Water Requirements of The Iron and Steel Industry

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Water Requirements of the Iron and Steel Industry

By FAULKNER B. WALLING and LOUIS E. OTTS, JR.

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

GEOLOGICAL

SURVEY

WATER-SUPPLY

PAPER

1330-H

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1967

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY William T. Pecora, Director

Library of Congress catalog-card No. GS 67-220

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.G. 20402

CONTENTS
Page

Abstract_______________________________________ Introduction-... ____________________________________________ Purpose and scope____________________________________________ Basis for reporting water-use data____-__--_---__----_--_----_--_ How water is used_________________________________________ Mines and concentration plants___-_______________--_-____--___Steel plants_________________ _ _ _ _____________ Coking plants,__________________________________________ Blastfurnace___________________________________________ Open-hearth furnace______---__-___________-_______-_-----Electric furnace_________________________________________ Hot-rolling mills________________________________________ Other uses____________________________________________ Quantity of water used ________________________________________ Published information________________________________________ Findings of this survey_______________________________________ Sources of water.________________________________________ Gross water use_______________________________________ Intake and reuse__________________________________________ Consumption _____________________________________________ Quality of water_____________________________________ Quality of water required_____________________________________ Quality of intake water_________________________________________ Treatment of intake water____________________________________ Future water requirements__________________________________________ Summary_____________________________________________ Selected references... __________________________________________

341 342 342 344 345 345 348 348 349 351 351 352 353 354 354 355 355 362 363 375 378 379 380 382 383 387 390

ILLUSTRATIONS
4. Diagram showing the water system of a hypothetical integrated steel plant___________________________ In pocket FIGURE 52. Map showing location of mines and steel plants surveyed, Page 1957-58_____________________.__________ 343 53. Graph showing annual steel production by the various processes, 1900-63__________________________ 384 54. Graph showing iron ore production and consumption in the United States, 1940-62_____________________ 385 55. Graph showing sources of iron ore for the United States steel industry, 1942-62___.__________________________.______ 387 in PLATE

IV

CONTENTS

TABLES
TABLE 1. Published information on water use_______________________ 2. Source and amount of water intake of iron and steel plants surveyed.___________________________________________ 3. Water use in the steel industry.-------------------------4. Water use in the iron ore industry___--_----_--------_--__ 5. Chemical quality of water at source of supply.-____________ 6. Treatment of intake water_____________________________ 7. Median and average water use in the iron and steel industry __ 8. Sources of water used in the iron and steel industry_______ Page 356 360 364 376 381 383 389 390

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES WATER REQUIREMENTS OF THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRIES
By FAULKNER B. WALLING x and Louis E. OTTS, JR.2
ABSTRACT

Twenty-nine steel plants surveyed during 1957 and 1958 withdrew from various sources about 1,400 billion gallons of water annually and produced 40.8 million tons of ingot steel. This is equivalent to about 34,000 gallons of water per ton of steel. Fifteen iron ore mines and fifteen ore concentration plants together withdrew annually about 89,000 million gallons to produce 15 million tons of iron ore concentrate, or 5,900 gallons per ton of concentrate. About 97 percent of the water used in the steel plants came from surface sources, 2.2 percent was reclaimed sewage, and 1.2 percent was ground water. Steel plants supplied about 96 percent of their own water requirements, although only three plants used self-supplied water exclusively. Water used by the iron ore mines and concentration plants was also predominantly self supplied from surface source. Water use in the iron and steel industry varied widely and depended on the availability of water, age and condition of plants and equipment, kinds of processes, and plant operating procedures. Gross water use in integrated steel plants ranged from 11,200 to 110,000 gallons per ton of steel ingots, and in steel processing plants it ranged from 4,180 to 26,700 gallons per ton. Water reuse also varied widely from 0 to 18 times in integrated steel plants and from 0 to 44 times in steel processing plants. Availability of water seemed to be the prinicpal factor in determining the rate of reuse. Of the units within steel plants, a typical (median) blast furnace required 20,500 gallons of water per ton of pig iron. At the 1956-60 average rate of pig iron consumption, this amounts to about 13,000 gallons per ton of steel ingots or about 40 percent of that required by a typical integrated steel plant 33,200 gallons per ton. Different processes of iron ore concentration are devised specifically for the various kinds of ore. These processes result in a wide range of water use from 124 to 11,300 gallons of water per ton of iron ore concentrate. Water use in concentration plants is related to the physical state of the ore. The data in this report indicate that grain size of the ore is the most important factor; the very fine grained taconite and jasper required the greatest amount of water. Reuse vas not widely practiced in the iron ore industry.
1 U.S. Geological Survey. a Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Md. 341

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Consumption of water by integrated steel plants ranged from 0 to 2,010 gallons per ton of ingot steel and by steel processing plants from 120 to 3,420 gallons per ton. Consumption by a typical integrated steel plant was 681 gallons per ton of ingot steel, about 1.8 percent of the intake and about 1 percent of the gross water use. Consumption by a typical steel processing plant was 646 gallons per ton, 18 percent of the intake, and 3.2 percent of the gross water use. The quality of available water was found not to be a critical factor in choosing the location of steel plants, although changes in equipment and in operating procedures are necessary when poor-quality water is used. The use of saline water having a concentration of dissolved solids as much as 10,400 ppm (parts per million) was reported. This very saline water was used for cooling furnaces and for quenching slag. In operations such as rolling steel in which the water comes into contact with the steel being processed, better quality water is used, although water containing as much as 3,410 ppm dissolved solids has been used for this purpose. Treatment of water for use in the iron and steel industry was not widely practiced. Disinfection and treatment for scale and corrosion control were the most frequently used treatment methods.
INTRODUCTION PURPOSE AND SCOPE

This report is one of a series describing the water requirements of selected industries of national importance. It is designed to furnish basic information on the water requirements of the iron and steel industry and should be useful in planning the industrial development of areas where water resources must be considered. Knowledge of the water requirements of all industries that use a significant amount of water is necessary to assure adequate management of water supplies of industrial and potentially industrial areas. This investigation included field surveys, made during 1957 and 1958, of 16 installations in the iron ore industry and 29 installations in the steel industry. Location of these installations are shown in figure 52. The mines and plants visited represent a cross section of the iron and steel industry with respect to geographic distribution, plant size, and processes used. Fourteen of the installations in the iron industry were operated as mine-concentration plant combinations, although in some places the distance from the mine to the concentration plant was a few miles. Only one mine and one concentration plant operated as independent units. The steel plants include both integrated steel plants (plants that begin with concentrated iron ore and produce a rolled or cast product) and steel processing plants (plants that begin with pig iron or scrap and produce a rolled or cast product). Some plants consisting of single units such as coke ovens and blast furnaces were included in the survey, but the data for these were used only in computations for the various units.

EXPLANATION

Integrated steel plant o Steel processing plant x Mine and concentration plant operated as one installation Concentration plant operated independently of mine
v

Mine operated independently of concentration plant

FIGURE 52. Location of mines and steel plants surveyed, 1957 58.

00 t^ CO

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WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

A survey was made to assess published data on water use in the iron and steel industry. These data are presented at appropriate places in the text. O. D. Mussey collected the data upon which this report is based but did not participate in preparing the report; the authors are solely responsible for the conclusions presented. Acknowledgment is given to the many company officials who permitted Geological Survey personnel to visit their plants and who furnished water-use data and to Dr. E. D. Hoak, of the Mellon Institute, for his consultation and advice.
BASIS FOR REPORTING WATER-USE DATA

Data requested for each mine, concentration plant, and steel plant and for each unit within the steel plants included source of supply, amount of water used, quality of untreated intake water, and treatment of water. These data were requested for each important use cooling, boiler feed, sanitation and service, and other uses within each plant and within each unit. For each use, amounts of intake water, gross water use, water consumed, and effluent were requested. Intake water is water added to a system to replace water consumed and effluent from the system. Effluent from a plant is discharged to a waste-disposal system, but effluent from a unit may be reused with or without treatment in another unit. Water is consumed mainly by evaporation, by spray from cooling towers, or by incorporation into a product. In most places the amount of water consumed is very difficult to determine and is usually taken as the difference between intake and effluent or is estimated by the plant operator. In oncethrough systems, effluent usually is not measured; hence, consumptive use is either not reported or is reported to be zero. In this report, water use is generally classified according to the definitions of Mussey (1961). Mussey's definitions are: process water, water that comes into contact with an end product or with materials incorporated into an end product; cooling water, water used exclusively for cooling; boiler-feed water, water introduced into boilers for conversion to steam; and sanitary and service water, water used for drinking, showers, general cleaning, and flushing wastes. However, in hot-rolling mills, water used for descaling and cooling steel (process water) and water used for cooling rolls and bearings (cooling water) were reported together. Inasmuch as the steel industry generally considers all water used in rolling mills as cooling water, it is reported as such in this report. Intake water is water added to a system, consumptive use is water lost by evaporation or by incorporation into a product, and effluent is water discharged from the system. Gross water use equals the intake water plus water reused within the

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system. Effluent from a plant is discharged to a waste disposal system; however, within a plant, effluent from one unit may be used as intake for another unit. In most places the amount of water consumed was very difficult to determine and was usually considered to be the difference between intake and effluent or was estimated by the plant operator. In once-through systems, effluent generally is not measured; hence, consumptive use was either not reported or was reported to be zero. Most units within a steel plant make only one major product such as coke, pig iron, or ingot steel, although many byproducts are obtained. For all units treated separately in this report,, water use is referred to the major product. For example, water use in a coke plant is reported in gallons per ton of coke. However, because of the wide variety of products of integrated steel plants and steel processing plants, waiter use by these plants is reported in gallons per ton of ingot steel. In iron ore concentration plants, water use is referred to both raw and concentrated ore.
HOW WATER IS USED

Most of the water used in the iron and steel industry is used for cooling, to protect equipment and to improve the working conditions of the employees. A smaller, but still considerable, amount of water is used as process water to concentrate iron ore, cleanse coke-oven gases, quench coke and slag, and descale steel (in this report, water used to descale steel is classed as cooling water). A small amount of water is used for boiler-feed water and for sanitary and service water. Water used for dust, control in mines and concentration plants, for drilling, and hydraulic stripping is classed as other use. Some of the processes and equipment used in the iron and steel industry are described below to help the reader to visualize use of water in the industry.
MINES AND CONCENTRATION PLANTS

