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Cultural Studies
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THE INTELLECTUAL IN QUESTION
Emanuele Saccarelli
Version of record first published: 16 May 2011.
To cite this article: Emanuele Saccarelli (2011): THE INTELLECTUAL IN QUESTION,
Cultural Studies, 25:6, 757-782
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09502386.2011.567420
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Emanuele Saccarelli
THE INTELLECTUAL IN QUESTION
Antonio Gramsci and the crisis of academia
Although contemporary scholars in various disciplines readily appropriate many of
his ideas, Antonio Gramscis theory of intellectuals remains curiously unappre-
ciated. From the standpoint of the oft-lamented crisis of the contemporary
intellectual, however, it represents a resource that is both indispensable and
difficult to retrieve. In this article the historical and sociological nuances of
Gramscis theory, as well as the powerful, yet unheeded lessons of his own life as
an intellectual will be examined. In particular, Gramscis analysis of the social
affiliation and political agency of the intellectual provides the framework
necessary to explain the rise and ongoing crisis of the academic intellectual as a
historically unprecedented figure. This point will be illustrated by examining the
case of influential academic intellectuals such as Michael Walzer and Michel
Foucault. The article concludes with some reflections on the merits of Gramscis
distinctive way of being an intellectual.
Keywords intellectuals; academia; Gramsci; Walzer; Churchill;
Foucault
[T]his position assumed by the social complex of intellectuals . . . can be
defined as the expression of that social utopia by which the intellectuals
think of themselves as independent, autonomous, endowed with a
character of their own, etc.
(Antonio Gramsci 1971, p. 8)
If, however, the . . . reader . . . shrugs his shoulder . . . I must plainly tell
him, De te fabula narratur!
(Karl Marx 1990, p. 90)
In a recent opinion piece on the state of the university system, a prominent
Ivy-league professor declared on the pages of the New York Times that, graduate
education is the Detroit of higher learning (Taylor 2009, Saccarelli 2009).
This statement, which several decades earlier would have been received as a
compliment, now has the ring of a cruel and unappealable sentence. The article
fulminated against chronic bankruptcy, redundancy and inefficiency, in a way
Cultural Studies Vol. 25, No. 6 November 2011, pp. 757782
ISSN 0950-2386 print/ISSN 1466-4348 online # 2011 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandfonline.com http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09502386.2011.567420
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7 5 8 CULTURAL STUDI ES
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oliticl u:gc:c, :t|c: t|: clssicl cctc|uc:t
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THE I NTEL L ECTUAL I N QUESTI ON 7 5 9
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Eternal sunshine of the spotless mind
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!
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G:usci cxli:s
7 6 0 CULTURAL STUDI ES
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su|o:ci:tio: to uo:c cssc:til socil io:ccs :c i:tc:csts
+
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:ot co:stitutc sc:tc cstc, |, vi:tuc oi |ci:g scco:c:, :c ci|c:o
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i:ccc:cc:cc
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At t|is oi:t t|c socil iiilitio: :c o:igi: oi t|c i:tcllcctul |ccoucs i: :
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:c cisc:cs |:oc ::, oi sccilists lt is i: t|is sc:sc t|t t|c cculi: scli
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A |:ici illust:tio: oi t|is uocc:: co:citio: c: |c iou:c i: \ic|cl
Wlzc:s The Company of Critics As sttcc i: t|c cig:| t t|c |cgi::i:g oi
t|is scctio:, Wlzc:s ositio: is t|t i:tcllcctuls |vc lw,s cxistcc
.
Acco:ci:g to Wlzc:, socil c:iticisu, t|c |:oc ctivit, t|t uost
i:tcllcctuls c:ggc i:, uust |c s olc s socict, itscli ;1-, !,
\o:covc:, lt|oug| i:tcllcctuls :c |:ow: to cqui:c :c iu:ctio: cco:ci:g
to cc:ti: c:iticl scciliztio:s, suc| s oliticl cc:su:c, uo:l i:cictuc:t,
s|cticl qucstio:, sti:ic couuc:t, :g:, :o|cc,, utoi: sccultio:,
u:cc:l,i:g t|csc ciiic:c:t io:us t|c:c is couuo: ctivit,, w|ic| cst|lis|cs
t|ci: iu:cuc:tl |isto:icl cogc:c, :c co:ti:uit, ; -,
THE I NTEL L ECTUAL I N QUESTI ON 7 6 1
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D:cou|tccl,, Wlzc: t o:c lcvcl :ccog:izcs t|c |isto:icl c|:ctc: oi
i:tcllcctul liic, :c i: ict i:sists uo: it gi:st co:tcuo::, i:tcllcctuls,
ttc|i:g t|ci: cclusio:s oi :ovclt, :c oi :c:csc:ti:g : u::ccccc:tcc
socil t,c
o
lut t|is |isto:, is t|c |i:c cig:oscc |, G:usci sc:tc,
l:gcl, iictio:l |isto:, oi t|c c:itici:tcllcctul s : i:ccc:cc:t cstc
Acco:ci:g to Wlzc:, t|is |isto:, i:cluccs t|c :o|cts oi ls:cl, oc:tcs, :c
u:, uo:c si:ts :c si::c:s ;1-, +., At t|c suc tiuc, Wlzc: lso
cu|sizcs t|c ict t|t t|c i:tcllcctul is socil gc:t lut |c uc:s t|is i:
vc:, wc| sc:sc Agi:st t|c ictu:c oi t|c :cicll, lic:tcc t,c, Wlzc:
i:sists t|t t|c i:tcllcctul, :ticul:l, t|c i:tcllcctulsc:itic, is lw,s
iuuc:scc i: socil :cltio:s, c:ggcc i: :c :cso:ci:g to socil stiuuli, socil
:o|lcus, ctc I|c i:tcllcctul, t|t is, is :ot ltogct|c: :cuovcc i:ou
socict, lut t|is is :ot :ticul:l, co:t:ovc:sil cliu outsicc oi cc:ti:
cxt:cuc touistic tc:cc:cics uo:g co:tcuo::, i:tcllcctuls W|t
:cui:s out oi vicw is t|c socil qucstio: i: t|c st:o:gc: :c uo:c scciiic
sc:sc cxli:cc |, G:usci t|c :occss |, w|ic| socil clsscs :ocucc :c
uo|ilizc t|c i:tcllcctul
Wlzc: :c:csc:ts o:c oi u:, ossi|lc illust:tio:s oi G:uscis t|co:, oi
i:tcllcctuls lis csc is :ticul:l, i:tc:csti:g |ccusc |c c:ggcs wit|
G:usci ci:cctl, Wlzc: ii:cs u:, i:t:igui:g :c usciul clcuc:ts i: t|c
lcgc, oi t|c ltli: \:xist, |ut :ccict|l, stos s|o:t oi iull c:co:scuc:t
|, u:|i:g out o:c c:ucil oi:t oi co:tc:tio: :c ciiic:c:cc l,
su|o:ci:ti:g |iuscli co:sciousl, to clss, :c i: :ticul:l, to oliticl
:t, cliui:g to :c:csc:t it, G:usci ultiutcl, sc:iiiccc :c cou:ouiscc
|is i:tcg:it, s : i:tcllcctul :c c:itic Alt|oug| Wlzc: cx:csscs t|is
tctiull, :c :iscs :uu|c: oi cxtc:uti:g ci:cuust:ccs, i: t|c c:c t|is
:cui:s io: |iu iu:cuc:tl liuittio: t|t u|cs G:usci, io: ll |is
|:illi:cc, cutio::, tlc lc cic :ot :csolvc t|osc cilcuus, :ot io:
|iuscli, :ot io: us lc :cvc: gvc u |is couuituc:t to t|c :t, :c to t|c
t:uc coct:i:c t|t it cu|ocicc ;Wlzc: 1-, 100,

Wlzc:s c:iticisu
ills |c| :c ccc:cs o: t|c so:t oi su:clss ;s wcll s su:oliticl,
cctc|uc:t t|t cco:ci:g to G:usci cxists o:l, s iictio: I|c cstc oi
