Term Paper

Physics
Submitted by:
BHAVYA THAKUR Roll No. : 33 Section : 258 Regd. No. : 10805030

Submitted to:
Miss. Sumam (physics dept.)

TOPIC

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

Light-emitting diode

Blue, green, and red LEDs; these can be combined to produce most perceptible colors, including white. Infrared and ultraviolet (UVA) LEDs are also available.

A light-emitting-diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits light when an electric current is applied in the forward direction of the device, as in the simple LED circuit. The effect is a form of electroluminescence where incoherent and narrow-spectrum light is emitted from the p-n junction. LEDs are widely used as indicator lights on electronic devices and increasingly in higher power applications such as flashlights and area lighting. An LED is usually a small area (less than 1 mm2) light source, often with optics added to the chip to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. The color of the emitted light depends on the composition and condition of the semiconducting material used, and can be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet. Besides lighting, interesting applications include using UV-LEDs for sterilization of water and disinfection of devices,[4] and as a grow light to enhance photosynthesis in plants.

History
Discovery and development
The first known report of a light-emitting solid-state diode was made in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs. Russian Oleg Vladimirovich Losev independently created the first LED in the mid 1920s; his research, though distributed in Russian, German and British scientific journals, was ignored, and no practical use was made of the discovery for several decades. Rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using GaSb, GaAs, InP, and Ge-Si alloys at room temperature and at 77 K. In 1961, experimenters Bob Biard and Gary Pittman working at Texas Instruments, found that gallium arsenide gave off infrared radiation when electric current was applied. Biard and Pittman were able to establish the priority of their work and received the patent for the infrared light-emitting diode. The first practical visible-spectrum (red) LED was developed in 1962 by Nick Holonyak Jr., while working at General Electric Company. He later moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Holonyak is seen as the "father of the light-emitting diode". M. George Craford, a former graduate student of Holonyak's, invented the first yellow LED and 10x brighter red and red-orange LEDs in 1972. Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation of Japan demonstrated the first high-brightness blue LED based on InGaN borrowing on critical developments in GaN nucleation on sapphire substrates and the demonstration of p-type doping of GaN which were developed by I. Akasaki and H. Amano in Nagoya. In 1995, Alberto Barbieri at the Cardiff University Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of high-brightness LEDs demonstrating very high result by using a transparent contact made of indium tin oxide (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs) LED. The existence of blue LEDs and high efficiency LEDs quickly led to the development of the first white LED, which employed a Y3Al5O12:Ce, or "YAG", phosphor coating to mix yellow (down-converted) light with blue to produce light that appears white. Nakamura was awarded the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize for his invention. The development of LED technology has caused their efficiency and light output to increase exponentially, with a doubling occurring about every 36 months since the 1960s, in a similar way to Moore's law. The advances are generally attributed to the parallel development of other semiconductor technologies and advances in optics and material science. This trend is normally called Haitz's Law after Dr. Roland Haitz.

Practical use
The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements for incandescent indicators, and in seven-segment displays, first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, and even watches (see list of signal applications). These red LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate an area. Later, other colors became widely available and also appeared in appliances and equipment. As the LED materials technology became more advanced, the light output was increased, while maintaining the efficiency and the reliability to an acceptable level, causing LEDs to become bright enough to be used for illumination, in various applications such as lamps and other lighting fixtures. Most LEDs were made in the very common 5 mm T1 and 3 mm T1 packages, but with higher power, it has become increasingly necessary to shed excess heat in order to maintain reliability, so more complex packages adapted for efficient heat dissipation are becoming common. Packages for state-of-the-art high power LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs.

LED technology

Physical principles

The inner workings of an LED

Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers electrons and holesflow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon. The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light. LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with evershorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors. LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.

Colors and Materials

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, the following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material:
Color Wavelength (nm) Voltage (V) V < 1.9 1.63 < V Semi-conductor Material Gallium arsenide (GaAs) Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Infrared > 760 Red 610 < <

760

< 2.03

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP) Zinc selenide (ZnSe) Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate Silicon (Si) as substrate (under development) Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)

Orange

590 < < 610

2.03 < V < 2.10

Yellow

570 < < 590

2.10 < V < 2.18

Green

500 < < 570

2.18 < V < 4.0

Blue

450 < < 500

2.48 < V < 3.7

Violet

400 < < 450

2.76 < V < 4.0

Ultraviol < 400 et

diamond (C) Aluminium nitride (AlN) 3.1 < V < Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) 4.4 Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) (down to 210 nm[17]) V = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with phosphor

White

Broad spectrum

RGB Systems

Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and high brightness red solidstate semiconductor LEDs. FWHM spectral bandwidth is approximately 2427 nm for all three colors.