Rotary and churn drilling have been the most extensively used methods for drilling blast holes and for prospecting in soft rock. In rotary and churn drilling, the cuttings and water produce a slurry which is bailed or pumped from the drill hole. During the last few years, increasing use of hard ores, such as jasper and taconite, has hastened the use of jet piercing. Jet piercing uses a flame that has a high velocity, 6,000 fps (feet per second), and a high temperature, 4,300 F, to cause hard rock to spall or flake because of thermal stress. In this operation, water is used (a) to cool the burner and the blow
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WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

pipe, (b) to help break up fused minerals, and (c) when flashed to steam in the hole, to assist in removing the cuttings. Health and safety of mine employees require dust control, which is commonly accomplished by sprinkling water on roads and ore. In arid regions continuous sprinkling is sometimes required. This water is lost by evaporation. Most of the iron ore mined in the United States contains only a low percentage of iron, and the ore generally has to be concentrated. The increased efficiency of a blast furnace that results from the use of an ore that is highly concentrated makes it economical to concentrate some ores that would otherwise be unusable without concentration. Several processes are used to concentrate iron ore. The choice of processes depends upon the physical state and mineral content of the ore. The more important characteristics of iron ore that affect the choice are liberation size (the particle size to which the ore must be crushed to liberate the desired mineral), the relative particle sizes of iron mineral and gangue, and the magnetic properties of the iron mineral. Ore in which the particles of gangue is small relative to the particles of iron mineral can be concentrated by simple washing. Magnetic ore can be concentrated by magnetic separation. For ore in which the difference in densities of the iron mineral and the gangue is the only characteristic that can be used for a separation, heavy-media separation or some form of classification is used. Reduction of ore to liberation size, in which the particles may be as large as a few inches in diameter or as fine as flour, is done in various types and sizes of crushers and grinders. Coarse crushing, generally done in jaw and gyratory crushers, produces a large amount of dust which is suppressed 'by water sprays. This water is lost by evaporation a consumptive use. When reduced to very small particles, ore containing a small amount of moisture tends to cake and resist further grinding and handling. To prevent such caking in ball or rod mills, water is added to form a slurry that will flow readily. Some of this water is lost by evaporation, but some is recovered 'in settling basins and clarifiers for reuse. Much ore requires more than one step in size reduction. Between each step some form of classification or sizing is used that requires additional water. Iron ore containing gangue of mostly fine material (sand size or smaller) and iron minerals of relatively large particle size is concentrated by washing, generally on vibrating screens of trummels (rotating cylindrical screens). Aided by the scrubbing of the iron ore particles against each other, water sprayed over the ore loosens and washes away the fine particles of gangue. Much of the water used adheres to the iron ore concentrate and ultimately evaporates. Water

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containing the gangue is pumped to a tailings basin, where the water may be recovered for reuse. Washing is also used in the recovery of fine material employed in other operations, such as heavy-media separation, or in any situation where it is necessary to remove fine particles from larger ones. A widely used process for the concentration of iron ore is heavymedia separation (also called sink-float) which depends for its effectiveness only upon the difference in specific gravities of the iron minerals and gangue. The medium generally used in the iron ore industry is a liquid composed of water and finely ground ferrosilicon, a magnetic mineral, held in suspension by agitation. The concentration of the ferrosilicon is adjusted to give the liquid a specific gravity (about 3.2) intermediate between the specific gravity of the iron minerals and that of gangue. Ore to be treated is fed into the suspension in a vessel constructed so that the gangue which floats may be removed from the top and the concentrate withdrawn at the bottom. Much ferrosilicon is removed from the vessel with both the gangue and the concentrate, and because ferrosilicon is quite expensive it must be recovered. The ferrosilicon is first washed from the concentrate and the gangue over the fine screens and then recovered from the nonmagnetic fines by magnetic separation. A magnetic separator consists basically of a magnet, an apparatus for bringing the ore into the magnetic field, and a moving collection surface between the stream of ore and the magnet. In most magnetic separators used to concentrate iron ore, the collection surface is a drum that rotates around the magnet. As magnetic particles enter the field they are drawn toward the magnet and are intercepted by the drum. The rotation of the drum carries the attached particles out of the magnetic field where they are discharged as concentrated ore. The gangue and any nonmagnetic ore present pass through to be discarded or to be re-treated. Water used in magnetic separators is primarily a transport medium and most of it can be recovered, but some is lost by evaporation. Classifiers separate solids according to the velocity at which the particles settle through a fluid. Settling velocity depends upon both particle size and density. Among several types of classifiers used in the concentration of iron ore are the cyclone separators and hydroseparators. In cyclone separators used for iron ore, water that contains finely ground magnetite (less than 100 mesh) and iron ore to be treated is pumped tangentially into a cone-shaped tank. The centrifugal force of the swirling liquid causes the heavier particles (iron mineral) to move to the outside where they settle toward the lower outlet. The lighter particles are forced toward the center and the

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top outlet. The magnetite, used to increase the specific gravity of the liquid, is recovered from the gangue and the iron mineral by magnetic separation. Hydroseparators are similar to clarifiers used for water treatment except that they are small enough to produce an overflow that contains the finer and lighter particles; particles having a faster settling rate are withdrawn at the bottom. Classification, and most other concentration methods used in the iron ore industry, consumes little water. That retained by the concentrate is lost by evaporation, but most of the water discharged to tailings basins where it can be recovered if needed.
STEEL PLANTS

At steel plants, iron ore concentrate is reduced to iron and processed into useful steel products, and scrap steel is reprocessed into new products. Integrated steel plants, as defined for this report, consist of blast furnaces, one or more units for making steel from iron (openhearth furnace, electric furnace, or converter), and a rolling mill or casting unit. An integrated plant may include coke ovens, wiredrawing machines, rod mills, and other iron working units. A steel processing plant is defined as an integrated plant without coke ovens and blast furnaces. Plate 4 shows a generalized layout of an integrated steel plant. The routing of water between units and within units varies greatly within the steel industry, depending upon availability of water, quality of water, and age of the steel plant.
COKING PLANTS

Most integrated steel plants surveyed operate byproduct coke ovens, in which coal is heated to about 1,900F to expell most of the volatile matter. This process leaves only carbon and ash in the coke (coke from the ovens contains 1-3 percent volatile matter). The vapors evolved from the coke ovens contain several useful chemicals such as ammonia and benzene and a low percentage of fuel gases. This survey provided data on water used within the plant in (the removal of byproduct chemicals, water vapor, and dust from the coke-oven gas, but it did not cover the use of water in the refining of the chemicals. Processing of coke-oven gas consists basically of cooling to condense water vapor and tars, absorption of ammonia in an acid solution, and scrubbing the gas to remove light oils (benzol, solvent naphtha, and other products). Vapors from the coke enter primary coolers where the tars and water vapor are condensed, and some of the ammonia is dissolved in the condensate to form what is called ammonia liquor. Two types of primary coolers are commonly used for processing coke-oven gas.

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In one type the vapors pass over a series of water-cooled coils. The cooling water from this type of cooler is circulated through a cooling tower for reuse or is discharged. In the other type the vapor passes through a spray of ammonia liquor which is cooled in a water-cooled heat exchanger and is reused. The ultimate cooling water in both types does not come into contact with the vapors and is not contaminated. After primary cooling, the condensed tars are decanted from the ammonia liquor. The ammonia liquor can then be distilled to remove the ammonia as a gas which along with the ammonia remaining in the coke-oven gas is absorbed in sulf uric acid. The ammonium sulf ate thus formed is crystallized, dried, and sold to be used as a fertilizer. Final cooling is done by passing the coke-oven gas through a spray of cooling water which is reused extensively and may finally disposed of in coke quenching. The gas is then scrubbed (passed through an absorption column) to remove the light oils. After the vapors have been expelled, the coke is pushed into a car and as quickly as possible is moved to a quenching tower to be cooled by a spray. Quenching reduces the temperature to less than the combustion temperature, but enough heat is left in the coke to assure a low moisture content. Water for coke quenching, often including excess ammonia liquor from the gas coolers, commonly is circulated through the quenching tower until completely evaporated.
BIAST FURNACE

In the reduction of iron ore to iron, concentrated iron ore, coke, and a fluxing agent (limestone or dolomite) are charged into the top of the blast furnace while hot air is blown in through tuyeres near the bottom. Coke provides both the fuel for heating the reactants to reaction temperature and the reducing agent for the reduction of iron oxide to iron. Molten iron, being heavier than the other products, collects in the hearth from which it is periodically withdrawn; it is transferred to an open-hearth or an electric furnace or is cast into pigs. The fluxing agent fuses and forms a slag on top of the iron and dissolves many impurities that would otherwise contaminate the iron. The slag is periodically withdrawn and is sometimes quenched with water. A typical blast furnace would be about 100 feet high (pi. 4) and would have a diameter of 30 feet at the largest section (about 19 ft above the bottom). The hearth would be a 10-foot-high cylindrical section at the bottom and have a tap hole at the bottom for removing the molten iron and have a slag notch at a height of 5 feet for removing the slag. The hot air is blown into the flared section, called the bosh, immediately above the hearth; the bosh extends to the mantle.

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Above the mantle and supported by it, a stack tapers from an inside diameter of 30 feet to 20 feet at the top. A steel jacket surrounds the furnace and supports the thick refractory insulation which lines the furnace. A blast furnace is normally in continuous operation for several years during which only minor repairs can be made. Refractory linings are in contact with materials and gases at a temperature that ranges from about 3,000F in the hearth to 2,500F at the mantle and 350F at the top. At the higher temperatures, refractories become relatively soft and subject to erosion and corrosion, and without cooling their service life would be short. This necessary cooling is effected by circulating large quantities of water through plates (tanks, tapered to fit into the refractories) and pipes embedded in the furnace walls. The most intensive cooling is provided for the bosh where most of the heat is generated, but modern furnaces may have several hundred cooling plates above the mantle. Blast furnace hearths are usually cooled by water flowing through staves inside the hearth jacket, but some hearths above the ground may be cooled by water sprayed on the jacket. A water spray may also be used for emergency cooling when refractories are burned out, and small areas of the steel jacket are exposed to extreme temperatures. All water sprayed on the outside of a blast furnace is probably evaporated. Large volumes of air are compressed for the blast furnace (usually by steam-driven turbo blowers), heated to 1,000F to 1,500F, and blown into the furnace near the bottom. The steam turbines require a considerable amount of cooling water for condensers. Tuyeres through which the air is blown into the furnace are cooled by water circulating through an annular space around the tip and a conical copper cooler in the wall around the tuyere. Copper coolers also surround the slag notch. Gases from blast furnaces have a low heating value and are cleaned and cooled before being used to satisfy various heating requirements within the plant. In most plants, the gases flow through dry-dust collectors, spray towers, and finally through wet electrostatic precipitators. Most of the dust is removed in the dry-dust collector by gravitational and centrifugal forces. From the dust collector the gases enter the spray tower at the bottom and rise through water sprays. The towers commonly contain trays, baffles, rotating cones, and other devices to assure intimate contact between the dust and water. Final cleaning is usually done with an electrostatic precipitator in which gas and dust pass between two electrically charged surfaces. The dust particles become negatively charged and are collected on the positively charged surface. A thin film of water flows over the collecting surface and carries the dust to a waste-disposal

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system. Waste water from the spray tower and electrostatic precipitator is usually treated to remove the suspended solids.
OPEN-HEVARTH FURNACE

