are heavy and bring unmanageable amount of water causing flash floods.
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Coping With Floods The large amount of pooled water remaining after the flood leads to an increase in mosquito populations. Mosquitoes are most active at sunrise and sunset. Be particularly careful to disinfect all surfaces that come into contact with food, i.e., countertops, pantry shelves, etc. If there has been a backflow of sewage into the home, wear rubber boots and gloves during clean up operations. Remove and discard items that cannot be disinfected. Pump out flooded basements gradually to avoid structural damage. Stay out of buildings if floodwaters remain around the building In case of flood warning, place all belongings at the highest possible location, turn off electricity switches, and seal the drain holes and toilets with sandbags to prevent sewage water from flowing back. Arrange for timely evacuation. Setting up shelters, stocking food, water, medicines Keeping boats and communication equipment ready Use long stick to know the depth of water Spread lime and bleaching powder over stagnant pools of floodwater. Flood Forecasting Network in India Flood forecasting has been recognized as one of the most important, reliable and cost-effective non-structural measures for flood management. Recognizing the crucial role it can play, Central Water Commission, Ministry of Water Resources has set up a network of forecasting stations covering all important flood prone interstate rivers. The forecasts issued by these stations are used to alert the public and to enable the administrative and engineering agencies of the States/UTs to take appropriate measures. 5.9.2 Cyclones
Environment
Cyclones are huge revolving storms caused by winds blowing around a central area of low atmospheric pressure. In the northern hemisphere, cyclones are called hurricanes or typhoons and their winds blow in an anticlockwise circle. In the southern hemisphere, these tropical storms are known as cyclones, whose winds blow in a clockwise circle.
Cyclone
Cyclone with eye in the center
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Scientific Concepts
How do Cyclones occur? Cyclones develop over warm seas near the equator. Air heated by the sun rises very swiftly, which creates areas of very low pressure. As the warm air rises, it becomes loaded with moisture which condenses into massive thunderclouds. Cool air rushes in to fill the void that is left, but because of the constant turning of the Earth on its axis, the air is bent inwards and then spirals upwards with great force. The swirling winds rotate faster and faster, forming a huge circle which can be up to 2,000 km across. At the centre of the storm is a calm, cloudless area called the eye, where there is no rain, and the winds are fairly light. As the cyclone builds up it begins to move. It is sustained by a steady flow of warm, moist air. The strongest winds and heaviest rains are found in the towering clouds which merge into a wall about 20-30 km from the storm's centre. Winds around the eye can reach speeds of up to 200 km/h, and a fully developed cyclone pumps out about two million tonnes of air per second. This results in more rain being released in a day than falls in a year in a city like London. Coping with Cyclones Listen regularly to TV, Radio weather forecasts Upon a cyclone warning take all movable property indoors and tie down the things like boats outdoors Store food, water and clothing. Remain indoors and shut all doors and windows Activity 16 Prepare an emergency kit for coping with floods/cyclones with the help of your classmates. 5.9.3 Droughts
Drought conditions
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A Drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below average rainfall. Consequences of drought. A few common consequences of drought include: Diminished crop growth or yield productions and carrying capacity for livestock; Dust bowls, themselves a sign of erosion, which further erode the landscape; Dust storms, when drought hits an area suffering from desertification and erosion; Famine due to lack of water for irrigation; Habitat damage, affecting both terrestrial and aquatic wildlife. Malnutrition, dehydration and related diseases; Shortages of water for industrial users; War over natural resources, including water and food; Wildfires, such as Australian bushfires, are more common during times of drought; Coping with Drought Cloud seeding - an artificial technique to induce rainfall. Desalination of sea water for irrigation or consumption. Drought monitoring - Continuous observation of rainfall levels and comparisons with current usage levels can help prevent man-made drought. For instance, analysis of water usage in Yemen has revealed that their water table (underground water level) is put at grave risk by overuse to fertilize their Khat crop. Careful monitoring of moisture levels can also help predict increased risk for wildfires, using such metrics as the Keetch-Byram Drought Index or Palmer Drought Index. Land use - Carefully planned crop rotation can help to minimize erosion and allow farmers to plant less water-dependent crops in drier years. Rainwater harvesting - Collection and storage of rainwater from roofs or other suitable catchments. Recycled water - Former wastewater (sewage) that has been treated and purified for reuse. Transvasement - Building canals or redirecting rivers as massive attempts at irrigation in drought-prone areas. Water restrictions - Water use may be regulated (particularly outdoors). This may involve regulating the use of sprinklers, hoses or buckets on outdoor plants, the washing of motor vehicles or other outdoor hard surfaces (including roofs and paths), topping up of swimming pools, and also the fitting of water conservation devices inside the home (including shower heads, taps and dual flush toilets).
Environment
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Scientific Concepts
5.9.4
Earthquakes The sudden shaking of earth due to moving of plates in earth's crust is called earthquake. More than 50%of India(foothills of Himalyas and Ganga-Brahmputra basin)is prone to earthquakes. They occur without warning. They can cause fires, floods, land slides and huge waves at sea.
Earthquake
Richter Scale: The instrument used for recording the earthquake is called seismograph. It is measured usually from 0-10 on a scale called Richter Scale
Seismograph (Richter Scale)
Surviving an earthquake: During an earthquake Get away from glass objects, windows and things that can fall If you are indoor, crawl under the table or bed or crounch near an inner wall. cover your head and face with arms. If you are outdoor, move away from buildings, trees, poles, hoardings Listen to the emergency broadcasts. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Choose the correct answer: (i) The effect of a cyclone can be lessened by a) costal crop fields b) costal fisheries c) costal forests d) coral reefs (ii) Which of the following is not a weather associated hazard? a) high tide b) drought c) flood d) earthquake 2. Fill in the Blank (i) The instrument used to measure the earthquake is called ----
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5.10
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer 1 1.
Environment
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
Sulphur dioxide Nitrogen oxide Mathura Decreases Taj Mahal
Answer 2 1. 2.
Chloro Fluoro Carbons (i) CFC (ii) Phytoplankton (iii) UV rays (iv) UV rays (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii) (i) d c a b C D Richter scale
Answer 3 1.
Answer 4 1. 2. 5.11
LET US SUM UP
After reading this unit you have learnt that Environment Pollution is mainly of three types: air, water and land pollution Rain gets acidified due to pollution in atmosphere We are getting exposed to harmful rays due to ozone layer depletion. Greenhouse Effect is a prime cause behind global warming. Measures should be taken to control the effects of global warming. Measures have been undertaken at international, national, community and local level to improve the environment. The causes of natural disasters like floods, earthquakes, cyclones, droughts and measures adopted to cope with these calamites. 5.12 GLOSSARY Rain having acids like HNO3 and H2SO4 Ozone present in stratosphere at a height of 15-30 kms. A glass enclosed greenhouse where glass panes, CO2, water vapours allow solar radiations to enter but prevent the escape of long wave heat radiations
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Acid rain Ozone layer Greenhouse
Scientific Concepts
Stratosphere Ozone hole CFCs UV rays
A layer of earth's atmosphere A layer of ozone in stratosphere chlorofluorocarbons Ultraviolet Rays
5.13 REFERENCES We and Our World 8 by Chandana Banerjee Science Text Book of 8th, NCERT. JBD New Concepts in Biology XII We and Our World 6 by Chandana Banerjee.
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Block
2
SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES
1. 2. 3. 4. Unit 1 Chemical Reactions Unit 2 Modified Root, Stem and Leaf Unit 3 Circulatory System Unit 4 Biodegradation, Solid waste management, Vermi composting and Rainwater harvesting 67-76 77-89 90-99 100-116
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Scientific Concepts
66
UNIT 1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Structure 1.1 1.2 1.3 Introduction Objectives Chemical Reactions 1.3.1 Writing of Molecular Formulae 1.3.2 Writing of Chemical Equations 1.3.3 Balancing of Chemical Equations Crystallization Solubility Let Us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress Glossary
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
1.1 INTRODUCTION Everyday we come across many changes in our surroundings. These changes may involve one or more substances. Preparing curd from milk is a change, stretching a rubber band also represents a change, rusting of iron is also a change. These changes are of two kinds, physical and chemical. In this unit, we shall deal with chemical changes only. A change in which one or more new substances are formed is called a chemical change. A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction. Chemical changes are very important in our lives. Medicines are the end product of a chain of chemical reactions. In this unit you will learn primarily about chemical reactions, crystallization and solubility. 1.2 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, the teacher will be able to: define chemical reactions write molecular formula balance chemical equation perform activities relating to chemical equation explain the process of crystallization. perform activities related to crystallization. identify soluble and insoluble substances. identify solute and solvent in a solution. 1.3 CHEMICAL REACTIONS When a substance reacts with another substance and some new substances are produced, we say that a chemical reaction has taken place. Thus, it involves re-grouping of atoms or ions to form other new substances. Chemical reactions occur under different conditions. Substances which react or undergo a change are called reactants. The new substances which are
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Scientific Principles
formed during a chemical reaction are called products. To understand the concept chemical reactions, we must understand the formula of a substance. The formula represents the elements present as well as the ratio in which the atoms of these elements are present. 1.3.1 Writing of molecular formula.
Let us start by taking an example. A molecule of hydrochloric acid is made up of one atom of hydrogen and one atom of chlorine, so its formula is written as HCl. Activity 1 You will divide the students into small groups. Provide one worksheet to each group. The students will discuss among themselves and complete the worksheet Worksheet Read the instruction, discuss among yourselves and complete the task Write down the molecular formula of A molecule of water consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. A molecule of methane consists of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. A molecule of sulphuric acid made up of two atoms of hydrogen, one atom of sulphur and four atoms of oxygen. After completing the worksheet, the groups will present it and you will facilitate the discussion. Some compounds, such as sodium chloride (NaCl) consist of ions. In the crystal of sodium chloride, Na+ and Cl- ions are arranged in a particular way and the total number Na+ and Cl- ions is same. Since Na+ and Cl- are present in 1:1 ratio, this is indicated by the formula of NaCl. While writing the formula of a compound, we have to keep in mind that the compound is electrically neutral. So the ratio of cations and anions should be such that overall positive charge is equal to the overall negative charge. It means that if the charges in cations and anions are not the same, then their ratio would also be different. The charge on any ion is equal to its valency. For example, we have seen in case of NaCl, the ratio of charge, positive to negative is 1:1. The same holds for sulphuric acid (H2SO4). The charge ratio of H+ ions and SO4-- radical is 2:2 = 1:1. And for Potassium Hydroxide (KOH), K+ is +1 and OH- is -1. As the ratio is again 1:1. For example Formula of Barium Chloride Barium Chloride consists of two ions, barium as cation and chloride as anion. The valency of Barium is 2+ and that of chloride is 1-. Hence, we can write the formula in the following two steps:
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Step 1: Ba2+ ClStep2: Ba1Cl2 We shall drop the suffix '1'as per convention. Hence, the formula of Barium Chloride is BaCl2. Activity 2 You will form small groups. To each group,you will give two tables.. The students will go through the charts and write the molecular formula of following molecular compounds. Sodium Sulphate, Calcium Sulphite, Aluminium Carbonates, Potasium Hydroxide, Calcium Nitrate, Silver Chloride, Magnesium Hydroxide, Zinc Carbonate, Aluminium Phosphate. Table 1: Names, Formulae and charges of some common Cations Name Sodium ion Potassium ion Silver ion Calcium ion Barium ion Magnesium ion Zinc ion Aluminum ion Formula Na + K+ Ag + Ca 2+ Ba 2+ Mg 2+ Zn 2+ Al 3+ Charge 1+ 1+ 1+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 3+
Chemical Reactions
Table 2: Names, Formulae and charges of some common Anions Name Fluoride ion Chloride ion Hydroxide ion Nitrate ion Sulphide ion Carbonate ion Sulphate ion Phosphate ion Formula FCl OH NO3 S2CO32 SO42 PO43 Charge 11112223-
After completing the task, each group will present it you will Facilitate the discussion. With the help of students, consolidate the steps for writing the formula of any ionic compound. Step I: Step II: Write the symbols of cations and anions with their valencies at the top Write the value of the valency of each ion as subscript of the other ion.
The symbol of cation is multiplied by the valency of anion and symbol of anion is multiplied by the valency of cation.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Write the molecular formula of the following compounds : (i) Potassium nitrate, (ii) Sodium Sulphate, (iii) Ammonium Chloride, (iv) Magnesium Sulphite, (v) Barium Phosphate. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Writing of chemical equations
1.3.2
A chemical reaction, when written using the symbols or formulae of reactants and products is called a chemical equation. To write a chemical reaction in the form of an equation the different reactants are written with plus (+) sign between them on the left side of an arrow ( ). The products formed are written on the right side of the arrow with plus (+) sign between them. The reactants and products are represented by their symbols or formulae. Let us understand it with the help of examples. When zinc reacts with Hydrochloric acid, zinc chloride and hydrogen are produced. Here zinc and hydrochloric acid are reactants whereas zinc chloride and hydrogen are products. Zinc + Hydrochloric acid Zinc Chloride + Hydrogen (Zn) (HCl) (ZnCl2) (H2) Reactants Products Such a chemical equation is called a Skeleton chemical equation. In this, the number of atoms of hydrogen and chlorine on their respective sides are not equal. When these are made equal, the equation is said to have been balanced. Activity 3 Divide the students into small groups To each group ,give a few chemical equation like o Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid to form magnesium chloride & hydrogen. o Sodium hydroxide reacts with sulphuric acid to give sodium sulphate and water. o Sodium reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas is liberated. Then ask the students to discuss in the group and for each chemical reaction, tell them to identify the reactants and products and write it in the form of chemical equation. After doing the task, students will present it in the class.
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You will facilitate the discussion. At the end, with the help of students, you will discuss the principles of writing the chemical equation. Now let us take stock of the information provided by a chemical equation. A chemical equation gives the following information: The elements, compounds, taking part in the chemical reaction are the reactants The new compounds or elements formed in the reaction are the products. Reactants are placed on the left-side with plus sign between them. Products formed are written on the right side of arrow with plus sign between them. Activity 4 Whole class open discussion. The students will sit in a circle. You will discuss with them regarding the purchasing of vegetables, fruits. How the shopkeeper will give them 2 Kg of Potatos/500 gm of Onions/ 3.5 Kg of apples. You will also discuss in the class use of balance in measuring the quantity of vegetables/fruits/any material. 1.3.3 Balancing of chemical equation In a chemical reaction some substances react to form new substances but the total number of atoms of each element on both the sides should remain the same. When an equation is written with the help of symbols, formulae of reactants and products, it may not show the same number of atoms of each element on both the sides, this is called an unbalanced equation. Then they are made equal by multiplying the symbols, formulae of some of the elements are compounds by whole numbers. Formula of any compound is not changed but the number of molecules of a compound may be changed. Activity 5 Ask the students to sit in U shape. You write one chemical reaction on the blackboard, i.e. sodium reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas is liberated. Ask the students to tell the chemical equation and you write it on the blackboard. Na + H20 NaOH + H2 Then you ask the students to count the number of atoms of each element on both the sides and write it in a tabular manner on the blackboard. Let us balance the chemical equation. No. of Na atoms No. of H atoms No. of O atoms Reactant side 1 2 1 Product side 2 3 1
Chemical Reactions
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Students will form groups. You will ask the following questions. Tell the students to discuss and present What did we find from this table? Is it a balanced equation, yes/no and why? From the table, it is found that the number of sodium and oxygen atoms are same on both the sides but the number of hydrogen atoms is different (2 in reactant but 3 in product side) so it is not a balanced chemical equation. Then you will ask the students to discuss in groups and how to make the equation a balanced one. With the help of students, you will facilitate the discussion. In order to increase the no. of hydrogen atoms on let-hand side, we multiply H2O by 2. Na + 2H20 NaOH + H2 That makes four atoms of hydrogen and two atoms of oxygen on left side. Now to increase the number of hydrogen & oxygen atoms on right hand side, we multiply NaOH by 2. The equation becomes 2Na + 2H20 2NaOH + H2 We find that the numbers of hydrogen and oxygen atoms are same on the two sides but sodium atoms are not equal. For that, we multiply Na by 2 because on right side, there are two atoms of Na. 2Na + 2H20 = 2NaOH + H2 Please note that at this stage we change the arrow ( ) sign to equality (=) sign. It is also to be noted that the method of multiplying by 2 and the subsequent steps are not to be considered sacrosanct, depending on the situation, these multipliers have to be chosen in an institutive manner. Please sensitize our student to develop their numerical capability. Now you will ask the students to count the number of atoms of each element on both the sides. Reactant Products No. of Na atoms 2 2 No. of H atoms 4 4 No. of O atoms 2 2 Now you will ask the students to discuss whether the equation is balanced or not, if yes then how. This equation contains the same number of atoms of each element on both the sides hence this represents a balanced chemical equation. Then with the help of students, you will consolidate about balanced chemical equation. A balanced chemical equation should be balanced in respect of mass, as well as charge
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Balance the following chemical equations i. KClO3 = KCl + O2 ii. H2O2 = H2O + O2 iii. HgO = Hg + O2 iv. Zn + HCl = ZnCl2 + H2 v. H2S + SO2 = 2H2O + S __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ CRYSTALLIZATION
Chemical Reactions
1.4
We know that salts can be obtained by the evaporation of sea water. The salt obtained in this way is not pure and its crystals are of small size. But we can get the large crystals of pure substances from their solutions. This process of getting crystals from their solutions is known crystallization. Activity - 6 (Teacher demonstrated Activity) Ask students to sit in U shape. Then you will demonstrate one experiment/activity in the class. For this, one beaker, sodium chloride and filter paper will be required. You will prepare a solution of sodium chloride and add sodium chloride continuously and stir it. Continue adding sodium chloride till no more salt can be dissolved. Then filter the solution through a filter paper to remove any undissolved salt or other impurities. Leave the beaker containing the solution undisturbed. In a couple of days, crystals of pure sodium chloride will form and settle down at the bottom. (While performing the activity, you will ask questions relating to the experiment) Activity 7 Teacher can perform the same activity by dissolving copper sulphate in water, following the same procedure. After the solution is saturated, then heat it. The water will be evaporated. Filter the solution. Beautiful blue crystals of copper sulphate will be formed. Activity 8 (Teacher demonstrated Activity) Take one beaker. Pour cold water into the beaker Add potassium nitrate (KNO3) and stir continuously till no more salt will dissolve. After saturation, heat the solution. The crystals of KNO3 will be formed immediately.
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Activity 9 (Teacher demonstrated Activity) Take one microscope or lens. Keep it on the table. Take crystals of copper sulphate or potassium nitrate on a watch glass or a slide. Watch the crystals through microscopic or lens. After observation by each student, then whole class discussion will be done. The growth of crystals will be observed clearly through microscope. Conclusion Some substances can be obtained in pure state from their solutions by crystallization. Crystallization is a process of physical change. 1.5 SOLUBILITY Substances which are completely dissolved in water are called soluble substances. Substances which do not mix with water are called insoluble substances. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Define the process of crystallization. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Write the name of three crystals. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
2.
Activity 10 Make students sit in a circle. Ask each student to name substances which are completely dissolved in water. Then discuss in the class. Activity 11 Divide students into groups. To each group give, salt, sugar, turmeric powder, flour powder, water and one glass. Tell the students tol put water in the glass and add salt, sugar etc. one by one. And observe which substances completely mix with water. After performing the activity, the students will present their report in the class.
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With the help of students, you will give ideas about solute and solvent and solution. Eg.: When sugar is added to water, sugar solution will be formed. Sugar is known as solute and water is the solvent. Activity 12 Divide the students into small groups. To each group give one beaker, half a cup of water and salt. Ask the students to go on adding salt to water and stir it well, until the salt dissolves completely. After some time, some salts remain undissolved and settles at the bottom of the beaker. No more salt can be dissolved in the amount of water taken. The solution is now turned into saturated. Conclusion Substances which are completely dissolved in water are called soluble substances, which do not dissolve in water are known as insoluble substances. In a solution, the solids which dissolve is known as solute and in which it is dissolved is known as solvent. A solution is said to be saturated when no more substances can dissolve. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Write the name of some soluble substances __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ When does a solution becomes saturated ? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Give examples of some substances which act as solvent ? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
Chemical Reactions
2.
3.
1.6 LET US SUM UP In this unit, you learned that: Molecular formula indicates the actual number of atoms of all the elements present in a molecule of the molecular substances o Reactants: Substances are consumed in a chemical reaction o Products: Substances are produced in a chemical reaction
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Chemical Equation: Description of a chemical reaction by placing the formulas of reactants on the left and the formulas of products on the right side of an arrow. An equation is said to be balanced when it shows that o No atom is created or destroyed, and o Electrical change is neither created nor destroyed. Crystallization is a physical change in which pure form of substance canbe obtained from its solution. Solubility is a phenomenon in which a substance completely dissolves in water, the substance is solute and the liquid is solvent. 1.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer 1 (i) (ii) (v) Answer 2 (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Answer 3 1. 2. Answer 4 1. 2. Salt Sugar A solution becomes saturated, when no more of that substance dissolves in the solvent, at that temperature. Water, alcohol, benzene KNO3 NH4Cl Ba3(PO)4 KClO3 2H2O2 2HgO 2Zn + 2HCl 2H2S + SO2 (ii) (iv) Na2SO4 MgSO3 KCl + O 2H2O + O2 2Hg + O2 2ZnCl2 + H2 2H2O + 3S
= = = = =
The process by which crystals of a substance are obtained from its solution. Sodium Chloride, Copper Sulphate, Potassium Nitrate.
3. 1.8 GLOSSARY Chemical Reaction
Chemical Formula Crystallization Solubility Solute Solvent