White light can be produced by mixing differently colored light, the most common method is to use red, green and blue (RGB). Hence the method is called multi-colored white LEDs (sometimes referred to as RGB LEDs). Because its mechanism is involved with sophisticated electro-optical design to control the blending and diffusion of different colors, this approach has rarely been used to mass produce white LEDs in the industry. Nevertheless this method is particularly interesting to many researchers and scientists because of the flexibility of mixing different colors [23]. In principle, this mechanism also has higher quantum efficiency in producing white light. There are several types of multi-colored white LEDs: di-, tri-, and tetrachromatic white LEDs. Several key factors that play among these different approaches include color stability, color rendering capability, and luminous efficiency. Often higher efficiency will mean lower color rendering, presenting a trade off between the luminous efficiency and color rendering. For example, the dichromatic white LEDs have the best luminous efficiency (120 lm/W), but the lowest color rendering capability. Oppositely although tetrachromatic white LEDs have excellent color rendering capability, they often have poor luminous efficiency. Trichromatic white LEDs are in between, having both good luminous efficiency (>70 lm/W) and fair color rendering capability.

Efficiency and operational parameters

Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 3060 milliwatts (mW) of electrical power. Around 1999, Philips Lumileds introduced power LEDs capable of continuous use at one watt (W). These LEDs used much larger semiconductor die sizes to handle the large power inputs. Also, the semiconductor dies were mounted onto metal slugs to allow for heat removal from the LED die. One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting is its high efficiency, as measured by its light output per unit power input. White LEDs quickly matched and overtook the efficiency of standard incandescent lighting systems. In 2002, Lumileds made five-watt LEDs available with a luminous efficiency of 1822 lumens per watt (lm/W). For comparison, a conventional 60100 W incandescent lightbulb produces around 15 lm/W, and standard fluorescent lights produce up to 100 lm/W. (The luminous efficiency article discusses these comparisons in more detail.)

Failure modes
The most common way for LEDs (and diode lasers) to fail is the gradual lowering of light output and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, however rare, can occur as well. Early red LEDs were notable for their short lifetime.

Nucleation and growth of dislocations is a known mechanism for degradation of the active region, where the radiative recombination occurs. This requires a presence of an existing defect in the crystal and is accelerated by heat, high current density, and emitted light. Gallium arsenide and aluminium gallium arsenide are more susceptible to this mechanism than gallium arsenide phosphide and indium phosphide. Due to different properties of the active regions, gallium nitride and indium gallium nitride are virtually insensitive to this kind of defect. Electromigration caused by high current density can move atoms out of the active regions, leading to emergence of dislocations and point defects, acting as nonradiative recombination centers and producing heat instead of light. Ionizing radiation can lead to the creation of defects as well, which leads to issues with radiation hardening of circuits containing LEDs (e.g., in optoisolators) Differentiated phosphor degeneration. The different phosphors used in white LEDs tend to degrade with heat and age, but at different rates causing changes in the produced light color, for example, purple and pink LEDs often use an organic phosphor formulation which may degrade after just a few hours of operation causing a major shift in output color. Metal diffusion caused by high electrical currents or voltages at elevated temperatures can move metal atoms from the electrodes into the active region. Some materials, notably indium tin oxide and silver, are subject to electromigration which causes leakage current and non radiative recombination along the chip edges. In some cases, especially with GaN/InGaN diodes, a barrier metal layer is used to hinder the electromigration effects. Short circuits Mechanical stresses, high currents, and corrosive environment can lead to formation of whiskers, causing short circuits. Thermal runaway Nonhomogenities in the substrate, causing localized loss of thermal conductivity, can cause thermal runaway where heat causes damage which causes more heat etc. Most common ones are voids caused by incomplete soldering, or by electromigration effects and Kirkendall voiding. Current crowding, non-homogenous distribution of the current density over the junction. This may lead to creation of localized hot spots, which poses risk of thermal runaway. Epoxy degradation Some materials of the plastic package tend to yellow when subjected to heat, causing partial absorption (and therefore loss of efficiency) of the affected wavelengths. Thermal stress Sudden failures are most often caused by thermal stresses. When the epoxy resin package reaches its glass transition temperature, it starts rapidly expanding, causing mechanical stresses on the semiconductor and the bonded contact, weakening it or even tearing it

off. Conversely, very low temperatures can cause cracking of the packaging.