Open-hearth furnaces refine and compound about 90 percent of the steel produced in the United States. Some large furnaces produce as much as 500 tons of steel in one batch, called a "heat." At the beginning of a "heat," limestone and a small amount of iron ore are charged through doors in the front of the furnace and then steel scrap and pig iron are added. Scrap and pig iron are melted as they are added to the furnace, and liquid pig iron, if used, is added after all cold-charged iron has melted. Oil- or gas-fired burners at both ends of the furnace heat the charge to a final temperature of about 3,000 F. Air for combustion enters through checkers at one end of the furnace while the exhaust gases pass out through similar checkers at the other end. Periodically the flow of gas is reversed; thus checkers that have been heated by exhaust gases in turn heat the incoming air. Manganese, silica, phosphorus, sulfur, and carbon are the chief impurities that are oxidized and dissolved in the slag. To hasten oxidation of these impurities, oxygen may be added through an oxygen lance a water-cooled tube projecting into the furnace. After the amounts of impurities have been reduced to less than specified concentrations and carbon and alloy metals and temperature have been adjusted, the steel is withdrawn and molded into ingots or cast products. Many parts of open-hearth furnaces must be cooled to prevent destruction or warping. Burners and oxygen lances, which project inside the furnaces, are protected by water-cooled j ackets. Door frames, doors, reversing valves, stack valves, and a few structural supports are protected by some type of cooling system. These parts are often of double-wall construction and have water circulating between the walls. Some sections of furnace refractories exposed to gas of high velocity and temperature may be cooled by pipe coolers. Wall sections that require cooling are bridge walls, monkey walls, downtakes, and burner doghouses. For the comfort and safety of workmen while tapping the furnace, back walls, where the tap holes are located, are sometimes cooled.
EJJECTRIC FURNACE

Steel production in electric furnaces has climbed steadily during the last 50 years or so and in 1960 was about 10 percent of the total steel production in the United States. Electric furnaces are more easily controlled than open-hearth furnaces, and they are therefore more adaptable to the production of high-quality steel for which

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the demand is growing. All large electric furnaces are heated by electric arcs, but many small ones are heated by induction. Induction furnaces operate in a manner similar to that of an electrical transformer. A crucible inside a water- or an oil-cooled coil contains the metal charge. This coil may be of the transformer type or a coil of copper tubing imbedded in the refractory lining of the crucible. An electric current in the coil generates eddy currents in the metal to be melted and refined. Resistance to these eddy currents converts the electrical energy into heat. Water cooling is used to prevent warping of metal parts and to maintain a seal at the top of the furnace and around the door. A water jacket in the rim of the lid or in the furnace rim in which the lid rests provides cooling for the top. Doors and door jambs are usually of double-wall construction and have water circulating through them. In electric-arc furnaces, water-cooled rings protect the electrodes. In induction furnaces, transformer-type coils are cooled by oil which in turn is cooled by water in a heat exchanger, whereas the copper-tube coils are cooled by water circulating through the tubing.
HOT-ROLLING MILLS

In the course of its manufacture, most of the world's steel is rolled by one or more hot-rolling mills. Generally, the rolling process begins in primary hot-rolling mills with ingots from open-hearth or electric furnaces. To bring them to a uniform temperature, commonly 2,150 F to 2,500 F depending on the composition of the steel and characteristics of the rolling mill, ingots are placed in heating furnaces, termed "soaking pits." After several hours in the soaking pits, ingots are rolled into blooms, slabs, or billets. These terms are used somewhat loosely, but, generally, blooms are composed of large square cross sections, billets of small square cross sections (seldom greater than 4 in. square), and slabs of rectangular cross sections. Products of primary rolling mills go to secondary hot-rolling mills where a large variety of products 'are made. Some of these are finished products such as structural steel and rails, but some steel strip, rod, and plate undergo further processing by cold rolling or drawing. Various types of hot-rolling mills are used in the steel industry. The essential features of any of these types are a pair of rolls revolving in opposite directions, a mechanism, commonly called a table, for directing the steel to the rolls, and a table for handling the rolled pieces. The table in front of the rolls forces the steel against the rolls which grip and pull the steel between them. Steel is, thus, reduced to a thickness equal to the distance between the rolls, and if the rolls are grooved it is shaped according to the groove design. A stand (set of rolls) having two horizontal rolls one above the other is called

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a two-high stand. Two backup rolls, generally much larger than the operating rolls, may be placed against the two operating rolls to prevent their distortion. These are called four-high stands. Both two- and four-high stands may be either reversing mills in which the steel passes back and forth between the same rolls or continuous mills in which the steel passes through several stands in tandem. In threehigh mills, which have three rolls arranged vertically, steel passes forward between the middle roll and bottom roll and backward between the middle and top rolls. Directions of rotation of the rolls in three-high mills are not reversed. Water use in all types of hotrolling mills is basically the same, being mainly for scale removal and temperature control. When steel is heated to the high temperature desired for hot rolling, its surface is oxidized and a hard scale is formed. If not removed before rolling, this scale would be rolled into the steel and would cause surface defects. A common method of scale removal is to spray water under a pressure of as much as 2,000 psi (pounds per square inch) against the steel immediately before it enters the rolls. Scale thus removed is flushed to a scale pit where it is recovered for use in blast furnaces. Because much fine scale passes through these pits, the water is treated in settling basins or clarifiers before reuse. Cooling water is sprayed on the rolls during hot rolling to prevent distortion and to reduce erosion of the roll surfaces. Because considerable heat is produced by the rolling processes, water also serves to keep the steel at its proper rolling temperature. Upon emergence from rolling mills, steel may be sprayed with water to hasten cooling. This spray prevents excessive scale formation. Roll bearings also require cooling. Spent cooling water flows to the scale pit along with that used for scale removal and may be reused after clarification and cooling.
OTHER USES

Cleaning steel (for inspection, cold rolling, and the application of protective coatings) requires a relatively small amount of water for preparation of cleaning solutions. Acid solutions are used for pickling (to remove iron oxide scale). Acid concentration varies considerably depending upon the method of pickling and shapes to be pickled. Generally, continuous pickling of strip or wire uses an initial acid concentration of 25-50 percent, whereas the batch process uses solutions of 5-10 percent acid. Alkaline solutions such as caustic soda or soda ash may be used for removing animal fats or mineral oils that adhere to the steel after cold rolling or drawing. After cleaning, all solutions are removed by rinsing with clean water.
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Deformation of steel 'by rolling or drawing generates heat that usually must be removed. In hot-rolling mills, cooling is accomplished by spraying water on the rolls, but in cold-rolling mills, water that contains a soluble oil is sprayed between the rolls and incoming steel for both cooling and lubrication. Heat generated in wire drawing is dissipated by a blast of cold air over a cumulative block (roll on which the wire is wound and removed periodically), but for noncumulative blocks (a roll on which wire is wound in several loops and removed continuously much as with a capstan) a spray of water on the inside of the block is used. Various types of heating furnaces are needed to bring the steel to the proper temperature for rolling. Water is used to cool metal parts in these heating furnaces doors, valves, and dampers.
QUANTITY OF WATER USED
PUBLISHED INFORMATION

Published information on water use in the iron and steel industry is limited, especially, on use for the various processing units. A brief survey of the literature for this report uncovered no water-use information, other than general statements, on most ore-concentration processes and on some steel refining processes. When comparing the results of this survey with other published information, the reader should keep in mind the possibility that different methods were used to determine average water-use values. For example, Cannon (1964) reported that the average water intake by the steel industry was 17,311 gallons per ton of steel, but the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Water Eesources (U.S. Congress, 1960) reported that water intake in 1954 was 31,842 gallons per ton of steel. The large difference between these two figures results from different methods of calculation. The value reported by the Senate Select Committee was obtained by dividing the total water intake of all blast, open-hearth, and electric furnaces and rolling mills in the United States by the tons of ingots or castings produced. The value reported by Cannon is an average for five regions Western Great Lakes, Ohio River, Upper Mississippi, Great Basin and California. The water intake for each region is the average of the water intake by individual integrated steel plants. Thus, water use in the Great Basin, where a relatively small amount of steel is produced and where water is necessarily reused extensively, is given as much weight in Cannon's average as is water use in the Ohio River region, with its large steel production. Published information on water use is shown in table 1. These data have been converted insofar as possible to the units used in this report, but in many places the exact product is not always clear. For example, the 20,790 gallons per ton of steel reported by the National

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

355

Association of Manufacturers and the U.S. Chamber of Commerce may be referred to steel ingots or to finished steel. Generally, steel production is reported in tons of ingots unless otherwise stated and water use is reported in gallons per ton of ingots.
FINDINGS OF THIS SURVEY

The steel plants surveyed for this report withdrew annually, from various sources, about 1,400 billion gallons of water and produced 40.8 million tons of ingot steel, about 30 percent of the total steel production in the United States. This is equivalent to about 34,000 gallons of water per ton of ingot steel. Data for most steel plants surveyed was for 1957, but some plants reported 1956 data. These figures compare favorably with the 31,842 gallons per ton reported by the Senate Select Committee, whose data were calculated by the same method used in this report but included data for all steel plants in the United States. This correlation indicates that the sampling was reasonable. No standard for judging the adequacy of the survey of iron mines and concentration plants is available. However, the mines and concentration plants included in the survey produced about 16 percent of the concentrate production in the United States. Because they were selected in the same way as the steel plants they should be representative of the iron ore industry. The production (mining and concentration) of about 15 million tons of iron ore concentrate required about 89,000 million gallons of water, which is about 5,900 gallons per ton of concentrate, or 2,300 gallons of water per ton of raw ore. Data for these mines was for 1956. The nationwide average values used above should not be confused with values reported in the following table which are arithmetic averages of amounts of water used in the individual plants.
SOURCES OF WATER

Most of the steel plants surveyed obtained water from both surface and underground sources. Generally, ground water was used in limited quantities and was used where relatively good quality water was required. About 97 percent of the water used by all the steel plants surveyed came from surface sources, 2.2 percent was reclaimed sewage, and 1.2 percent came from ground-water sources. Of the 29 plants surveyed, only three plants used self-supplied water exclusively, and only two plants used public water supplies exclusively (part -<4, table 2*). However, 96 percent of the total amount of water used by all the steel plants was self-supplied. Parts B and G of table 2 indicate that there are no significant differences between sources of water for integrated steel plants and steel processing plants. Parts D and E of table 2 indicate that the water used by iron ore mines and concentration plants is also predominantly supplied by company-owned facilities from surface sources.

TABLE 1. Published information on water use


Source of information Plants surveyed
Ore concentration plants

CO Oi Oi Remarks

Water use

Taggart (1945) _ Do___... Johannes (1957). Ruble and Anderson (1962). Knoerr and Lutjens (1956). Minnesota iron mines. Minnesota iron rangesReserve Mining Co., Silver Bay, Minn.

150-350 gpm for 50-150 tons of raw ore per day. 2,000 gal per ton of raw ore_ _. 600-6,000 gal per ton of concentrated ore. 6,000-12,000 gal per ton of concentrated ore. 10,000 gal per ton of concentrated ore.
Steel plants

Screening Alabama brown ore. Washing Alabama brown ore; 100-150 cu yd per hr. Wash ore required the least amount of water; taconite required the most. Includes reuse as well as intake water. Taconite processing.

German (1943)

md Steel Institute (1948). 42)__. ___________ Youngquist (1942) ation of ManuThe Conservation 1950). Nebolsine (1954b) b)_______________

42,000 gal of water per ton of steel. 18,000-19,200 gal of water per ton of steel ingots. 36,000 gal per ton of finished steel. 65,000 gal per ton of finished steel. 6,000-110,000 gal per ton of steel. 40,000-45,000 gal per ton of steel. 30,000 gal per ton of finished steel.