i:tcllcctuls t|c A:cic:t :c lo:o:|lc ou:, oi ocil :itics u,
|vc its ow: |isto:, :c oc:tc socill,, |ut it cocs iu:ctio: cco:ci:g to
cc:ti: t::s|isto:icl :o:us :c uust :ciii:u its socil cctc|uc:t |,
c|stisi:g, uo:c o: lcss gc:tl,, t|osc w|o st:, w, i:ou it
Wlzc:s cxui:tio: oi t|c i:tcllcctul, w|ic| is :tl, sclicxui:
tio:, :c w|ic| :o cou|t ictu:cs cc:ti: coulictio:s, c: sc:vc s usciul
illust:tio: oi t|c socil scct oi G:uscis t|co:,, i: :t, s |ust :otcc,
|ccusc it ccls wit| G:usci ci:cctl,

l:ou Wlzc:s c:scctivc, G:uscis

cculi: uocc oi |ci:g : i:tcllcctul ultiutcl, :ovcs i:cigcsti|lc, i: sitc oi
t|c u:, cli:g ictu:cs oi |is liic :c t|oug|t A:c i: ict, cco:ci:g to
G:uscis t|co:, oi i:tcllcctuls, to t|c cxtc:t t|t Wlzc: ccic:cs
|isto:icll, gc:c:ic :c su:clss c:iticisu, t|c ultiutc :c|cctio: oi t|is
7 6 2 CULTURAL STUDI ES
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co:sicuous ltc::tivc uoccl is c:ti:cl, :ccict|lc :c :cccss:, o:sicc:
i:g |is i:stitutio:l li:|s : i:tcllcctul :cstigious oi:tuc:t t t|c
l:stitutc io: Acv:ccc tucics t l:i:ccto:, ucu|c:s|i i: t|c lo:c oi
I:ustccs oi two u:ivc:sitics, lo:gst:ci:g ositio: s coccito: oi Dissent,
w|ic| sc:vcc s |ulw:| oi olc W: :ticouuu:isu o:c c: |c
io:givc: io: cv:ci:g t|c c:|s i:cclictc suggcstio: t|t Wlzc:s
iiilitio: to ccii:itc clss wc:c s :o|ust :c s co:scious s G:uscis
Wlzc: is quitc co::cct w|c: |c u:|s out t|c u::c: i: w|ic| |c ciiic:s
i:ou G:usci s : i:tcllcctul I|c lttc: vc:, ccli|c:tcl, t:icc to c:vc out
i:stitutio:l sccs t|t stooc :ot |ust outsicc, |ut ci:cctl, ooscc to t|c
ci:cuits oi citl, w|ilc io:uc: ws :ocuccc :c :c:ocuccc |, it, w|ilc, t
t|c suc tiuc, :oicssi:g tiuclcss :c su:clss i:ccc:cc:cc
lcvi:g sicc t|c cou:iso: wit| Wlzc:, it is iuo:t:t to oi:t out t|t
G:uscis t|co:, oi t|c socil iiilitio:s oi i:tcllcctuls is :ot siul, iii:ucc
s sociologicl |st:ctio:, |ut is ctull, ccvclocc |, uc:s oi closc
cxui:tio: oi t|c co:c:ctc co:citio: iiccti:g ltli: socict, i: t|c 1-!0s
G:usci oscs t|c qucstio: oi t|c i:tcllcctul, :ticul:l, t|c out|c::
i:tcllcctul, i: t|t co:tcxt W|t :c |is socil iiilitio:s, |is socil iu:ctio:s
W|t :c t|c co:c:ctc ucc|:isus oi t::suissio: |, w|ic| |c :ticultcs :c
cv:ccs scciiic socil i:tc:csts low :c |is cculi: io:us oi co:scious:css
co::cctcc to t|is
G:uscis :swc:s c: |c sc|cuticll, suuu:izcc i: t|c iollowi:g
u::c: I|c:c :c two t,cs oi out|c:: i:tcllcctuls t|c g:ct i:tcllcctul,
co::cctcc to t|c |ig l:cow:c:s, :c : u:cc:|:us| oi uiccli:g t,cs,
cuc:gi:g out oi t|c ctt, :u:l |ou:gcoisic oi:tl,, t|c, l, c:ucil :olc i:
:csc:vi:g cxloittivc clss :cltio:s i: t|c cou:t:,sicc, s :t oi
uo:st:ous g::i: |loc, w|ic| i: tu:: sc:vcs s t|c i:tc:ucci:, :c
ovc:scc: oi uocc:: :o:t|c:: ltli: citlisu I|c uicclc l,c:s oi
i:tcllcctuls, io: ll t|ci: u:, ciiic:c:ccs, s|:c coulcx socil s,c|olog,
t|c, :cccivc iuulscs i:ou t|c cs:t:,, |ut lso u:iicst iic:cc :tit|,
:c i:sti:ctivc . . . ic: oi t|c cs:t ;G:usci 1-, +.++..,
-
I|c
g:ct i:tcllcctuls sct t|c gc:c:l cultu:l :uctc:s i:iluc:ci:g t|c uiccli:g
st:t, :c i: t|is w, l, c:ucil socil iu:ctio: I|csc uc:, uost
iuo:t:tl, t t|c tiuc lc:ccctto :occ :c Giusti:o lo:tu:to, uccitc :c
cislcc t|c s,c|ologicl co:cc::s :c socil ttc|uc:ts oi t|c uiccli:g
i:tcllcctul st:t cciiicll,,
jI|c, |vc scc: to it t|t t|c :o|lcus oi t|c out| woulc |c oscc i:
w, w|ic| cic :ot go |c,o:c cc:ti: liuits, cic :ot |ccouc
:cvolutio::, \c: oi t|c |ig|cst cultu:c :c i:tclligc:cc, w|o :osc
o: t|c t:citio:l tc::i: oi t|c out| |ut wc:c li:|cc to lu:oc: :c
|c:cc to wo:lc cultu:c, t|c, |c ll t|c :cccss:, giits to stisi, t|c
i:tcllcctul :cccs oi t|c uost si:cc:c :c:csc:ttivcs oi t|c cultu:cc ,out|
i: t|c out|, to couio:t t|ci: :cstlcss iuulscs to :cvolt gi:st cxisti:g
THE I NTEL L ECTUAL I N QUESTI ON 7 6 3
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co:citio:s, to stcc: t|cu lo:g uicclc w, oi clssicl sc:c:it, i:
t|oug|t :c ctio:
;G:usci 1-, +.-+o0,
G:uscis ccou:t is u:s:i:g t|c cctc|uc:t oi t|c i:tcllcctul is u:us|cc
s co:scious, ii cclictc iccologicl oc:tio: I|c i:tcllcctul, i: ot|c:
wo:cs, is ctivcl, detached i: t|c sc:sc oi vc:|, :ot : c|cctivc A:c ,ct t|is
oc:tio: cocs :ot t|c lcc i: iull vicw, o: i: :tio:l :c u:uccitcc, lct
lo:c oliticl is|io:, |ut is cislccc i: coulcx l, oi ui::o:s oi
|iloso|icl iccs, ct|icl ostu:cs, :c :oicssio:l cxccttio:s
G:uscis cisti:ctio: |ctwcc: t|c g:ct i:tcllcctul :c t|c uicclc st:t
lso oi:ts to t|c cculi: :cso:si|ilit, :c co:scious:css oi t|c io:uc:
lvi:g voiccc t|is itc |iuscli itc: |ci:g su||cctcc to t|c suc t:ctuc:t,
G:usci |lucs colc li|c :occ vc:, ci:cctl,, |::ci:g t|cu t|c uost
ctivc :cctio::ics oi t|c w|olc c:i:sul ;G:usci 1-, +.-, I|csc
uc: s,stcuticll, uislcc ,ou:g :c tlc:tcc i:tcllcctuls :occ |s . . .
cctc|cc t|c :cicl i:tcllcctuls oi t|c out| i:ou t|c cs:t usscs . . . |c
|s sccu:cc t|ci: |so:tio: |, t|c :tio:l |ou:gcoisic :c |c:cc |, t|c
g::i: |loc ; +o0,
10
Acco:ci:gl,, t|c g:ct i:tcllcctuls :c :cltivcl,
uo:c co:scious oi t|ci: socil iu:ctio:, cxctl, |ccusc t|c, :c t|c ctivc
ucc|:isu oi cctc|uc:t
jI|c i:tcllcctuls t|i:| oi t|cusclvcs s i:ccc:cc:t, uto:ouous,
c:cowcc wit| c|:ctc: oi t|ci: ow:, ctc :c s|oulc :otc, |owcvc:,
t|t ii t|c loc :c t|c lcci:g |ic::c|, oi t|c |u:c| co:sicc:
t|cusclvcs uo:c li:|cc to |:ist :c to t|c ostlcs t|: t|c, :c to
sc:to:s Ag:clli :c lc::i j:oto:ious :c:csc:ttivcs oi t|c ltli:
|ou:gcoisic t|c suc cocs :ot |olc io: . . . :occ, jw|o iccls |iuscli
closcl, li:|cc to A:istotlc :c llto, |ut . . . cocs :ot co:ccl . . . |is li:|s
wit| sc:to:s Ag:clli :c lc::i
;G:usci 1-1, ,
Acco:ci:g to G:usci, t|c socil scct ccsc:i|cc |, t|is t|co:, oi
i:tcllcctuls t|ci: sclic:cctio: oi tiuclcss:css :c i:ccc:cc:cc is
|c:ouc:o: oi g:ct iuo:t:cc
i:cc t|csc v:ious ctcgo:ics oi t:citio:l i:tcllcctuls cxc:ic:cc
t|:oug| : esprit de corps t|ci: u:i:tc::utcc |isto:icl co:ti:uit, :c
t|ci: sccil quliiictio:, t|c, t|us ut t|cusclvcs io:w:c s uto:o
uous :c i:ccc:cc:t oi t|c coui::t socil g:ou I|is sclisscssuc:t
is :ot wit|out co:scquc:ccs i: t|c iccologicl :c oliticl iiclc,
co:scquc:ccs oi wicc::gi:g iuo:t
;G:usci 1-1, ,
7 6 4 CULTURAL STUDI ES
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lo: ll t|c cccctio: :c sclicccctio: i:volvcc i: t|c io:utio: oi t|ci:
co:scious:css, i: t|c csc oi t|c out|c:: i:tcllcctuls, t|c co:scquc:ccs
G:usci lluccs to, :c clc: I|csc i:tcllcctuls sc:vcc s c:ucil :o oi
ltli: citlisu
lt woulc |c tcuti:g to s|iclc t|c co:tcuo::, i:tcllcctul i:ou t|is so:t
oi u:s:i:g ccou:ti:g o: t|c g:ou:cs oi its |isto:icl scciiicit, lc:|s
G:uscis :l,sis oi t|c socil iiilitio:s oi i:tcllcctuls s|oulc :ot |c
gc:c:lizcc |c,o:c t|c :ticul: |isto:icl co:citio:s i: w|ic| it ws
ccvclocc l: t|is si:it, it uig|t |c :otcc t|t G:usci, w:iti:g i: t|c