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A reaction in which two or more substances combined to form new substance. Substances which undergo a change or react are called reactants and the new substance formed are called product. It represents the ratio in which the atoms of an element are present in a compound. It is the process of obtaining crystals of substances from their solutions. The process in which the substance completely dissolves in another substance (liquid) The substance which dissolves is solute The substance in which the solute is dissolved.
UNIT 2 MODIFIED ROOT, STEM & LEAF

Structure 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Introduction Objectives The Root System 2.3.1 Modified Roots The Shoot System 2.4.1 The Stems 2.4.2 Modified Stem Let Us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress Glossary References
Chemical Reactions
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
2.1 INTRODUCTION You must have seen varieties of plants in or around your immediate environment, most of these bear flowers and some do not produce flowers at all. So these are named as Flowering Plants and Non-Flowering Plants. The entire body of a plant can be broadly divided into two parts (i) root system and (ii) shoot system. Some times the roots, stems, leaves are modified in need of a particular function for the plant. After reading this Unit you can understand how the roots, stems and leaves are modified in different ways to perform different types of functions. 2.2 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you will be able to: present different types of activities (Initiation, Practice and Evaluation) to teach modified roots, stems and leaves. recognize modified roots and stems in the environment. compare modified roots and stems. identify plants with modified roots, stems or leaves. explain the various functions of modified roots and stems. 2.3 THE ROOT SYSTEM Root system is that part of the plant which grows under the soil. It consists of Primary roots, Secondary roots, Tertiary roots, (Root-hairs) and Root caps. Activity 1 Form small groups (5/6 students in a group) Select the group leader Let each group search any one plant (Tomato/Mustard/Balsam) in the environment and pour water near it. Then tell them to pull out the plant very gently and carefully
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Let them wash the plant to remove soil attached to it. Let each and every child of the group observe the different parts of the root and draw diagram and label it. Characteristics of a Root Root is non green or usually whitish in colour. It is the cylindrical part of the plant It grows downwards into the soil, away from the light. It grows from the radicle of the seed Roots do not bear leaves, buds or Fig. 2.1 Structure of a taproot flowers and fruits. Roots are not distinguished into nodes and internodes. The main root called the Primary root The side roots of Primary root are called Secondary Roots. The Secondary roots further produce branches called the Tertiary roots. The tip of each root bears the growing point and is protected by Root cap. Each root bears cluster of fine delicate, tubular and thread like structures called the Root hairs. Roots fix the plant in the soil Root hairs absorb water and mineral salts from the soil. Activity 2 Ask students to sit in small groups. Supply each group with one gram plant and a maize plant Instruct students to observe both the plants and draw the diagram Ask them to write the difference between two roots.
Project Work: Take some pea seeds and wheat grains and place them in two separate beaker filled with soil. Put some water every day and observe. After a few days these will germinate and seedlings will emerge. After the development of seedlings of each type, pull out the seedling, wash the roots gently and examine the roots, using magnifying glass. You will find the pea seeds develop Taproot system and maize grains develop adventitious root system. Draw these in your note book.
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Modified Root, Stem & Leaf
Fig. 2.2 Parts of a flowering plant
Activity 3 Instruct all the students to observe the environment for 5 minutes. and write the name of plants having tap root system and fibrous root system (5 from each). Divide students into small groups to prepare the group report. Each group leader will present the group list. You will do the correction work. 2.3.1 Modified Roots Sometimes roots are modified to perform certain special functions in addition to the normal functions. Modification occurs in their shape, size, form or structure. (A) Tap roots show three types of modification i.e. 1- Fusiform. 2. Conical 3. Napiform. Fusiform - In this type, the tap root is swollen in the middle and gradually tapers towards both ends. e.g. - Radish.
1.
Fig2. 3 Fusiform root (Radish)
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2.
Conical - In this form, the root assumes a conical shape, which is broadest at the base and gradually tapers to a point at the tip. e.g.- Carrot.
Fig 2.4 Conical root (Carrot)
3.
Napiform - The tap root is extremely swollen and assumes the spherical shape, but abruptly tapers towards the lower end. e.g.- Beet root.
Fig 2.5 Napiform root (Beetroot)
(B)
Adventitious roots are also modified like tap roots. These are . (i) Tuberous root (ii) Fasciculated/clustered roots. (iii) Moniliform or Beaded roots. Tuberous roots - The root has become swollen and fleshy assuming various fusiform, rounded or irregular e.g. -Sweet potato
(i)
Fig 2.6 Tuberous roots (Sweet potato)
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(ii)
Fasciculated or Clustered roots These are also tuberous roots, but occur in clusters or fascicles. e.g.- Asparagus.
Fig 2.7 Fasiculated roots (Asparagus)
(iii)
Moniliform or Beaded rootsThe adventitious roots assume the beaded appearance with alternately swollen and constricted parts as in some variety of grasses.
Fig 2.8 Beaded roots (Grass)
Function - All the above mentioned modified tap root and adventitious roots are modified to store food CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Give two differences between the Taproot system and Adventitious root system, with examples __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
II. Aerial Root Modification Aerial roots are adventitious roots which develop from the aerial parts of the plant. On the basis of their functions, they are recognized as (a) Prop roots (b) Stilt roots (c) Clinging roots. (a) Prop roots These roots develop from the branches of a tree and grow downward and reach the soil. They provide mechanical support to the branches and serve as "pillars". e.g.Banyan tree.
Fig 2.9 Banyan Tree (showing prop roots)
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Do you know The great Indian Banyan tree located in the Indian Botanical Gardens Kolkata has developed over 800 Prop roots. The plant looks like a "mini" forest. As a matter of fact the main trunk seems to have got lost. (b) Stilt roots These roots normally arise from the proximal nods and grow obliquely downwards. On reaching the soil these act as "stilts" and provide support to the plant. e.g.-pandanus. Sugarcane, Maize
Fig 2.10 Maize & Pandanus (Stilt roots)
(c) Clinging roots or climbing roots These are developed in weak stemmed plants These roots help the plants in clinging and climbing. e.g.- Betel, Money plant. Functions of roots Fixation or Anchorage. Absorption Respiration Fig 2.11 Clinging roots (Money Plant) Conduction Storage of food Prevention of soil erosion Providing additional support/Mechanical support. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Write examples for each (i) Prop roots (ii) Stilt roots (iii) Climbing roots _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________
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Modified Root, Stem & Leaf Activity 4 You will form small groups (4/5 in one group) Supply some plants/roots having modified Tap root system and Adventitious root system like (Radish, Carrot, Beet, Sweet potato, Asparagus, Grass, Banyan tree (Picture), Sugarcane, Maize plant, Money plant, Brinjan Plant Green chilli plant, Paddy plant, Ladies finger plant etc. Ask students to observe each plant and discuss. Instruct them to classify it according to its similarities. Tell them to explain why they classify like this/ on what basis Group presentation (by the group leader) followed by your discussion You will explain different types of modified roots and their functions.
Activity 5 Practice activity by students Ask students to sit in small groups. Tell each group to write the names of different storage roots . Group presentation. Supply each group with modified roots (Radish, Carrot, Beet) modified stems (Ginger, Potato, Onion) and one Flowering Plant Then ask students to write the different parts of the plant (both root and shoot system) Instruct them to examine and compare the parts present in modified roots and modified stems with the parts of the supplied plant. Ask them to explain the aspects of similarity? (How Radish, Carrot, Beet similar to roots) 2.4 THE SHOOT SYSTEM The shoot system is the green part of the plant body found above the ground. The term "shoot" is a collective term for the stem and whatever it bears.
Fig 2.12 Parts of a stem
2.4.1 The stem The stem develops from the plumule of a germinating seed. The stem where the leaves are attached, called as nodes. The part of the stem between the two nodes is the internodes. The upper angle that the stalk of the leaf forms with the stem is called the axil. The axil of a leaf bears a bud known as axillary bud.
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Activity 6 Ask students to sit in small groups Supply each group with a branch/stem Ask them to draw the diagram individually on their notebooks Instruct the students to label nodes, internodes, axil and axillary bud. You will organize group discussion and do corrections work. Part -II Supply each group with ginger, potato, colocasia and onion. Ask the students to observe minutely the structure of nodes, internodes, terminal buds and axillary buds in potato, ginger, colocasia and onion. Draw the following inferences after group discussion. Potato, ginger, colocasia, onion grow inside the soil and store food Due to the presence of nodes, internodes, axillary buds, these are called modified stems 2.4.2 Modified stems
The students will observe minutely the structure of nodes, internodes terminal buds, axillarybuds in ginger , potato, colocasia and onion.
Fig 2.13 Potato, Onion & Colocasia(Modified stems)
Project Work Take a potato and put a stick piercing the potato and keep it under water in a beaker and keep it in the sunlight. After few days you can see a plant growing from the eye of the potato. This shows that the potato is modified stem that so why the stem is growing from the potato. The eye is the auxiliary bud of the potato. Likewise, you can try with onion and ginger to observe the modified stem.
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Functions of stem Support Manufacture of food Conduction Storage of food Perennation Vegetative propagation
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Draw the diagram of any stem and show the different parts.
2.
Explain the characteristics of : (i) Nodes, (ii) Internodes (iii) Axil, (iv) Axillary buds __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
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Activity 8 Form small groups (5/4 in each group) Students will be supplied with some modified roots and stems They are directed to examine and separate the modified roots and modified stems and write the names in their note book Group presentation with follow up discussion by the teacher. Activity 9 Divide the students into small groups. Provide each group with diagram of modified roots and stems and give them some chits, where different functions of roots and stems are written. Ask them to match the roots and stems with their functions. Instruct each group to present one type of modified root or stem and its function. You will consolidate the group work on the black board and all the students will write in their note books. Activity 10 You will show the parts of tendrils in cucurbita and possiflora (Kakri or lauki) and also a cactus plant showing spines.
Fig 2.15 Pitcher plant
Fig 2.16 Pea plant
Activity 11 Form small groups. Supply each group with one Cactus plant and a Rose plant. Ask students to draw both the diagrams in their note book and label it properly. Group presentation.
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You will explain about modified leaves (leaf Tendrils, Bryophyllum, Modified Root, Stem & Leaf spines and pitcher plant) 2.5 LET US SUM UP In this unit, you have learnt that The characteristics of different types of modified roots and stems Identification of plants with modified roots and stems Various functions of modified roots and stems Classification of modified roots and stems as shown Modification of Root Underground Roots Tap Roots (Banyan) 1. Fusiform (Radish) 2. Conical (Asparagus) 3. Napiform (Beet root) Adventitious Roots Aerial Roots. 1. Prop roots
1. Tuberous (Sweet potato) 2. Fusciculated 3. Moniliform (Cayratia) Modification of stems
2. Stilt roots (Pandanus) 3. Clinging (Carrot) (Piper money plant)
Underground 1. Rhizome - Ginger 2. Tuber - Potato 3. Bulb - Onion
Aerial 1. Tendril - Passiflora 2. Thorn - Carissa 3. Phylloclade - Opuntia
2.6 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer 1 1. Taproot system The root developing from the radicle of germinating seed is called taproot It produces branches like secondary and Tertiary roots Adventitious root system Any root which is not developing from the radicle is known as adventitious root underground modification also takes place in adventitious roots Like Tuberous roods (sweet potato)
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Answer 2 (i) Prop roots - Banyan tree (ii) Stilt roots - Maize plant, Pandanus (iii) Climbing roots - Money plant, Betel Answer 3 1.
2.
(i)
Nodes - The point on the stem from where the leaf arises is called a node.
(ii) Internode - The leafless part of the stem between any one node and the next is called an Internode. (iii) Axil - The upper angle that the stalk of the leaf forms with the stem is called the axil. (iv) Axiliary bud - The axil of a leaf bears a bud known as axillary bud 2.7 GLOSSARY Perennation Vegetative propagation Anchorage Prop roots It is a kind of vegetative reproduction, i.e. reproduction from parts other then seeds. Help to propagate the plant without seed. Root fixes the plant firmly in the soil and helps to hold the plant upright. Look like the pillars providing additional support to the branches.
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2.8 REFERENCES Vishnoi H.S. (2005) Concise Biology, Selina publishers, Daryaganj, New Delhi. Teaching of Life Science (2006) IGNOU, New Delhi Nair, Achar, Hegde & Prabhu, (2003) A text book of Biology Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai. Visual Dictionary, Dorling Kindersley, New York-2006. Science Class-VI Govt. of Orissa 1996 SCERT, Bhubaneswar.
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Scientific Concepts
UNIT 3 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Structure 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Introduction Objectives Structure of Heart Circulation of Blood 3.4.1 Double Circulation of Blood 3.4.2 Pulmonary Circulation 3.4.3 Systemic Circulation Let Us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress Glossary References
3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8
3.1 INTRODUCTION The circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels, which together maintain a continuous flow of blood around the body, the heart pumps oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to all parts of the body through a network of tubes called arteries. Blood returns to the heart with the help of small and large vessels called veins. Arterioles and venules are linked by a network of tiny vessels called capillaries, where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and body cells takes place. 3.2 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you will be able to. explain the principles of blood circulation in our body. differentiate the function of veins and arteries. get activities conducted by the students about circulation of blood. recognize/identify the different parts of the heart. develop and conduct activity to show the circulation of blood from heart to lungs. explain double circulation of blood in our body. 3.3 STRUCTURE OF HEART The heart is a hollow muscle in the middle of the chest that pumps blood around the body, supplying cells with oxygen and nutrients. A muscular wall, called the septum divides the heart length ways into left and right sides. A valve divides each side into two chambers: an upper atrium and a lower ventricle. So there are four chambers in the heart, i.e. Right atrium, Right Ventricle, Left atrium and Left ventricle. The valves presents in between atrium and Ventricle are called Tricuspid valve and bicuspid valve respectively.
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Activity 1 Ask the students to sit in small groups (4 in one group) Give the cut pieces of heart diagram to each group Instruct them to join all the pieces and see what the structure is Activity 2 Supply the same group with one dotted diagram Ask the students to connect the numbers in ascending order and observe what it appears like Activity 3 Supply each group with a heart diagram (inner structure) Fig.3. 1Dotted diagram of the heart Assign a symbol to each part of the heart. The symbolic names were given on the top of the diagram. Ask the students to label the diagram according to the symbol given on it. * Superior Venacava Inferior Venacava A. Right Auricle B. Left Auricle Right Ventricle Left Ventricle Pulmonary Vein Pulmonary Artery Dorsal Aorta
Fig. 3. 2 Diagrammatic representation of Inner structure of the heart
Circulatory System
Then hang one labeled diagram of the heart on the wall and each group will correct their labeling accordingly
Fig. 3.3 Internal structure of the heart
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Scientific Concepts
Activity 4 (By the Teacher) You will demonstrate the heart of a Goat and will explain the shape, size and structure. Then you will cut the heart vertically into two parts and will show the hollow structure of four chambers of heart (Left Atrium, Left Ventricle, Right Atrium & Right Ventricle) You may show the model of heart which can be separated into different parts. Ask the students to observe and themselves separate each and every part of the heart and again join together. Tips for Teachers How to draw diagram of heart. Put a vertical line and first draw left auricle and left ventricle on the left side of the line. Then draw the right-auricle and rightventricle on the right side of the line. Then draw aorta valves and other parts. You can draw bilaterally symmetrical diagrams, using the same tips. Draw the parts of the diagram one by one on the board and ask the students to draw. Activity 5 Instruct all the students to draw the diagram of the heart in their note books. Then ask them to sketch and label it properly. You will do the correction work. Then organize activity with the whole class and explain the shape, size, structure and names of different parts of the heart. Right atrium Right ventricle Left a atrium Left ventricle Superior vena cava etc. Activity 6 " " " Divide students into small groups Supply each group with a letter grid. Instruct students to sketch the names those words that are connected with the parts of the heart. Tricuspid valve Bicuspid Valve pulmonary vein pulmonary artery
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Identify the names of different parts of the heart; these are hidden in the letter grid.
L E F T V E N T R I C L E D O R S A L N R I P
Circulatory System
E V
A B A
A W X P M Y V U V
U K Z U O A A S E
I A T N I
C O E D
L R R
E T Y A
Activity 7 Supply each group with the balloon diagram. No. of balloons are flying in the sky, containing the parts of different internal organs of our body. Ask students to collect the balloons that contain the parts of the heart and make a bunch.
Fig. 3.4 Balloons labeled with names of different parts of body organs
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Fill in the blanks: (i) The valve that opens from left atrium to left ventricle is called __________________. (ii) The name of the valve which opens from right atrium to right ventricle is called_____________. (iii) The heart is divided into ___________________________ chambers. (iv) The muscular part named ____________________ separates left ventricle to right ventricle.
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3.4 CIRCULATION OF BLOOD
Fig.3. 5 Structure of the heart showing Blood Circulation
Blood circulation starts with the contraction of the two atria (auricles). The ventricles at this time are relaxing and are empty. The blood from the auricles passes into the ventricles easily. When the ventricles contract, the auricles relax. The Tricuspid valve and the Bicuspid valve preventing the return of blood from ventricle to auricle. The blood from the right auricle goes to lungs through pulmonary artery for purification. The impure blood purified at lungs, taking oxygen from it. Exchange of gas occurs with the help of blood capillaries, present around the air sack of the lungs. Pure blood (oxygenated blood) comes from lungs through pulmonary vain to the left auricle (atria). From left auricle, the pure blood moves to left ventricle then to each and every part of the body. Activity 8 Ask the students, "Do you want to hear your heart beat"? Instruct them to perform the following steps: 1. Take a funnel and long rubber tube about m in length. 2. Connect the two, by inserting the tube portion of the funnel into the rubber tube. It should fit in. 3. Put the open end of the funnel, flat on your chest and the other free end of the rubber tube in one of your ears. 4. What do you hear? 5. Count the number of beats per minute. 6. Are these regular?
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7. Count the beats per minute again after running some 50m. 8. Do you find any change? Activity 9
Circulatory System
Fig.3.6 Arrow diagram showing blood circulation in the heart
Ask the students to sit in small groups. Provide each group with one diagram showing the circulation of blood from one part to other part with arrow ( ) mark. The students in the group will see and discuss among themselves and will indicate the flow of blood in the heart. Group presentation and follow up discussion by the teacher. The teacher must discuss the following points. Blood comes to the help of veins. heart with How blood is purified in the lungs taking oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide with the help of network of capillaries.
Blood goes from the heart with the help of arteries.
Flow of Blood Superior Vena cava Right atrium Lungs Right Ventricle
Pulmonary vein
Pulmonary artery
Left atrium
Left ventricle
Left Carotid artery Different parts of body
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Scientific Concepts
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Fill in the blanks. Show the Flow of blood : Right auricle Right Ventricle Lungs _______________ Left auricle ________________ 2. The substances to and from the tissues diffuse through the walls of ____________. 3. Write two characteristics of arteries and veins. _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4. Choose the correct answer: (i) The nearest organ to which the heart supplies oxygenated blood is (a) Lung (b) Stomach (c) Intestine (d) Heart itself. (ii) When a doctor is recording your pulse, where exactly is he pressing on your wrist? (a)Vein (b) Capillary (c) artery (d) Nerve 3.4.1 Double circulation of blood: Blood flows twice in the heart before it completes one full round. (1) The short pulmonary circulation (Lungs) (2) The long systemic circulation (General body)
3.4.2 Pulmonary Circulation It starts in the Pulmonary artery which arises from right ventricle. It divides in two branches and enters to the lungs (Left and Right) In the lungs blood is purified taking oxygen.
Right ventricle Pulmonary artery Left and Right lungs
Left auricle
Oxygenated Blood
3.4.3 Systemic circulation It starts with the aorta (Dorsal aorta) which arises from the left ventricle. Gives blood to the various parts of the body by the help of arteries and capillaries. Then the blood is collected by veins and poured back in the heart.
Left auricle Left ventricle Dorsal aorta
Right ventricle
veins
Various parts of body
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Activity 10 Let students sit in small groups Provide each group with the diagram (double circulation of blood), where the flow of pure and impure blood is show with ( ) mark. Again supply a set of "chits" (Paper slip) to each group where names of various parts of circulatory system are written. Ask the students in the group to observe the diagram and attach the names in various parts. Then they will draw the diagram showing the different parts. Ask the group leader to present the group work, You will correct it if required. Then the teacher will explain the flow of blood in double circulatory system and consolidate it.
Circulatory System
Fig.3. 7 Double circulation of blood
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Draw a flow chart showing the flow of blood in double circulatory system
3.5 LET US SUM UP In this unit, you learnt that The circulatory system consists of four chambered heart, arteries, veins and capillaries. Heart is present in the centre between two lungs and above the diaphragm Two valves named bicuspid valve and tricuspid valve are present between left auricle left ventricle right auricle and right ventricle respectively
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Scientific Concepts
Flow of Blood Right auricle Right ventricle
Left Auricle
Pulmonary Vein
Lungs
Pulmonary artery
Left Ventricle
various parts of the body
Blood flows twice in the heart before it completes one full round. (1) The short pulmonary circulation (Lungs) (2) The long systemic circulation (General body) 3.6 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Answer 1 1.
(i) Bicuspid Valve (iii) Four chambers
(ii) Tricuspid valve (iv)Septum.
Answer 2 1. Pulmonary artery, Pulmonary Vein, Left Ventricle. 2. 3. ARTERIES 1. Carry oxygenated blood (except Pulmonary artery) 2. Blood flows with jerks and under great pressure 4. (i) (d) (ii) (c) VEINS 1. Carry deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein) 2. Blood flows continuously and under very little pressure Capillaries
Answer 3 1.
Double circulation of blood
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3.7
GLOSSARY Heart is a hollow muscle in the thoracic cavity that pumps blood around the body. Right & Left Auricles; Right & Left Ventricles The blood goes through a short pulmonary circulation and along systemic circulation to complete one full round in the body.
Circulatory System
Heart Chambers of Heart Double Circulation
Pulmonary Circulation
Circulation of blood starts from the pulmonary artery in the right ventricle goes to the lungs, where it is purified. Circulation starts from the dorsal aorta in the left ventricle and gives blood to various parts of the body through arteries.
Systemic Circulation
3.8
REFERENCES
Concise Biology (ICSE), 2008, Salira Publishers, Daryaganj, New Delhi. Science (Class VI), 1996, Govt of Orissa SCERT, Bhubaneswar. Beckett, B.S. (1985), Beginning Science Biology, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Ultimate Visual Dictionary, Dorling Kindsley, New York.
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UNIT 4 BIO-DEGRADATION, SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT, VERMICOMPOSTING, RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Structure 4.1 4.2 4.3 Introduction Objectives Biodegradation 4.3.1 Meaning of Biodegradation 4.3.2 Need for Biodegradation 4.3.3 Advantages and disadvantages 4.3.4 Biodegradable Materials Solid Waste Management 4.4.1 Meaning of Solid Waste Management 4.4.2 Techniques of Waste Management Vermicomposting 4.5.1 Meaning of Vermicomposting 4.5.2 Importance of Vermicomposting 4.5.3 Techniques of Vermicomposting Rain water harvesting 4.6.1 Need of Rainwater Harvesting 4.6.2 Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting 4.6.3 Methods of Rainwater Harvesting Let Us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress Glossary References INTRODUCTION
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.1
Mahatma Gandhi once said, "The earth has enough resources for every man's needs, but not for every man's greed." The earth through its life spanning billions of years has undergone several extreme and drastic changes which have severely altered its state. These changes were natural and were compensated with the passage of time. They were also gradual and took millions of years to culminate. The formation of landmasses, oceans, mountains, valleys, rivers, deserts, and forests etc. is all a consequence of natural forces which have acted over the millennia to give the earth its present form. This process of change is dynamic and continuous and shall never stop till the end of the Earth. The most consequential change has been the advent of mankind. Man is a superior being with high intelligence. Initially man learnt to adapt himself and survive nature. But with the knowledge and skill man learnt to modify nature to suit his needs and create a comfortable environment around himself.
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Although this practice serves a short time purpose, but the damage done to nature is irreparable. Over a period of time, significant changes have been inflicted on nature such as massive deforestation, altering the course and flow pattern of rivers, destruction of marine and terrestrial ecosystems by industrial and commercial activities, etc. The adverse effects of these activities are evident all around us. In this unit you are going to read about the harmful effects resulting from the misuse of nature's bounteous gifts by the human race. You will learn the various techniques required to create an awareness and understanding of healthy environmental practices. We throw out so much rubbish or garbage everyday from our homes, schools, shops and offices. The grains, pulses, biscuits, milk or oil purchased from shops are packed in plastic bags or tins. All these wrapping material go out as garbage. We sometimes buy things that are rarely used and often throw them into the vats. We often throw groundnut shells, packets of chips, biscuits, fruit, and peels after eating them in public places. We throw away the ticket when we get off a bus. A child might go on tearing paper and sharpening pencils just for fun. We also throw away many domestic wastes such as broken toys, shoes, slippers and old woolen and cotton clothes. What if the garbage is not removed from our homes and surrounding? How do you think this will harm us? When the man appointed for cleaning purpose takes the garbage from the bins, where does the garbage go and what happens to it? Is it possible for all of this garbage to be changed into something that will not harm us? Can we contribute towards this in any way? In this unit we shall discuss topics which would sensitize you about the environmental degradation and some crucial measures taken for its conversation. 4.2 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit you will be able to: analyse the environmental degradation caused by human activities. identify healthy environmental practices. identify current harmful practices. define the terms: bio degradation, vermicomposting, solid waste management, rainwater harvesting and apply them. 4.3 BIODEGRADATION Bio degradation, vermin-composting, solid waste management and rainwater harvesting are among the major activities in this category and have been further discussed in detail. Activity 1 Collect the garbage from your house before it is thrown into the dustbin. Separate it into two groups so that they have