Water required to produce finished steel. Water required to produce steel ingots.

Rolled steel (hot-rolled plates, cold-rolled strip). Intake by a typical steel plant. Intake where water conservation is practiced.

65,000 gal per ton of finished steel. Leffler (1956)__-----_-_. Peirce and Hancock (1960). U.S. Congress (1960)___. Johnson (1963). Do_______ Cannon (1964). U.S. Steel Corp., Geneva, Utah. 34,800 gal per ton of finished steel. 40,000 gal per ton of finished steel. 31,842 gal per ton of steel- __

Intake by plants on the Great Lakes where practically unlimited supplies are available. Water for cleaning, washing, and cooling. Based on total water used by steel industry and total steel production. Intake at capacity operation. Intake. Arithmetic average of average water intake in the following basins: Western Great Lakes, Ohio River, Upper Mississippi, Great Basin, and California area.

55,000 gal per ton of steel. Bethlehem Steel, Sparrows Point, Md. Kaiser Steel, Fontana, Calif- 1,400-1,600 gal per ton of steeL 17,311 gal per ton of steel_-_-_

National Association of Manufacturers and the Chamber of Commerce of the United States (1965).

20,790 gal per ton of steel.

Coke plant

steel.

CO Oi vl

CO Oi 00

TABLE 1. Published information on water use Continued


Source of information Plants surveyed
Blast furnaces

I
Remarks

Water use

American Iron and Steel Institute (1948). Chemical Engineering (1951).. Nebolsine (1954b). McDaniel (1947)One unidentified plant.

11,000 gal per ton of pig iron.. 12,000 gal per ton of pig iron.. 10,000 gal per ton of finished steel. 3,300-4,600 gal per ton of pig iron capacity. Recommended for estimating utility cost during preliminary design. Bosh and stack-cooling systems only. The smaller amount of water was used before chemical cleaning of cooling system; the larger amount after cleaning. Primary gas-washing tower. Secondary gas-washing disintegrators, rotary. Secondary gas-washing disintegrators, stationary. Electrostatic precipitators. Furnace cooling water.

Black and McDermott (1954).

800-4,300 gal per ton of pig iron. 1,100-1,700 gal per ton of pig iron. 1,200-1,300 gal per ton of pig iron. 220-1,100 gal per ton pig iron. 4,000-8,500 gal per ton of pig iron.

Open-hearth furnaces

American Iron and Steel Institute (1948). Nebolsine (1954b). .._.__. ___ _

17,000-20,000 gal per ton of steel ingots. 5,000 gal per ton of finished steel. Range: 3,900-21,000 gal per ton of steel ingots.
Hot-rolling mills

Typical furnace.

Nebolsine (1954b)__ ___ ____ ___

10,000 gal per ton of steel- _ _ __


Continuous casting machine

Miller and Dancy (1963). __ __

2,000-2,500 gal per ton of castings used for cooling molds plus as much as 1,000 gal per ton for spraying the steel after it leaves the mold.

Experimental casting machine; water velocity in the mold cooling jacket was about 25 fps.

00 Ot

TABLE 2.

Source and amount of water intake of iron and steel plants surveyed [Data are in millions of gallons per day unless otherwise indicated]
Type of water Percentage of total water intake

CO Oi O

Source

No. of plants Fresh

Surface Saline Mixed Total

Ground

Surface Sewage and ground, mixed

All water

H A . All steel plants

1.8 57. 7 3,610 49.5 3,560 3, 670 97 0.4 12. 4 32.4 2. 2 30. 2 45. 0 1. 2 2. 2 70. 1 3,720 135 3,590 3,800 100 0. 1 1.8 98 3. 6 94 100
o

[Includes integrated steel plants, steel processing plants, and coking plants and blast furnaces operated separately]

Self supplied. _ _______

_ _ _____

2 3 24

1. 8 31.4 2,950 49. 5 2,900

26.3 666 666 692 18


B. Integrated steel plants

83. 2 83.2 83.2 2. 2

29 Percentage of total water

2,982 78

Self supplied. ________

__ ________

2 31.4 16 2,820
36.4 2,780

26.3 666 666 692 19

57. 7 3,490 36.4 3,450 3,550 97

10. 4 29. 0 2. 15 26.8 39. 4 1. 1

83.2 83.2 83.2 2.3

68. 1 3,600 122 3,480 3,670 100

1.9 98 3.3 95 100

Public supply ___ ___________

All sources, _ ________________ Percentage of total water

18 2,850 78

C. Steel processing plants

Public supply and self supplied. _ ___ Self supplied. ____ __________ All sources__________________ Percentage of total water

2 1 4

1.76 50.0 5.35 44 6

1.76 50.6 5.35 44 6 51.8 90


D. Iron ore mines

0.413 2. 02 3.39 3.39 5.82 10

2. 17 2. 02 53.4 5.35 48. 0 57.6 100

3.8 3.5 93 9.3 83 100

51.8 90

[Fifteen mines were surveyed but two reported that no water was used]

Public supply__ ______ __________ Self supplied. ___ ___ _________ ___ Public supply and self supplied. _ _ _ Public supply __ ____ ____ __ All sources __ __ ________ __ Percentage of total water

2 6 5

0. 268 . 140 . 515 .515

0. 268 . 140 . 515 .515 . 923 71


E. Ore processing plants

0. 362 . 010 . 010 .372 29

0. 268 . 502 .525 . 010 .515 1. 295 100

21 39 40 40

.7

13 71

.923

100

Public supply and self supplied. _____

9 6

30.4 245 245 .094

30. 4 245 245 . 094

0.467 . 006 . 006 .473 .2

1.30

32. 2 245 245 .094

311 88 88

Self supplied. ____ ____________ All sources_____________--___ Percentage of total water


15

.03

275 99

275 99

1.30 .5

277 100

100

362

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES


GROSS WATER USB

As shown by table 3, gross water use in integrated steel plants ranged from 11,200 to 110,000 gallons per ton of ingot steel with a median of 33,200 and in steel processing plants from 4,180 to 26,700 gallons per ton with a median of 20,400. Some of this difference in water use in steel plants can be attributed to variations in products and units, but even in some units, such as blast furnaces, that have virtually the same function, the range was notable. Gross water use in blast furnaces ranged from 5,220 to 31,000 gallons per ton of pig iron. In open-hearth furnaces the range was from 2,260 to 8,810 gallons per ton of ingot steel. Several factors, more or less significant in all units of steel plants, account for these differences in water use. Inasmuch as more than 95 percent of the gross water use in steel plants was for cooling, those factors that affect the amount of cooling water are by far the most important. Some factors that affect cooling-water requirements are age and condition of the plant, procedures of operation, and quality of cooling water. Changes in the designs of units within steel plants have required changes in cooling systems over the years. Also, during the use of furnaces the insulation is eroded and is periodically replaced. When the insulation is in good condition, less cooling water is required to protect the metal parts of furnaces than when metal parts are exposed directly to the hot furnace gases. The duration of a "heat" the time that steel being refined and compounded is held at high temperature in open-hearth or electric furnaces affects the amount of water required per ton of steel. The kinds of steel produced, the percentage of cold-charged iron or steel, and the use or nonuse of oxygen are some of the things that determine the time required to produce steel in open-hearth and electric furnaces. Cold-charged iron increases the time, whereas the use of oxygen may decrease the time necessary to make steel. To prevent scale deposits or corrosion when using water of poor quality an operator often will use a greater amount than would ordinarily be used. Scaling tendencies of water that contains scale-forming elements generally is enhanced by increased temperature. Likewise, some water, especially saline water, is more corrosive when hot. Because of this, the temperature increase of some water in its passage through a furnace is kept as low as 10F. A blast furnace that is operated with a 10F increase in water temperature will require twice as much water as one operated at a 20F increase, the more common condition. Some water used for cooling contains solids in suspension and, regardless of the temperature, is circulated at velocities high

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

363

enough to prevent the deposition of these solids in the system. Water brought into a plant at high temperature is less effective as a cooling agent than cold water. Consequently, more hot water than cold water is required to effect the same degree of cooling. The amount of water used in mining operations is insignificant when compared with other operations in the iron and steel industry, but concentration of iron ore may require large quantities of water. The maximum amount of water used for concentration of ore was 14,700 gallons per ton of concentrate and the median was 2,040 gallons per ton (table 4). For the years 1956-60 the production of a ton of ingot steel required 1 ton of iron ore concentrate. This means that water used for concentration of ore is a large percentage of the total water used in the iron and steel industry. Generally, fine-grained ores such as jasper and taconite require more water for concentration than other ores. It should be noted, however, that data on the physical properties of the ores treated by the plants surveyed for this report were not investigated; only the iron mineral was identified without an indication of the liberation size. Gross water requirements of the various units are given in gallons per ton of product of the unit in parts D to I of table 3. To determine the significance of each unit in the gross use by integrated plants requires that these values be converted to gallons per ton of steel ingots. This is done on the basis of the average consumption of coke and pig iron and the average production of steel ingots and castings during the period 1956-60. During this period an average of 56 tons of coke, 115 tons of iron ore concentrate, and 67 tons of pig iron were consumed in the production of 102 tons of steel ingots and castings. The gross water use of typical (median) units converted to gallons per ton of steel ingots is: coking plants, 3,000; blast furnaces, 13,000; open-hearth furnaces, 5,130; electric furnaces 3,040; primary hot-rolling mills, 2,000; secondary hot-rollings mills, 6,000. On the same basis, iron ore concentration required 2,300 gallons per ton of steel ingots.
INTAKE AN3> REUSE

Water intake is more subject to control than is gross water use, being determined primarily by the extent of reuse. The lower limit for intake is the consumptive use of a plant, and the upper limit is the gross use. Both limits have been reached in the steel plants surveyed. In integrated plants, intake ranged from 1,340 gallons per ton of steel ingots to 66,300 gallons per ton, whereas in steel processing plants, the range was from 341 to 16,000 gallons per ton.