1-!0s, ws ccli:g wit| i:tcllcctuls w|o coulc still |c :cg:ccc s
t:citio:l i:cc t|t tiuc, oi cou:sc, ccii:itc c|:gcs iiccti:g t|c sttus
oi i:tcllcctuls i: socict, |vc t|c: lcc I|csc c|:gcs, |owcvc:, i: i:ou
wo:|i:g to u|c t|c i:tcllcctul uo:c lusi|l, o: ictull, i:ccc:cc:t, |vc
wo:|cc i: t|c oositc ci:cctio: I|c t:citio:l |iloso|c:s, uc: oi
cultu:c li|c :occ, w|o coulc oc:tc i: cis:tc i:stitutio:l sctti:gs
:occ |iuscli :cvc: ii:is|cc |is u:ivc:sit, ccg:cc, :c ,ct ws :oui:c:t
|iloso|c:, ccito: oi u|o: cultu:l |ou::l, :c, t o:c oi:t, ui:istc: oi
ccuctio: |vc |cc: s,stcuticll, i:tcg:tcc s wgcc::i:g :oicsso:s
i:to t|c uo:c io:ul st:uctu:c oi t|c uocc:: u:ivc:sit, s,stcu G:uscis
:l,sis is vlu|lc :ot |ust |ccusc it lc:ts us to t|c u::c: i: w|ic| socio
cco:ouic t::sio:utio:s ltc: t|c |sc uo: w|ic| io:us oi i:tcllcctul
c:ggcuc:t t|c lcc, |ut lso |ccusc it cig:oscs t|c cculi: t::s|isto:icl
co:ti:uit, i: t|c co:scious:css oi i:tcllcctuls t|t c:cu:cs i:ccc:cc:tl, oi
t|osc t::sio:utio:s
Io u:cc:st:c t|c co:ti:ui:g lic|ilit, oi G:uscis :l,sis to t|c
co:tcuo::, i:tcllcctul, co:sicc: t|c wcll|:ow:, ii :t|c: cxt:cuc
cxulc oi W:c |u:c|ills :cu:|s o: t|c -11 ttc|s |u:c|ill iuousl,
iulictcc t|c victius oi t|c Wo:lc I:cc c:tc: s littlc lic|u::s
i:||iti:g t|c stc:ilc s:ctu:, oi t|c twi: towc:s I|csc colc i:cluccc
|:|c:s, u:gc:s, |:o|c:s |:oc ::gc oi t|osc sccilizcc o:g:ic
i:tcllcctuls gc:c:tcc |, citlisu s cisti:ctivc uocc oi :ocuctio: l:
t|ci: csc, t|ci: socil iiilitio: ws |:cl, oi:t oi co:tc:tio: I|c sou:cc
oi t|c iu:o: :c co:t:ovc:s, ws i:cccc :ot t|c :otio: t|t t|csc colc wc:c
:t oi t|c s,stcu, |ut t|c uo:c :ovoctivc |ucguc:t t|t t|c, got w|t
t|c, ccsc:vcc I|c |u:c|ill csc is coulcx :c cclictc uttc:,
:ticul:l, co:sicc:i:g t|c u::c: i: w|ic| |c ws ultiutcl, u:is|cc
11
:cvc:t|clcss, it is cu:ious ict t|t |u:c|ill, w|o t t|c tiuc ws :
culo,cc oi t|c D:ivc:sit, oi olo:co c::i:g closc to sixiigu:c sl:,, :c
t|us i: tcc|:icl sc:sc :t oi t|c sttc :tus, :cvc: iou:c it :cccss:, to
cvc: :guc w|, |c |iuscli s|oulc :ot |c co:sicc:cc littlc lic|u::
Io |c clc:, t|c oi:t |c:c is :ot t|t t|c ll cccuics :c i: ict
:cccss:il, :c co:sciousl, coulicit i: t|c oc:tio:s oi iuc:ilisu
;lt|oug|, to |c su:c, u:, :c,, o: t|t t|ci: st:uctu:l ositio: s :cltivcl,
:ivilcgcc sl:icc culo,ccs oi t|c citlist sttc, o: i: u:, cscs oi :ivtc
THE I NTEL L ECTUAL I N QUESTI ON 7 6 5
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u:ivc:sitics, is t|c |cgi::i:g :c t|c c:c oi :, ciscussio: co:cc::i:g t|ci:
socil iiilitio: :cvc:t|clcss, t|c |u:c|ill csc cocs |ig|lig|t :cvili:g
:c s,stcuic |li:c:css Acccuic i:tcllcctuls, w|o :c t|cusclvcs :ocuccc
:c :c:ocuccc |, citl, tc:c to :cg:c t|ci: ow: i:stitutio:l iiilitio: s
|:l :c :cut:l ict, cvc: s t|c, :c :cc, to i:cict ot|c:, uo:c o|viousl,
o:g:ic i:tcllcctuls oi citl io: t|c suc :cso:
l: t|c icc oi suc| :cvili:g tc:cc:cics, G:uscis co:t:i|utio: oug|t to
|c :cg:ccc :ot s uc:c cctc|cc t|co:,, |ut s : ctivc :c co:scious
cxosu:c lowcvc:, to cxosc wit| G:usci t|c i:uculc:cc oi t|c tiuclcss
:c cctc|cc c|:ctc: oi t|c i:tcllcctul is itscli :til :c i:suiiicic:t
oc:tio: I|c :cso:cc, :cso:|lc :cliztio: oi t|c |isto:icl scciiicit, oi
t|c co:tcuo::, i:tcllcctul, :c t|c u:couio:t|lc clucictio: oi |is o: |c:
ttc|uc:t to ccii:itc socil o:cc: cocs :ot utouticll, ciscl t|is io:u oi
co:scious:css I|is is t:uc cxctl, |ccusc t|ci: cisto:tcc scliw:c:css is :ot
uc:cl, su||cctivc uist|c, |ut is cccl, :ootcc i: t|c co:citio:s oi
:ocuctio: w|ct|c: t|c, :c t|osc c|:ctc:izi:g c:l,twc:tict| cc:tu:,
ltl, o: co:tcuo::, cccui
l:ou t|is st:coi:t, \:xs ictis|isu oi couuocitics sc:vcs s usciul
:log, li:st, :c uost o|viousl,, t|is is t:uc i: t|c sc:sc oi t|c s,stcutic
co:ccluc:t oi t|c socil c|:ctc: oi i:tcllcctul :ocuctio:, cvc: to t|c
iuuccitc :ocucc:s t|cusclvcs I|c co:tcuo::, cccuic i:tcllcctul is
t|c :ocuct oi :oiou:c sociocco:ouic t::sio:utio: |, w|ic| i:tcllcctul
l|o: |s |cc: :co:g:izcc cco:ci:g to ccii:itc :oicssio:l :c i:stitutio:l
:uctc:s lut t|is iu:cuc:tl ict, lo:g wit| its u:couio:t|lc
iulictio:s, is s,stcuticll, o|scu:cc |, cccsctcc sc:tiuc:ts oi tiuc
lcss:css :c i:ccc:cc:cc lowcvc:, i: t|c suc w, s t|c ictis|isu oi
couuocitics su:vivcs t|c co:scious :c c:iticl :l,sis oi its oc:tio:
|ccusc t|c :cvili:g socil co:citio:s t|cusclvcs su:vivc, G:uscis t|co:,
oi i:tcllcctul ictis|isu c::ot i: :c oi itscli |olis| it I|c iull iuo:t :c
:cticl scct oi G:uscis t|co:,, t|c:cio:c, :csuoscs ccii:itc oliticl
:o|cct iucc :ot |ust t cxosi:g cxisti:g socil :cltio:s, |ut iu:cuc:tll,
t::sio:ui:g t|cu
The discreet charm of the bourgeoisie
l t|i:| l |vc |cc: situtcc i: uost oi t|c squ:cs oi t|c oliticl
c|cc|c:|o:c, o:c itc: :ot|c: :c souctiucs siuult:cousl, s
::c|ist, lcitist, ostc:ttious o: cisguiscc \:xist, :i|ilist, cxlicit o:
scc:ct :ti\:xist, tcc|:oc:t i: t|c sc:vicc oi Gullisu, :cw li|c:l, ctc
. . . :o:c oi t|csc ccsc:itio:s is iuo:t:t |, itscli, t|c: togct|c:, o:
t|c ot|c: |:c, t|c, uc: souct|i:g A:c l uust cuit t|t l :t|c: li|c
w|t t|c, uc: lts t:uc t|t l :cic: :ot to icc:tii, u,scli :c t|t lu
7 6 6 CULTURAL STUDI ES
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uuscc |, t|c civc:sit, oi t|c w,s lvc |cc: |ucgcc :c clssiiicc
ouct|i:g tclls uc t|t |, :ow uo:c o: lcss :oxiutc lcc s|oulc
|vc |cc: iou:c io: uc . . . l |vc to |c co:vi:ccc t|t t|ci: i:|ilit, to
situtc uc |s souct|i:g to co wit| uc
;\ic|cl loucult 1-+, !!!+,
l: :, givc: socict, :o|oc, is ciso:g:izcc :c wit|out :t,, :oviccc
t|t o:c t|cs o:g:iztio: :c :t, i: |:oc :c :ot io:ul sc:sc
;A:to:io G:usci 1-1, !o+,
I|c socil scct oi G:uscis t|co:, oi i:tcllcctul ciscusscc c:lic: u, t
ii:st gl:cc c: to |c : c:ti:cl, st:uctu:l iii: closcc :c :c
cctc:ui:cc s,stcu c:coussi:g o:g:iztio:l io:us s wcll s t|c ctul
co:tc:t oi t|c co:scious:css oi i:tcllcctuls lut i: ict it is :ot closcc
s,stcu l: t|c css, o: t|c out|c:: qucstio:, io: cxulc, t|c ccou:t oi t|c
socil iiilitio:s oi t|c i:tcllcctul c:s i:itill, s givc: ict, cui:icll,
:csc:t :c :ootcc i: t|c |isto:, :c st:uctu:l ictu:cs oi t|c :cgio:l,
:tio:l, :c i:tc::tio:l cco:ou, lowcvc:, t|c ccou:t oi t|c uo:st:ous
g::i: |loc :c oi t|c iu:ctio: oi t|c g:ct i:tcllcctuls is iollowcc |, :
iuo:t:t uto|iog:|icl :otc l: it, G:usci ccsc:i|cs t|c :occss |, w|ic|
|c iclt o: |is ow: s|i: t|c so:t oi :cssu:c cxc:tcc |, :occ s g:ct
i:tcllcctul \o:c iuo:t:tl,, G:usci ccsc:i|cs |is co:scious |:c| wit|
:occs iccs s wcll s wit| t|c uocc oi :ocuctio: oi iccs |c :cticcc :c
c:cou:gcc
1!
l:ou socil st:coi:t, t|is uc:t t|t G:usci ws |lc to :csist ::gc
oi su|tlc :c :otsosu|tlc clss :cssu:cs I|csc i:cluccc t|c ucgc:, ,ct
t:gi|lc :ivilcgcs oi |is ow: clss |c|g:ou:c, t|c u: oi :cstigc :c
ut|o:it, oi t|c g:ct i:tcllcctuls :c t|ci: lcssc: :c:csc:ttivcs t t|c
u:ivc:sit, |c ttc:ccc, :c uo:c
1!