Bio-Degradation, Solid Waste Management, Vermicomposting, Rain Water Harvesting
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1.
2.
Group I: Garbage from the kitchen - like fruit and vegetable peels, egg shells, waste food, tea leaves, newspapers, dry leaves and paper bags. Group 2: Pieces of cloth, polythene bags broken glass, aluminium wrapper nails, old shoes and broken toys.
Now, divide the contents of each group into two separate heaps. Label them as A, B, C, D. Put one heap from Group 1 and one heap from Group 2, into two separate plastic bags. Tie the mouth of these two bags tightly. Put all the four heaps in separate pits and cover them with soil. You can also use pots instead of pits to bury this garbage heaps. Remove the soil after four days and observe the changes in the garbage. A black color and no foul smell indicate that rotting of garbage is complete. Put the heaps in the pits and cover with soil. Observe again after some days and note your observation as suggested. Did the garbage 1. 2. 3. 4. rot completely and not smell? rot only partially ? rot almost completely, but still smell bad? not changed at all ?
Garbage in which heap was seen to rot and which did not. Enter options (i), (ii), (iii), or (iv), in the columns of table based on your observations. Garbage heap After 4 days After 8 days After 2 weeks After 4 weeks A B C D If you make any other observations do not hesitate to write down. If the garbage was found to rot completely and did not smell mix it in the soil where you sow your favorite plants. This could provide nutrients to the plant. The rotting and conversion of some materials into manure is called composting. 4.3.1 Meaning of Biodegradation
Biodegradation is the process by which organic substances are broken down by the enzymes produced by living organisms. The term is often used in relation to ecology, waste management and environmental remediation (bioremediation). Organic material can be degraded aerobically, with oxygen, or anaerobically, without oxygen. A term related to biodegradation is bio-mineralization, in which organic matter is converted into minerals.
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Biodegradable matter is generally organic material such as plant and animal matter and other substances originating from living organisms, or artificial materials that are similar enough to plant and animal matter to be put to use by microorganisms. Some microorganisms have the astonishing, naturally occurring, microbial catabolic diversity to degrade, transform or accumulate a huge range of compounds. 4.3.2 Need for Biodegradation
Due to centuries of harmful practices and techniques vast quantities of our land and natural resources have become severely polluted. The conventional techniques used for repairing such pieces of land have been to dig up contaminated soil and remove it to a landfill, or to cap and contain the contaminated areas of a site. The methods have some drawbacks. The first method simply moves the contamination elsewhere and may create significant risks in the excavation, handling and transport of hazardous material. The cap and contain method is only an interim solution since the contamination remains on site, requiring monitoring and maintenance. Biodegradation is an option that offers the possibility to destroy or render harmless various contaminants using natural biological activity. As such, it uses relatively low-cost, low-technology techniques, which generally have a high public acceptance and can often be carried out on site. 4.3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Biodegradation
Advantages Biodegradation is a natural process and is therefore perceived as an acceptable waste treatment process for contaminated material such as soil. Microbes able to degrade the contaminant increase in numbers when the contaminant is present. Theoretically, biodegradation is useful for the complete destruction of a wide variety of contaminants. Many compounds that are considered to be hazardous can be transformed to harmless products. Instead of transferring contaminants from one environmental medium to another, for example, from land to water or air, the complete destruction of target pollutants is possible. Bioremediation can often be carried out on site, often without causing a major disruption of normal activities. This also eliminates the need to transport quantities of waste off site and the potential threats to human health and the environment Biodegradation can prove less expensive than other technologies that are used for clean-up of hazardous waste. Disadvantages Biodegradation is limited to those compounds that are biodegradable. Not all compounds are rapidly and completely degraded. There are some concerns that the products of biodegradation may be more persistent or toxic than the parent compound. Biological processes are often highly specific. Important site factors
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required for success include the presence of capable microbial populations, suitable environmental growth conditions, and appropriate levels of nutrients and contaminants. Research is needed to develop and engineer bioremediation technologies that are appropriate for sites with complex mixtures of contaminants that are not evenly dispersed in the environment. Contaminants may be present as solids, liquids, and gases. Biodegradatiom often takes longer than other treatment options, such as excavation and removal of soil or incineration. 4.3.4 Biodegradable Materials.
Biodegradable materials are substances that will decompose in a natural environment without emitting or leaving behind harmful substances. They are usually natural products or synthetic substances with natural properties. Not only is their production economical and environment friendly, their disposal after their use is easy and they can be interconverted into other useful products. The development of such materials to substitute existing ones is a prospective area of active research. In some cities and towns municipalities provide separate dustbins for collecting two kinds of garbage. Usually one is coloured blue and the other green. The blue bin is for materials that can be used again, such as plastics, metals and glass. These are the materials that do not rot in the garbage heap. Green bins are for collecting kitchen and other plant or animal wastes that rot completely when buried in soil. Now you can understand why it is necessary for us to separate the garbage into two groups. How much garbage do you think is thrown out by each house every day? You can make an estimate by using a bucket as a measure. Activity 2 Use a 5-10 liter bucket to collect the garbage from your home for a few days. In how many days does the bucket become full? You know the number of members in your family. If you find out the population of your city or town can you now estimate the number of buckets of garbage that may be generated in a day in your city or town? We are generating mountains of garbage everyday. You might have seen some children women and men sorting the garbage near your house or other places. Activity 3 Observe the children at work and find out how they separate useful material from garbage. They are actually helping us. Talk to one such person and find out as to what do they do with the rubbish they collect. Where do they take it?
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Activity 4 Have you ever helped at home to sell old newspapers, glass bottles and metal things, plastic bags and your old note books to a garbage dealer? Talk to them and find out what he does with all the garbage. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Why is there a need for biodegradation? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ What are biodegradable materials? Give two examples. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
2.
Activity 5 Collect the household waste for 3 days and analyze it. Make a list of all the items found and determine whether they are bio-degradable or not. Separate the degradable and non degradable items. Activity 6 Make a list of all items in your room and ponder over how many of them are biodegradable? DISCUSS Which kind of garbage is not converted into compost by the earthworm? Have you seen any other organism besides earthworms? Try to find out their names and draw their pictures. Is the garbage, disposal a responsibility only of the government/ municipality? Is it possible to reduce the problems relating to disposal of garbage? What do you do with the left over food at home? 4.4 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT Activity 7 Visit a local waste management site, a landfill or incinerator and observe how waste is processed. Activity 8 Collect household waste for a week and try to extract any items which may be reused. Try making an artwork out of kitchen or paper waste.
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The quality of life on Earth is linked to the overall quality of the environment. In early times, we believed that we had an unlimited abundance of land and resources; today, however, the resources in the world show, in greater or lesser degree, our carelessness and negligence in using them. The problems associated with pollution now assume increasing prominence in many countries. Contaminated lands generally result from past industrial activities when awareness of the health and environmental effects connected with the production, use, and disposal of hazardous substances were less recognized than today. The problem is worldwide, and the estimated number of contaminated sites is significant. 4.4.1 Meaning of Solid Waste Management
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste management is also carried out to recover resources from it. Waste management can involve solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive substances. 4.4.2 Techniques of Solid Waste Management
Waste management practices differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrial producers. Management for non-hazardous residential and institutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of local government authorities, while management for non-hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the generator. Waste management methods vary widely between areas for many reasons, including type of waste material, nearby land uses, and the area available. 1) LANDFILLS : Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying waste to dispose of it, and this remains a common practice in most countries. A properly-designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials. Older, poorly-designed or poorly-managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter,attraction of vermin, and generation of liquid leachate. Another common byproduct of landfills is gas which can create odour problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas. In a landfill the deposited waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered to prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills also have landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity. 2) INCINERATION : Incineration is a disposal method that involves combustion of waste material. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash. Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals, and on a large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous
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waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste). Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about micro-pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focussed on some very persistent organics such as Dioxins which may be created within the incinerator and which may have serious environmental consequences in the area immediately around the incinerator. 3) RECYCLING : The process of extracting resources or value from waste is generally referred to as recycling, meaning to recover or reuse the material. There are a number of different methods by which waste material is recycled: the raw materials may be extracted and reprocessed, or the calorific content of the waste may be converted to electricity. New methods of recycling are being developed continuously. The popular meaning of 'recycling' refers to the widespread collection and reuse of everyday waste materials. These are collected and sorted into common types so that the raw materials from which the items are made can be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may be collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles, or sorted directly from mixed waste streams. The most common consumer products recycled include aluminum beverage cans, steel food and aerosol cans, HDPE and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines, and cardboard. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. 4) BIOLOGICAL REPROCESSING : Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, can be recycled using biological composting and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity. The intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter. BIO-MANURE IS USED TO GROW HEALTHY NON TOXIC CROPS There are a large variety of composting and digestion methods and technologies varying in complexity from simple home compost heaps, to industrial-scale enclosed-vessel digestion of mixed domestic waste. Methods of biological decomposition are differentiated as being aerobic or anaerobic methods. 5) ENERGY RECOVERY : The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel. Recycling through thermal
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treatment ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating, to fuel for boilers to generate steam and electricity in a turbine. Gasification and advanced Plasma arc gasification are used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam. 6) WASTE MINIMIZATION : An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also known as waste reduction. Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of buying new, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouraging consumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Who is responsible for waste management? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Discuss various techniques of solid waste management. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
2.
Activity 9 Observe how the waste of your community is collected and disposed. Suggest better and creative ways to do so. Activity10 Ask elders, teachers and scientists about how waste materials are being reused in your region. VERMICOMPOSTING The use of chemical fertilizers contributes largely to the deterioration of the environment through depletion of fossil fuels, generation of carbon dioxide (CO2) and contamination of water resources. It leads to loss of soil fertility due to imbalanced use of
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Fig 4.1: Vermicomposting Bin
fertilizers that has adversely impacted agricultural productivity and causes soil degradation. Now there is a growing realization that the adoption of ecological and sustainable farming practices can only reverse the declining global productivity and environment protection.
Fig 4. 2: Role of Worms in Vermi-Composting
On one hand tropical soils are deficient in all necessary plant nutrients and on the other hand large quantities of such nutrients contained in domestic wastes and agricultural byproducts are wasted. It is estimated that in cities and rural areas of India nearly 700 million tones of organic waste is generated annually which is either burned or land filled. Such large quantities of organic wastes generated also pose a problem for safe disposal. Most of these organic residues are burned currently or used as land fillings. In nature's laboratory there are a number of organisms (micro and macro) that have the ability to convert organic waste into valuable resources containing plant nutrients and organic matter, which are critical for maintaining soil productivity. Microorganisms and earthworms are important biological organisms helping nature to maintain nutrient flow from one system to another and also minimize environmental degradation. Municipal solid waste (MSW) is highly organic in nature, so vermicomposting has become an appropriate alternative for its safe, hygienic and cost effective disposal. Earthworms feed on the organics and convert material into casting (ejected matter) which is rich in plant nutrients. 4.5.1 Meaning of Vermicomposting?
Vermicomposting is a simple biochemical process of composting, in which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of waste conversion and produce a better end product. The resulting earthworm castings (worm manure) are rich in microbial activity and plant growth regulators and fortified with pest repellents as well. In short, earthworms, through a biological process, are capable of transforming garbage into 'fertilizer'.
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Activity 11 Construction of a Worm Bin Bins can be made of wood or plastic, or from recycled containers like old tubs, barrels, or trunks. Bins should be no more than 8 to 12 inches deep. Bedding and food wastes tend to pack down in deeper bins, forcing air out. Resulting anaerobic conditions can cause foul odors and death of the worms. The size also depends on the amount of food waste your family produces each week. Wooden bins have the advantage that they are more absorbent and provide better insulation. Be sure that containers are well cleaned and have never stored pesticides or other chemicals. Drilling air/drainage holes (1/4- to 1/2-inch diameter) in the bottom and sides of the bin will ensure good water drainage and air circulation. Place the bin on bricks or wooden blocks in a tray to catch excess water that drains from the bin. Each bin should have a cover to conserve moisture and exclude light. Food wastes can be continually added as they accumulate. The pile should be kept damp and dark for optimum worm activity. During the winter, soil can be piled against the edges of the bin and straw placed on top to protect the worms from cold weather. 4.5.2 Importance of Vermicomposting
1) Source of plant nutrients Earthworms consume various organic wastes and reduce the volume by 40-60%. Each earthworm weighs about 0.5 to 0.6 g, eats waste equivalent to its body weight and produces cast equivalent to about 50% of the waste it consumes in a day. These worm castings have been analyzed for chemical and biological properties. The worm castings contain higher percentage of both macro and micronutrients. Nutrient composition of vermicompost Constituent Organic carbon Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Calcium Magnesium Sodium Zinc Copper Iron Manganese Percentage 9.8-13.4 0.51-1.61 0.19-1.02 0.15-0.73 1.18-7.61 0.093-0.568 0.058-0.158 0.0042-0.110 0.0026-0.0048 0.2050-1.3313 0.0105-0.2038
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Vermicompost provides all nutrients in readily available form and also enhances uptake of nutrients by plants. Improved crop growth and yield Vermicompost plays a major role in improving growth and yield of different field crops, vegetables, and flower and fruit crops. The application of vermicompost gave higher germination (93%) of moong bean (Vigna radiata) compared to the control (84%). Further, the growth and yield of moong bean was also significantly higher with vermicompost application. Likewise, in another pot experiment, the fresh and dry matter yields of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) were higher when soil was amended with vermicompost. 4.5.3 Techniques of Vermicomposting i) Pits below the ground Pits made for vermicomposting are 1 m deep and 1.5 m wide. The length varies as required. ii) Heaping above the ground The waste material is spread on a polythene sheet placed on the ground and then covered with cattle dung. The heap method of preparing vermicompost is better than the pit method due to high earthworm production. Biomass production was also higher in the heap method (46-fold increase) than in the pit method (31-fold). Consequent production of vermicompost was also higher in the heap method (51 kg) than in the pit method (40 kg). iii) Tanks above the ground Tanks made up of different materials such as normal bricks, hollow bricks, stones, asbestos sheets and locally available rocks are used for vermicompost preparation. Tanks can be constructed with the dimensions suitable for operations. iv) Cement rings Vermicompost can also be prepared above the ground by using cement rings. The size of the cement ring should be 90 cm in diameter and 30 cm in height. Conclusions The production of degradable organic waste and its safe disposal becomes the current global problem. Meanwhile the rejuvenation of degraded soils by protecting topsoil and sustainability of productive soils is a major concern at the international level. Provision of a sustainable environment in the soil by amending with good quality organic soil additives enhances the water holding capacity and nutrient supplying capacity of soil and also the development of resistance in plants to pests and diseases. Earthworms can serve as tools to facilitate these functions. They serve as "nature's plowman" and form nature's gift to produce good humus, which is the most precious material to fulfill the nutritional needs of crops. The
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utilization of vermicompost results in several benefits to farmers, industries, environment and overall national economy. To farmers: Less reliance on purchased inputs of nutrients leading to lower cost of production Increased soil productivity through improved soil quality Better quantity and quality of crops For landless people provides additional source of income generation To industries: Cost-effective pollution abatement technology To environment: Wastes create no pollution, as they become valuable raw materials for enhancing soil fertility To national economy: Boost to rural economy Savings in purchased inputs Less wasteland formation CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. What role do earthworms play in vermicomposting? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Discuss construction of a worm bin. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
2.
Activity 12 Construct a small vermicomposting bin under the guidance of your teacher and use the end product to manure plants in your garden. Activity 13 Search your community for instances of vermicomposting and observe the details. Activity 14 Encourage your community to reduce use of synthetic fertilizers and adopt vermicomposting on a large scale. 4.6 RAINWATER HARVESTING Activity 15 On a typical rainy day, place buckets under chajjas and try to measure the quantity of water that flows down them in an hour. Try and calculate the amount of water that is wasted in a day, month or year.
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Water is essential to all life forms on earth - human, animal and vegetation. It is therefore important that adequate supplies of water be developed to sustain such life. Development of water supplies should, be undertaken in such a way as to preserve the hydrological balance and the biological functions of our ecosystems. Since 98% of the world's water is saline and only 2% fresh and suitable for human use, its conservation is of utmost importance. Water is closely associated with our lives. Consequently, the human endeavor in the development of water sources must be within the capacity of nature to replenish and to sustain. If this is not done, costly mistakes can occur with serious consequences. The application of innovative technologies and the improvement of indigenous ones should therefore include management of the water sources to ensure sustainability and to safeguard the sources against pollution. As land pressure rises, cities are growing vertical and in countryside more forest areas are encroached and being used for agriculture. In India the small farmers depend on monsoon where rainfall is from June to October and much of the precious water is soon lost as surface runoff. While irrigation may be the most obvious response to drought, it has proved costly and can only benefit a fortunate few. There is now increasing interest in the low cost alternative-generally referred to as 'rain water harvesting' (rwh). Water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater, which can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the groundwater. Water harvesting is the collection of runoff for productive purposes. Rain is the first form of water that we know in the hydrological cycle, hence is a primary source of water for us. Rivers, lakes and groundwater are all secondary sources of water. In present times, we depend entirely on such secondary sources of water. In the process, it is forgotten that rain is the ultimate source that feeds all these secondary sources and remain ignorant of its value. Water harvesting is to understand the value of rain, and to make optimum use of rainwater at the place where it falls. 4.6.1 Need for rainwater harvesting:
1. Water is becoming scarce; it is the need of the day to attain selfsufficiency to fulfill the water needs. 2. Urban water supply system is under tremendous pressure for supplying water to ever increasing population. 3. Groundwater is getting depleted and polluted. 4. Soil erosion resulting from the unchecked runoff. 5. Health hazards due to consumption of polluted water. 4.6.2 Benefits of rainwater harvesting:
1. Environment friendly and easy approach for water requirements 2. Rwh is the ideal solution for all water requirements. 3. Increase in ground water level.
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4. Mitigates the effects of drought. 5. Reduces the runoff, which other wise flood storm water drains. 6. Reduces flooding of roads and low-lying areas. 7. Reduced soil erosion. 8. Improves the ground water quality. 9. Low cost and easy to maintain. 10. Reduces water and electricity bills. 4.6.3 Methods of rainwater harvesting:
1) Rainwater stored for direct use in above ground or underground sumps /Overhead tanks and used directly for flushing, gardening, washing etc. 2) Recharged to ground through recharge pits, dug wells, bore wells, Soak Pits, recharge trenches, etc. (ground water recharge). The rainwater is filtered for solid and dissolved impurities before being fed into the groundwater system. PVC pipes are most commonly used for this purpose. Rainwater stored for direct use in man made structures such as ponds or tanks. This water is diverted through proper site planning and contouring and allowed to collect in a large tank. This water may be used to recharge wells, irrigate fields, drinking etc. in the dry season. Rainwater harvesting potential: In an area of 2,400 sq.ft. or 223 sq.mt. (40 ft. X 60 ft. Site) around 2, 23,000 liters of Rainwater can be harvested. The amount of rainwater that can be harvested depends on the catchment area, rainfall in that area and collection efficiency etc. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Why is there a need to conserve fresh water? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
4.7 LET US SUM UP After reading this unit you learned that: Ever increasing need and greed of human beng is causing irreparable damage to the environment. Biodegradation is a safe and economical way of converting waste material to useful products. Various techniques of solid waste management, through incineration, landfills, recycling etc. Technique of waste processing at a waste management site. Need and importance of vermicomposting and making a worm bin.
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Importance of rainwater harvesting in the present times. Methods adopted for harvesting rain water. 4.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer 1 1. Biodegradation is a useful method to destroy contaminants and harmful substances in nature using low cost, low technology biological techniques. 2. Biodegradable substances are those material which will decompose in a natural environment without leaving behind harmful substances. Examples (i) vegetable peels (ii) paper Answer 2 1. The responsibility of management of non-hazardous, non-toxic wastes from homes and institutions in metropolitan areas, lies with local government authorities. Management of non-hazardous, commercial and industrial waste is the responsibility of the generator. 2. Classroom discussion on techniques of solid waste management. Answer 3 1. Vermi-composting is a safe and cost-effective for disposal of solid waste. Earthworms feed on the organic matter in the soil, and convert it in to casting (ejected matter) which enriches the soil with organic (plant) nutrients. 2. Classroom activity Answer 4 1. There is need to conserve freshwater because: (a) Ever increasing population has led to scarcity of water. (b) Groundwater level is decreasing and getting polluted. (c) More forest land being used for agriculture, which leads to increased demand for water. (d) Lot of rainwater lost as surface run off, leading to soil erosion. 4.9 GLOSSARY Biodegradation Solid Waste Management Landfills Incineration Recycling Process by which organic substances are broken down by enzyme activity of living organisms Collection, transport, processing, recycling of disposal of waste materials. Burying waste in the ground for disposal Disposal of waste material by combustion, which converts the waste into heat, gas, steam and ash. Process of recovering resources from waste material.
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Biological Reprocessing Vermicomposting
Recycling organic waste material using biological composting and digestion process. A biochemical process of composting in which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of waste conversion. The process, in which rainwater is collected, stored for direct use and can be recharged into the ground water. It helps to make optimum use of rainwater at the place where it falls.
Rainwater Harvesting
4.10
REFERENCES
Science Book class VI & VII : M.D. Rajya Shiksha Kendra Science Text Book for class VI, NCERT Wikipedia
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Block
3
SKILL OF PERFORMING SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS
1. 2. Unit 1 Experiments in Science Unit 2 Respiration, Food adulteration, Transpiration and Use of Microscope Unit 3 Purification of Water, Artificial Greenhouse and Model of Rainwater Harvesting Unit 4 Science Corner 118-140 141-157
3.
158-165
4.
166-184
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Skill of Performing Scientific Experiments
UNIT 1 EXPERIMENTS IN SCIENCE