364
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21 9, 400' 79 15, 400 26, 300 63,800 20, 800

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5.51 268
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1,940 5,000 1,210

23 4.19 9,180 16, 200 30, 200 65, 500 21,500

B. Integrated steel plants

[Gallons of water per ton of ingot steel]

Water intake: Number of plants. ______ Minimum.____________ Lower quartile _ ________ Median_____________ Upper quartile-______ Maximum__________ Average.._____ Gross use (including reuse): Number of plants....... Minimum.____________ Lower quartile _________ Median_______._____ Upper quartile-________ Maximum_____________ Average_______________ Consumption: Number of plants _______ Minimum____________ Lower quartile.________ Median. ______________

17 8, 460 13, 300 18,300 36, 400 64,100 25,500 17 8, 460 13, 300 18,300 36, 400 64, 100 25, 500 16 0 0 0

15 45. 0 901 3,350 5,570 13, 000 4, 260 15 1, 200 3, 510 11,500 17, 700 80, 900 15, 500 14 0 0 17.8 117 1,350 175

16, 25, 38, 66, 27, 10, 23, 29, 48, 108, 37,

18 901 500 000 200 200 600 18 900 700 200 200 000 000

18 65. 0 185 292 534 1,510 364 18 29 273 371 595 3,320 586 16 0 2.39 47. 9 188 1,250 159

15 0. 68 137 245 1,230 4,950 851 15 39.9 137 245 1,250 4,950 901 13 0 0 51.3 97. 7 283 68.0

18 27.9 143 220 426 3,430 502 18 27.9 143 220 436 3,430 502 16 0 0 0 0 196 12.4

251 300 574 2,260 5, 000 1,360 251 300 574 2,350 5,000 1,410

18 1,340 13, 900 24, 300 37, 000 66, 300 27, 700 11, 24. 33, 50, 110, 39, 18 200 400 200 900 000 500

Upper quartile_________ Maximum.. ___________ Average.____-___-.____

201 793 110

16 0 0 17. 228 1,610 263

16 0 21.4 284 681 2, 010 491

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i ^ 4. on 6,620 5 0 0 0 46.3 92.6 18.5 .79 760 7,780 11,800 15, 400 6,600 5

26, 300 13, 500 7 12. 2 448 213 1,680 3,300 859 7 0 0 272 517 2,640 561

26, 300 10 onn 7 44.8 105 213 1,680 3,300 872 7 0 0 1,990 10, 400 15, 600 5,260
D. Coking plants

601 225 6 0 14 6 87.2 240 601 152 6 0 0 10.9 103 345 649

263 120 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 4 19 37.1 85.8 201 263 115

26, 700 18, 500 7 120 124 646 1,680 3,420 1,000 7 4 19 221 020 500 700 390 2 ^ fe g S

2, 10, 15, 5,

[Gallons of water per ton of coke]

Water intake: Number of plants. ______ Minimum _ ____________ Median. _______________ Upper quartile -____ _ _ Maximum. ____________ Gross use (including reuse) : Number of plants_______ Median._______ ________ Upper quartile Maximum- ____________ Averace _______________

15 899 2,130 5,150 5,810 9,220 4,280 15 899 2,130 5,150 5,810 9,220 4,280

11 17.3 64.0 102 475 686 230 11 235 735 1,470 4,600 7,070 2,580

17 35.8 1,860 3,890 5,790 9,560 3,930 17 1,630 3,630 5,380 6,700 12,600 5,450

7 1.67 63.8 71.1 83.8 231 85.3 7 1.67 63.8 78.4 218 231 109

10 83.9 135 531 895 1,770 610 10 83.9 135 531 895 1,770 610

11 8.52 9.49 34.4 69.1 335 61.2 11 8.52 9.49 34.4 69.1 335 61.2

17 88.7 2,120 3,890 6,220 9,960 4,180 17 2,700 4,180 5,470 6,920 13,600 5,900

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19, 400 5,700 12 680 4,710 11, 100 22, 800 26, 000 12, 400 11 0 0 0 293 857 150 11 293 623 3,320 10, 400 18, 900 6,000

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267 532 873 327 8 130 211 315 614 873 389 8 0 0 72.0 150 265 86.9 8 0 2.39 208 522 608 240

1,330 2,410 2,670 1,300 5 68.0 124 1,330 2,410 2,670 1,300 4 68.0 84.3 171 840 1,050 365 4 0 300 1,410 1,860 1,940 1, 190

27.7 70.8 2,230 271 13 5.11 14.7 27.7 75.8 2,230 271 11 0 0 0 0 1.42 0.13 11 5.11 19.0 49.4 80.8 2,230 318

1,940 4,400 4,820 2,260 4 350 448 1,940 4,400 4,820 2,260 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 350 448 1,940 4,400 4,820 2,260

15, 22, 29, 15,

200 100 900 700

Upper quartile_____ _ __ Consumption: Minimum. ____ _______ Upper quartile _ Effluent: _

17 446 4,550 11, 900 22, 800 29, 800 13, 700 16 0 0 0 0 491 36.6 16 446 190 000 500 800 200

20 5,220 12, 700 19, 300 26, 000 29, 800 19, 100 18 0 0 0 98.8 951 124 18 2,490 10, 400 13, 900 20, 400 29, 800 15, 400

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370
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0 0 2.25 68.7 76.5 23.5

10.1 28.9 34.9 59.1 562 85.3

65.7 1,500 3,160 4,900 6,340 3,280

[Oallons of water per ton of ingot steel]

Water intake: Number of plants. ______ Minimum.. _ ___________ Lower quartile _ ______ Upper quartile ______ Maximum. ____________ Average _ Gross use (including reuse) : Number of plants. _ Lower quartile __ _____ Median _ _ _ _ ___ ___ Upper quartile- _ _ _ _ Average _______________ Consumption: Number of plants. ______ Median___ ____ _ ___ Upper quartile. ____ _ Maximum ____________ Average. ______________

5 15.7 125 475 565 604 371 5 1,210 1,550 2,310 4,520 5,100 2,850 5 12.2 14.0 60.8 195 232 95.5

7 15.7 166 475 604 4,940 994 7 166 1,210 2,130 4,940 5, 100 2,720 7 0 0 15.7 157 232 68.4

16.5 166 475 604 4,940 1,010 166 1, 210 2,130 4,940 5, 100 2,780 7 0 0 15.7 157 232 68.2
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372
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127 228 57.8 5 0 0 1.93 20.4 25.3 8.53

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/. Secondary hot-rolling mills

[Gallons of water per ton of finished steel]

Water intake:

Median.. _____________ Maximum. ________ Average. ______________

13 365 3,230 5,960 7,640 24, 500 6,760

9 117 336 1,820 2,900 5,380 1,930

17 117 2,010 3,680 7,670 24, 500 6,190

5 8.95 17.0 30.2 51.2 54.2 6.71

11 2.24 9.02 54.3 371 1,090 211

4 24.8 257 663 300

17 126 2,030 4,050 7,880 25, 600 6,480


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374
WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES
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IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

375

Reuse of water ranged from 0 to 18 times in integrated steel plants and from 0 to 44 times in steel processing plants. In a few plants, the only water withdrawn from the source was that required to replace water used consumptively. The reasons for this wide range in reuse are not clear, but shortage of water seems to be the most important factor. Plants in the Western United States generally reused more water than those in the East. A large percentage of the steel processing plants surveyed are west of the Mississippi River where water is less abundant than in the East. In contrast, most of the integrated steel plants are in the water-rich areas of the East. A typical (median) steel processing plant used about 20,400 gallons per ton of steel ingots of which 82 percent was reused water, whereas a typical integrated plant reused only 26 percent of its gross water use of 33,200 gallons per ton of steel ingots. Each time water is used for cooling or for most other purposes in a steel plant, some water is lost by evaporation. This loss of water leaves the remaining water with a higher dissolved-solids concentration than before it was used. With repeated reuse, the concentration of dissolved solids eventually becomes too high for many uses of the water. In some plants, the deterioration of water quality is overcome by reuse in a "cascade" system. In this type system, water is used first in places where good quality water is required, and then as the quality is degraded it is diverted to other uses that are less sensitive to water quality. (See pi. 4.) Finally, the remaining water may be completely evaporated in quenching slag. Water was not reused extensively in the iron ore industry, but some concentration plants and mines did reuse water. Because the flow of water into and out of tailings basins often cannot be completely determined, the actual amount of water reused is not accurately known.
CONSUMPTION

Because most of the water used in steel plants is for cooling, consumption should be closely related to the heat loss from the plants. Parts B and G of table 3 show that a typical integrated steel plant consumes about 1.8 percent of the new water intake and about 1 percent of the gross water requirement and that a typical processing plant consumes about 18 percent of the intake and 3.2 percent of the gross. More extensive reuse, of course, is the reason for most of the difference in percentage of intake consumed by integrated plants and percentage of intake consumed by processing plants. The difference in percentage of gross water consumed by these two classes of plants is the result of more intensive use of cooling water in open-hearth furnaces, electric furnaces, and rolling mills than in blast furnaces and the processes

376
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Effluent:

124 37.6 13 0 91.8 533 913 3, 190 770 14 0

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18.2 4.1 13 0 0 0 0 193 16.3

140 42.9 13 105 534 929 4,550 890 .6

448 109 13 0 175 1,320 2,530 10, 100 2,040 14 0

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1 Includes mines and concentration plants that operate as one installation. 2 Includes one mine that operates independently of a concentrate plant.

3 Includes one concentrate plant that operates independently of a mine.

00

378

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

used for cooling the water towers, spray ponds, or natural water bodies. The average temperature increase of cooling water in blast furnaces is about 20F and that in the open-hearth and electric furnaces is about 50F (American Iron and Steel Institute, 1948); therefore, a greater percentage of the total water in circulation would be used consumptively in open-hearth and electric furnaces than in blast furnaces. Heat added to cooling water is dissipated in cooling towers, spray ponds, lakes, or streams primarily by three processes evaporation, conduction to the atmosphere, and radiation. According to Harbeck (1953), in a hypothetical situation based on Lake Hefner near Oklahoma City, Okla., most of the heat added to the lake would be dissipated through evaporation of water during the summer. During winter, slightly less than half would be dissipated through evaporation. For Lake Colorado City in Texas, Harbeck, Koberg, and Hughes (1959) found that on an annual basis the ratio of forced evaporation (evaporation due only to the addition of heat from a powerplant) to heat added was 710 acre-feet per billion kilowatthours of power. This means that for each 10F increase in temperature of the cooling water an amount of water equal to 0.6 percent of the cooling water was evaporated. A generally accepted figure for evaporation in evaporative cooling equipment is 1 percent of the water circulated for each 10F of cooling range. Additional losses occur due to "drift" or spray for mechanical-draft towers about 0.5 percent, for atmospheric towers about 1 percent, and for spray ponds as much as 10 percent (Marks, 1951). Heat loss, and therefore evaporation, from streams probably is more similar to heat loss from a lake than to that from cooling towers and other mechanical devices. Many plants, generally those that use once-through cooling systems, reported no consumptive use of water, but, as shown, consumptive use of cooling water is unavoidable under ordinary operating procedures. Although this generally undetermined loss of water probably is less than water loss from a cooling tower for the same heat load, it should not be ignored in a comparison of water use by different systems. Consumption of water by ore concentration plants, which ranged from 0 to 448 gallons per ton of concentrate, seemed to be unrelated to type or condition of the ore and to the manner of operation.
QUALITY OF WATER

Quality of water must be considered in the design and operation of equipment in the steel industry, but it is not usually a critical factor in the determination of plant location. If enough water is available, its quality is probably acceptable or can be made acceptable by treatment at a reasonable cost. For uses such as furnace cooling, which

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

379

require large quantities of water, construction materials for the water system can be chosen for their ability to resist the corrosiveness of various kinds of water. The relatively small amounts of high-quality water needed for such uses as boiler feed or human consumption can be provided by necessary treatment.
QUALITY OF WATER REQUIRED

Standards of water quality for the steel industry have not been generally accepted because of the wide variation in equipment, products, and procedures, but a few examples of limits on quality characteristics have been mentioned in the literature. Bethlehem Steel Corp. set a limit of 175 ppm (parts per million) on the chloride concentration for effluent received from the Baltimore, Md., sewagetreatment plant (Hill, 1945). This water is used for cooling of rolling mills and descaling steel and for other purposes for which saline water is not suitable. Studies at Bethlehem's Sparrows Point Plant and elsewhere in the United States suggested the following waterquality criteria for use in the steel industry (Wolman, 1948): Temperature below 75F, chloride less than 175 ppm, pH between 6.8 and 7.0, hardness less than 50 ppm, suspended matter less than 25 ppm, organic content as low as possible, and corrosion potential at the lowest possible level. Cartwright and Dowding (1958, p. 28) suggested that water used in a continuous strip mill should meet the following criteria:
Use Quality requirement* General cooling_ Suspended solids less than 25 ppm, chloride reasonably low. Hot-mill descal- Suspended solids less than 15 ppm, chloride less than ing. 200 ppm. Cold rolling and Hardness less than 57 ppm. rolling oil solution. Boiler feed___ Hardness less than 14.3 ppm.