o:vc:scl,, |c ws |lc to :ccog:izc t|c
uocc:: :olct:it s t|c uocc:: :otgo:ist oi ltli: |isto:, ;G:usci
1-, +o0, I|is :occss ws :ot t|c :csult oi u:cl, logicl cccuctio:,
i:si:cc |, :ticul: tcxt o: |, : csccill, c:susivc ostultc oi :cicl
socil t|co:, lt ws :ot, i: ot|c: wo:cs, u:cl, i:tcllcctul iii:, :c
G:usci ws |lc to cxc:ic:cc it to t|c cxtc:t t|t |is liic s u:ivc:sit,
stucc:t i: Iu:i: ws cistu:|cc |, t|c cxlosivc oliticl cliutc oi t|c
c:ioc t|c clss st:ugglc co:vulsi:g t|c i:cust:il cit,, t|c o:sct oi Wo:lc
W: l, :c ultiutcl, t|c kussi: kcvolutio:
W|ilc t|c socil scct oi G:uscis cxc:ic:cc s ,ou:g i:tcllcctul ws
iuo:t:t, co:stituti:g s it wc:c t|c o||cctivc tc::i: i: w|ic| |c ws
coucllcc to o:ic:t |iuscli, i: t|c c:c t|is cxc:ic:cc lso ictu:cc : oc:,
oliticl scct l, t|is l uc: t|t it ws lso st:ugglc uo:g livi:g io:ccs,
i:cluci:g t|c willi:g:css :c ccit, oi i:civiculs, i: t|is csc i:tcllcctuls,
to |ct:, t|ci: ow: i:tc:csts u:cc:stooc i: :::ow sc:sc, to scvc: t|c
t|ous:cs oi visi|lc :c i:visi|lc wi:cs co::ccti:g t|cu to ccii:itc socil
THE I NTEL L ECTUAL I N QUESTI ON 7 6 7
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o:cc:, :c to |c co:sciousl, wo: ovc: |, : u:cou:ouisi:gl, ciiic:c:t,
:cvolutio::, c:scctivc
Io t|c cxtc:t t|t G:usci ccvclocc t|co:, oi i:tcllcctuls, t|c:, it ws
o:c t|t :cccssittcc ccii:itc io:u oi oliticl :cticc t|i:g lcc i:
scciiic i:stitutio:l io:u Alt|oug| t souc lcvcl t|is is c:icctl, i:tclligi|lc
oi:t, :ootcc i: cvc:,t|i:g G:usci t|oug|t o: cic s : i:tcllcctul, :cco:ccc
i: uultilc tcxts, :c u:iicstcc i: lo:g :cco:c oi oliticl ctivit,, it is lso
tc::i|l, ciiiicult oi:t to g:s i:ou t|c st:coi:t oi t|c co:tcuo::,
i:tcllcctul cvc: t|osc w|o :oicss G:usci: sc:si|ilitics ;cc:clli
!00, I|c uocc oi :ocuctio: oi |is iccs ws :cicll, ciiic:c:t i:ou t|t oi
co:tcuo::, cccuics l will |:icil, :ctu:: to t|is oi:t s|o:tl,, w|ilc
:cvicwi:g t|c |sic t:|ccto:, oi G:uscis utu:tio: s : i:tcllcctul, i:ou
collcgc stucc:t to couuu:ist, :t, i:tcllcctul lut ii:st uo:c :cccs to |c
sic |out t|c oliticl scct oi G:uscis t|co:, oi i:tcllcctul
G:usci i:sists t|t i:tcllcctuls :c lw,s oliticl gc:ts I|is is t:uc, s
wc |vc scc:, i: sitc oi t|c ict t|t t|c, :c oitc: ctivc oi t|c uost
i:tstic cclusio:s oi cctc|uc:t l: souc cscs, :ticul:l, t|t oi t|c g:ct
i:tcllcctuls, t|c:c is oitc: co:scious clcuc:t i:volvcc, :c w|t is
:csc:tcc s oliticl :ivctc :c i::occ:cc, cisi:tc:cst o: i:ctitucc, c: i:
ict |c ucsu:c oi oliticl so|istictio: li G:uscis oi:t wc:c uc:c
c|:owlccguc:t oi t|c iuossi|ilit, oi oliticl :cut:lit,, it coulc |c csil,
s|:uggcc oii i: c:iticl cccuic ci:clcs s |:l :c sclicvicc:t G:uscis
ctul i:tuitio: is |owcvc: i: uo:c c|llc:gi:g t|c i:tcllcctul coucs i:to
|ci:g by default wit|i: t|c oliticl o:|it oi t|c :uli:g clss, cxctl, |ccusc o:
t|c socil l:c |c o: s|c is |o:: wit| u:iiolc ttc|uc:ts to it l: t|c csc oi
t|c co:tcuo::, cccuic i:tcllcctul, |c o: s|c is quitc litc:ll, :ocuccc
t:i:cc, :cgultcc, culo,cc |, citl cvc:i:g t|csc u:iiolc li:|s,
cco:ci:g to G:usci, is :o uc:c uttc: oi coti:g gc:c:ic lcitist
cisositio:, o: cvc: ctivisu
1+
I|is oi:t is toc, :cgul:l, ovc:loo|cc i: sitc oi t|c ict t|t it is
i:sc:i|cc i: G:uscis oliticl |iog:|,, :c uo:covc: c:s :cctccl,
:c i: ciiic:c:t io:us t|:oug|out |is w:iti:gs lo: i:st:cc, w|c: G:usci
i:cictcc :occ :c lo:tu:to io: c:su:i:g t|t lcssc: out|c:: i:tcllcctuls
woulc co:sicc: t|c socil :o|lcus oi t|ci: gc o:l, wit|i: cc:ti: liuits, i:
:o::cvolutio::, u::c:, |c ws :ot c:iticizi:g ovc:t :cctio::ics |ut souc
oi t|c uost visi|lc :c i:iluc:til :c:csc:ttivcs oi ltli: :tiiscisu
1.
I|c
iuliiluc:t oi suc| iu:ctio:s cocs :ot :cqui:c out:ig|t co:si:cics o: |c|:oou
ccls |ut uc:cl, t|c lcss co:sicuous, :o:ul :occss oi socil :ocuctio:
:c :c:ocuctio: oi t|c i:tcllcctul, :c is c:icctl, couti|lc wit| c::cst
oliticl i:tc:tio:s l: ict, cco:ci:g to G:usci, i:tcllcctuls wc:c |lc to
c:io:u usciul :c o:g:ic oliticl :olc io: t|c |ou:gcoisic cxctl, w|c:
t|c, wc:c :ot so ci:cctl, iulictcc wit| its i:tc:csts :c oc:tio:s
I|c lst oi:t is wcll cx:csscc i: G:uscis couuc:ts |out i:cli:
lcwis Babbitt I|c :ovcl sti:izcc :cw, st:c:cizcc Auc:ic: ctt,
7 6 8 CULTURAL STUDI ES
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|ou:gcois t,c, cxosi:g |is co:io:uisu s wcll s |is |oclcss ttcuts to
cscc i:ou it G:usci i:sistcc t|t lcwis |oo|, lt|oug| :tisticll,
uccioc:c, ws oi :oiou:c sig:iiic:cc o:sicc:i:g lcwis socilist
s,ut|ics :c t|c ict t|t t|c |oo| o|viousl, cx:csscc cc:ti: lcitist
c:iticisu oi Auc:ic: socict,, o:c uig|t |vc cxcctcc G:usci to |il it s
s,utou oi t|c c:osio: oi |ou:gcois |cgcuo:, o: i:tcllcctuls G:uscis
ctul |ucguc:t, |owcvc:, ws quitc t|c oositc lcwis |oo| :c t|c
|:occ: cultu:l cu::c:t oi w|ic| it ws :t,
. . . i:cictcs t|t sclic:iticisu is |ci:g cxtc:ccc t|t is, it i:cictcs t|c
|i:t| oi :cw Auc:ic: civiliztio: co:scious oi its st:c:gt|s :c
wc|:csscs t|c i:tcllcctuls cctc| t|cusclvcs i:ou t|c :uli:g clss i:
o:cc: to u:itc wit| it uo:c i:tiutcl,, to co:stitutc :cl suc:st:uctu:c,
:ot |ust : i:o:g:ic :c u:cisti:guis|cc :t oi t|c co:o:tist|sc
lu:oc: i:tcllcctuls |vc l:cc, i: :t lost t|is iu:ctio: t|c, :o
lo:gc: :c:csc:t t|c cultu:l scliw:c:css, t|c sclic:iticisu oi t|c :uli:g
clss, t|c, |vc :cvc:tcc to |ci:g t|ci: iuuccitc gc:ts
;G:usci 1-., o!!o!+,
G:uscis |ucguc:t sc|s to t|c st:c:gt| oi |ou:gcois oliticl |cgcuo:,
ovc: t|c i:tcllcctuls, cvc: w|c: t|c, c:iticizcc :c u:iicstcc t|ci:
ciscouio:t wit| cxisti:g socil :cltio:s \o:c t|: t|t, c:iticl cist:cc,
:cstlcss cisstisictio: c:ciull, u:gcc to c:su:c t|t it cic :ot go
|c,o:c cc:ti: liuits ws ctull, : ssct i:ou t|c st:coi:t oi t|c
oliticl iu:ctio: : i:tcllcctul coulc l, io: t|c :uli:g clss
1o
lut G:uscis :l,sis oi t|c oliticl iu:ctio: oi i:tcllcctuls cut cccc:
still lc :cg:ccc u:, io:us oi oliticl ctivisu, :ot |ust c:iticisu :c
cisstisictio:, s couti|lc wit| |ou:gcois |cgcuo:, As G:usci cxli:cc,
t|c ctio:s :c o:g:istio:s oi volu:tcc:s uust |c cisti:guis|cc i:ou t|c
ctio:s :c o:g:iztio:s oi |ouogc:cous socil |locs, :c |ucgcc |, ciiic:c:t
c:itc:i l: t|is ciscussio:, G:usci ws t|i:g ucsu:c oi cc:ti: |i:c oi
cisstisiicc i:tcllcctuls t|t cic :ot siul, c:iticizc, |ut c:ggcc i: w|olc
|ost oi ostc:si|l, sccitious oliticl ctivitics G:usci :cg:ccc t|csc t,cs s
:cc, volu:tcc:s io: :, c:tc::isc ;cvc: t|c uost |iz::c, w|ic| is
vgucl, su|vc:sivc ;to t|c lcit o: to t|c kig|t, I|is |c:ouc:o:
c:cousscc :ot |ust i:civicul oliticl i:ititivcs, |ut lso ad hoc lli:ccs
:c g:oui:gs G:usci c|:ctc:izcc t|csc i:tcllcctuls :c t|ci: scttc:s|ot