Electrostatic discharge (ESD) may cause immediate failure of the semiconductor junction, a permanent shift of its parameters, or latent damage causing increased rate of degradation. LEDs and lasers grown on sapphire substrate are more susceptible to ESD damage. Reverse bias Although the LED is based on a diode junction and is nominally a rectifier, the reverse-breakdown mode for some types can occur at very low voltages and essentially any excess reverse bias causes immediate degradation, and may lead to vastly accelerated failure. 5V is a typical, "maximum reverse bias voltage" figure for ordinary LEDS, some special types may have lower limits.

Considerations in use

Electrical polarity

Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which illuminate regardless of the electrical polarity, LEDs will only light with correct electrical polarity. When the voltage across the p-n junction is in the correct direction, a significant current flows and the device is said to be forward-biased. If the voltage is of the wrong polarity, the device is said to be reverse biased, very little current flows, and no light is emitted. LEDs can be operated on an alternating current voltage,

but they will only light with positive voltage, causing the LED to turn on and off at the frequency of the AC supply. Most LEDs have low reverse breakdown voltage ratings, so they will also be damaged by an applied reverse voltage above this threshold. If it is desired to drive the LED directly from an AC supply of more than the reverse breakdown voltage then it may be protected by placing a diode (or another LED) in inverse parallel.

Power sources
The voltage versus current characteristics of an LED are much like any diode. Current is approximately an exponential function of voltage, so a small voltage change results in a large change in current. This can result either in a unlit LED or a current above the maximum rating, potentially destroying the LED; as the LED heats, its voltage drop decreases, further increasing current. Consequently, LEDs cannot connect directly to constant-voltage sources. A series resistor is a very simple and common way to stabilize the LED current, but wastes energy in the resistor. A constant current regulator is commonly used. Low drop-out (LDO) constant current regulators also allow the total LED string voltage to be a higher percentage of the power supply voltage, resulting in improved efficiency and reduced power use. Switching-type converters are used in some LED flashlights, stabilizing light output over a wide range of battery voltages and increasing the useful life of the batteries. Low power LEDs Miniature indicator LEDs are normally driven from low voltage DC via a current limiting resistor. Currents of 2 mA, 10 mA and 20 mA are common. Sub-mA indicators may be made by driving ultrabright LEDs at very low current. Efficiency tends to reduce at low currents, but indicators running on 100 A are still practical. The cost of ultrabright LEDs is higher than that of 2 mA indicator LEDs. Multiple LEDs are normally operated in parallel strings of series LEDs, with the total LED voltage typically adding up to around two-thirds of the supply voltage, with resistor current control for each string. In disposable coin cell powered keyring type LED lights, the resistance of the cell itself is usually the only current limiting device. The cell should not therefore be replaced with a lower resistance type. LEDs can be purchased with built in series resistors. These can save printed circuit board space and are especially useful when building prototypes or populating a PCB in a way other than its designers intended. However, the resistor value is set at the time of manufacture, removing one of the key methods of setting the LED's intensity. Alphanumeric LEDs use the same drive strategy as indicator LEDs, the only difference being the larger number of channels, each with its own resistor. Seven-segment and starburst LED arrays are available in both common-anode or common-cathode form. Finally, LEDs can be run from a single cell by use of a constant current switched mode inverter. The extra expense makes this option unpopular.

Advantages of using LEDs

Efficiency: LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs; this is useful in battery powered or energy-saving devices. Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of color filters that traditional lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs. Size: LEDs can be very small (>2 mm2) and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards. On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in microseconds. LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times. Cycling: LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled frequently, or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting. Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by Pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward current. Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burn-out of incandescent bulbs. Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 30,000 hours, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,0002,000 hours. Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile. Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner. Toxicity: LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike fluorescent lamps.

LEDs are produced in an array of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package (red, fifth from the left) is the most common, estimated at 80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have clear housings. There are also LEDs in extremely tiny packages, such as those found on blinkies and on cell phone keypads. (not shown).

Disadvantages of using LEDs

High price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed. However, when considering the total cost of ownership (including energy and maintenance costs), LEDs far surpass incandescent or halogen sources and begin to threaten compact fluorescent lamps. Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment. Over-driving the LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating of the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat-sinking is required to maintain long life. This is especially important when considering automotive, medical, and military applications where the device must operate over a large range of temperatures, and is required to have a low failure rate. Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies. Light quality: Most white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces being rendered particularly badly by typical phosphor based LEDs white LEDs. However, the color rendering

properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white LEDs.