Criteria suggested by Wolman as well as that of Cartwright and Dowding apparently are intended to apply to rolling mills, for much more concentrated water has been used successfully for cooling furnaces and for other purposes in many plants. Highly saline water can be used for cooling condensers in powerplants, cooling furnaces, cleaning and cooling gases, quenching slag, and other similar uses, but scale-forming compounds such as calcium sulfate can cause serious loss of efficiency in cooling systems. Two examples show the effect of using poor-quality water without treatment. Corrosion caused by a high dissolved-oxygen concentration and probably by electrolytic action was a problem in a steel plant

380

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

in England in which copper cooling plates were connected by iron pipes (Lloyd, 1957). In the cooling system of a blast furnace within that plant, corrosion products reduced the flow of water from 4,654 gpm (gallons per minute) at startup to 1,597 gpm in about 5 years. In general the greatest loss of cooling capacity occurred in the system which served the hottest part of the furnace bosh, hearth, and tuyeres. McDaniel (1947) reported that the removal of scale from a blast-furnace cooling system increased the flow of water from about 3.3 mgd (million gallons per day) to about 4.5 mgd. Because no change occurred in the effluent temperature, this increase in flow represents an. equivalent increase in cooling and, thus, furnace protection.
QUALITY OF INTAKE WATER

Data on quality and treatment of intake water were requested from each mine and steel plant visited. Where possible these data were supplemented by analyses collected in the Geological Survey's basic-data programs and studies of public water supplies. Water from each source is considered separately even though one plant may have several different sources. Only one analysis from each source was used to obtain the statistics shown in the tables of water-quality data. In general, if more than one analysis of a source was available the analysis representing the least desirable condition was used. The mining industry gives only slight consideration to water quality except for boiler-feed water, sanitary and service water, and water used for jet piercing. Information on the quality of water used at mines and concentration plants was not adequate to support a firm statement on quality requirements, partly, perhaps, because of the location of iron mines in areas of generally good quality water. For example, in the eight analyses reported the highest concentration of dissolved solids was 580 ppm and the maximum hardness, as calcium carbonate, was 278 ppm. Data on quality of intake water for steel mills was more plentiful than that for mines but was also incomplete. However, a reasonably good appraisal of the quality of water used by steel plants was obtained. Tables were prepared to show the range in concentration of chemical constituents in untreated intake water for use as (a) cooling and process water in steel plants, (b) cooling and process water in hot-rolling mills, and (c) boiler-feed water. Minimum, lower quartile, median, upper quartile, and maximum concentrations reported for each constituent are shown in these tables along with the number of times the constituent was reported. Values shown in each column minimum, lower quartile, and other values do not necessarily represent a particular water analysis but may be values from several differ-

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

381

ent analyses. For example, the minimum concentration of calcium, 1.6 ppm, was the minimum of all calcium concentrations reported without consideration of other factors. Parts A and B of table 5, which show the chemical characteristics of untreated intake water used by steel plants and hot-rolling mills for cooling and process water, differ significantly only in the maximum concentrations. Saline water is commonly used for cooling and process water in unite such as blast furnaces, but the use of highly mineralized water in contact with rolled steel is undesirable. Even so, water containing 1,900 ppm chloride has been used in hot-rolling mills. As shown by part C of table 5, much better water is used for boiler feed than for cooling and process water.
TABLE 5. Chemical quality of water at source of supply
[Purchased water may have been treated. Values except pH In parts per million. These values are based on observation of individual properties and do not represent complete analyses] Constituent or property Number of Minimum analyses Lower quartile Median Upper quartile Maximum

A. Water to be used for cooling and processing in steel plants

Silica (SiO2)_- ___ _.__ Iron (Fe)_. __ ___ _ _ Calcium (Ca)_. _ _ __ Magnesium (Mg)_ Sodium and Potassium (Na+K)... __._.._._ Bicarbonate (HCO3)____ Carbonate (CO3) ____ Sulfate (SO4)~- _ Chloride (Cl)._ __ _ _ Dissolved solids _ __ Hardness as CaCO3 : Total _ _ _ __ pH__.._. ___.._._.____

33 27 32 32 32 35 34 34 36 34 36 32 33

0.2 .00 1.6 .6 2.5 0 0 3.0 1.6 19 6 0 5.1

3.6 .07 22 5.0 9.4 24 0 25 12 164 87 23


6 9

6.0 .11 40 8.2 24 78 0 57 25 255 129 40 7.4

11 62 12 54 128 0 152 44 394

.20

30 6.3 281 392 3,340 390 36 566 6,000 10,400 1,850 1,800 9.9

235 110 7.7

B. Water to be used for cooling and processing in hot-rolling mills

Silica (SiOa).. _____ Iron (Fe)___ _ _ ___ Calcium (Ca)._ _ _____ Magnesium (Mg)_ ___ Sodium and potassium (Na+K)__________._ Bicarbonate (HCO3)..__ Carbonate (CO3) ___ _ Sulfate (SO*)- __ __ __ Chloride (Cl)._ ____ __ Dissolved solids. _______ Hardness as CaCO3 : Total ___ _ _______ N oncarbonate _____ _ pH___________________

22 18 20 20 20 23 23 22 24 22 24 20 23

0.2 .00 1.6 .6 2.5 2 0 3.0 1.6 22 6 0 6.1

2.4 .04 19 5.0 5.6 35 0 20 15 154 92 14


6 9

5.2 .10 40 7.4 24 93 0 34 26 242 129 35 7.6

10 50 11 48 122 0 140 68 373


242 65

.19

21 281 54 877 390 36 440 1,900 3,410

.40

7.7

923 894 9.9

382

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

TABLE 5. Chemical quality of water at source of supply Continued


[Purchased water may have been treated. Values except pH in parts per million. These values are based on observation of individual properties and do not represent complete analyses] Constituent or property Number of Minimum analyses Lower quartile Median Upper quartile Maximum

C. Water to be used for boiler feed in steel plants

Silica (SiO2) _______ Iron (Fe)_ __ ____ Calcium (Ca)___ _______ Magnesium (Mg) ______ Sodium and potassium (Na+K)________-___ Bicarbonate (HCO3)_ ... Carbonate (CO3) ___ _ Sulfate (SO 4)-------_ Chloride (Cl)__________ Dissolved solids ______ Hardness as CaCO3 : Total Noncarbonate _______ pH __

24 17 23 23 23 25 24 23 25 23 25 23 21

0.2 .00 1.6 .6 2.5 2 0 3.5 1.6 22 6 0 5.1

2.7 .04 21 7.0 9.0 34 0 21 11 164 68 10 7.0

7.4 .10 39 8.3 24 103 0 30 22 231 128 35 7.4

11 .16 60 11 45 139 0 148 42 360 217 94 7.8

30 6.3 77 29 97 390 36 440 125 659 641 169 9.9

TREATMENT OF INTAKE WATER

Treatment of intake water for use in mines was not widely practiced. None of the mines visited treated intake water used for processing ore but, in some mines, plant effluent required considerable clarification before reuse for processing fine-grained ores. Of the six mines that reported water use in boilers, only two treated intake feed water; one that used lake water demineralized its intake feed water and the other softened and disinfected intake water pumped from the mines. Ground water and water from municipal supplies usually were not treated by the mining companies for sanitary and service use, but surface water usually was disinfected and sometimes clarified. Much of the intake water used for cooling and process water in steel plants was not treated. As shown in table 6A, treatment of cooling water usually consisted of only disinfection to prevent biologic growth and the addition of chemicals such as phospates, sulfites, and chromates to control scale and corrosion. Table 6B shows that the most frequent treatment given to process water was disinfection to control biologic growth in distribution lines and even this was unusual. Generally, disinfection is essential for effluents from sewage-treatment plants. Treated sewage contains an abundance of nutrient compounds such as phosphates and nitrates that promote the growth of bacterial slimes and algae. A residual of the disinfectant, usually chlorine, must be maintained in the water throughout the plant. Most process water is used for quenching coke and slag which does not require good water.

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

383

Most intake water used for boiler feed (table 67) was softened or internal treatment for scale and corrosion control in the boilers was used. Internal treatment within the boilers generally consisted of the addition of phosphate compounds, organic compounds, or adjustment ofpH.
TABLE 6. Treatment of intake water
Figures refer to frequency of use of various types of water treatment. Prior treatment of purchased wate is not considered] Self supplied Type of treatment Ground Surface Fresh
A. Water used for cooling

Purchased water Ground Surface Total

Saline

No treatment___ ___________________ Screening. __ _ _________ _________ Clarification- _____ ________________ Softening. ________________________ Disinfection.. ______ ___ ___________ Scale and corrosion control___________

5 1 3

12 3 3 1 7 3

1 1

2 1

12 1 2 2

1 1

32 3 4 4 10 10

B. Water used for processing

Not treatment __ _______ _________ Screening____ _ ____ ___ _______ Softening.- _._ _____ __ ___ __ _ _ Disinfection.. __________ ___ _ _ ___

7 2 2 1 3 1

1 1

17 2 2 1 7 2

C. Water used for boiler feed

Softening__ ___ _ _________________ Disinfection. _ _________ _ _______ Demineralization. ______________ __

1 3 3

2 8 4 1

4 1 4 1

3 15 1 12 1

FUTURE WATER REQUIREMENTS

As shown by figure 53, steel production in the United States has grown rapidly since 1900. The Business and Defense Service Administration of the U.S. Department of Commerce has estimated that steel production will continue to rise and will reach 238 million ingot tons by 1980 and 320 millions tons by 2000 (U.S. Congress, 1960). Production of domestic iron ore is not expected to keep pace with steel production. Figure 54 shows that importation of foreign iron ore has increased rapidly since 1955, and this trend is expected to continue.

384 125
p

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

100

H%%i Basic-oxygen converter ^B| Electric furnace

75

|^X;>>3 Open-hearth furnace flllllll] Bessemer converter

50

25

1900

1920

1940

1960

FIGURE 53. Annual steel production by the various processes, 1900 63.