ctivisu i: : u:ilttc:i:g u::c: I|c, wc:c t|c oliticl cquivlc:t oi
g,s, |:cs o: :oucs :o uou:t oi ciio:t oi t|is |i:c woulc succccc i:
ulli:g i:tcllcctuls out oi t|c oliticl o:|it oi t|c |ou:gcoisic, :c i: ict,
givc: c:oug| tiuc, t|is cclccticisu ws |ou:c to :ocucc :cctio::, :csults
G:usci i:sistcc o: t|c :ccc to st:ugglc gi:st jt|csc ilsc |c:oisus . . . :c
stiuultc t|c io:utio: oi |ouogc:cous, couct socil |locs, :c co:cluccc
|is ciscussio: wit| custic :cui:cc: oi t|c clss :tu:c :c liuittio:s oi t|is
THE I NTEL L ECTUAL I N QUESTI ON 7 6 9
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so:t oi ctivisu . . . l:is boheme too ws i:tcllcctull, t t|c :oot oi u:,
co:tcuo::, uoccs oi t|oug|t w|ic| c: :o:ct|clcss to cc:icc t|osc
bohemians ;G:usci 1-1, !0!!0.,
1
A:c it is i: l::cc t|t t|c oliticl sccts oi G:uscis t|co:, oi
i:tcllcctuls |ci:g ciscusscc |c:c ii:c usciul illust:tio: \ic|cl loucult is
: c:o:uousl, i:iluc:til, :c cvc: ico:ic iigu:c lc is i:cccc t|c |i:c oi
g:ct i:tcllcctul ciscusscc |, G:usci t|c so:t w|o i:iluc:ccc t|c uoocs
:c o:ic:ttio:s oi t|ous:cs oi lcssc: o:cs lcw woulc co:sicc: |is oliticl
:olc s souc|ow iulictcc wit| citlisu, :c, i: ict, uc:cl, osi:g t|c
qucstio: i: suc| u::c: is li|cl, to |c cisuisscc s c:ucc :c :ovoctivc
gcstu:c A:c ,ct, w|c: cxui:i:g |iu t|:oug| t|c :isu oi G:uscis :l,sis
oi i:tcllcctuls, t|is co:clusio: is i:csc|lc Alt|oug| t|is is :o su|stitutc io:
t|o:oug| cxui:tio: oi t|is coulcx iigu:c, l will |c:c |:icil, |ig|lig|t
t|:cc c:ti:c:t sccts oi loucults liic s : i:tcllcctul |is cculi: u::c:
oi ccsc:i|i:g |is ow: ositio: s : i:tcllcctul, |is cculi: |i:c oi oliticl
ctivisu, :c |is :ot t ll cculi: i:stitutio:l iiilitio: s : cccuic
i:tcllcctul
As illust:tcc i: t|c cig:| t t|c |cgi::i:g oi t|is scctio:, loucult
ccli|c:tcl, :ciuscc to :ovicc oliticl ccou:ti:g oi |is ctio:s :c
i:ctio:s lc too| :icc :c cclig|t i: :csc:ti:g |iuscli s st:ci:g |ovc t|c
oliticl c|cc|c:|o:c, :c w|c:cvc: co:i:o:tcc wit| qucstio:s co:cc::i:g
|is llcgi:cc, loucult woulc :cgul:l, ccilcct t|cu
1
I|is ws :o uc:c
c:so:l qui:|, |ut t|co:cticl ositio: ositivcl, :ticultcc i: ciiic:c:t
w,s, s i: t|c csc oi |is utos, oi t|c i:civicul ut|o:il iu:ctio: i: W|t
is : ut|o: I|c williul scli|:cgtio: oi t|c i:tcllcctul i: loucult ws
oitc: i:cc to oulist |os::s io: t|c usscs ccit, to t|i:| :c ct io:
t|cusclvcs
1-
I|is is t|c so:t oi ositio: t|t, :ticul:l, s it c:ti:cc to
g:ct i:tcllcctuls, G:usci cxoscc :ot |ust s : iuossi|lc co:ccit, |ut s
|:owi:g :ciusl to t|c o: t|c st:ugglc to i:cc o:cscli :c ot|c:s i:ou
|ou:gcois |cgcuo:,
!0
l:culgi:g i: w|t iv| cllcc t|c t::s:c:c, oi t|c i:tcllcctul cic
:ot :cvc:t loucult i:ou ctivcl, :ticiti:g i: olitics ;iv| 1-,
!0, vc: t|c cou:sc oi |is liic, |c ws i:volvcc i: uultitucc oi cuscs :c
coulc t tiucs cisl, g:ct c:c:g, :c ctivisu A:c ,ct |is oliticl :cticc
ws ccsulto:, i: t|c scciiic sc:sc c:iticizcc |, G:usci loucult ws, io:
cxulc, iuousl, |sc:t i:ou l::cc cu:i:g t|c c:ucil cvc:ts oi \, 1-o
lc too| o: v:ious st:ugglcs |ut i: u::c: t|t stuciousl, voiccc
su|o:ci:ti:g |is outst:ci:g i:civiculit, s : i:tcllcctul to t|c iig|t io:
|ouogc:cous, couct socil |locs, cvoctcc |, G:usci lc |:icil, |oi:cc
t|c tli:ist Parti Communiste Franc ais, |ut :cvc: :cll, :ticitcc i: its
oliticl wo:|
!1
lc ws io: tiuc closc to t|c \oist Gauche Proletarienne
;Gl, |ut cxctl, |ccusc t|ci: co:cctio: oi t|c :olc oi t|c i:tcllcctul ws
siuil: to |is
!!
l: :, csc |c lw,s |ct Gl t :us lc:gt| :c ultiutcl,
ullcc w, c:ti:cl, loucult lso iuousl, iou:ccc t|c l:iso: l:io:utio:
7 7 0 CULTURAL STUDI ES
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G:ou ;Gll, : iccologicl g:| |g oi volu:tcc:s i: t|c G:usci:
sc:sc
!!
I|is is t|c |i:c oi oliticl :oucisu oi t|c cisstisiicc i:tcllcctul
:cg:ccc |, G:usci s : cx:cssio: oi |ou:gcois |cgcuo:, Alt|oug| |c
ws :ot :ticul:l, co:sistc:t o: t|is cit|c:, w|c: co:sicc:i:g loucults
oliticl ctivisu i: t|c gg:cgtc o:c uust co:clucc t|t it ws co:sciousl,
:ccictcc o: t|c |ctc:ogc:cit, oi u:iiolc g:icv:ccs
li souco:c s|oulc s| uc w|t it is l t|i:| l u coi:g, l woulc :swc: ii
t|c st:tcgist is u: w|o s,s, w|t iuo:t:cc cocs :ticul: cct|,
:ticul: c:,, :ticul: u:isi:g |vc i: :cltio: to t|c g:ct :cccssit,
oi t|c w|olc, :c oi w|t iuo:t:cc to uc is suc|:csuc| gc:c:l
:i:cilc i: t|c scciiic situtio: i: w|ic| wc ii:c ou:sclvcs t|c: it is
i:ciiic:c:t to uc w|ct|c: t|c st:tcgist is olitici:, |isto:i:,
:cvolutio::,, souco:c w|o suo:ts t|c || o: ,toll| \,
t|co:cticl uo:lit, is t|c oositc lt is :tist:tcgic
;loucult 1--,
As G:usci |c :otcc, :cicl u:iicsttio:s oi cisstisictio: o: t|c :t oi
t|csc i:tcllcctuls woulc oitc: givc w, to uo:c o:t|ocox cx:cssio:s oi
|ou:gcois olitics l: loucults liic, t|is too| t|c io:u oi :co:ic:ttio:
tow:c |uu: :ig|ts co:cc::s :c uo:c t::s:c:t io:us oi li|c:l
i:civiculisu cvc: t|oug| loucult, oi cou:sc, co:ti:ucc to s|u: ll
l|cls
!+
li:ll,, it is iuo:t:t to :otc t|t, s uuc| s loucult li|cc to :csc:t
|is oliticl :cvc:ics s t|i:g lcc outsicc oi :, i:stitutio:l sctti:g, i:ou |is
c:l, cxc:ic:ccs i: lol:c :c Gc:u:,, to liictiuc oi:tuc:t t t|c
:cstigious ollcgc cc l::cc, |c ws i: ict iull, :c|o:cc i: t|c ccii:itc
i:stitutio:l i:ucwo:| oi cccui I|csc c:cc: uovcs oitc: too| lcc i:
ccii:itc oliticl co:tcxt lo: cxulc, loucults oi:tuc:t to |cc t|c
|iloso|, cc:tuc:t t t|c :cw cxc:iuc:tl u:ivc:sit, t Vi:cc::cs,
loctcc |ust outsicc oi l:is, ws clcultcc uovc o: t|c :t oi l:c:c|
govc::uc:t t|t ws still :ccli:g i:ou t|c socil cxlosio:s oi 1-o iuil:l,,
it ws t|c l:c:c| ui:istc: oi ccuctio: w|o cccucc it usciul to ovc::ulc :
u:ivo:|lc votc cst |, t|c Acccu, oi \o:l :c loliticl cic:ccs i: o:cc:
to c:su:c loucults oi:tuc:t t t|c ollcgc cc l::cc ;\cc, 1--!,
!1-!!., !!o,
l: sitc, o: :t|c: |ccusc oi its u:iiolc coulictio:s, loucults liic is
: i:st:uctivc illust:tio: oi t|c cculi: u::c: i: w|ic| i:tcllcctuls,
:ticul:l, g:ct cccuic o:cs, oc:tc wit|i: t|c i:ucwo:| oi |ou:gcois
oliticl |cgcuo:, I|is co:clusio: |owcvc:, is |ou:c to |c u:scttli:g li
cvc: suc| wiccl, :cscctcc :c i:iluc:til oositio:l iigu:c is i: ict t
|ottou iu:ctio::, oi |ou:gcois |cgcuo:,, to co:cctulizc, lct lo:c
u:suc lusi|lc ltc::tivc woulc sccu to |c cu:ti:g ts| lut i:
G:usci u:cc:stooc :ot s cxcctio:l :c u:iquc, |ut s , so to sc|,
THE I NTEL L ECTUAL I N QUESTI ON 7 7 1
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:o:ul ucu|c: oi :cvolutio::, oliticl :t, o:c ii:cs :ccil,
vil|lc uoccl As l :otcc c:lic:, t|c cou:sc oi co:cuct t|t is co:cciv|lc
io: : i:tcllcctul is o|viousl, |ou:c u wit| t|c |isto:icl co:citio:s i: w|ic|
|c o: s|c oc:tcs
!.