Structure 1.1 1.2 1.3 Introduction Objectives Separation of substances 1.3.1 Substances and Mixtures 1.3.2 Method of Separation of Substances Acids and their Identification Bases and their Identification Phenolphthalein as an Indicator 1.6.1 Characteristics of Neutralization Reaction Properties of Metals and Non Metals 1.7.1 Reaction with Air 1.7.2 Reaction with Water 1.7.3 Reaction with Acids 1.7.4 Reaction with Bases 1.7.5 Reaction with Salt Solution Let Us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress Glossary References INTRODUCTION
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.1
You will perhaps agree with me that upper primary stage is the appropriate stage to develop critical thinking and logical reasoning in the mind of the children. This unit focuses on strategies of teaching scientific experiments at upper primary level. Attempt has been made to explain and demonstrate various experiments with the active involvement and association of children in the classroom. Making children realize things around them and integration of the same with their real life situation can develop interest and curiosity in children in scientific experiments. In this unit we shall discuss experiments in science with an emphasis on generation of curiosity among them. 1.2 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit you would be able to: explain the strategies of teaching scientific experiments explore multiple ways of teaching scientific experiments in the classroom. describe experiments pertaining to separation of substances, acids, bases and salts and properties of metals
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1.3 SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCES. (Demonstration by Teacher) How many discs are there? Label one disc as A and another as B
Experiments in Science
Disc 'A'
Disc 'B'
Fig 1.1: Representing two discs A and B containing wheat grains and pea grain respectively.
1.3.1
Substances and Mixtures
Put some wheat grain in disc A and ask children what disc A contains. Put some pea grain in disc B and ask children what disc B contains. Disc 'C' Take another disc C, put grain from Fig. 1.2: Representing a disc C containing disc A and disc B in disc C. wheat grains and pea grain collectively. Ask children what does the disc C contains? How many types of substances are there in? Disc A? Disc B? Disc C ? Disc C contain two different substances. We call it a mixture of solid with solid. Take another disc and name it as 'D'. Put some small pieces of stone it ask children What does disc-D contains?
Disc 'D'
Put the substance from disc D to Disc 'C' and as children What does 'C' contain now? How many types of substances are there in Disc 'C' now? Disc 'C' now contains more than one type of substance we call it mixture. 'A' Mixture contains substances of more than one type.
Fig. 1.3: Representing a disc D containing stones
Disc 'C' Fig. 1.4: Representing disc 'C' containing mixture of items
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. From your real life experience name five different mixtures of solid with solid. e.g: sand and saw dust. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
Activity-I
Beaker A (water)
Beaker B (ink)
Beaker C (solution)
In the beaker 'A' put some water and ask the children what beaker A contains. In beaker 'B' put some blue ink and ask children what does beaker 'B' contains? Take another beaker 'C' and put the Liquid from A and to C and Liquid from 'B' to 'C' and then ask children what the beaker C contains. How many kinds of liquids are present in beaker A B C
Beaker A (water)
Beaker B (sugar)
Beaker C (solution)
Take a beaker 'A', put some water in it and ask children What does it contain? Beaker C contains more than one type of liquid we call it a mixture of liquid with liquid.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Name five different mixture involving liquid with liquid __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
Take a beaker 'B' put some sugar on it and ask children What does it contain? Take another beaker; name it as 'C'. Add water from beaker 'A' to 'C' and sugar from disc 'B' to 'C' Ask student to observe and note their observations. Observation: 1.----------------------------------------------2.-----------------------------------------------3. ------------------------------------------------Ask student how many kinds of Substances are there in Beaker A. Beaker B. Beaker C. Beaker C contains more than one type of substance (one solid and one liq); we call it a mixture of solid with liquid Take a disc D, put some chalk dust in it and ask children what does it contain. Take another beaker name it as 'E' and put water from beaker 'A' to 'E' and chalk dust from 'D' to beaker 'E'. Ask children to observe and note the observations. Observation: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chalk dust
Beaker 'E' contains more than one type of substance, one solid and one liquid. We call it a mixture of solid with liquid
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Name five different types of mixture involving solid with liquid and prepare the mixture. e.g.: 1) Water and soil. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
1.3.2 Methods of Separation of Substances Do you know? Like mixture of solid with solid, liquid with liquid and solid with liquid mixtures of gas with gas, gas with liquid, gas with solid are also possible. e.g.: 1) Mixture of N2 and O2. 2) Mixture of CO2 and Water. 3) Mixture of Coal and Air. Process of taking out/removing individual substance from a mixture is called separation. The common methods of separation are: A) Hand picking B) Threshing C) Winnowing D) Sieving E) Sedimentation and decantation. F) Filtration G) Evaporation and condensation A) Handpicking
Activity 2 Let us mix some small pieces of stones with certain quality of sand. Ask 'x' (one student) to separate small pieces of stone from the mixture of stone & sand. Point out the steps you follow to perform the assignment sequentially 1 -----------------------------------------2-----------------------------------------3-----------------------------------------On the basis of your experience in the above activity could you tell the conditions for using hand picking method? 1. Quantity of impurity is usually small. 2. Size of impurity are slightly longer. 3. Impurities are visible to unaided eye.
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Process of picking out larger size impurity from a substance is called handpicking CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. From your experiences give some examples of mixture which can be separated by handpicking. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Threshing
Activity 3 Showing some paddy/stalk (or its figure) to children in the class discuss the following points. What do you see? Where are the grains attached? Could you count the number of grains attached to the stalk? Could you separate the grains from the stalk? Showing a bunch of stalk to children ask them, could you separate the grains? Could you imagine how a farmer separate such grains from the field? (Discuss and interact with children about the bullock/ or a machine) CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. From you real life experiences give some example of a mixture that can be separated by threshing. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
The process of separating the grains from the stalk is called Threshing
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Winnowing
Activity 4 Take a bunch of paddy stable and ask children remove the grains from the stalk and gather the grains at a place over a piece of paper. Ask student if it is a mixture or a pure substance. What are the impurities in it? Are the components of similar size? Can they be separated by hand picking? Activity 5 Take some sand and mix it with some saw dust and ask the children above questions? How do you separate saw dust from sand? Demonstrate with following point. 1. Take a handful of mixture 2. Raise your hand at the height of your shoulder 3. Put the mixture on the ground on a piece of paper slowly What do you observe? Observations: 1) Sand and saw dust fall at different placeses 2) Saw dust blows away 3) Wind plays a major role in separating two components. Process of separating lighter components from a heavier component by blowing air is called Winnowing In the above activity which component is lighter? Which component is heavier? Out of the two which of the two components blows away? Now, quickly answer the following questions. Conditions for using Winnowing: 1. One of the components (impurities) should be lighter. 2. One of the components (impurities) should be heavier 3. Role of wind /or blowing air through mechanical means facilitate the process of separation. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Give some examples of mixture which can be separated by winnowing. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
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Sieving
Activity 6 Collect some sand and a net (sieve) and ask a group of children to separate the pebbles and stones from it. Showing the substance to children ask them to observe carefully and answer the following questions. What is the substance called? Do you find any other components present in it ? What are they ? Do you call it a mixture or a pure substance ? Could you separate the impurities (pebbles and stones) from it ? Ask them to carry it on. Condition for using Sieving 1. 2. Components of the mixture should be very small. Components of the mixture are of different sizes.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 7 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. From your real life experience, list some important impurities, which can be separated by sieving. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Sedimentation & Decantation
Activity 7 Take a glass beaker. Fill three-fourth of it with water. Put a piece of mud in it , stir it well and ask children to observe. Demonstrate the activity with the following steps Showing a beaker, ask what this is? Discuss its physical properties, uses in experiments, etc. Ask about its measures, size, etc. Putting water into it, ask what part of the beaker is filled with water? Instruct a student to contaminate the water by adding some impurities in the beaker, viz. mud/pebble/sand etc. Ask children to note down their observation Observation 1. 2. 3.
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Stir the beaker with a stirrer and keep it on the table undisturbed. Ask students to state their observation. 1. Muddy water becomes clean. 2. Heavier components are settled at the bottom 3. Lighter components (dust) flow at the surface Process of separating out heavier component from a mixture after adding water is called sedimentation. Could you separate the lighter component (dust) from remaining part of mixture now? Showing the picture, ask the children what do they see. Demonstrate tilting of beaker to pour out the lighter dust particles from mixture to an empty beaker.
Fig. 1.5: sedimentation process
Process of filtering the solution/mixture to remove the lighter dust particles is called decantation. After removing the dust particles, show the remaining part of the mixture and ask the following questions to the children. What do you see in the beaker? How many layers are there in the beaker? What are they? Do they mix with each other? Could you separate the water from the remaining mixture by decantation? Condition of decantation Through the process of decantation, always the top layer (lighter particles) can be separated. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 8 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. From your real life experience, give example of two mixtures, which can be separated by sedimentation and decantation? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
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Filtration
Activity 8 What does the beaker A contain? What does the beaker B contain? Could you separate the impurities from beaker B. How ?
Beaker 'A' containing
Beaker 'B' containing
Fig. 1.6: Beaker A & B containing clean & muddy water respectively
Ask children to conduct the experiment of sedimentation and collect the clean water in another beaker C. Ask children to compare water of A with that of beaker C. Why the water in beaker C is not clean like that of 'A'? Could you separate all impurities from 'C'? Activity 9 i) Take a filter paper and show it to children. ii) Demonstrate the process of folding the paper in the shape of a cone. iii) Ask children to fit the cone shape filter paper inside the funnel. iv) Fit the funnel in a stand v) Place a beaker 'D' below the funnel showing a glass funnel, a filter paper, a vi) With the help of a glass rod, Picture filter paper folded in cone shape, Placing of stir the water present in the cone shaped filter paper over the funnel, and finally the processes of filtration. beaker C.
Source: NCERT 2006 Science Textbook class VI
Fig. 1.7: Beaker C containing clean water
vii)
Slowly put the water from beaker 'C' to the funnel Through a glass rod viii) Ask student to observe the water collected in beaker D. ix) Compare the water collected in beaker D with the water present in beaker A. x) What do you observe inside the funnel? The process of separating the impurities through a filter paper is called filtration
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 9 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Give some example of mixture from your day to day experience which can be separated by filtration? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Evaporation and Condensation
Activity 10 Prepare a sugar solution in a beaker. Demonstrate the activity (preparation of sugar solution) in front of children. Ask them the following questions. How many components are there? Could you separate sugar from water? Evaporation is the process of vaporisation of liquid which takes place at all temperatures from the free surface of the liquid. For example: o Drying of wet floor by mopping. o Drying of wet clothes by exposing them to sun. o Application of highly volatile liquid, like ether, after shave lotions on the body and seeing them to disappear.
Process of Evaporation
Experiment Take a tripod stand and ask student what this is. Show a wire gauze and ask student, whether they had ever seen it earlier. Put wire gauze over it. Place the beaker containing sugar solution on it. Heat it to boil by a Bunsen burner/spirit lamp. Ask student what do they observe Water starts boiling and starts converting into vapour. Process of conversion of water into vapour is called evaporation. It takes place at all temperatures from the free surface of the liquid. Boiling is a process of vaporisation which takes place at a fixed temperature from the entire body of the liquids Observation: 1) Volume of water decreased 2) When all water gets evaporated, show the beaker to the student and ask what do they see? 3) A thin layer sticks to the bottom and the inner side of the beaker?
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What is this thin layer? Is it sugar? Where does the evaporated water go? Could it be possible to collect the evaporated water? Condensation Activity 11 Showing the picture ask children what do they find over the beaker?
Picture showing an evaporation of sugar solution, with a metallic plate kept over the container in an inclined position, and an empty beaker is placed below the metallic plate; a piece of ice is kept over the plate
Source: NCERT 2006 Science Textbook class VI
What is the position of the metallic plate? What is kept below the edge of the metallic plate? What is kept over the metallic plate? Observation 1) Steam (water vapour) coming out from beaker comes in contact with the lower part of the metallic plate Process of conversion of water vapour into liquid form is called condensation 2) 3) Steam gets converted to water at the lower part of the metallic plate. Why? Condensed water vapour is collected through the edge of the metallic plate in the beaker.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 10 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Give some examples of mixture from your experience, which can be separated by evaporation and condensation. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
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1.4 ACIDS AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION We have already discussed the basic concepts of acid, base and salt in Block I of Unit I. In this section we shall discuss through tests/experiments about various properties of acids, bases, and salts. You are aware about the taste of substances like: lemon juice, vinegar etc. Could you tell how does it taste to you? Showing a China rose flower, ask children what is it? Have you ever seen the China rose plant in their locality/school? Plucking few petals from the flower, ask children what is this? Activity 12 Ask children to sit in different groups, and provided each group solutions of three bakers containing curd, lemon juice and grapes. Each group is provided with a fresh China rose flower. Ask them to dip a petal in each beaker separately and note their observation Observation Originally the colour of petal was _____________ Colour of petal after dipping in o Curd Solution -------------------------o Lemon Juice ----------------------------o Grape Juice-----------------------------What common feature do you find? From this, what conclusion could you draw? o All acidic substances has similar properties o Without tasting, can you identify acidic substances 1.5 BASES AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION Have you ever tasted soap? Take a small pinch of it and put in at the tip of your tongue. How does it taste? Is it like that of curd, lemon juice, vinegar? Have you ever tasted baking soda? Take a small pinch of it and put it at the tip of your tongue? Does it have the same taste as curd? Does it have the same taste as soap? Taste of soap, baking soda are found to be similar and such substances are called bases
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Give examples of some more substances which are basic in nature (similar to that of baking soda) 1. 2. 3. 4. Activity 13 Ask children to sit in groups and provide each group. Four beakers containing solution of baking soda, soap solution, lime water and salt solution. Each group is provided with a fresh China rose flower. Ask them to dip a petal in each beaker separately and note their observation. Observation Originally the colour of petal was _____________ Colour of petal after dipping in o Baking soda Solution-------------------------o Soap solution----------------------------o Lime water--------------------------------o Salt solution----------------------------What similarities do you find? There is no change in colour of petal From this, observation what conclusion could you draw? All basic substances have similar properties Without tasting, we can identify basic solution
Activity 14 Ask children to sit in a group. Give two beakers, one containing acidic solution and one containing basic solution. Give a China rose flower in each group. Ask them to identify the solution, which is acidic, and solution, which is basic. Ask them to note their observation in each solution. Repeat the above experiments taking turmeric powder solution and state your observations. Most commonly used natural indicator is litmus paper. Substances which help in identifying acidic solution from basic solution are called indicators. We can say petals of china rose flower is a natural indicator
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1.6 PHENOLPHTHALEIN AS AN INDICATOR Activity 15 Instruct the students to take three different beakers A, B, C, one containing hydrochloric acid, one sodium hydroxide solution and one phenolphthalein solution. Ask students to identify the nature of these three solutions, using litmus paper. Now you label the beaker with stickers as acidic solution, basic solution and neutral solution. Next you take a test tube, fill one fourth of the test tube with the acidic solution. Ask children what is its colour. Add few drops (2-3 drops) of neutral solution to it with a dropper and shake gently Ask children to tell its colour. Do you find any change in colour on adding few drops of neutral solution? Through another dropper, take the basic solution and add a drop of it into the test tube. Shake gently. Do you find any change in colour? Repeat the same adding a drop of basic solution and ask same questions to children in each step about change in colour. At one point there is a sudden change of colour from colourless to pink. Add one drop of Acidic solution to the pink colour solution and ask children the following: What do they observe? For change in colour of solution from pink to colourless, Who is responsible for it? (Acidic solution) Now add one drop of basic solution to the colourless solution and ask children, what they observe. Change in colour of solution from colourless to pink Who is responsible for changing the colour from colourless to pink? (Basic Solution) What conclusion can be drawn from this experiment? When the solution is basic, pink colour appears. When the solution is acidic, pink colour disappear (colourless solution appear) What is responsible for the change in colour (appearance and disappearance of colour?) Which substance/Nature of solution is governing this change within the solution? Phenolphthalein is the substance present in the solution which is causing the colour change. When the solution was acidic, addition of phenolphthalein did not bring about any colour change and the solution remained colourless. However when a basic solution was added the colour changed to pink.
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Thus phenolphthalein gives pink colour with a base and remains colourless on addition of acid. Hence phenolphthalein is an indicator. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 11 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Repeat the above experiments (i) Taking blue litmus paper for all acidic solution and state your observation. (ii) Taking red litmus paper for all basic solution and state your observation. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Characteristics of Neutralization Reaction
1.6.1
Activity 16 Take five beakers A, B, C, D and E. Fill one fourth of each beaker nearly (100 ml) with sodium hydroxide solution. In A, B, C, D, E add 10 ml, 20 ml, 30 ml, 40 ml and 50 ml of HCl respectively. In each beaker, dip a red litmus paper and observe the changes in colour separately Observation In all cases red litmus turns to blue Do you find any change in intensity of blue colours in each case. There is a change in intensity of blue from A to E In A intensity of blue is high. In E intensity of blue is least Why there is variation in intensity of blue colour? Due to change in volume of HCl In A intensity of blue was high. Could you tell the reason? (Volume of HCl was least, Basic properties were highest) In E intensity of blue was least. Could you tell the reason? (Volume of HCl was highest, basic properties were least). What general conclusion can be drawn? On increase of volume of acid in basic solution, gradually basic property becomes less and less effective and acidic properties dominate.
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This process is called neutralization. The reaction that occurs inside the solution is called neutralization reaction. Activity 17 You will perform this activity with the help of students. Let us keep the beaker A on your left palm and beaker E on your right palm. What do you feel? Why do you feel hot? Reaction between acid and base produces heat. In which palm you feel hotter? In the right palm. Why do you feel hotter at your right palm? From Beaker E more heat is liberated. Amount of heat liberated depends on which factor? It depends on the extent of reaction between Acid and Base. Take the beaker E and heat it to dryness What do you observe at the end? Solid crust is deposited at the bottom and side of the test tube. Could you tell what this solid crust is? The solid crust is salt. How does this salt formed? It is formed by a reaction between acid and base. Acid +Base = Salt + Water HCl + NaOH = NaCl + H2O Reaction between acid and base to produce salt and water with the liberation of heat is called neutralization What are the products formed in a neutralization reaction? Salt and water The characteristics of a Neutralization Reaction are: Acid reacts with a base or vice versa. Heat is evolved during the reaction. Salt and water are produced. 1.7 PROPERTIES OF METALS AND NON-METALS Concept of metal and its characteristics (physical properties) have been discussed in Block 1 of Unit I. In this section, we will discuss about teaching strategies or chemical properties of metal and non-metals and some experiments related to it. 1.7.1 Reaction with Air (Oxygen) Given below are the chemical reactions of some common metal like Fe, Mg, Cu, Al, Zn etc with oxygen Metals react with air (O2) to 4Fe + 3O2 = 2Fe2O3 form their respective oxide 2Mg+ O2 = 2MgO
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2Cu+ O2 4Al+ 3O2 2Zn+ O2
= = =
2CuO 2Al2O3 2ZnO
Activity 18 Take 5 different beakers, label them as A, B, C, D and E. Take 50 ml, of water and put a pinch of Fe2O3, MgO, CuO, Al2O3 and ZnO in A, B, C, D and E respectively. With the help of a litmus solution, test the nature of each substance and state your observation. Oxides of metal are basic in nature 1.7.2 Reaction with water
Activity 19 Take three different beakers Labels them as A, B, C and fill 3/4th of each beaker with water. Put small pieces of Na, Mg and Pb in A, B and C respectively. Ask children to state their observation. Na reacts vigorously and violently with water in beaker A. Reaction of Mg and Pb in B & C are respectively very slow. Na reacts faster with water whereas reaction of other metal with water is very slow After the reaction ceases, Ask the children to touch three beakers, one by one and state their observations. Beaker A becomes very hot. In beakers B & C change is not noticeable Huge heat is liberated when Na reacts with water Non metals do not react with water 1.7.3 Reaction with Acids
Activity 20 Take different test tubes; label them as A, B, C & D. Fill 1/4 of each test tube with dilute HCl. Put a small piece of Mg, Al, Fe and Cu to A, B, C & D respectively. Observe carefully and read your observation for each test tube. Observation Test Tube A-----------------------------------135
Test Tube B-----------------------------------Test Tube C----------------------------------Test Tube D----------------------------------On the basis of your observation, where there is no reaction, heat the test tube gently and record your observation CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Write the chemical reactions for each of the above experiment
(i)Reaction for A_________________________________________ (ii)Reaction for B ________________________________________ (iii)Reaction for C _______________________________________ (iv)Reaction for D _______________________________________ Similarly, the activity can be performed taking H2SO4 or HNO3 in place of HCl 1.7.4 Reaction with Bases Activity 21 Performed by children Provide some NaOH pellets in a disc, water in a beaker, few Al foils in a disc and a test tube. Ask children to prepare a solution of NaOH with 10 ml of water and write the steps of preparation. 1 2 3 4 Performed by Teacher Now hold the test tube containing NaOH solution in a test tube holder, put a small piece of Al foil into it and ask children to note what they observe 1. 2 3 In the next phase, take a burring match stick, put a small piece of Al foil into the test tube and show the burning match stick near the mouth of the test tube and ask children to state their observation. 1.7.5 Reaction with Salt solution
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Activity 22 Take three beakers. Label them as A, B, C,
Take CuSO4, ZnSO4, and FeSO4 in three different discs Ask children to prepare CuSO4 solution, ZnSO4 solution and FeSO4 solution separately with 50 ml of water in each beaker. Showing beaker A ask children to observe the colour and ask them to put a piece of Zn granule to it. State their observation 1. Solution becomes colourless 2. Reddish brown substance deposited On the basis of the change of colour, ask them why there is a change in colour. Let us write the equations for the above reactions. CuSO4 + Zn = ZnSO4 + Cu What conclusions can be drawn? Zn can displace Cu from CuSO4. So out of Zn & Cu, which is more reactive? CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 13 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Taking CuSO 4 solution and Fe granules, demonstrate the experiment and show that Fe is more reactive than Cu. And state your observation __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Perform the experiment taking ZnSO4 and Fe and state your observation and draw conclusion. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
2.
1.8 LET US SUM UP In this unit you learnt that: Scientific experiments pertaining to separation of substances, Strategies for performing experiments related to reactions of acid, bases, and salts
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Skill of performing experiments related to properties of metals and non-metals. 1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer 1 1. Salt and Salt: (i) Masoor Daal + Matar Daal (ii) Rice + impurities like small pieces of stone (iii) Gulal of two different colurs (iv) Milk powder + coffee powder Answer 2 1. Water and Lemon juice (i) Vinegar and Water (ii) HCl and Water (iii) NaOh and Water (iv) Nail Polish and thinner Answer 3 1. Salt and Water (i) Sugar and Water (ii) Milk and Sugar (iii) Tea leaves and Water (iv) Sulphur and Benzene Answer 4 1. Stones from rice grain Pebbles from sand Peas from rice pulao Answer 5 1. Threshing of black gram with sticks Answer 6 1. Skin from roasted peanuts Rice grain from chaff Impurities from puffed rice (poha) Answer 7 1. Impurities from wheat grain Impurities from semolina Tea leaves from tea solution
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Answer 8 Sand and Water Jaljeera powder and waters Answer 9 1.
Mixture of sand and salt solution. Sand remains on filter paper and salt solution comes in beaker. Jaljeera water solution.
Answer 10 1. Salt and water Sugar and water Alcohol and Water Answer 12 (i) Reaction for A: (ii) Reaction for B: (iii) Reaction for C: (iv) Reaction for D: Mg + 2HCl 2Al + 6HCl 2Fe + 6HCl Cu + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2 2AlCl3 + 2H2 2FeCl3 + 3H2 CuCl2 + H2
1.10
GLOSSARY Substance containing two or more substances, not in a fixed proportion Process of picking out large size impurities form a substance Process of separating grains from stalk Process of separating lighter components from a heavier component by blowing air. Process of separating impurities from a substance using a net/sieve Process of separating out heavier component from a mixture after water is added to it Process of filtering the solution/mixture to remove the lighter particles Process of separation of impurities using filter paper Process of conversion of water to water vapour Conversion of water vapour to liquid form The reaction between an acid and base to form salt and water is called neutralization and heat is produced
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Mixture Hand-picking Threshing Winnowing Sieving Sedimentation Decantation Filtration Evaporation Condensation Neutralization
1.11
REFERENCES
IGNOU (1999), Teaching of Science, Indira Gandhi National Open University. NCERT (2007), Science text Book for Class VI, National Council for Educational Research and Training, New Delhi. NCERT (2007), Science text Book for Class VII, National Council for Educational Research and Training, New Delhi.
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UNIT 2 RESPIRATION, FOOD ADUL TERATION, TRANSPIRATION AND USE OF MICROSCOPE