Harrison (1960) estimates that by 1980 the steel industry in the United States will require 190 million tons of usable iron ore per year, of which 45 percent will be imported, 29 percent will be standard-grade domestic ore, and 26 percent will be agglomerates from domestic taconite and jasper. This estimate indicates little change in the total amount of usable ore produced in the United States, but low-grade ores will tend to replace high-grade domestic ores. Although this growing dependence on imported iron ore probably will cause a greater increase in steel production in regions served by ocean transportation than in other areas, no area is expected to experience an actual decline in production. Water use by the iron and steel industry probably will increase because of the growth of the industry, but new developments in steel processing, increasing dependence on low-grade ore, more stringent water management and waste-water control regulations are likely to alter the ratio of water use to steel production.

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

385

125

100

75
LU +

^ _

EXPLANATION
7 Li It

Consumption by U.S. steel industry 50 U.S. production Imports less exports 25

- ^

a m~

1940

1950

1960

FIGURE 54. Iron ore production and consumption in the United States, 1940-62.

Reuse of water within the steel industry has been an effective means of reducing water intake, and several factors favor increased reuse of water in the future. As a measure for conserving or saving water, reuse is effective only when water is withdrawn from storage, such as groundwater storage, and is reused before being discharged to a stream. This practice reduces the amount of water removed from storage. Where water is withdrawn from a stream or lake and is discharged after use to the same body of water, there is generally no saving of water from reuse, inasmuch as consumptive use is not reduced. (See page 375.) However, consumptive use may be a minor consideration in most places. Probably of greater concern is the discharge of hot water or water containing waste substances that may render the receiving water less useful for many purposes- Treatment of waste water to correct deficiencies of quality will often be required to comply with pollutioncontrol regulations. For a large percentage of the effluent from steel plants, only cooling would be required, and once cooled, this water will often be more suitable than the new water available to a plant. Thus, where treatment of effluent is required, reuse may become desirable for

386

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

economic reasons. The decision to reuse water will depend, first, upon how much water is available and, second, upon an economic evaluation of the various ways of conserving water and of preserving its quality. It seems reasonable to expect that the trend toward greater reuse of water will continue as the ratio of supply to demand decreases and as quality requirements for plant effluents become more exacting. A trend toward extensive use of fine-grained ores such as taconite and jasper will undoubtedly be accompanied by an increase in water use in the iron ore industry, because the amount of water needed to process iron ore depends to a great extent on the reduction in particle size necessary to liberate the desired mineral. The percentage of the total requirements of iron ore supplied from various sources is shown in figure 55. The percentage of direct-shipping ore mined in the United States, which requires no concentration, has dropped from 78 percent in 1943 to 21 percent in 1962, whereas the percentage of concentrates has remained nearly constant and the percentage of agglomerates, which include concentrates from taconite and jasper, has increased rapidly since 1958. An increase in water use for iron ore concentration is to be expected, not only because of the use of fine-grained ores, but also because steel companies have found that high-grade ore sufficiently increases the capacity of blast furnaces to make it profitable to concentrate ores that were once used without concentration and to agglomerate more finely divided ores. Several recent developments in steel processing promise to alter the steel industry considerably, and some of these changes probably will result in lower consumption of water. Figure 53 illustrates the growth of the steel industry and shows that the bulk of the steel produced in the United States was made in open-hearth furnaces. However, having become almost competitive with the open-hearth furnace, the electric furnace has gained rapidly in importance since 1950, and this trend is expected to continue (Case and others, 1953); the basic oxygen converter has also become an important steel-production apparatus in the United States and may be a serious rival of the open-hearth furnace in large tonnage production. Both the electric furnace and the basic oxygen converter use and consume less water per ton of steel than the open-hearth furnance; furthermore, direct reduction of iron ore by one or more of the numerous possible processes is expected to replace the blast furnace in a large percentage of the increased iron production capacity in the United States (U.S. Congress, 1960). These direct-reduction processes offer possibilities of reducing water consumption. Other means of reducing water consumption are available should they prove necessary or economical. These include salvaging heat that is normally wasted by evaporation

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

387

100

1942

1945

1950

1955

1960 1962

FIGURE 55. Sources of iron ore for the United States steel industry, 1942-62.

of cooling water and using it for power production or other useful purposes (Durham, 1964; Feltoe and Moreton, 1954) and using aircooled heat exchangers for furnace-cooling water (Calvert and Blumf elt, 1963. Both the above methods involve the dissipation of heat by means other than evaporation of water.
SUMMARY

A wide range of water use in the iron and steel industry has resulted from a variety of factors such as the quantity and quality of available water and types of facilities. Gross water use in integrated steel plants ranged from 11,200 to 110,000 gallons per ton of steel ingots and in

388

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

steel processing plants from 4,180 to 26,700 gallons per ton. Inasmuch as more than 95 percent of the water used in steel plants is used for cooling, the factors that affect the use of cooling water are most important for the steel industry as a whole. These factors are quality of water, age and condition of facilities, and operating procedures. Water intake by integrated steel plants ranged from 1,340 to 66,300 gallons per ton of steel ingots and by steel processing plants from 241 to 16,000 gallons per ton. Water intake is determined to a large extent by the rate of reuse which is affected primarily by the availability of water. Plants in the water-short areas of the Western United States reused water more extensively than did plants in the East. Gross water use in iron ore mines ranged from 0 to 104 gallons per ton of raw ore, and intake ranged from 0 to T4.1 gallons per ton of raw ore. In iron ore concentration plants, gross water use ranged from 124 to 14,700 gallons per ton of iron ore concentrate. Generally the iron ore industry reused little water. Most of the water used in steel plants is for cooling (table 7), and only a very small percentage of the intake is consumed (evaporated). Except for water used in rolling mills for cooling and scale removal, temperature is the only characteristic of cooling water that is seriously affected during any one pass through the system. However, a slight increase in the concentration of dissolved solids caused by evaporation losses must be considered in any plan for intensive reuse. The effects of this deterioration of chemical quality may be minimized by using the water first in those operations that are more sensitive to water quality and then successively in less sensitive operations (cascade system). This reuse of cooling water without treatment except disinfection and passage through cooling towers or ponds allows much flexibility in water-system design. As indicated by table 8, water was obtained from surface- and ground-water sources and reclaimed sewage, but surface sources were by far most important, supplying more than 96 percent of the total water intake. Although reclaimed sewage is used in relatively small amounts, its use is significant because it demonstrates one important method of solving some water problems. As with most water reuse, quality often is a problem in the reuse of sewage. The abundance of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen in effluents from sewagetreatment plants promotes troublesome abnormal growths of bacterial slimes and algae, but these generally can be prevented by disinfection. Table 8 also shows that 18.2 percent of the water used in steel plants was saline (more than 1,000 ppm dissolved solids), but only a small part of this percentage was very saline (10,000-35,000 ppm). The use of saline water entails additional costs owing to the need for cor-

TABLE 7. Median and average water use in the iron and steel industry, in gallons per ton of product indicated
Median water use Plants or units Product Intake Gross use
Total

Average water use Consumption Intake


Total

Gross use Cooling water 31, 900


37, 500 18, 200 5,370 19,000 4,870 2,720 3,570 11,700 Total

Consumption Cooling Total water 449


263 872 90.7 124 105 68.4 95.8 487

Cooling Total Cooling water water Steel plants: Integrated and processing, combined. Furnaces: Blast.. _ . Hot-rolling mills: Ingot steel __ _____ 17,500 18,200 -. do..-.-...... ..... 25,000 24,300 ..... do ... 3,300 3,680
3,890 3,890 13, 900 15,200 3,130 3,160 475 __ do ___________ 475 1,390 3,680 1,650 4,050 3.6 1,320 26, 200 29,600 20,100 5,380 19,000 4,750 2,130 2,070 7,640

Cooling Total Cooling water water 105


17.8 213 17.3 0 0 15.7 0 10 295 284 646 143 25.2 24.5 15.7 13.4 44.5 3.1 24.2

27,000 32,400 20,400 5,450 20,200 4,810 2,130 2,600 7,690 3.6 2,040

21, 600
27, 600 6,150 3,930 15, 100 3,280 994 2,980 6,190

21,800 27,700 6,400 4,180 15, 700 3,380 1,010 3,280 6,480 11.6 2,550

33, 600 39,800 18, 300 5,850 20,100 4,990 2,780 3,880 12,000 16.7 2,980

647
491 1,000 175 244 122 68.2 115 477 3.7 103

_ . __ . __ ....

CO 00

390

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

rosion-resistant construction materials or the need to pump larger quantities than are necessary with fresh water to prevent scale formation.
TABLE 8. Sources of water used in the -iron and steel industry, in percent
Iron ore mines Source Self supplied 50.1 27.9 Reclaimed sewage __ - __________ Purchased 21.2
.8

Ore concentration plants Self supplied 99.4 .2 .5 Purchased <0.1

Steel plants Self supplied 77.1 18.2 1.1 Purchased 1.3 <.l
2.2

Surface water:
Saline .. rj , - - -. ^

In addition to changes in the economics of water management, changes in processes in both iron ore concentration and steel production are likely to alter the water needs of the industry. Increasing use of fine-grained iron ores probably will be accompanied by increased water use, although not necessarily increased consumptive use. New steel production methods and new equipment for old methods may effect a decrease in both gross use and consumption.
SELECTED REFERENCES

American Cyanamid Co., 1942, Heavy-media separation processes: Ore Dressing Notes, no. 11,27 p. American Iron and Steel Institute, 1948, Water is used principally for cooling in steel making: Steel Facts, v. 90, no. 6, p. 6-7. American Society of Civil Engineers, Committee on Sanitary Engineering Research, 1959, An evaluation of two recent industrial waste treatment processes SED Research Report 22: Am. Soc. Civil Engineers Proc., Jour. Sanitary Eng. Div., v. 85, no. SA3, paper 2031, p. 35-40. American Water Works Association Task Group, 1953 Industrial water use: Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour., v. 45, no. 3, p. 289-294. Baffa, J. J., 1954, Waste disposal at a steel plant; treatment of sewage: Am. Soc. Civil Engineers Proc., Sanitary Eng. Div., v. 80, separate no. 495, 11 p. Black, H. H., and McDermott, G. N., 1954, Industrial waste guide blast furnace department of the steel industry: Sewage and Industrial Wastes, v. 26, no. 8, p. 976-990. Breitling, Von Volker, 1960, The significance of water management in the metallurgical industry, in reference to the common water supply and purity maintenance of surface waters: Das Gas and Wasserfach, v. 101, no. 1, p. 73-79. Calvert, P. M., and Blumfelt, W. G., 1963, Jacket water for open-hearth furnaces is air cooled: Iron and Steel Engineer, v. 40, no. 9, p. 209-210. Camp, J. M., and Francis, C. B., 1951, The making, shaping, and treating of steel: 6th ed., Pittsburg, Pa., United States Steel Co.