lut i: t|c suc w, s t|c :oulsivc cx:sio: oi ost
Wo:lc W: ll c:ioc lcit ccii:itc u:| o: t|c co:scious:css oi i:tcllcctuls
i: t|c io:u oi :cltivcl, i:ccc:cc:t :c :cltivcl, couio:t|lc sctti:g io:
t|ci: ctivitics, it is ossi|lc t|t t|c o:goi:g c:isis will i:cucc wiccs:cc
:csscssuc:t oi t|c olc :uctc:s l: t|is co:tcxt, it is i:st:uctivc to
cxui:c, |owcvc: |:icil,, G:uscis ow: t:|ccto:, s : i:tcllcctul, w|ic|
c: |c |:ocl, civiccc i:to iou: c:iocs
Old school
I|t ll ucu|c:s oi oliticl :t, s|oulc |c :cg:ccc s i:tcllcctuls is
: iii:utio: t|t c: csil, lc:c itscli to uoc|c:, :c c:ictu:c lut ii
o:c t|i:|s |out it :ot|i:g coulc |c uo:c cxct
;G:usci 1-1, 1o,
G:uscis liic s : i:tcllcctul |cg: i: 1-11 wit| |is u:ivc:sit, stucics I|c
|iog:|icl utc:il vil|lc, to s, :ot|i:g oi G:uscis ltc: ccoulis|
uc:ts, suggcsts t|t |c ws |:illi:t stucc:t i: li:guistics uo:g ot|c:
ciscili:cs I|t, i: sull :t, ccou:ts io: t|c ict t|t |c c: c: s
iuili: :c i:tclligi|lc to t|c co:tcuo::, cccuic i:tcllcctul lut t|c
qucstio: is ::cl, oscc toc, W|, cic G:usci givc u o: :ouisi:g
u:ivc:sit, c:cc: I|c qucstio: is :ot oscc i: :t |ccusc it oi:ts to cc:ti:
o||cctivc, t|oug| l:gcl, u:cigcstcc icts |out t|c |isto:icl t::sio:utio: oi
t|c uocc oi :ocuctio: oi iccs I|osc icts, :clti:g to t|c ussivc cx:sio:
oi cccui |vc |cc: |:icil, touc|cc uo: c:lic: I|c, :c iuo:t:t :c
c:ti:c:t |ccusc t|c co:tcuo::, i:tcllcctul is, :cticll, |, ccii:itio:, :
cccuic I|is |s ccii:itc co:scquc:ccs, i:cluci:g t|c ict t|t t|c w, i:
w|ic| G:usci :ocuccc iccs, w|ic| ws :ot :, uo:c |isto:icll, cculi:
t|: t|c o:c :cvili:g toc,, |ccoucs ciiccc t|:oug| sc:ics oi coulcx
t::sltio:s t|t u|c |iu c: s iuili: iigu:c io: cxulc,
t|co:ist, lt|oug|, to |c su:c, c:iticl o:c
: t|c o:c |:c, t|c:, t|c qucstio: oi G:usci c:oi:g out oi sc|ool is
:ot oscc |ccusc it is siul, i:co:cciv|lc i:ou t|c st:coi:t oi t|c
co:tcuo::, i:tcllcctul, si:cc t|c u:ivc:sit, sctti:g is :tu:lizcc s t|c o:l,
ossi|lc ||itt io: t|i:|i:g : t|c ot|c: |:c, t|c qucstio: is :ot oscc
|ccusc G:uscis |::i:gl, ciiic:c:t :oc| to t|c qucstio: oi oliticl
c:ggcuc:t t:iggc:s : iuuccitc ciscouio:t W|t sscs io: : c:ggcc
i:tcllcctul toc, :c i: t|c :ccc:t st is oi : c:ti:cl, ciiic:c:t o:cc: oi
ug:itucc i:ou w|t G:usci :c:csc:tcc Io usc t|c cxulc t |:c,
7 7 2 CULTURAL STUDI ES
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\ic|cl loucult is oitc: uc:tio:cc s :cigutic c:ggcc :c c:iticl
i:tcllcctul, t|o:: i: t|c sicc oi t|c cxisti:g o:cc:, :c uo:c lut t|is o:l,
lics to t|c cxtc:t t|t wc t|c io: g::tcc t|t cccui is t|c :tu:l
c:vi:o:uc:t io: t|c i:tcllcctul W|c: wc co t|is, loucults :cstigious
i:stitutio:l iiilitio: wit| t|c ollcgc cc l::cc c:s s |:l :c
:cut:l ict, |:cl, wo:t| ciscussi:g low clsc, itc: ll, coulc souco:c
iu:ctio: s : i:tcllcctul A:c t|is is cxctl, t|c sig:iiic:cc oi G:uscis ow:
cvolutio: :c woulc |c i: uo:c i:cli:cc to t|c :oticc oi loucults
i:stitutio:l iiilitio:s, :c c:|s |c i:cli:cc to c:w cc:ti: iuc:ti:c:t
co:clusio:s, wc:c o:c to |cc i: ui:c t|c co:sicuous ict t|t A:to:io
G:usci co:sciousl, c:occ out oi t|c cccuic wo:lc |ccusc |c cuc to
:clizc t|t |is oliticl couuituc:ts :c :cso:si|ilitics s : i:tcllcctul
ccu:ccc : c:ti:cl, ciiic:c:t i:stitutio:l sctti:g
I|c :cxt c:ioc oi G:uscis liic s : i:tcllcctul cxtc:cs i:ou t|c c:c
oi |is stucics t t|c u:ivc:sit, i: Iu:i: to |is c:ctio: oi t|c Ordine Nuovo
wcc|l, :cvicw I|is c:ioc siuult:cousl, u:|cc G:uscis coui:g i:to
|ci:g s ,ou:g i:tcllcctul, t|c |cgi::i:g oi |is oliticl utu:tio:, :c |is
ii:st cxc:ic:cc wit| |i:c oi socil coll|o:tio: t|t ws ciiic:c:t i:ou
w|t o:c t,icll, c:cou:tc:s i: u:ivc:sit, Alo:g wit| ot|c: |:ig|t ,ou:g
uc:, i:cluci:g t|c iutu:c lccc: oi t|c ltli: ouuu:ist l:t, llui:o
Ioglitti, G:usci iou:ccc |ou::l t|t :cvicwcc :c ciscusscc u:iiolc
lu:oc: i:tcllcctul cc|tcs lut t|is ws :ot t|c c:ctio: oi : cccuic
u|lictio:, su::cc |, souc :cg:ctt|lc g i: ou: ciscili::, |:owlccgc,
:uui:ti:g t|c ltcst t:c:cs oi c:iticl t|co:,, o:, i:cicc:tll,, |c|cc |,
couuc:cil u|lis|i:g ii:u oi ulc uc:s G:uscis :ccollcctio: oi w|t
|c ws coi:g i: t|is c:ioc is i:st:uctivc I|c o:l, sc:tiuc:t w|ic| u:itcc
us, i: ou: uccti:gs oi t|t c:ioc, ws |scc o: vguc c:t|usisu io:
vguc :olct:i: cultu:c, wc w:tcc to ct, to ct, to ct, wc iclt t:cc,
wit|out c:scctivc, uic t|c icvc:is| liic oi t|osc uo:t|s iollowi:g t|c
:uisticc, w|c: t|c ctcl,su oi ltli: socict, sccucc iuui:c:t ;G:usci
1-1, xxxvii, I|c ssgc c:csultcs souc oi t|c clcuc:ts t|t c:
to |c u:vil|lc to t|c co:tcuo::, i:tcllcctul lo: cxulc, t|is |i:c oi
socil coll|o:tio: is :ot t|c :o:u, s cccuic wo:| is oitc: c:io:ucc
t|:oug| cc:ti: |i:c oi :csig:cc solitucc W|c: collcctivc ciio:ts :c ctivc
coll|o:tio: cocs t|c lcc, s is :outi:cl, t|c csc i: t|c scic:tiiic
ciscili:cs, it tc:cs to |c :iutcc |, vc:, ciiic:c:t sc:si|ilitics G:usci
|iuscli :ccog:izcc t|t t|c ciio:t oi Ordine Nuovo ws : ttcut to ccvclo
cc:ti: io:us oi :cw i:tcllcctulisu ;G:usci 1-1, -10, :cvc:
t|clcss, t|c ssgc s|ctc|cs out iigu:c t|t toc, is :ot coulctcl,
u::ccog:iz|lc, s souc oi t|c sc:tiuc:ts cx:csscc i: it c: still |c iou:c
c:ti:l, vguc lcitist sc:tiuc:ts co:ti:uc to |ou:c, i: :c :ou:c
cccui uo:g u:, i:tcllcctul st:t lut it s|oulc |c :otcc t|t w|t
G:usci ccsc:i|cs, loo|i:g |c|, s oliticl i:cxc:ic:cc :c :ivctc is i:
ict i: uost co:tcuo::, cscs t|c |cst t|t c: |c cxcctcc i:ou :
THE I NTEL L ECTUAL I N QUESTI ON 7 7 3
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c:ggcc :c :og:cssivc i:tcllcctul w:itc iccc io: The Nation, s|ow
u t :ll, w|c: tiuc c:uits, o: cvc: t|:ow :oc| t ls:cli t:oos |cio:c
goi:g |c| to tcc| cou:scs t oluu|i
I|c :cxt c:ioc oi G:uscis liic s : i:tcllcctul is t|t w|ic| is
vi:tull, i:cccssi|lc i:ou t|c st:coi:t oi co:tcuo::, :outi:cs :c
cxccttio:s G:usci ws :t, u: As t|c ciscussio: oi Wlzc: :tl,
illust:tcc, t|is is :cg:ccc s : i:cuissi|lc violtio: oi t|c i:ccc:cc:cc oi
t|c i:tcllcctul, t:tuou:t to su::c:cc:i:g oi o:cs c:iticl icultics
Ioc, t|c vc:, cx:cssio: co:vc,s u:lcs:t uc:i:gs |c|s wit|out
:i:cilcs, lltoo :cli|lc clcuc:ts, ctc
!o
lut i: ict, cco:ci:g to G:usci,
t|is io:u oi co:scious su|o:ci:tio: :c ccc:cc:cc co:stitutcc :ot o:l, |is
c:so:l cu:citio: i:ou t|c :cvili:g socil o:cc:, |ut lso, i:ou
gc:c:l st:coi:t, :cw :c :cccss:, :cigu io: i:tcllcctuls :o cou|t
t|is ws :occss, :ot souct|i:g :ccil, vil|lc :c iull, io:ucc, s
ttcstcc |, G:uscis ow: cvolutio: i:ou vguc sc:tiuc:ts to socilist
co:scious:css
!