Structure 2.1 2.2 2.3 Introduction Objectives Need for Transport System 2.3.1 Transportation of Minerals in Plants 2.3.2 Transportation of Food in Plants Uses of Microscope 2.4.1 Simple Microscope 2.4.2 Compound Microscope 2.4.3 Using a Simple Microscope 2.4.4 Dissecting Microscope Respiration 2.5.1 Breathing 2.5.2 Internal Respiration 2.5.3 Respiration and Gaseous Exchange in Plants 2.5.4 Respiration and Gaseous Exchange in Animals Adulteration of Food materials Let Us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress Glossary
2.4
2.5
2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9
2.1 INTRODUCTION In order to survive, organisms require oxygen, water and food. They need certain other substances to carry out various life processes. Oxygen, water, food and other substances may be procured at one end of the body of an organism and transported to other parts. Chemical reactions that take place in the body cells produce wastes. These wastes include carbon-di-oxide and urea. These chemical wastes have to be removed; otherwise they would poison us. 2.2 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you will be able to explain the process of transportation of useful materials and waste materials from one part of the body to another in plants and animals. describe the processes of transpiration and excretion of living organisms. list out the uses of transpiration in plants.
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distinguish between various types of transportation in plants and animals. 2.3 NEED FOR TRANSPORT SYSTEM In order to live, all living cells need to obtain oxygen and food from the environment. At the same time, wastes produced by the cells have to be removed; otherwise these can poison and kill the cells. But how do living organisms obtain important materials from their surrounding and remove waste products? For every small organism such as the Amoeba or the Bread mould, their body surface is in close contact with the surrounding. This allows food and oxygen to enter the cells directly. In the same way, waste products diffuse directly from the body surface to surroundings. Hence, we can say that the transport of materials in small organisms occurs by diffusion. Advanced organisms like human beings and trees are made up of millions of cells. Most of their cells are not in direct contact with the surrounding. As diffusion is a slow process, it will take a long time for required substances to diffuse from one cell to another. Large organisms, therefore, need an efficient transport system to carry oxygen, water, digested food and waste products. 2.3.1 Transportation of Minerals in Plants
Activity 1 Ask the students to cut three leafy shoots from a tree or shrub that sheds leaves annually (deciduous plants). Each shoot should have about the same number of leaves. From one twig tell them to remove a ring of bark about 5 mm wide and 100 mm up from the cut base. With the second shoot, instruct them to smear a layer of Vaseline over the cut base so that it blocks the vessels. Inform them that the third twig is a control. Next ask them to place all three twigs in a jar with a little water. Instruct them to keep the water level below the region from which they removed the ring of bark. Leave the things where they can receive direct sunlight. What will you observe? After an hour or two, you will probably find that the twig with blocked vessels shows signs of wilting. The other two twigs should still have good leaves. Thus, it can be said that removal of the bark (including the phloem) has not prevented water from reaching the leaves, but blocking the xylem vessels has. The vessels of xylem, therefore, are often the most likely route for water passing up the stem and work as drain pipe in the stem.
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Respiration, Food The xylem vessel is a non-living, long tube which runs like a drain pipe Adulteration, Transpiration through the plant. The vessel is made of many hollow, dead cells, joined and Use of Microscope end to end. The end walls of these cells have broken down so that the plant right up through the stem and reach the leaves. The xylem vessels branch into every leaf of the plant.
Transportation of water, minerals and food in plants is done by special tissues present in the root, stem and petioles (or the stalk) of the leaves. These special tissues are called the vascular tissues. The term vascular in Latin refers to tubes and vessels that transport liquids. Soil is the reservoir of water and minerals for the plants. Water and dissolved minerals are absorbed from the soil by root hair of the roots of the plant. These are then transported upwards to different parts of the plant (stem, leaves and flowers) through xylem tissues. Similarly, manufactured food in the leaves in the form of sugar (glucose) is transported to different parts through phloem tissue. The xylem and phloem tissues together constitute the vascular bundle. Plants absorb water by their root hair present in young roots. Orchids growing over trees have hanging roots. These roots absorb water from the atmosphere. These plants grow non-parasitically upon another, deriving its nutrients and water from rain, air, dust etc. Such plants are called epiphytes. Plants require water for producing food by the process of photosynthesis and to keep the cells turgid. Plants also need mineral salts like nitrates, phosphates, etc. for various processes. Water and minerals are absorbed from the soil by roots and transported to various parts of the plant, like stem, leaves and flowers. Water absorbed from the soil moves to the leaves through xylem tissues and carbon di-oxide entered from the atmosphere are used up. Constant diffusion of water alone with the minerals from the root cells produces a pushing force. Simultaneously, water constantly gets evaporated from the leaves of a plant in the form water vapour. This process is called transpiration. This loss of water creates a pulling force, transpiration pull which causes more water to enter the roots and it is simply pulled up via the water conducting tissue, xylem. The process is similar to what happens when you suck water up a straw. 2.3.2 Transportation of Food in Plants
As you know, leaves prepare food by the process of photosynthesis. The food made by leaves is in the form of a simple sugar. The food manufactured by the leaves of a plant is transported to its other parts through a kind of tube system of the phloem cells. The transportation of food from the leaves to the other parts of the plant is called translocation. The movement of materials through phloem depends on action of living cells called sieve tubes.
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Food molecules enter the phloem cells from the food producing cells of the leaf. Once they enter phloem, they can be transported either upwards or downwards to all parts of the plants, including roots. Translocation is necessary as every part of the plant needs food for harnessing energy and for building and maintaining the organism. Green leaves of plants manufacture glucose as their food material. This is transported to the different parts of the plants in the form of a solution. Transportation occurs mainly through the sieve tubes of the phloem from the root tips to the stem tips through which dissolved food substance move freely. Let us do 'Ascent of Sap' experiment. Let us put a Balsam plant in red solution and observe the veins of the leaf after sometime. You can see a streak of red veins on the leaf. If you take a cross section of the leaf or stem and observe, you can see that the xylem and phloem get red colours. This shows that water and food (minerals) get conducted through xylem and phloem. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. List out the uses of transpiration. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ What is the difference between evaporation and transpiration in plant? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
2.
In the next section you will read about an important instrument, used in a science laboratory, i.e., the microscope. 2.4 USES OF MICROSCOPE Activity 2 You will help the students to study the parts of a microscope and its proper use.
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Respiration, Food Requirements Adulteration, Transpiration For this you will need a compound microscope and a prepared slide and Use of Microscope (permanent slide).
Procedure You will take a microscope and acquaint the students with its various parts before they begin using it. The body of the microscope is an ocular lens (eye piece) which can be changed for lower or higher values of magnification. At the lower end of this tube is revolving nose piece with three objective lenses. The tube of the microscope is vertically movable with the help of coarse and fine adjustment screws on the limb. Now you will instruct the students to use the microscope. Place the prepared slide on glass slide on the stage under objective piece almost in the middle of the microscope. Adjust the light with the help of the mirror (reflection) and condenser so that it passes through the specimen. A magnified image of the object can be seen from the eye piece after focusing it with the side knobs (adjustments). The magnification of image can be increased further by changing the objectives with high power. Precautions Place the microscope in diffuse light as direct light is harmful to the eyes. Use coarse adjustment for focusing the object under low power and use fine adjustment for the high power objective. Always observe with both eyes open. Do not swing the microscope with one hand. Always handle the microscope by keeping one hand at the base and the other holding the arm. Keep the microscope in upright position while carrying from one place to other. Never lower the body tube while liking through the eye piece. By doing so one may unknowingly ram the objective into the slide. This may break the slide and damage the objective. For natural daylight use plane mirror and for artificial light the concave mirror. While looking through eye piece, do not close the other eye. This will produce eye strain. With a little practice, it becomes easier to keep open the eye that does not look through the eye piece. Do not touch lenses or mirror with your fingers. Clean the lenses and the mirror with the help of tissue paper / lens paper. Always locate the objects with the help of low-power objective; one then use the high power objective for finer details of the object. 2. Observing Onion Cells Materials required A small onion, watch glass, slide, cover slip, ethylene blue stain, glycerine, blotting paper and microscope.
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Procedure Cut a small part of onion and separate a peel from one of its inner layers. Place the peel on a glass slide in drop water. Put a drop of methylene blue on the peel. Wash it in water to remove the excess stain. Put a drop of glycerine and cover it with cover slip. Observe it under low and high powers of microscope. To prepare a temporary mount of the onion peel and study the plant cell Concept A plant cell possesses most of the components of an animal cell. Additionally, it has a cell wall, Chloroplasts and a large vacuole. However, some of the structure may be lacking in some plant cells. For example, non photosynthesizing cells may not have green pigmented chloroplasts. The large vacuoles are found only in mature plant cells. Observation Elongated and roughly rectangular cells arranged in a brick like fashion can be observed. Each cell has a rigid cell wall outside the plasma membrane and deeply coloured rounded nucleus, surrounded by granular cytoplasm. The central part of the cell is occupied by the central vacuole. Precautions Avoid the folding of the peel. Extra stain should be blot of with blotting paper before putting a cover slip. The entry of bubbles should be avoided while putting a cover slip. Cells are tiny structures, which can be seen only with the help of microscope. Microscope is an optical instrument, which magnifies small objects seen through it. A compound microscope which is commonly used in the laboratory can magnify a cell up 2000 times. The fine details of different cell organelles can be visualized through an electron microscope. It magnifies an object as much as a half million times. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 Note: : Perform the given exercises. 1. 2. Check whether you can mount a permanent slide on the field of the microscope and focus it to see the slide. Check whether you can prepare a slide of plant cell with onion peeling.
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Respiration, Food Microscope is a costly and sensitive instrument. It is used to observe things, Adulteration, Transpiration living/ dead organism, cells and tissues which cannot be seen by the naked and Use of Microscope eyes or even with the help of hand lens.
Magnifying lens is used to see objects like butterfly, small flower etc. Simple microscope/dissection microscope is used to see cut section of ovaries of a flower or seed etc. Compound microscope is used to see microorganisms, organelles of cell etc. 2.4.1 Simple Microscope
The simplest type of microscope has a single lens system. It is based on the principle that when an object is placed between a convex lens and its principal focus, an enlarged virtual image is formed. The brain can, therefore, distinguish more details. The simple microscope consists of a double convex or biconvex lens mounted on a handle. Ordinarily, it magnified things up to 4-5 times, depending upon magnifying power of the lens (3X, 4X, 5X, etc.). It is called magnifying glass or a hand lens or a reading glass (See Fig.7) It has a single lens mounted on a vertical stand through a folded arm, a moveable arrangement for focusing, a reflecting mirror and a glass stage. The magnification of this microscope (usually called dissection microscope) ranges from 5 to 50 times depending upon the magnification of the lens.
Fig 3.1: Simple Microscope (Dissection Microscope)
The dissection microscope is used to observe whole mounts of small organisms such as mosquito, to study parts of a small flower, to observe small organs or parts of an animal while performing a dissection (locating ovary of earthworm at the time of dissection).
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2.4.2
Compound Microscope
A compound microscope consists basically of two systems of lenses, called the objective and the ocular (eye piece). The term microscope is in practice applied only to the compound microscope. In this microscope, the object to be examined is placed in front of the objective which forms a magnified image. That is picked up, further magnified and made visible to the eye by the eye piece. Magnification power of a compound microscope is given by: M = Magnification power of eye piece lens x power of objective lens Magnification power of objective lens and eye piece lens is expressed by the symbol X. It denotes number of times a lens magnifies an object. Generally, a compound microscope consists of eye lens of 10X or 15X magnification. The objective lens of 10X (low power) and 45X (high power) magnification. Thus, for low power magnification of compound microscope M (LP) = Power of eye piece x power of objective M (LP) = 10X x 10X = 100X It means that under low power of a microscope having 10X eye piece and 10X objective, an object can be seen 100 times bigger than its original size. Similarly for high power M (HP) = 10X x 45X = 450 That is, under high power (H.P) an object can be seen as magnified as 450 times of its size. Structural Parts of Compound Microscope 1. Base or Foot: It is a metallic horse-shoe shaped structure. It provides stability to the microscope and supports other parts. 2. Limb or Pillar: It is fixed with a hinge to the foot. 3. Arm. It is curved and supports the body tube and coarse adjustment. 4. Inclination Joint: The joint where the arm is attached to the pillar is known as inclination joint. It permits tilting of the microscope to adjust to eye level. 5. Stage: It is rectangular flat metallic plate, fixed to the lower end of the arm. It has an opening in the centre for admitting light to illuminate the object. Two clips are provided over it to hold the slide. 6. Diaphragm: It is present below the stage of the microscope for regulating the amount of light. Diaphragm may be disc diaphragm or iris diaphragm type. 7. Body tube: The body tube is a hollow tube and is vertically mounted over the stage, attached to the upper part of the arm. It can be moved up and down with the help of the screw. The body tube consists of (a) Eye piece at the upper and fitted in its hollow tube. The eye piece is replaceable. It can be of 10X or 15 X magnifications, replaced according to need.
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8.
9.
10.
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Respiration, Food (b) The circular metallic attached at the lower end of the hollow body Adulteration, Transpiration tube is called nose piece. Generally, it has three openings in which and Use of Microscope objectives of different magnification can be fitted. (c) Objective tenses. Each objective lens is fitted in a metallic holder which can be fixed with the help of screws in one of the holes of the nose piece. Generally, objectives with magnification power 10X (low power) and 45% (High power) are available in students' compound microscope. In research/demonstration compound microscope, there is provision of a third objective with 100X magnification. Coarse adjustment screw: The screw which can move the body tube up and down for coarse focusing the object is known as coarse adjustment screw. Fine adjustment screw: The screw which can move the body tube very slowly to achieve fine and sharp focus is known as fine adjustment screw. Condenser: In some compound microscopes, a third system of lenses. The substage condenser is found. It is located beneath the stage of the microscope. It concentrates light on the object from a wide angle. However, it is not essential. Mirror: It is attached at the lower end of the arm, below the stage. It is concave on the side and plane at the other side. It reflects light through the aperture/hole of the stage to the specimen slide.
Setting a compound Microscope (a) Place the microscope gently on a working table keeping the arms towards you. The base should be at least six inches inside the edge of the table. (b) Clean the lenses of the microscope with lens paper or tissue paper or a piece of silk cloth. (c) Using the coarse adjustment raise the body tube an inch or so above the stage. (d) Rotate the nose piece until the low power objective (10X) is in line with the body tube and clicks into position. Do not stop before the click is heard and do not rotate after the click. You should stick to it even when changing one objective to another. (e) Open the diaphragm of the condenser carefully. (f) Look through the eye piece with one eye. Hold the edge of the mirror below the stage with the thumb and forefinger of both hands. Tilt and turn the mirror towards a light source (Window or door) and reflect the light vertically up. When the mirror is in proper position, the circular field in the microscope will be illuminated. Carefully tilt the mirror and adjust the position so as to make the field uniformly illuminated. Do not let direct sunlight strike the mirror. Focusing of the Microscope 1. Turn the low power objective of the microscope into position (The low power objective is shorter in length than the high power one). 2. Place the slide of section of dicot stem on the microscope stage so that the specimen / section of stem is directly below the objective.
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While looking at the microscope from one slide, use the coarse adjustment and lower the body tube until the distance between the objective and the cover glass is about I mm. Look through the ocular with one eye, keeping the other eye open. Use the coarse adjustment and raise the body tube slowly until the structure of section of stem comes into a clear view. Now, use the fine adjustment and focus the image sharp. Compare the structure of the section of dicot stem as seen under dissecting microscope with that seen under compound microscope.
Use of the High Power Objective It is used when more magnification or details of a small portion of tissue or any other objective is needed. (i) After view through low power, turn the high power objective till it clicks into position. (ii) Look from the slide and move the body tube down with the coarse adjustment carefully until the objective almost touches the cover glass. (iii) Now look through the ocular and slowly raise the body tube using the fine adjustment until the image of the object comes into view. Focus sharp. (iv) Adjust the diaphragm for correct illumination. Is the area of the object visible, the same as under low power? Are details of the object cleaner than the low power? 2.4.3 Using A Simple Microscope (Hand Lens) (i) Take a hand lens and study its structural parts. Draw diagram of its parts and label them. (ii) Take a plain sheet of paper. Draw a cm long line on it with the help of a pencil or ink pen. Now, observe this line with one eye through a hand lens and draw a second line nearby it with the help of your unaided eye on the basis of image you see through lens. Do you find any difference between the lengths of the two lines? Measure the second line and record your observation. (iii) Examine the permanent slides of whole mount of mosquito and a section of dicotyledonous stem or an epithelial cell slide with the help of a hand lens. Record your observations. 2.4.4. Dissecting Microscope Structural Parts and their Utility 1. Base: It is metallic, heavy and forked. It supports other parts of the dissecting microscope 2. Stand: It is a short, hollow, cylindrical metallic rod. It is fixed at one end with the base. It is used for holding the dissecting microscope. 3. Vertical limb: The vertical limb is a short hollow cylindrical rod which fits into the hollow tube of the stand. It can be moved up and down
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Respiration, Food with the help of adjustment screw to help in focusing an object. Adulteration, Transpiration 4. Folded arm: The horizontal flat arm attached to the end of the vertical and Use of Microscope limb is known as folded arm. The folded arm has a lens fitted at the other end. This arm can be moved side ways, up and down for focusing an object. The lens fitted in the folded arm may be of 5X, 10X or 20X. 5. Stage: It is a rectangular glass plate attached with upper end of the stand. It is supplied with two clips. The stage serves the purpose of placing specimen or slide. There are two clips which hold the object in its place. 6. Mirror: At the lower end of the stand, a concave mirror is attached. It helps in reflecting light at the stage to illuminate the object.
Setting and working of the dissection Microscope 1. Take a dissection microscope, clean its stage and lens with the help of the lens Fig 3.2: Compound Microscope paper. Place a slide of whole mount of mosquito on the stage. Adjust the light with the help of the mirror so that the object gets illuminated wit the help of reflected light. Now, bring the lens over the object with the help of the folded arm. Focus the object by moving lens up and down with the help of the adjustment screw. After examining the slide under the dissection microscope, observe it through unaided eyes. Do you find any difference? 2. Take a small flower such as candytuff, verbena, etc. and observe its parts with unaided eyes. Then under the dissecting microscope, what difference do you find? 3. Observe the slide of section of dicot stem under the dissecting microscope. Are you able to difference different types of cells clearly? Precautions 1. Do not swing the dissecting microscope with one hand while carrying. The lens is loosely fitted, it may fall down. Always keep the dissecting microscope in upright position by holding it with both the hands. 2. Do not put fingers over the lens or mirror. The impression of the fingers distorts the image. 3. Always clean the lens or mirror with the lens paper or a clean piece of silken cloth. 4. Keep the stage of the dissecting microscope clean. 5. Do not move the lens too low to touch the object or water while using the microscope in dissection for locating small organs such as ovaries of earthworm. 6. Always replace the dissection microscope in its box after use.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 Note: : Perform the given exercises. 1. 2. Mount a permanent slide on the field of the microscope and focus it to see the slide. Prepare a slide of plant cell with onion peel.