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

391

Cannon, D. W., 1964, Industrial reuse of water An opportunity for the west: Water and Sewage Works, v. Ill, no. 5, p. 250-254. Carr, M. S., and Button, C. E., 1959, Iron-ore resources of the United States, including Alaska and Puerto Rico, 1955: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1G82-C. Cartwright, W. F., and Dowding, M. A., 1958, Flat rolling, the effect of plant design and layout on capital and operating cost: Iron and Steel Inst. [London] Jour., v. 188, pt. 1, p. 23-35. Case, S. L., Moore, D. D., Sims, C. E., and Lund, R. J., 1953, Comparative economics of open-hearth and electric furnaces for production of low carbon steel: Battelle Memorial Inst. (published by Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pa.), 77 p. Chemical and Engineering News, 1962, Process reclaims waste pickle liquor: Chem. Eng. News, v. 40, no. 38, p. 82-83. 1964, Coal chemical production to increase: Chem. Eng. News, v. 42, no. 21, p. 59-60. Chemical Engineering, 1951, Estimating requirements for process steam and process water: Chem. Eng., v. 58, no. 4, p. 110-111. 1960, Process regenerates acid, recovers iron; uses novel mercury cell design to recycle usable acid: Chem. Eng. v. 67, no. 10, p. 82-84. Clarke, F. E., 1962, Industrial reuse of water: Indus. Eng. Chemistry, v. 54, no. 2, p. 18-27. Daniel, J. L., 1950, The supply and distribution of water to iron and steel works: Iron and Steel Inst [London] Jour., v. 165, pt. 4, p. 437-453. Dean, R. S., and Davis, C. S., 1941, Magnetic separation of ores: U.S. Bur. Mines Bull. 425, 417 p., 165 figs. Degler, H. E., 1955, Cooling towers for steel plants; Why, when, where, how: Iron and Steel Engineer, v. 32, no. 7, p. 105-113. Derby, R. A., 1955, Cyclone plant improvements up recovery of Mesabi iron ore: Mining World, v. 17, no. 3, p. 49-51, 79. Derby, R. L., 1957, Water use in industry: Am. Soc. Civil Engineers Proc., Jour. Irrigation and Drainage Div., n. IR 2, paper 1364 v. 83, p. 1-9. Doerr, A. H., 1954, Factors influencing the location of nonintegrated and integrated steel centers in Anglo-America: Southwestern Sci. Quart., v. 34, no. 4, p. 39-44. Durban, Ed, 1964, Water-cooled membrane hoods for basic furnaces: Iron and Steel Engineer, v. 41, no. 4, p. 108-118. Feltoe, F. J., and Moreton, P. M., 1954, High-temperature water cooling of open hearth furnaces by steam-producing elements: Iron and Steel Inst. [London] Jour., v. 178, pt. 4, p. 391-395. Frankau, M. A., 1953, Water cooling of open-hearth furnaces: Iron and Steel Inst. [London] Jour., v. 174, pt. 1, p. 46-52. Fuerstenau, D. W., ed, 1962, Froth flotation 50th anniversary volume: New York, Am. Inst. Mining, Metall, Petroleum Engineers, 677 p. Gaudin, Am. M., 1939, Principles of Mineral dressing: York, Pa., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 554 p. Gorman, A. E., 1943, Administrative policies of the Water Division-OfBee of War Utilities: Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour., v. 35, no. 7, p. 846-852. Harbeck, G. Earl, 1953, The use of reservoirs and lakes for the dissipation of heat: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 282,6 p., 2 figs., 3 tables. Harbeck, G. Earl, Koberg, G. E., and Hughes, G. H., 1959, The effect of the addition of heat from a powerplant on the thermal structure and evaporation of Lake Colorado City, Texas: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 272-B, 51 p., 3 pis., 24 figs.

392

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

Harris, J. 0. O., 1956, Mineral facts and problems: U.S. Bur. Mines Bull. 585, p. 767-791. Harrison, H. S., 1960, The changing iron ore industry: Eng. and Mining Jour., v. 161, no. 7, p. 72-73. Hauser, F. R, 1956, Expansion of industrial water facilities at Sparrows Point: Iron and Steel Engineer., v. 33, no. 9, p. 81-84. Henderson, A. D., and Baffa, J. J., 1954, Waste disposal at a steel plant; treatment of flue dust waste: Am. Soc. Civil Engineers Proc., v. 80, separate no. 494, 8 p. Hill, W. P., 1945 Industry converts sewage works effluent into water supply: Water Works and Sewage, v. 92, no. 12, p. 383-389. Hoak, R. D., 1955, Greater reuse of industrial water seen: Ohem. and Eng. News, v. 33, no. 13, p. 1278-1282. 1961, Steel mill sludge recovery: Water Pollution Control Federation Jour., v. 33, no. 10, p. 1050-1055. 1965, Water resources and the steel industry: Iron and Steel Engineer, v. 41, no. 5, p. 87-91. Iron Range Resources and Rehabilitation Commission, State of Minnesota, 1955, Outlook on Minnesota's resources: Report of the Governor's State-Wide Conference on Resources, Hibbing, Minn., Nov. 16-18,1955, p. 162-170. Jennings, J. C., 1950, Disposal of waste cooling water: Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour., v. 42, no. 6, p. 578-582. Johannes. C. A., 1957, Iron ore mining and processing waste disposal. In Industrial Waste Conference, llth, Purdue Univ., Ind., 1956, Proc.: Purdue Univ. Eng. Bull., ext. series 91, p. 528-536. Johnson, W. H., 1963, Water treatment and reclamation in steel plants: Iron and Steel Engineer, v. 40, no. 5, p. 142-147. Kinney, J. E., 1962, Operators role in pollution control: Iron and Steel Engineer, v. 39, no. 1, p. 67-70. Knoerr, A. W., 1964, Profile of metal and mineral markets iron ore and steel: Eng. and Mining Jour., v. 165, no. 2, p. 108-110. Knoerr, A. W., and Lutjens, G. P., 1956, Reserve's new taconite project: Eng. and Mining Jour., v. 157, no. 12, p. 75-101. Leffler, R. L., 1956, Water and Steel; Fairless Works water supply, in Water for industry, a symposium presented Dec. 29,1953, Boston, Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci.: Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Pub. 45, p. 35-42. Lloyd, H. B., 1957, Corrosion problems in blast furnace water-cooling System: Corrosion Technology, v. 4, no. 7, p. 221-224. Lohr, E. W., and Love, S. K., 1954, The industrial utility of public water supplies in the United States, 1952, pt. 1, States east of the Mississippi River; pt. 2, States west of the Mississippi River: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 1299 and 1300. McAneny, C. C., 1960, Iron how is direct reduction doing commercially?: Eng. and Mining Jour., v. 161, no. 12, p. 84-99. McDaniel, B. H., 1947, Chemical removal of scale, sludge, and oxides from steel plant equipment: Iron and Steel Engineer, v. 24, no. 9, p. 43-50. MacDougall, Hugh, 1954, Waste disposal at a steel plant; treatment of sheet and tin mill waste: Am. Soc. Civil Engineers Proc., Sanitary Eng. Div., v. 80, separate no. 493,15 p. Madsen, I. E., 1964, Developments in the iron and steel industry during 1963: Iron and Steel Engineer, v. 41, no. 1, p. D1-D60.

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

393

Mantell, C. L., and Grenni, L. G., 1962, Iron from pickle liquor: Water Pollution Control Federation Jour., v. 34, no. 9, p. 951-961. Marks, L. S., ed., 1951, Mechanical Engineers Handbook: New York, McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., p. 1185. Marsden, R. W., and others, 1957, Facts about Minnesota iron mining: 407-408 Sellwood Bldg., Duluth 2, Minn., Iron Mining Industry of Minnesota, 48 p. Miller, D. H., and Dancy, T. E., 1963, Continuous casting past, present, and future: Iron and Steel Engineer v. 40, no. 5, p. 97-108. Moyer, Stanley, 1962, Industry's water problem: Mech. Eng. v. 84, no. 3, p. 46-49. Mussey, O. D., 1961, Water requirements of the copper industry: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1330-E, p. 181-219, 2 figs., 1 pi. National Association of Manufacturers and The Chamber of Commerce of the United States, 1965, Water in industry: New York, Natl. Assoc. Manufacturers, 81 p. National Association of Manufacturers and The Conservation Foundation, 1950, Water in industry: New York, Natl. Assoc. Manufacturers, 50 p. Nebolsine, Ross, 1954a, Waste disposal at a steel plant; general problems: Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Proc., v. 80, no. 492, p. 1-9. 1954b, Water supply for steel plants: Iron and Steel Engineer, v. 31, no. 4, p. 78-88. 1957, The treatment of water-borne wastes from steel plants: Iron and Steel Engineer, v. 34, no. 12, p. 125-150. Nemerow, N. L., 1963, Theory and practice of industrial waste treatment: Reading, Mass., Palo Alto, Calif., and London, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. Inc., 557 p. Peirce, E. H., and Hancock, R. D., 1960, Reclamation industrial waste water: Iron and Steel Engineer, v. 37, no. 8, p. 125-130. Pettit, G. A., 1957, Treatment and reuse of mill scale wastes to conserve water and abate pollution: Iron and Steel Engineer, v. 34, no. 9, p. 144-150. Reebel, Dan, 1950, ABC of iron and steel: 6th ed., Cleveland, Ohio, The Penton Publishing Co. Riegel, H. L, 1952, Waste disposal at the Fontana Steel Plant: Sewage and Industrial Wastes, v. 24, no. 9, p. 1121-1129. 1957, Industry's water problems and their solution: Iron and Steel Engineer, v. 34, no. 11, p. 73-78. Ruble, E. H., and Anderson, A. R., 1962, Water for iron ore processing produced in an automatic plant: Water Works Eng., v. 115, no. 1, p. 30-33. Rubow, I. H., 1956, Jet piercing in taconite; Oliver Iron Mining Div. of U.S. Steel: Mining Cong. Jour., v. 42, no. 6, p. 78-82. Steel Industry Action Committee of the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission, 1953, Reducing phenol wastes from coke plants: Cincinnati, Ohio, Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Comm., 36 p. Taggart, A. F., 1945, Handbook of mineral dressing; ores and industrial minerals : New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1951, Elements of ore dressing: New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 595 p. Tartaron, F. X., 1949, Iron ore beneficiation: Mining Eng., v. 1, no. 5, p. 14-18. Tow, D. J., 1956, Cooling water for industry-I: Petroleum [London], v. 19, no. 6, p. 233-236. Trengrove, R. R., 1956, Methods and operation at the Kaiser Steel Corp. Eagle Mountain Iron Mines, Riverside County, California: U.S. Bur. Mines Inf.

Circ. 7735,25 p., 14 fig. U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1940-62, Minerals Yearbook (published annually).

394

WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED INDUSTRIES

U.S. Congress, Senate Select Committee on National Water Resources, I960, Water resources activities in the United States Future water requirements of principal water-using industries: U.S. 86th Cong., 2d sess., Comm. Print 8,101 p. Van Slyke, W. R., and Derby, R. A., 1953, Pilot cyclone plant paves way for two full-scale operations: Eng. and Mining Jour., v. 154, no. 4, p. 88-94. White, C. L., 1957, Water A neglected factor in geographical literature of iron and steel: Geog. Rev., v. 47, no. 4, p. 463-489. Willis, M. J., Forecasting water requirements; forecasting industrial requirements : Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour. v. 49, no. 3, p. 235-241. Youngquist, C. V., 1942, Water and war production: Eng. Expt. Sta. News, Ohio State Univ., v. 14, no. 4, p. 21. Wolman, Abel, 1948, Industrial water supply from processed sewage treatment plant effluent at Baltimore, Md.: Sewage Works Jour., v. 20, no. 1, p. 15-21.

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