:cvc:t|clcss io: G:usci t|c co:scious co:st:uctio: oi t|c
oliticl :t, oi t|c wo:|i:g clss ws lso t|c co:scious co:st:uctio: oi |is
i:tcllcctul liic
G:usci ccsc:i|cs t|c culit, oi t|is :occss cxlicitl, l:ou oliticl
st:coi:t, I|c oliticl :t, io: souc socil g:ous is :ot|i:g ot|c: t|:
t|ci: scciiic w, oi cl|o:ti:g t|ci: ow: ctcgo:, oi o:g:ic i:tcllcctuls
ci:cctl, i: t|c oliticl :c |iloso|icl iiclc . . . I|csc i:tcllcctuls :c
io:ucc i: t|is w, :c c::ot |c io:ucc i: :, ot|c: w, ;G:usci 1-1,
1., lt is iuo:t:t to cu|sizc t|t i: G:uscis soucw|t c:,tic
io:uultio:, souc socil g:ous cocs :ot :cic: to t|c citlist clss, w|ic|,
s cxli:cc c:lic:, |s u:iiolc su|tlc :c :otsosu|tlc uc:s to io:u t|ci:
o:g:ic i:tcllcctuls :l, t|c wo:|i:g clss, |scc o: its su|o:ci:tc cultu:l
:c iccologicl ositio:, is :cst:ictcc to t|is :cuous t| At t|c suc tiuc, i:
ccsc:i|i:g t|c :cw i:tcllcctul G:usci lso ccsc:i|cc :occss oi scli
c:ctio:
I|c uocc oi |ci:g oi t|c :cw i:tcllcctul c: :o lo:gc: co:sist i:
cloquc:cc, w|ic| is : cxtc:io: :c uouc:t:, uovc: oi iccli:gs :c
ssio:s, |ut i: ctivc :ticitio: i: :cticl liic, s co:st:ucto:,
o:g:izc:, c:u:c:t c:succ: :c :ot |ust siulc o:to: . . . i:ou
tcc|:iqucswo:| o:c :occccs to tcc|:iqucsscic:cc :c to t|c
|uu:istic co:cctio: oi |isto:,, wit|out w|ic| o:c :cui:s scciliscc
:c cocs :ot |ccouc ci:cctivc ;scciliscc :c oliticl,
;G:usci 1-1, 10,
l: i:ou |ci:g sccultivc ccou:t oi |st:ct t,cs, t|is ssgc :c:csc:ts
co:cisc uto|iog:|, oi G:usci s : i:tcllcctul l: |oi:i:g t|c oliticl
:t, oi t|c wo:|i:g clss, G:usci ws |lc to t::scc:c :ot |ust t|c uc:cl,
cloquc:t cctc|cc i:tcllcctul, |ut lso t|c scttc:s|ot ctivisu ccsc:i|cc i:
7 7 4 CULTURAL STUDI ES
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t|c :cvious scctio: I|is su|o:ci:tio: to ccii:itc, :c i: u:, w,s txi:g
i:stitutio:l io:u ws :cg:ccc |, G:usci :ot s sc:iiicc to |c c:cu:cc out
oi co:cc:: io: oliticl :cccssit,, |ut ositivc gooc i:ou t|c st:coi:t oi |is
ow: ccvclouc:t s i:tcllcctul
G:uscis c:so:l ccvclouc:t, |owcvc:, ws ::cstcc i: 1-!o, lcci:g
us to t|c lst :t oi G:uscis liic s : i:tcllcctul lis :iso: w:iti:gs :c
t|c uost iuo:t:t :c :coxicl sou:cc oi G:uscis oul:it, i:
cccui Io t|c cxtc:t t|t G:usci ws iu:ctio:i:g couuu:ist :c :t,
i:tcllcctul, |c is ciiiicult to :ccog:izc s c:ti:c:t su||cct oi stuc,, lct
lo:c s icllow i:tcllcctul |, co:tcuo::, scciuc: I|us |is c:l,
w:iti:gs :c t,icll, ig:o:cc, o: t lcst |:oug|t i: s t |cst gc:clogicll,
sig:iiic:t sulcuc:t to |is i: uo:c utu:c :c iuo:t:t :iso:
:otc|oo|s ;lcui 1-!, !!, lc o:l, |ccoucs i:tclligi|lc, iuili:,
:c i:tc:csti:g, cxctl, s |c ws io:ci|l, :cvc:tcc i:ou iu:ctio:i:g s :
i:tcllcctul i: t|c u::c: to w|ic| |c ws ccustoucc I|is c:ucl i:o:, is
t,icll, lost o: co:tcuo::, G:usci: sc|ol:s, io: ll t|c :cso:s
cctilcc i: t|is css, lut G:usci u:cc:stooc t|is co:citio: quitc wcll, :c
ccsc:i|cc it s :occss oi |uu: :c i:tcllcctul c:osio: iuoscc |, t|c
:iso: :cgiuc
lt sccus to uc t|t ii l wc:c to |c :clcscc i:ou :iso: :ow, l woulc :o
lo:gc: |c |lc to o:ic:t u,scli i: t|c vst wo:lc, l woulc :ot |c |lc to
|oi: :, sc:tiuc:tl cu::c:t l woulc co:ti:uc to livc uc:cl, wit| t|c
|:i: . . . scci:g i: ll colc, cvc: t|osc w|ou l s|oulc :cg:c s closc to
uc, :ot s livi:g |ci:gs, |ut s uzzlcs to |c solvcc . . . I|c ict is t|t l
ii:c u,scli u:|lc to ovc:couc t|is co:citio: |ut i: o:c w, t|i:g
:ciugc i: t|c u:c coui: oi |st:ct i:tcllcct, u|i:g t|us oi u,
isoltio: t|c cxclusivc io:u oi u, cxistc:cc
;G:usci 1-., !+!o!+!,
I|c sig:iiic:cc oi t|is ssgc c::ot |c ovc:sttcc I|c sic|l, sil|oucttc
s|ctc|cc out i: it :cgistc:s, o: t|c o:c |:c, t|c ccvstti:g s,c|ologicl
c:osio: suiic:cc |, G:usci itc: |is io:ci|lc :cuovl i:ou t|c iiclc oi
olitics At t|c suc tiuc, o: t|c ot|c: |:c, it i:vo|cs t|c co:citio: oi t|c
co:tcuo::, cccuic i:tcllcctul Alt|oug| it is oitc: :ot c:ccivcc s
|u:cc:, t|c illuso:, i:ccc:cc:cc iou:c i: t|c u:c coui: oi |st:ct
i:tcllcct is i: ict ou: ow: o lo:g s t|c socil co:citio:s :ocuci:g :c
:c:ocuci:g cccuic i:tcllcctuls c:cu:cc, G:uscis t|co:cticl i:sig|ts :c
:cticl cxulc :cui:cc ciicctivcl, i::ct:icv|lc I|c co:tcuo::, c:isis
will coucl i:tcllcctuls to :ccxui:c t|c cxclusivc io:u oi t|ci: cxistc:cc
W|c: t|t |c:s, G:usci will still |c i:iluc:til :c oul:, |ut t lst io:
t|c :ig|t :cso:s
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Acknowledgements
I|c ut|o: wis|cs to t|:| A:: \:i Acc:i, \:, Dictz, :c lt|
V:c:|: io: t|ci: suggcstio:s :c suo:t
Notes
1 cc co|,s i:sig|tiul :l,sis oi t|is t::sio:utio:, w|ic| cului:tcc i:
t|c |isto:icll, u::ccccc:tcc ict t|t toc, to |c : i:tcllcctul c:tiljs
|ci:g :oicsso: ;1-, 1o, co|,s scui:l |oo| ws w:ittc: o: t|c
cvc oi t|c uouc:tous ccvclouc:t oi t|c i:tc::ct, w|ic| u:cou|tccl,
oc:cc t|c w, io: :cw ossi|ilitics :c io:us oi i:tcllcctul c:ggcuc:t
:cvc:t|clcss, :ccu::i:g :c |:ct|lcss cclc|:tio:s oi t|c |logos|c:c, oi
ccuoc:tic vi:tul u|lic s|c:cs, oi cuc:gi:g :ctwo:| cultu:cs, ctc
t,icll, :c, o:c uig|t s,, iccologicll, ovc:cstiutc t|c ccg:cc to w|ic|
:ccc:t tcc|:ologicl ccvclouc:ts |vc solvcc lo:gst:ci:g :o|lcus i:
t|c socil :ocuctio: :c cist:i|utio: oi iccs Alt|oug| t|is is o|viousl, :o
su|stitutc io: iull :l,sis oi t|csc coulcx issucs, l will siul, :otc |c:c
t|t t|c gc:c:l io:us t|t s|c t|c :ocuctio: :c cist:i|utio: oi iccs i:
socict, t l:gc :ivtc :oc:t,, t|c :ot uotivc, uo:oolistic
tc:cc:cics, ctc cxc:t t|c suc :cssu:cs o: t|c :ocuctio: oi iccs
o:li:c, s t|c, co oii:c lt is :ot : ccicc:t t|t, io: ll t|c cui:c:tl,
usciul :c i:tc:csti:g utc:il it :oviccs, t|c i:tc::ct :cui:s qu:tit
tivcl, coui:tcc |, cou:tlcss uo:c,u|i:g sc|cucs, |, i::c :c
souctiucs g:otcsquc cx:cssio:s oi |c|w:c:css :c sclii:culgc:cc,
:c |, its ow: cisti:ctivc u:iicsttio:s oi cst::gcuc:t :c lic:tio:
G:uscis |:illi:t cig:uutic |ucguc:t, o:igi:ll, ci:cctcc t|c citlist
wo:lc s w|olc, lics |ust s wcll to t|c vi:tul o:c t|c olc is c,i:g,
:c t|c :cw c::ot |c |o:: l: t|is i:tc::cg:uu g:ct v:ict, oi uo:|ic
s,utous c: ;1-1, !o,
! I|c ltc::tivc |,ot|csis :c|cctcc |, G:usci cc|occ :uu|c: oi
i:uc:til :guuc:ts t|t wc:c i: ci:cultio: t t|c tiuc, i:cluci:g \x
Wc|c:s :c l:l \::|cius lc| wit| t|ci: ow: cisti:ctivc ictu:cs,
t|csc :guuc:ts ositcc t|c socil i:ccc:cc:cc oi i:tcllcctuls, o: cvc:
t|ci: st:ci:g s cisti:ct socil clss
! lo: cxulc,
:c oi t|c c|:ctc:istics oi t|c i:tcllcctuls s c:,stllizcc socil ctcgo:,
;s socil ctcgo:, t|t u:cc:st:cs itscli s co:ti:ui:g u:i:tc::utccl,
t|:oug| |isto:, :c t|us st:ci:g |ovc t|c st:ugglc oi g:ous :t|c: t|: s
t|c cx:cssio: oi cilccticl :occss t|:oug| w|ic| cc| coui::t socil
g:ou cl|o:tcs its ow: ctcgo:, oi i:tcllcctuls, is :cciscl, t|t oi
co::ccti:g itscli, i: t|c iccologicl s|c:c, wit| :cccci:g i:tcllcctul
7 7 6 CULTURAL STUDI ES
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category by means of a common conceptual nomenclature. A new historical
situation creates a new ideological superstructure, whose representatives
(the intellectuals) must be understood as themselves being new intellec-
tuals born out of the new situation, not a continuation of the preceding
intellectual milieu.