2.5 RESPIRATION The process that involves intake of O2 and release of CO2 and energy from food is called respiration. Respiration is sometimes called cellular respiration, internal respiration or tissue respiration. It is the process in which food is broken down in body cells through various chemical reactions in the presence of oxygen to give out carbon dioxide along with water and energy. C6H12O6 + 6O2 Glucose Oxygen 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy Carbon Water dioxide
The process of respiration shown above is common to all the living organisms, both plants and animals. It consists of three phases: diffusion of oxygen into the cells, oxidation of food in the cells to produce CO2 and H2O and elimination of CO2 from the cells. An interesting observation made for the process of respiration is that it seems quite similar to the process of burning or combustion. This is because of the fact during respiration food is oxidized or burnt as a fuel to produce energy. 2.5.1 Breathing
The process in which, oxygen is taken inside the body and carbon dioxide is given out is called breathing or external respiration. Thus, breathing involves only a simple exchange of gases. Different animals breathe differently. In Amoeba, the exchange of gases occurs through its entire body surface. Fishes breathe through their special organ called the gill. In earthworms and leeches, the exchange of gases takes place through their moist and slimy skin which acts as on organ for respiration. In frogs too, the breathing is conducted through the skin. Insects breathe with the help of air tubes called trachea. Reptiles, birds and mammals breathe through their organs called lungs. In plants breathing takes place through pores called stomata present in the leaves. During breathing taking in of air rich in oxygen is called inspiration while the giving out of air rich in carbon dioxide is called expiration.
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Characteristics of Breathing It is a physical process involving exchange of O2 and CO2. There is no release of energy. Enzymes are not involved. Modes of breathing are different in different organisms. Characteristics of the process Respiration Occurs at normal body temperature. Takes place in living cells. Various enzymes facilitate this process. Many steps are involved in the breakdown of food (which acts as fuel) to finally produce energy and let out carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. Energy produced by this process is in the form of a complex molecule called ATP. Respiration is a slow process of energy release. 2.5.2 Internal Respiration
Respiration, Food Adulteration, Transpiration and Use of Microscope
Depending upon the utilization of O2, respiration is of two types Aerobic respiration The word aerobic means that oxygen is needed for this chemical reaction. In this process the food molecules are combined with oxygen and get oxidized inside cell. These food molecules are then broken down into carbon dioxide and water and then energy is released. All food molecules contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. The process of oxidation converts the carbon to carbon dioxide (CO2) and the hydrogen to water (H2O). At the same time this process sets free energy which the cells can use to drive other reactions. Aerobic respiration can be summed up by the following equation: C6H12O6 + 6O2 Glucose Oxygen 6CO2 Carbon dioxide + 6H2O + Energy Water
Although the energy thus produced is used for variety of processes, some of it always appears as heat. In 'warm-blooded' animals (birds and mammals) some of the heat released retained to keep up their body temperature. In cold blooded animals (reptiles and fish) the heat may build up for a time and allow the animals to move about faster. In plants the heat is lost to the surroundings as fast as it is produced. Anaerobic respiration The word anaerobic means 'in the absence of oxygen'. In this process energy is still released from food by breaking it down chemically but the reactions
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do not use oxygen though they often produce carbon dioxide. A common example of anaerobic respiration is the action of yeast on sugar solution. The sugar is not completely oxidized to carbon- dioxide and water but converted to carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol. This process is called fermentation and is shown by the following equation C6H1206 Glucose 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + Energy Ethyl alcohol + Carbon dioxide
The process is of brewing (to make fermented alcoholic beverages) and bread-making rely on anaerobic respiration by yeast. The anaerobic respiration takes place in small steps and needs several different enzymes. The energy produced by anaerobic respiration is much less than that produced through aerobic respiration. Besides yeast, certain types of bacteria and some body tissues also respire an aerobically. Characteristics of Aerobic Respiration It occurs in all living organisms Oxygen is required for this type respiration. Complete oxidation of food occurs during the process 2.5.3 Respiration and Gaseous Exchange in Plants Plants do not have special breathing organs. However, they do respire. Let us do the following activity to prove that plants respire. Activity 4 Put some germinating wheat grains in a large test tube. Cover the mouth of the tube with aluminium foil. After 15-20 minutes, take a sample of the air from the test tube. Do this by pushing a glass tube attached to a 10 cm3 plastic syringe through the foil and into the test tube. Withdraw the syringe plunger enough to fill the syringe with air from the test-tube. Now slowly bubble this air sample through a little clear lime water in a small test tube. Cover the mouth of the small test tube and shake the lime water up. Result: The lime water turns milky. Interpretation: Lime water turning milky provides evidence of carbon dioxide but it could be argued that the carbon dioxide came from the air or that the seeds give off carbon dioxide whether or not they are respiring. 2.5.4 Respiration and Gaseous Exchange in Animals
We know that animals obtain energy from food they eat. Before the energy can be used by the cells of body, it must be set free from the chemicals of
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Respiration, Food the food by respiration. We have seen that aerobic respiration needs a supply Adulteration, Transpiration of oxygen to breakdown the food which releases needs a supply of oxygen and Use of Microscope to breakdown the food which releases energy. During respiration animal cells produce carbon-dioxide as a waste product. All cells, therefore, must be supplied with oxygen and must be able to get rid of carbon dioxide. Let us study how gaseous exchange during respiration takes place in different animals.
Earthworm The earthworm inhabits burrows in damp soil, and emerges to feed in the darkness. Gaseous exchange occurs through its skin. In earthworm, the thin, moist skin is supplied with a network of capillaries (tiny blood vessels) which absorb oxygen from the atmosphere and deliver it, to the rest of the body. The absorbing surface or the network of capillaries also gets rid of carbon-dioxide from the body. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 Note: : Perform the given exercises. Perform the experiment with respiroscope Collect information abut the respiration in man 2.6 ADULTERATION OF FOOD MATERIALS Adulteration means mixing undesirable or unwanted materials in food items. The disadvantages of adulteration to the consumers are Paying more money for a food stuff of poor quality and Some adulterants are very harm to health and even result in death. For example, adulteration of mustard oil with Argemone oil causes "dropsy" epidemic Table 3.1: Common Adulterants in Food Stuffs S. No 1. Food Adulterant Materials Mud, Grit, Soap Dania Powdered cow tone Powder dung and horse-dung Haldi (turmeric Lead Chromate Mustard Argemone Powder) seeds seeds Dal Kesar Edible Oil Cheaper Oils E.g. mineral or Argemone oils. Black pepper Dried papaya Milk Addition of seeds starch, extraction of fat. Chilly powder Saw dust, brick Honey Jaggery. Sugar powder
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Food Material Cereals wheat, rice etc.)
Adulterant
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Activity 5 To test the presence of the adulterant metanil yellow in dal. Materials Required Sample of dal, hydrochloric acid, test tube. Procedure Collect 5- 10 g of of yellow dal (Arhar dal) and proceed as given in table. Procedure Experiment Take 5 G. of Arhar (yellow) Dal of water in it and shake well. Now, add a few drops of HCI in the test tube. Observation A pink colour appears Inference Contains metanil yellow (a dye) in a test tube. Put 5 ml of which is an adulterants
Result In yellow coloured dal such as in Arhar metanil yellow dye is used as colouring material. Metanil yellow is an adulterant. Precautions 1. Use chemicals/reagents judiciously. 2. Keep the mouth of the test - tube away from your face and other clothes while beating the reactants. 3. Always use test-tube holder while heating. 2.7 LET US SUM UP After reading this unit you learned that: The chemical reactions in the body produce waste materials, which have to be removed out, through excretion. Minerals are transported from one part of body to another in both plants and animals. Performed the experiment of 'Ascent of Sap' to demonstrate transport of water and food elements in plants. The structure, function and uses of simple and compound microscopes. Prepared temporary slides of onion peel and observed permanent slides. Understood characteristics of process of External and Internal (tissue) respiration Differentiated Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration. Tested the presence of some common food adulterants.
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2.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer 1 1. The process of transpiration creates a pulling force throughout the plant body, and ensures constant movement of water & minerals from the roots to all parts of plant. 2. Evaporation is the loss of water in the form of vapour from the surface of the water body. Transpiration is the loss of water in the form of vapour from the leaf surface through the openings on the leaf surface called stomata.
Respiration, Food Adulteration, Transpiration and Use of Microscope
2.9 GLOSSARY Microscope Instrument used to observe things living/dead organism, cells and tissues which cannot be seen by the naked eye or even through a hand lens. The process of taking in oxygen and releasing carbondi-oxide and energy from food. Process in which oxygen is taken inside the body (inspiration and carbon-di-oxide is released (expiration). The process in which oxygen is used to oxidise food in the cells releasing carbon-di-oxide, water and energy The process in which food is broken down chemically without oxygen, releasing carbon-di-oxide, ethyl alcohol and energy. The mixing of undesirable substances in the food material e.g. lead chromate mixed in turmeric power acts an adulterant.
Respiration Breathing (External Respiration) Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration Adulteration of food
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UNIT 3 PURIFICATION OF WATER, ARTIFICIAL GREENHOUSE, MODEL OF RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Structure 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 Introduction Objectives Purification of Water Making Artificial Greenhouse Rain Water Harvesting Compost Pit Let us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress References
3.1 INTRODUCTION You will agree that the best way of learning science is by doing science. In this unit you will learn some strategies of teaching experiments in science. Some of these experiments are based on concepts which you have read in the earlier units. Experiments have been discussed in a manner which actively involve students, foster their creativity and enable them to relate the processes with their real life situations. 3.2 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to list different methods of conversion of non drinkable water to drinkable water. perform experiments related to methods of purifying water, artificial greenhouse, rain water harvesting and composting etc. relate artificial Greenhouse system to environment. explain methods of making model of rain water harvesting. classify natural means of rain water harvesting to artificial ones. explain method of making compost pits. 3.3 PURIFICATION OF WATER Due to non eco-friendly human behaviour water is getting contaminated. We pollute it by washing our clothes, bathing our cattle and throwing wastage materials in water resources. Due to contamination numbers of harmful bacteria are generated in water. Disease free drinkable water is essential for our existence. Purification of water is, therefore, very important step in this regard.
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Methods to purify water 1. Non drinkable water can be converted into drinkable water by filtration process. Three pots experiment is based on this process. 2. When non drinkable water is boiled germs die and dirt is precipitated and thus water can be made potable. 3. By using some reagents like Potassium Permanganate (KMNO4) water can be purified. In villages pond water is purified by using this chemical called lal dava. Chlorination is also important in this regard. Activity 1 You will perform this activity by involving students. Take 3 pots as seen in figure. Make small pores in base of these pots; cover these pots with cotton fibre. Put concrete material in first pot and sand in second & charcoal in third pot. Now pour non drinkable water at first pot. What do you see in the lowest container? Water gets collected in the lowest container. It is pure water. It is due to filtration. A variety of filters are used in Indian houses. Some are simple filters while some have facility of Ultraviolet rays. These rays kill the germs in water and make water potable. Activity 2 Collect photographs of modern water purifiers so that students can have a better understanding of different components in them.
Purification of Water Artificial Greenhouse, Model of Rain Water Harvesting
Fig 4.1: The Three Pots Experiment
Activity 3 Group discussion may be organized in following points: o How suspended particles and germs can be removed from water? o Why KMNO4 is used in ponds? o Why chlorination of water is important? o How non drinkable water is converted into drinkable water? Water supply department of the Municipality undertakes water purification work on a large scale. They have big water purifier plants located in different parts of the city. A field visit to these plants would be of great help. One can see that these plants use bleaching powder in large amounts for killing germs present in water. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-1
Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
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Write some methods of purifying water __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ What is filtration process? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
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3.4 MAKING ARTIFICIAL GREENHOUSE Greenhouse is a shelter for green plants, plant nursery, etc. Walls of Greenhouses are directly in contact of outer atmosphere. They absorb heat and keep the inside part warm. It is covered by a sheet. By visiting actual Greenhouse we can know about them. In the areas where Greenhouses are not available to visit we can show photographs of actual Greenhouses to students. With the help of stick of bans or wood, we can make cage of a Greenhouse. Walls can be made of plastic sheets. Activity 4 Instruct the students to take two transparent jars and open lids of both jars. Next tell them to put the thermometer inside these jars and place these jars in shady area. Let them note the temperature. After some time, tell them to keep both jars in the sunlight. Close the lid of one jar. Remove lid of other jar. Note the temperature. Keep these jars in sunlight for about two hours. Note temperature of both jars. Now place these jars in shady area. Note temperature again. Ask the students to record their observations on temperature difference in both the jars. The jar having lid shows slower fall in temperature while open jar shows rapid fall in temperature due to exchange of gases. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. What is Greenhouse effect? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ How does earth behave as a Greenhouse? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Why is the making of artificial greenhouse essential? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
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3.5 RAIN WATER HARVESTING Water is very important for life. Due to deforestation water level is gradually decreasing in earth. Therefore, it is necessary to conserve water by applying various methods. Rainwater harvesting is one of these. It can be used for a variety of purposes. As seen in Fig. 4-2 water from roof of house is collected in small water tank, other method is rain water harvesting by making ploy tank. In Fig 4.2: Rainwater harvesting using hilly area rain water can also be low cost method stored by this method. By using low cost material we can make low density polythene for this tank. For water harvesting in house and underground tank following material is required (i) Funnel (ii) pipe (iii) wood for making model for house (iv) iron net for underground water tank. For making poly tank we can make low density polythene by using low cost plastic material In hilly area water is harvested as seen in figure. At base of sloppy hills we make raw pond. Water from sloppy hill is stored in these ponds. This water is absorbed by soil and this is important in maintaining water level of earth. Such types of naturally made ponds are known as khal in local language. By knowing rain water harvesting we can understand value of water. Water conserved due to rain water harvesting can also be used for other purposes such as irrigation.
Fig 4.3 Rainwater harvesting in a hilly area
1. Rain water harvesting can be explained through power point presentation of flowing rain water and it's storage with help of rainwater harvesting. 2. With help of chart and poster rain water harvesting can be illustrated. 3. Lecture cum demonstration model of rain water harvesting can be demonstrated with lecture. 4. In rainy season with help of model of rain water harvesting the harvesting can be practiced in own house.
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5. In hilly regions there are natural means of rain water harvesting. Natural ponds are made at the valley of slopy hills. These are locally called khals. These should be visited. 6. Water harvesting of rain can be illustrated through story telling and playing drama. 7. A video film we can make on rain water harvesting. By showing it one can understand rain water harvesting. Activity 5 Form a raw at the valley of slopy hills. After rain observe how much water is stored here. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Why is water conservation essential? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ How is rain water harvested naturally? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ What is the significance of rain water harvesting in hilly areas? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Mention two methods demonstrating rain water harvesting. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ What is low density polythene __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ What role does rain water harvesting play in maintaining level of water? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
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3.6 COMPOST PIT Due to regular use of artificial manure soil may become infertile. For maintaining fertility of soil making of compost pit is necessary. Activity 6 Take students outside to the school lawn or nearby park.Ask students to dig soil to a suitable length, breadth and half meter depth. Put cattle's dung and urine, heap of leaves of this cavity. After making one layer put some amount of soil and ash. Make another layer by applying same method till getting height of 1.5 meter compost pit is ready. Go on adding canteen waste and other organic waste in the pit and observe the changes. Wetness has to be maintained properly as abundance as well as scarcity of water might bring down the rate of decomposition. Activity 7 You could organize a visit to a compost pit in the village or organise discussion with a farmer as an expert of making compost pit. Power point presentation may also be used to explain the functioning of compost pit. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. What is compost? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ How is a compost pit made? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Why are soil, ash, and animal's urine mixed in compost heap? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
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3.7 LET US SUM UP In this unit, you learned Scientific process involves a series of logical steps, like selection of problem, observation, hypothesis, experimentation and analysis of results to prove the hypothesis.
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About process involved in purification of water, preparation of artificial Greenhouse, compost pit and model of rain water harvesting. 3.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer 1 1. Filtration, boiling of water and use of some reagent like KMNO4. 2. In filtration process water is passed from one layer to another. Three pots experiment is based on filtration process. Answer 2 1. Greenhouse is made up of iron cage for growing nursery, plants etc. Inside atmosphere remains warm. Some gases like CO2, carbon monoxide, methane etc. absorbs heat and help in heating of earth. These gases are called as Greenhouse gases and their effect is Greenhouse effect. 2. Greenhouse gases behave as walls of Greenhouse in earth. These gases absorb heat and check its radiation to atmosphere. 3. With help of artificial Greenhouse we can understand concept of Greenhouse. Answer 3 1. Water is widely used compound by living organism. 2. In hilly areas at the base of sloppy hills the natural ponds are made. Water from slope of hills is collected here and thus naturally harvested. 3. Rain water harvesting in hilly areas is very significant because here in four months of rainy season there is heavy rain. Water from rain can be harvested and can use for next months. 4. By visit of resources of natural rain water harvesting and by showing a video film. 5. Low density polythene can be made by using locally available plastic material it is used in making poly tank. 6. Due to stored water by rain water harvesting some of water is absorbed by earth and level of underground water is increased. Answer 4 1. When dung and urine of cattle, heap of leaves, and remains of crops are decomposed by decomposers such as bacterial, this decomposed material is called as compost. 2. We can make compost pit by digging soil in suitable length, breadth and half meter depth. We put dung, heap of leaves, urine of cattle, etc. to this pit in different layers. After forming a layer we put some soil and as on it. Abundance of water and deficiency of water both may decrease level of decomposition thus we should cover the pit with grass etc. 3. Soil bacteria from soil also reach to compost. They help in decomposition. In the process of decomposition some acids are formed. Due to these acids decomposition is negatively influenced. When ash
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is mixed it neutralize these acids. Due to animal urine amount of nitrogen is received by compost. 3.9 REFERENCES Gyan Vigyan book for Class IV published by SCERT Uttrakahand Narendra Nagar Tehri Garhwal (2005). Vigyan aur Hum for Class 7 and 8 (2005-06) Vidhyalayi Shiksha Uttarakhand Dehradun.
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UNIT 4 SCIENCE CORNER