Area light source: LEDs do not approximate a point source of light, so cannot be used in applications needing a spherical light field. LEDs are not capable of providing divergence below a few degrees. This is contrasted with lasers, which can produce beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less. Blue Hazard: There is increasing concern that blue LEDs and white LEDs are now capable of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications such as ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1-05: Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems. Blue pollution: Because white LEDs emit much more blue light than conventional outdoor light sources such as high-pressure sodium lamps, the strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that LEDs can cause more light pollution than other light sources. It is therefore very important that LEDs are fully shielded when used outdoors. Compared to low-pressure sodium lamps, which emit at 589.3nm, the 460 nm emission spike of white and blue LEDs is scattered about 2.7 times more by the Earth's atmosphere. LEDs should not be used for outdoor lighting near astronomical observatories.

Types :
The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color.

Miniature LEDs

Different sized LEDs. 8 mm, 5 mm and 3 mm, with a wooden match-stick for scale.

These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various-size packages:

surface mount 2 mm 3 mm (T1) 5 mm (T1) 10 mm Other sizes are also available, but less common.

Common package shapes:

Round, dome top Round, flat top Rectangular, flat top (often seen in LED bar-graph displays) Triangular or square, flat top

The encapsulation may also be clear or semi opaque to improve contrast and viewing angle. There are three main categories of miniature single die LEDs:

Low current typically rated for 2 mA at around 2 V (approximately 4 mW consumption). Standard 20 mA LEDs at around 2 V (approximately 40 mW) for red, orange, yellow & green, and 20 mA at 45 V (approximately 100 mW) for blue, violet and white. Ultra-high output 20 mA at approximately 2 V or 45 V, designed for viewing in direct sunlight.

Five- and twelve-volt LEDs These are ordinary miniature LEDs that incorporate a suitable series resistor for direct connection to a 5 V or 12 V supply. Flashing LEDs Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators where it is desired to avoid the complexity of external electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated multivibrator circuit inside which causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one second. In diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing LEDs emit light of a single color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB color mixing.

High power LEDs

High power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven at more than one ampere of current and give out large amounts of light. Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be highly efficient to minimize excess heat; furthermore, they are often mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the device will burn out in seconds. A single HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a powerful LED lamp. LEDs have been developed that can run directly from mains power without the need for a DC converter. For each half cycle part of the LED emits light and part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half cycle. The efficiency of HPLEDs is typically 80 lm/W. As of November 2008 some HPLEDs manufactured by Cree, Inc exceed 100 lm/W (e.g. the XLamp MC-E LED chip emitting Cool White light) and are being sold in lamps intended to replace incandescent, halogen, and even fluorescent style lights as LEDs become more cost competitive.

Multi-color LEDs
A bi-color LED is actually two different LEDs in one case. It consists of two dies connected to the same two leads but in opposite directions. Current flow in one direction produces one color, and current in the opposite direction produces the other color. Alternating the two colors with sufficient frequency causes the appearance of a blended third color. For example, a red/green LED operated in this fashion will color blend to produce a yellow appearance. A tri-color LED is also two LEDs in one case, but the two LEDs are connected to separate leads so that the two LEDs can be controlled independently and lit simultaneously. A threelead arrangement is typical with one commmon lead (anode or cathode). RGB LEDs contain red, green and blue emitters, generally using a four-wire connection with one common lead (anode or cathode). The Taiwanese LED manufacturer Everlight has introduced a 3 watt RGB package capable of driving each die at 1 watt.

Alphanumeric LEDs

Old calculator LED display.

LED displays are available in seven-segment and starburst format. Seven-segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display all letters.

Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the 1970s and 1980s, but increasing use of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power consumption and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED displays.

LED applications

List of LED applications

The many application of LEDs are very diverse but fall into three major categories: Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the LED to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning. Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response of these objects. And finally LEDs are also used to generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the human visual system. Indicators and signs

LED destination displays on buses, one with a colored route number.