(Gramsci 1975, pp. 10431044)
All translations from the Italian edition of the Prison Notebooks are mine.
4 There is no such thing as an independent class of intellectuals. Rather, each
class has its own intellectuals; but those belonging to the historically
progressive class exercise such a power of attraction that they ultimately
subordinate to themselves the intellectuals of other classes and create in the
process a climate of solidarity of all intellectuals featuring ties of a
psychological character (such as vanity, etc.) and often of a caste character
(technical-juridical, corporative) (Gramsci 1975, p. 42).
5 Walzers critic is dened very broadly, and his critical activity is not
understood in a strong sense of a self-conscious, alienated and hostile
attitude toward social life and existing institutions. Walzers critic, in
other words, is merely a thinking man, an intellectual engaged to some
degree with social life and with a modicum of critical attitude. Walzers
discussion of the critic can be taken therefore as a discussion of
intellectuals, and in fact the two terms are at times used interchangeably.
See for example Walzer (1987, p. 4).
6 For example, [I]t is important to stress that social criticism has a history, for
some critics today announce themselves newborn (Walzer 1987, p. 4).
7 The fact that Walzer prefers Ignazio Silone, another Italian communist, is
intriguing. Silone did abandon the party, with its alleged stultifying and
compromising discipline, taking on a more proper activity of criticism: No
doubt this new understanding doesnt have the analytic power . . . of Marxist
theory, but it has the considerable advantage of moral relevance . . . Like
Camus, some years later, Silone comes to recognize the moral importance
of limits a doctrine at once simple and sophisticated (1987, p. 116).
Ironically, Silone, this ideological refugee, was not only a crucial gure of
anti-communism in Italy (of the measured and sensible, rather than
hysterical kind) but, as was recently discovered, a fascist spy (Foot 2000).
8 Edward Saids secular critic is similar to Walzer in content and in its
carefully calibrated Gramscian features (Said 1994).
9 In addition, these intellectuals practice a rened hypocrisy and a highly
rened art of deceiving and taming the peasant masses. Typically, this
intellectual is Democratic in its peasant face; reactionary in the face turned
towards the big landowner and the government: politicking, corrupt and
faithless (Gramsci 1977, pp. 454455). The most brilliant literary account
of this type is found in Silones novel Fontamara, which, in depicting the
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depth of these hypocrisies, undoubtedly draws from the personal reserves of
the author.
10 This sort of distinction between the great intellectual and the underbrush
growing in his shadow remains pertinent and important, and should be kept
in mind in thinking about the more recent manifestations of the processes
described by Gramsci. In the post-1968 epoch, for example, one could draw
similar distinctions between Michel Foucault and the later and lesser
Foucauldians.
11 Churchill was removed from his tenured position at the University of
Colorado after an open-ended shing expedition scrutinizing the scholarly
integrity of his work. This was a blatant attack against democratic rights and
no one, least of all the jury that decided his case in civil court after he sued,
was fooled by the claim that political considerations had nothing to do with
his dismissal.
12 . . . [T]he Turin communists if in a certain sense they can be related to the
intellectual formations to which we have alluded; and if, therefore, they too
have felt the intellectual inuence of Giustino Fortunato or of Benedetto
Croce nevertheless represent at the same time a complete break with that
tradition and the beginning of a new development, which has already borne
fruit and which will continue to do so (Gramsci 1977, p. 460).
13 Gramscis father was a state employee, although a disgraced one. Gramsci
himself was admitted to the university on a scholarship, although it was
inadequate to cover his nancial needs.
14 A good illustration of this point comes from the Gramscian academic
literature. Consider the following assessment found in a book that in all
other respects presents Gramsci as an indispensable theoretical resource for
our time:
It seems to me that these categories which have increased so greatly in all the
advanced capitalist countries such as school and university teachers . . .
do not t into Gramscis category of organic intellectuals, and certainly
cannot be traditional intellectuals. They are subject to conicting forces. In
so far as they passively carry out the orders of their superiors they are acting
as agents of the leading intellectuals and may perhaps be considered to be
subordinate organic intellectuals. But in so far as they join trade unions and
become drawn towards the labour movement, it makes no sense to describe
them as organic to the capitalist class. In addition, many of them are subject
to important inuences arising from professional traditions. It is surely best
to exclude them from the category of organic intellectuals of the capitalist
class, and to conne this category to the leading personnel whose links with
the ruling class justify the description of organic . . . If this is right, then we
have to accept that Gramsci does not provide a comprehensive theory of
intellectuals.
(Simon 1982, pp. 9798)
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This passage illustrates the instinctive discomfort and sheer unintelligibility
of Gramscis criticism from the standpoint of the contemporary intellectual.
It completely effaces the history of the communist opposition to manifold
forms of reformism as a manifestation of bourgeois hegemony over the
working class a history in which Gramsci himself played a considerable
role. The idea that a vague sense of sympathy toward the labor movement,
or union membership safely removes an intellectual from the eld of
bourgeois hegemony ies in the face of countless political experiences in the
twentieth, and even more obviously twenty-rst century as would be
demonstrated, for example, by an even cursory review of the long political
trajectory of European social democracy and trade unions. Simons
statement is not just completely at odds with Gramscis actual understanding
the question. It is itself a concise illustration of how the process of the
maintenance and consolidation of bourgeois hegemony takes place exactly
and most decisively in the milieu of the political left.
15 This is particularly true of Croce, who, although not strictly speaking a man
of the left and initially supportive of Mussolini, nonetheless came to inspire
generations of anti-fascists.
16 The rest of Gramscis note deepens his criticism of the European
intellectuals scorn for the standardized American Babbitt:
[I]n Europe standardized petty bourgeois do exist . . . but the European
Babbitt is from a historical standpoint inferior to the American Babbitt . . .
the conformism of the former is based on a putrid and debilitating
superstition, whereas the conformism of the latter is na ve and spontaneous,
based on a progressive and energetic superstition.
(Gramsci 1975, p. 634)
Here and in many other notes Gramsci anticipated the historical necessity, if
not the specic form, of intellectual Fordism and the attendant standardiza-
tion of the contemporary academic intellectual.
17 It is signicant that in his critique of political nomadism Gramsci went as far
as to include Amadeo Bordiga, the founder of the Italian Communist Party,
whose politics he regarded as formalistic and not directed towards social
homogeneity.
18 The introduction to David Maceys largely sympathetic biography includes
multiple examples of this attitude, detecting in it a strand of narcissism. For
instance:
To the imaginary interlocutor who complains: Are you saying yet again that
you have never been what you have been reproached with being? You are
already preparing the get-out that will enable you in your next book to
spring up somewhere else and to mock at us as you are doing now: No,
no, I am not where you are lying in wait for me, but over there, laughing at
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you, Foucault replies: I am no doubt the only one who writes in order to
have no face. Do not ask who I am and do not ask me to remain the same.
(Macey 1993, p. xiii)
See also pages xiv, xvi.
19 The intellectual discovered that the masses no longer need him to gain
knowledge: they know perfectly well, without illusion; they know better
than he and they are certainly capable of expressing themselves (Foucault
1977, p. 207).
20 Gramsci criticized both the professed political transparency of the
intellectual, and the facile populist gestures toward the self-sufciency of
the masses. Although the educator had to be educated as well, the
intellectual could not simply smuggle his or her peculiar self in the broad
stream of the autonomous masses:
The philosophy of praxis does not tend to leave the simple in their
primitive philosophy of common sense, but rather to lead them to a higher
conception of life. If it afrms the need for contact between intellectuals and
simple it is not in order to restrict scientic activity and preserve unity at the
low level of the masses, but precisely in order to construct an intellectual-
moral bloc which can make politically possible the intellectual progress of
the mass and not only of small intellectual groups.
(Gramsci 1971, pp. 332333)
21 Maceys presentation of these matters is euphemistic: Foucault displayed a
curious attitude toward organized politics (Macey 1993, p. 27).
22 Insofar as the intellectual had a role, it was one of self-abnegation (Macey
1993, p. 218).
23 Macey admires Foucaults energy and activism with the GIP, but revealingly
notes how attention to the prison problem . . . also offered an escape from
his boredom with literary matters (Macey 1993, p. 262).
24 Consider, for example, Foucaults account of his participation in 1981 in the
initiative to send ships into the Gulf of Thailand on behalf of the Vietnamese
boat people:
We are here only as private individuals, who have no other claim to speak,
and to speak together, than a certain shared difculty in accepting what is
happening . . . Who, then, has commissioned us? No one. And that is
precisely what establishes our right . . . Amnesty International, Terres des
Hommes, Medicins du Monde are initiatives which have created this right:
that of private individuals actually to intervene in the order of international
politics and strategies. The will of individuals has to inscribe itself in a reality
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over which governments have wanted to reserve a monopoly for themselves
a monopoly which we uproot little by little every day.
(Chandler 2006, pp. 116117)
Chandlers political assessment of this episode is worth quoting: This new
right for self-appointed and unaccountable liberal intellectuals to
intervene in international affairs was premised on the postmodern dismissal
of the collective political subject.
25 It is important note that Gramsci and Foucault emerged in very different
historical periods, which profoundly conditioned their political choices and
development as intellectuals. Gramscis entrance into the Communist Party
was in a certain sense a natural outcome of his radicalization, particularly
on the heels of the Russian Revolution. In Foucaults case the problem was
not simply the normalization of the academic intellectual, but also a far
more fragmented and treacherous political landscape, beginning with the
fact that the Communist Party was by then, and particularly in France, a
thoroughly conservative and reactionary organization. The fact that 1968
saw the proliferation of autonomist tendencies in which intellectuals like
Foucault could cultivate their independence as volunteers in the
Gramscian sense, rather than ght for the organization of homogeneous
social blocs, was in large part a function of the political bankruptcy of
Stalinism.
26 Gramsci was already responding to this sort of reaction in writing the
passage at the beginning of this section.
27 Ones critical self-awareness occurs . . . through a struggle of political
hegemonies, of contrasting directions, rst in the realm of ethics, then in
politics, arriving at a superior elaboration of ones conception of the real. To
be conscious of being part of a specic hegemonic force (that is, political
consciousness) is the rst phase toward a further and progressive self-
awareness in which theory and practice nally become one . . . the unity of
theory and practice is therefore not a mechanical, predetermined fact, but a
process of historical becoming (Gramsci 1975, p. 1385).
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