Structure 4.1 4.2 4.3 Introduction Objectives Concept of Science Corner 4.3.1 How to develop a Science Corner in School 4.3.2 Activities in a Science Corner Real Specimens Collection and Preservation of Specimens Posters Charts Album Experimental Cards Reference Books and Magazines Apparatus and Equipments Low Cost Teaching Aids Science Kit First Aid Box Let Us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Progress
4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16
4.1 INTRODUCTION The word science is derived from a Latin word scientia, which means knowledge. It is also referred to as a way of acquiring knowledge based on scientific method (http://en.wikipedia.org/). It is important for the classrooms to be equipped with simple scientific apparatus and equipments to enable students to learn science by doing, in the presence of the teacher. Since all schools do not have science laboratories, especially in the rural areas of the country, you can build a science corner in the classroom using low cost materials, charts, specimens of plants and animals, models etc. In this unit you will learn some ways of creating a science corner in the classroom and the methods of using that corner by involving students in performing simple scientific experiments and activities. 4.2 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to explain the meaning of Science Corner and how we can make a science corner. develop a science corner in the school describe the benefit of science corner for classroom transaction. identify plant and animal specimens. describe the process of collection and preservation of various specimens and the precautions needed. prepare posters, charts and albums as teaching aids. use experimental cards for performing experiments
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discuss the need and importance of reference books and magazines in a science corner prepare low cost teaching aids. identify simple apparatus and equipment required for a science corner develop a science kit. 4.3 CONCEPT OF SCIENCE CORNER Rohan, a student of class VI comes with a thermometer and tells his friends that it can measure temperature. His friends have not seen it earlier, hence they are unable to recognize. One boy Rahul said it was a thermometer. Rohan describes that last Sunday he was ill so his mother used this to see how much fever I had. Rahul took them to his mother to know more about it. Mother informs the students that it was clinical thermometer which measures body temperature. It has a bulb at the bottom filled with mercury. It works on the principle that liquid expands when heated. Mother tells the children that there are so many things in our house and surrounding areas which we do not know how to use them in science experiments. As she is a teacher herself she says that we can make a science corner in our schools. The main motive to have a science corner in our schools is to attain practical knowledge. The topics of science can be easily explained through simple experiments to clarify doubts among the students. It can also improve the quality of education. The teacher can motivate the students to perform simple experiments in his/her presence. We can keep scientific instruments related to the current topics in their science text books. These may include simple mirror, lenses, thermometers, flasks, beakers, petridish, test tubes, prism, glass rods and tubes, burners, spirit lamps, Real specimen of various plants and animals. Process of collection and preservation of specimen is also very important. Let us see that this unit helps you all in acquiring knowledge about specimens, science corner, collection and preservations of specimens. In our country, there are many schools where science laboratory are not available. So the students do not get the practical exposure to the scientific principles. By utilizing low-cost materials, charts, working models, we can create a laboratory in the classroom itself. The main motive of the science corner is to improve the quality of education among the students by the motivation of teachers (Science can be learnt best by doing). 4.3.1 How to Develop a Science Corner in School
Science Corner
We can develop the science corner in our school by doing activities of such types and collecting the material related with science. Real specimen of plant, root, stem, leaves, flowers, fruits and seed can be shown to the students by the teacher in the classroom. Real specimen like insects, organs like heart, lungs, snakes, reptiles, frog, and birds can be shown to the student. Regarding physics experiments mirrors, lenses, glass slabs, prisms,
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thermometers, magnets and for chemistry teaching we can use beakers, funnels, conical flasks spirit lamps etc. Charts: A flowering plant, Part of plant cell, Animal cell, Various modifications of root, stem, etc. Models: Like heart, lungs, circulatory system, digestive system, nervous system, skeletal system, etc. Electrical Gadgets: Battery, dry cells, volta cell, electric bulbs to connecting wires, electric bell etc. Reference Books for various experimental guidance. Field Visits to Planetarium, Botanical and Zoological Garden, Science Museum and Industrial plants. 4.3.2 Activities in a Science Corner
The drawing and picture of a rainbow can be displayed in the science corner Activity 1 (Formation of Artificial Rainbow) Put some water in the beaker and place a strip of mirror as shown in the figure. You will observe that the rainbow must be formed in the opposite direction when the dispersion of light will take place though the light. (Part of mirror strip dipped in water)
ROYGBIV
MIRROR STRIP
WATER
BEAKER ARTIFICIAL RAINBOW
Fig 4.1: Experiment showing splitting of white light to form a rainbow
This simple activity shows spitting of white light into seven colors by way of formation of artificial rainbow. Experiment to show water and air are necessary for seed germination. Take three beakers say A, B, C respectively. Put one seed in each beaker. Pour water in beaker A till the seed dipped fully in it. In beaker B, put the water to the extent that the seed may be partially exposed to air and partially to water. Let the seed in beaker C is exposed to air only. Now observe the germination of seeds in the three beakers for few days. The germination of
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seed in beaker B occurs since it is exposed both to air and water. The seed in beaker A is only submerged in water only and it is not in contact with the air in atmosphere hence no germination while in seed in beaker C does not show germination since it is in contact with air only but not water.
Science Corner
Fig 4.2: Seeds left to germinate in a bowl
Fig 4.3 Diagram of germination of seeds
Fire Extinguishers
Take any empty plastic bottle of cold drink or beverage. Fill the half the bottle with Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3) solution and insert a glass test tube in it as shown in the figure.
Fig 5.2: Laboratory set up of a Fire Extinguisher
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The bottom of the bottled should be dip in the sodium carbonate solution. Now fit a cork at the mouth of test tube before adding sulphuric acid in the test tube and affix a thin iron rod in the cork which should have the one and half time more length than the length of the test tube. Make a hole near the top of the bottle and when you will press the iron rod the test tube will break and sulphuric acid will react with sodium carbonate solution and carbon-di-oxide gas will be produced. We will observe that when the gas is passed over the burning candle, it will stop burning. This shows that the gas produced in the fire extinguisher is carbon dioxide. 4. Newton's Disc Activity 2 Take A Disc (saucer, compact disc, cardboard plate, etc.) of any material. Colour it with seven colours viz VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red). Now affix a rod in the centre of the disk and rotate it. You will observe that the rotating colourful disc appears white. This shows that the light is the combination of seven colours.
Fig 5.3: Newton's Disc
5. Separation of Components from a Mixture Activity 3 Ask the students to separate the mixture of grains and stone? Tell them to note down some other ways of separating this mixture, other than handpicking. They might suggest various ways like winnowing, gravity separation etc. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method and help students arrive at a conclusion to decide the best method. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Name the instrument used for measuring body temperature. __________________________________________________ Name the metal used in liquid thermometer. __________________________________________________ Name the seven colours of light __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
2.
3.
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4.
Which gas is used in fire extinguisher? __________________________________________________ Name different methods used for separation of solids from solids. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Name the necessary conditions for the germination of seed. __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
Science Corner
5.
6.
4.4 REAL SPECIMENS In the section the students can be made aware, what real specimens are. In the day to day life, every body comes across some specimens of a particular
Picture of a plant specimen
Pictures of some real animal specimens
item. The primary and elementary school children can be taught that if we have samples of an item in reality, these can be termed as real specimens. Science is termed as a study based on observations and collection of facts for the preparation of a hypothesis. This hypothesis whenever verified practically leads to evolution of facts. The real specimens are the collections made from the real life taking in mind. These specimens can be divided in two categories. i. Perishable real specimens. ii. Preserved real specimens. Activity 4 Ask all the students of a group to collect a real specimen each showing as many parts of a plant as possible. o Some students may bring a sample with root, stem, leaves etc. but missing flowers, fruits and seeds. o Some students may be able to bring a specimens have all the parts viz. - roots, stem,
Fig 5.4: Diagram of a flowering plant showing its parts
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leaves flowers, fruit or seed. You can conclude about the parts. Activity 5 Repeat the above activity with the types of carbon o o o o o o o The students can be made aware that Carbon is black Carbon is present in all living being. It is an element They can be told about the Allotropes of carbon allotropy of carbon. Inform students that diamond is also an allotrope of carbon. From different samples of carbon collected by children, it can be brought to their notice that all the allotropes produce CO2 after burning in air.
Difference between real and artificial specimens Real specimen are those which can be observed in real life e.g. living animals and plants and are real working models in real sense. Artificial specimens are those that are similar to real species but artificially prepared either static or robotic. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. What are the real specimens? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ What is the importance of real specimen? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Tick mark the correct answers Real specimen can be collected from the real life. No conclusion can be drawn from the study of real specimens. Research work follows from the critical study of real specimen. Real specimens can be preserved for future use.
2.
3. (a) (b) (c) (d)
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4.5
COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS
Science Corner
Collection and preservation of specimen is very important. By collecting and preserving different specimen, students know their characteristics, their habits, habitat and their economic importance. Have you seen stuffed animals and birds in the museum? They are displayed to see animals in reality. The real size, shape, texture and look can be seen when they see the preserved ones.
Preserved Plant and Animal Specimens
Activity 6 Instruct the students to collect samples as below The whole plant/animal wherever is possible. The specific part of the specimen. Sorting out unwanted portion of the specimen Retaking the required specimen as per need. The specimen collected as above can have more than required percentage of moisture which can hamper their storage. This moisture content can be reduced by proper dehydration process through alcohol. The dried up specimen can be preserved into the 5- 40 percent solution of formaldehyde, according to the nature of the specimen. There can be mishandling while collecting the specimen. Precautionary measures have to be maintained. Proper preservatives must be used. There may be some snags the whole process. Examples of various collections can be as follows: Pigeon, Wall lizard, earthworm, scorpion, frog, flies, fishes, Skelton of different animals, leaves of various plants, radish, carrot, cauliflower, bryophyllum , fern, palm. You talk to expert and invite experts from other educational institutions. He/she can guide the student to collect more and more information about science from newspapers, magazines and media any other information can be presented on bulletin board.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. Write the stages in preserving a plant and a reptile in a bottle? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ What are the uses of preservation? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Visit a museum and observe the preservation process and pre served specimens. __________________________________________________ Name the plants which can be collected easily from our sur rounding. __________________________________________________ Name the animals which can be preserved. __________________________________________________
2.
3.
Activity 7 Ask students to prepare scrap books on different ideas. Guide them to collect information on plants, animal, diseases, environment and new discoveries, herbarium (leaves, flowers, roots, seeds, wings, etc.). They can even collect feathers of various birds. 4.6 POSTERS Posters are diagrammatic representation or brief account of a theme, thematic representation or cartoonic representation of a theme or concept. Posters may be in the form of symbols, slogans, pictures, and flow charts, cartoon or bullet points. Posters explain the theme briefly. Here are sample of posters. WATER POLLUTION Causes of Water Pollution Adding industrial effluents, chemical effluents into water bodies Washing clothes, cattles in the river, lake etc. Frequent clearing of water bodies Dangers of Water pollution Diseases caused: Diarrhea, vomiting, other diseases etc. Water is potable Water bodies filled with aquatic plants Cause algal bloom Dangerous to fishes
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You can prepare posters and keep them in the science corner. You can also conduct poster competition to students by giving certain themes like water waste/solid waste management, natural calamities, etc. and select certain posters and keep in the science corner. Here is the simple Slogan Poster discouraging use of the cell phones while driving. AVOID CELL PHONE Don't use the cell phone while driving; it may be a call from hell While teaching about pollution, waste management chapters you can use the posters and teach. You can also make the students to make posters for certain concepts like sound pollution, biodegradation. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 Note: Write your answers in the space given below 1. What did you learn from the posters you have seen in the sci ence lab? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ Make a cartoon on tsunami.
Science Corner
2.
4.7 CHARTS Chart is a good teaching- learning aid for science, especially when you teach certain microscopic organism like amoeba, paramecium etc. and certain cross-section of stem, leaf, etc. This also enables the students to understand faster and to draw the diagram. The chart can be hung on the walls of the classroom and using a stick, teacher can point out the diagram and show the parts and teach. You must remember the following: The diagram drawn in a chart must be colourful, big and legible. The parts of the diagram should be labeled. Diagram should be drawn proportionately, according to the size of various parts.
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CHART
Some projected parts of the diagram can be drawn in a chart and the outline can be cut and can be made projected. Certain apparatus, equipments can also be drawn on the chart. Certain flow charts can be drawn on a chart CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5 Note: Perform the given exercise You can prepare charts for graphical representation like composition of air, life span of different animals, etc. You can also ask the students to make charts on different topics. 4.8 ALBUM Albums are booklets of collection of materials classified under one head or theme. It can have Pictures of plants (hydrophyte, mesophyte and xerophytes), animals (vertebrates and non-vertebrates, insects), and pictures of birds. These pictures can be pasted on the album. Activity 8 Any interesting news item from newspaper on astronomy, regarding satellites, stars, lunar and solar eclipse, tsunami etc. can be cut along with photos and stored in the scrap book. Instruct students to prepare an album in a given theme and keep in the science corner. Ask students to prepare scrap books on certain assigned topics like pollution, waste management, earthquake, forest fire, etc. You can utilize the pictures in the album when teaching the particular topic. Whenever you come across any novel pictures, news or information in the newspaper or magazines, you too can cut and collect the items and store in the box and then utilize for album preparation. How will you use the science corner especially with the albums when you teach plants and animals? Projects A variety of projects can be planned taking into account the resources available and the interest of the students. You can ask students to collect the specimen of different plants and prepare their herbaria. You can also instruct them to collect different insects and prepare a display. Types of crops in the locality could be an issue for a group of students while diseases in the locality could be an issue for another group of students. 4.9 EXPERIMENTAL CARDS You can simple experiments or ask students to do them in groups or in pairs. The various sequential steps of the experiments are given in the cards; following the steps, you and the students can do the experiments.
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Objectives The learner is able to do the experiment on their own. Do in groups or in pairs Procure the materials needed for the experiments from the tale. Teaching Strategies Pick up the experimental cards Procure the materials needed Perform the experiments Note your observation Examples of the experiments using cards SOLUBILITY TEST Salt, sugar, sand - which are soluble or which are not soluble. Beaker, salt, sugar, sand, water Take beaker Put salt Add water Stir well Observe whether soluble or not Repeat with sugar and sand Observe whether soluble or not Note down which is soluble and which is not souble. CONDUCTION OF HEAT Pencil lead (graphite), Metal rod, glass rod, wooden stick, burner Heat one end of pencil lead. Touch the other end after some time. Can you feel the heat? If so, then the pencil lead is good conductor. Repeat with wooden rod Observe and note your observations Note to the Teacher Teacher can make experimental cards for various concepts and ask the students to perform the experiments. The following points have to be kept in mind when the teachers are preparing the experimental cards The cards must have simple steps to perform the experiments. The diagram of the devise used for the particular experiment should necessarily be given in the card. All the materials headed for the experiment have to be kept near the experimental cards.
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If any precautions, that has to be mentioned in the card. The sentences/words used in the card should be simple and can be understandable to the learners. The card should have 5 cm x 7 cm measurement and that may be laminated and colourful and attractive.
Experimental Cards on Protozoa
Example of sentences/ questions to be written on the cardsWhat happens when you add water to sugar and sand? Give reasons for what you observed? 4.10 REFERENCE BOOKS AND MAGAZINES
Reference books and magazines play an important role in science teaching and learning. It will build the enthusiasm of students and improve reading skills too. Teaching Points When you teach about bryophytes/ferns you tell them about the plants which are present near the walls of well which are marshy are called bryophytes. The plants used for decorating purpose at home which will not give flowers are called ferns. Ask them to observe the brown spots on the margin of the older leaves. They are nothing but spores. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6 Note: Ask the students to answer 1. 2. 3. Which books did you refer today? __________________________________________________ What are the interesting points you read today? __________________________________________________ Did you have any doubts or confusion for clarification? __________________________________________________
Ask the students to refer the books on Bryophytes and Pteriodophyte at library and learn more interesting points on ferns. Likewise, when you teach about pollution or global warming you can ask the students to refer library books on pollution and global warming and get interesting observation. You may conduct small seminar on a given topic for which you may ask the students to refer to books.
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Tips for you Printed materials in the science corner must be very interesting and illustrative. You can prepare the printed materials if there is no material available for any concept. For example, when you want to prepare a material on Bryophytes, you can write how it originated, first as land form, how the structure is having leaf-like, stem-like, root-like organs and the sporophyte and where it is available (on the marshy walls of the well) and how one can see the plant through the magnifying lens. It can also be collected and teased with the needle and can be seen under dissection microscope. Here you can also explain how to use the dissection microscope. Activity 9 Put the plant on the microscope slide. Put little glycerine. Slide the cover slip on the glycerin gently without any air bubble. Keep the slide on the field and adjust the eye piece and the mirror to provide enough light on the specimen and look through the eye piece. Ask the students to draw the diagram. First explain the concepts. Give enough references. See whether the books are available in the library or internet. See whether the language is simple. If not, prepare small booklet of your own and keep in the library or learning corner (Science Corner). Ask the students to read and get notes out of it. Ask the learners to have a discussion with the other students. There are also magazines like Science, Nature, Resonance, etc which can be made available in the library. 4.11 APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENTS Science laboratory is provided with so many apparatus and equipments. For example, delivery tube, wire gauze, test tube, conical flask, test tube stand, etc. Apparatus You can keep the following in the science corner. (i) Labwares: Beaker, conical flask, single hole rubber cork, two holed rubber cork, delivery tube, gas jar, test tube, test tube holder, wire gauze, tripod, spirit lamp, Bunsen Burner, Stirrer, microscopic slides, cover slips. Hardwares Multimedia Galvanometer Ammeter
Science Corner
(ii)
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Simple circuit Ganongs' photometer Respiroscope Apparatus for O2, CO2, H2 preparation (iii) Microscope Dissection Microscope Compound microscope (iv) Optical Bench Mirror Stand Lens Slab Prism screen (v) Chemicals HCl H2SO4 Sodium Carbonate Sodium Chloride Litmus paper pH paper Glycerine Pins Slides Cover slips You can show the apparatus like Beaker, Test tube, Funnel, Pipette and Burette to the students and can explain about the apparatus and their uses. Teaching strategy Experimentation Demonstration Observation You will demonstrate these exemplar activities to the students Activity 10 Preparation of dil. HCL acid Take the Beaker. Add water. Pour concentrated Hydrochloric acid drop by drop. Test it with litmus paper Activity 11 Preparation of Hydrogen gas Take a test tube. Put Zinc metal in it. Add dilute Hydrochloric acid drop by drop. Observe the bubbles coming out. Collect the gas in another test tube. Test the gas by a burning flame which produces a 'pop' sound. It's a hydrogen gas.
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Activity 12 Ganong's Potometer Show the apparatus Ask the students to observe the parts. Perform the experiment Make the observation CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 7 Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1. 2. What are all the apparatus you have seen in the class laboratory? __________________________________________________ Can you name them and draw their diagrams? __________________________________________________
Science Corner
3.
Can you give the use of these apparatus and equipments that you have seen in the laboratory? __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________
4.12 LOW COST TEACHING AIDS Low cost teaching aids means teaching-learning materials (TLM) prepared out of waste materials. You can prepare same TLM and can keep in the Science Corner. Following are the exemplar activities to make working and static models. Activity 13 Water Pressure Experiment Take a water bottle. Make 3 holes on the lateral sides in different heights. Pour water by closing the holes. Water will come out with different pressures. Hence it is inferred that water has different pressures at different heights. When height increases, pressure also increases.
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Activity 14 Thermocole Models You can draw, Plant Cell, Animal Cell on the thermocole using different colours. 4.13 SCIENCE KIT
Primary and upper primary schools normally will not have separate science laboratories. Hence science kit is supplied to those schools. Knowing the kit and using it effectively is very important. When you teach about different properties of mater, you can use the materials available in the kit like solids, liquids and gases and explain the properties. Activity 15 You can involve the students to perform the following experiment using materials kept in the science kit compiled in the classroom. Ask students to take solids like pebbles, stones, beaker, balloon from the kit Instruct them to arrange the pebbles in a container. What does this show? It shows that pebbles occupy space. Tell the learners that solid occupies space. Ask them to pour water in a beaker. Ask them to observe how water, which is a liquid, occupies space. Instruct them to blow the balloon. What happens? The balloon blows up. What does this prove? This proves that gas also occupies space. Likewise, the materials like rubber band, glass tube, metal wire, stones can be used to perform experiments to show elasticity, stirring of solution, heat experiment etc. Note You must prepare a list of materials in the science kit. You can plan the possible activities using the materials in the science kit Science kit can be prepared by the teachers by listing out simple materials like stones, sand, sticks, papers, bottles, pins, rubber band, plastic materials, salt, sugar etc. and kept in the science kit. Small test tubes, beaker, some salts, water, acids, litmus paper can also be kept in science kit.
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When you ask students to use the kit, give enough instruction to use the materials. Students collections like leaf, flowers, herbarium, insects can also be kept in the kit. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 8 Note: Perform the given exercise Ask the students to use the material and perform the experiment given on chit. 4.14 FIRST AID BOX
Science Corner
The children are prone to get injuries at school either in the classroom or playground. Hence every class must have a First Aid Box. Materials in the first Aid Box Cotton Spirit Ointments, Gauze cloth Antibiotic cream Plasters Hydrogen peroxide Bandage cloth You can teach the students to make use of the First Aid Box whenever they are in need. You can teach them when the students get wounded, they can wipe the wound with spirit and put a disinfectant on it. 4.15 LET US SUM UP
In this unit you learned that: Science Corner is important and crucial for improving the quality of Science teaching in the classrooms. Components of a Science corner and the activities that can be performed during classroom transactions. Preparation of Science Kits, Low Cost Teaching Aids like posters, charts, albums, stethoscopes etc. Methods of collection and preservation of specimens Use of experimental cards for performing simple experiments. 4.16 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Answer 1 1. Thermometer 2. Mercury