Status indicators on a variety of equipment LED Panels used as stadium displays, large television displays, electronic billboards and dynamic decorative displays. Traffic lights and signals Exit signs Thin, lightweight message displays at airports and railway stations, and as destination displays for trains, buses, trams, and ferries. Red or yellow LEDs are used in indicator and alphanumeric displays in environments where night vision must be retained: aircraft cockpits, submarine and ship bridges, astronomy observatories, and in the field, e.g. night time animal watching and military field use. Red, yellow, green, and blue LEDs can be used for model railroading applications In dot matrix arrangements for displaying messages. Because of their long life and fast switching times, LEDs have been used for automotive high-mounted brake lights and truck and bus brake lights and turn signals for some time, but many high-end vehicles are now starting to use LEDs for their entire rear light clusters. Besides the gain in

reliability, this has styling advantages because LEDs are capable of forming much thinner lights than incandescent lamps with parabolic reflectors. The significant improvement in the time taken to light up (perhaps 0.5s faster than an incandescent bulb) improves safety by giving drivers more time to react. It has been reported that at normal highway speeds this equals one car length increased reaction time for the car behind. White LED headlamps are beginning to make an appearance.

As a medium quality voltage reference in electronic circuits. The forward voltage drop (e.g., about 1.7 V for a normal red LED) can be used instead of a Zener diode in low-voltage regulators. Although LED forward voltage is much more current-dependent than a good Zener, Zener diodes are not available below voltages of about 3 V. Glowlights, as a more expensive but longer lasting and reusable alternative to Glowsticks. Lumalive, a photonic textile Emergency vehicle lighting LED-based Christmas lights available in different colors and with low energy consumption. LED-modules provide LEDs in a more usable form to people with less knowledge of electronics and soldering: the actual LEDs are contained within in protective and mountable casing, and a lead enables connection to power supply, typically 12 volts. LED modules are available in a wide range of shapes, sizes and colors.

Lighting

Flashlights and lanterns that utilize white LEDs are becoming increasingly popular because of their durability and longer battery life.

Smart Lighting

Light can be used to transmit data. Because LEDs can cycle on and off millions of times per second, they can, in effect, become wireless routers for information transport. Non visual applications

LED panel light source used in an experiment on plant growth. The findings of such experiments may be used to grow food in space on long duration missions.

Grow lights using LEDs to increase photosynthesis in plants Remote controls, such as for TVs and VCRs, often use infrared LEDs. Movement sensors, for example in optical computer mice. The Nintendo Wii's sensor bar uses infrared LEDs. In optical fiber and Free Space Optics communications. In pulse oximeters for measuring oxygen saturation LED phototherapy for acne using blue or red LEDs has been proven to significantly reduce acne over a three-month period. Some flatbed scanners use arrays of RGB LEDs rather than the typical cold-cathode fluorescent lamp as the light source. Having independent control of three illuminated colors allows the scanner to calibrate itself for more accurate color balance, and there is no need for warm-up. Furthermore, its sensors only need be monochromatic, since at any one point in time the page being scanned is only lit by a single color of light. Sterilization of water and other substances using UV light. Touch sensing: Since LEDs can also be used as photodiodes, they can be used for both photo emission and detection. This could be used in for example a touch-sensing screen that register reflected light from a finger or stylus[46]. Opto-isolators use an LED combined with a photodiode or phototransistor to provide a signal path with electrical isolation between two circuits. This is especially useful in medical equipment where the signals from a low voltage sensor circuit (usually battery powered) in contact with a living organism must be electrically isolated from any possible electrical failure in a recording or monitoring device operating at potentially dangerous voltages. An optoisolator also allows information to be transferred between circuits not sharing a common ground potential.

Reveiws:
1.

Coghlans LED Micro Lantern

The lantern is powered by two button cell lithium batteries, and the LED is a Nichia 5mm. This combination will stay lit for 25 hours in solid mode and 50 hours in the emergency flashing mode. It is developed by Coghlan

2. In September 2003, a new type of blue LED was demonstrated by the company Cree, Inc. to provide 24 mW at 20 milliamperes (mA). This produced a commercially packaged white light giving 65 lm/W at 20 mA, becoming the brightest white LED commercially available at the time, and more than four times as efficient as standard incandescents. In 2006 they demonstrated a prototype with a record white LED luminous efficiency of 131 lm/W at 20 mA. Also, Seoul Semiconductor has plans for 135 lm/W by 2007 and 145 lm/W by 2008, which would be approaching an order of magnitude improvement over standard incandescents and better even than standard fluorescents. Nichia Corporation has developed a white light LED with luminous efficiency of 150 lm/W at a forward current of 20 mA. 3. The first blue LEDs were made in 1971 by Jacques Pankove (inventor of the gallium nitride LED) at RCA Laboratories. However, these devices had too little light output to be of much practical use. In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN epitaxial growth and p-type doping by Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano (Nagoya, Japan) ushered in the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices. Building upon this foundation, in 1993 high brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated through the work of Shuji Nakamura at Nichia Corporation.