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3. 4. 5. 6.
Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green Yellow, Orange, Red Carbon-di-oxide Winnowing, hand picking, gravity separation Air, Water and Sunlight
Answer 2 1. Those which can be observed in their actual form (shape and size) e.g. plants, animals 2. The actual structure of the real organism can be studied and conclusions can be drawn by the teacher and students. 3. (a), (c), (d). Answer 3 1. Collection, drying (dehydration), preserving in 5% - 40% solution of formaldehyde. 2. It is possible to study the habits, habitats and other characteristics of the specimens. 4. Rose, tulsi, ornamental plants 5. Fish, lizards, frog, pigeons, cockroach etc.
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TEACHING OF SCIENCE AT UPPER PRIMARY LEVEL

Distance Education Programme -Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (DEP-SSA)

TEACHING OF SCIENCE AT UPPER PRIMARY LEVEL

Distance Edcation Programme-Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, IGNOU, 2010

TEACHING OF SCIENCE AT UPPER PRIMARY LEVEL

Academic Coordination Dr. Hema Pant Programme Officer DEP-SSA, IGNOU

67-76 77-89 90-99 100-116

SKILL OF PERFORMING SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS

118-140 141-157 158-165 166-184

February, 2010 Project Director DEP-SSA, IGNOU

BLOCK 1: SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7.1 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.1

Acids, Bases and Salts

Mention one use of each of HCl, H2SO4, and HNO3

Acids, Bases and Salts

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Acids, Bases and Salts

Acids, Bases and Salts

Grapes Tartaric acid Lime Water Calcium hydroxide

Curd Lactic Acid Soap Sodium Hydroxide

Acids, Bases and Salts

UNIT 2 METALS AND NON-METALS

2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.1

Metals and Non-Metals

Metals and Non-Metals

Metals and Non-Metals

Which is the most reactive metal?

Physical properties of non-metals.

Metals and Non-Metals

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Metals and Non-Metals

Malleability Ductility Sonorous Metals Non-metals

UNIT 3 ENERGY (HEAT & LIGHT)

3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.1

Beaker 'A' (cold water)

Beaker 'B' (hot water)

Fig.3. 1: Beaker A & B containing cold and hot water respectively

Energy (Heat & Light)

Energy (Heat & Light)

Energy (Heat & Light)

Time 1 Min 2 Min 3 Min 4 Min 5 Min 6 Min

Temp of Beaker 'A'

Temp of Beaker 'A'

Energy (Heat & Light)

LIGHT: AN INTRODUCTION Reflection of light

Fig. 3.6: Reflection of an object in a mirror

Source: NCERT 2009: Science Textbook for class VII

Energy (Heat & Light)

Fig. 3.8: Reflection of light through an opaque object

Energy (Heat & Light)

Energy (Heat & Light)

Energy (Heat & Light)

UNIT4 PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL

Plant Cell and Animal Cell

DIAGRAM A (Plant Cell)

Plant Cell and Animal Cell

Plant Cell and Animal Cell

High School Science, Part -3 Intermediate Botany Intermediate Zoology

5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.1