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Handbook of Biomass
This handbook has been prepared by the Solar Energy Research Institute under the U.S. Department of Energy Solar Technical Information Program. It is intended as a guide to the design, testing, operation, and manufacture of small-scale [less than 200 kW (270 hpJ] gasifiers. A great deal of the information will be useful for all levels of biomass gasification. The handbook is meant to be a practical guide to gasifier systems, and a minimum amount of space is devoted to questions of more theoretical interest. We apologize in advance for mixing English and Scientifique Internationale (SI) units. Whenever possible, we have used SI units, with the corresponding English units fol lowing in parentheses. Unfortunately, many of the figures use English units, and it would have been too difficult to convert all of these figures to both units. We have sup plied a conversion chart in the Appendix to make these conversions easier for the reader.
Mr. Bill Nostrand, one of our very helpful reviewers, died in May 1985. Bill was num
ber one in the ranks of those who became interested in gasification because of its poten tial for supplying clean, renewable energy. We all will miss him. The improvement of gasification systems will be noticeably slowed by his death.
We dedicate this book to the Bill Nostrands of this world who will bring gasifier systems to the level of safety, cleanliness, and reliability required to realize their full potential. Thanks, Bill. T_ B. Reed and A. Das Golden, Colorado
A Product of the
Acknowledgments
Since it is impossible for one or two authors to realistically comprehend a subject from all viewpoints, we have solicited input from leading workers in the field. Early versions were sent to a number of investigators, and each was invited to comment on and supplement our effort. We therefore express our heartfelt thanks to the following reviewers for greatly enhancing the quality of the final product: Dr. Thomas Milne, Solar Energy Research Institute Dr. Bjorn Kjellstrom, The Beijer Institute, Sweden Dr. Thomas McGowan, Georgia Institute of Technology Dr. Hubert Stassen, Twente University, The Netherlands Prof. Ibarra Cruz, University of Manila, The Philippines Mr. Matthew Mendis, World Bank Mr. Bill Nostrand, New England Gasification Associates We take final responsibility for the contents and omissions, and extend our apologies to those workers whose work we may have unknowingly omitted.
Fuel Ch.3
Gasifier Ch.4, 5, 6
Gas measurement and cleaning Ch. 7, 8 Engine (or com bustor) Ch. 1 1
system Ch. 9, 1 0
__________
--,l.
Notice
This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States government. Neither the United States govern ment nor any agency thereof. nor any of their employees, makes any warranties, express or implied. or assumes any legal liability or respon sibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific"commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States govern ment or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States government or any agency thereof. Printed in the United States of America
Available from:
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U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, DC 20402
National Technical Information Service
U.S. Department of Commerce
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Springfield, VA 22161
Price: Microfiche A01
Printed Copy A07
Codes are used for pricing all publications, The code is determined by the number of pages in the publication, Information pertaining to the pricing codes can be found in the current issue of the following publications which are generally available in most libraries: Energy Research Abstmcts (ERA); Government Reports Announcements and Index (GRA and I) Scientific and Technical Abstmct Reports (STAR); and publica tion NTIS-PR-360 available from NTIS at the above address.
Contents
1 .0 Introduction and Guide to the Literature and Research 1.1 Role of Gasification in Biomass Conversion 1.2 Biomass Energy Potential . . . . 1.3 Guide to Gasification Literature 1.3.1 Bibliographies . . . . . 1.3.2 Books . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Gasification Proceedings 1.3.4 Commercial Information 1.3.5 Producer Gas Research 1.3.6 Producer Gas R&D Funding 1.3.7 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Gasifier Work 2.0 H istory, Current Developments, and Future Directions
2.1 Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Early Development of Gasification 2.1.2 Vehicle Gasifiers . . . . 2.2 Current Development Activities 2.3 Future Development Directions
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3.0 Gasifier Fuels 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . 3.2 Biomass Fuel Analysis 3.2.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis 3.2.2 Physical Tests . . . . . 3.3 Other Fuel Parameters 3.3.1 Particle Size and Shape 3.3.2 Charcoal and Char Properties 3.3.3 Biomass Ash Content and Effects 3.3.4 Biomass Moisture Content and Effects 3.3.5 Biomass Heating Value 3.4 Beneficiation of Biomass Fuels . .
3.4.1 Densifying Biomass Fuels 3.4.2 Drying Biomass Fuels 3.5 Biomass Fuel Emissions 4.0 Principles of Gasification 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . 4.2 Biomass Thermal Conversion Processes 4.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . 4.2.2 Biomass Pyrolysis . . . . 4.2.3 Combustion of Biomass . . . .
4.2.4 Chemistry of Biomass Gasification 4.2.5 Thermodynamics of Gasification
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4.3 Indirect and Direct Gasification Processes 4.3.1 Indirect (Pyrolitic) Gasification . 4.3.2 Direct Gasification . . . . . . .
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4.4 Principles of Operation of Direct Gasifiers 4.4.1 Introduction . '. . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Operation of the Updraft Gasifier 4.4.3 Operation of the Downdraft Gasifier 4.4.4 Factors Controlling Stability of Gasifier Operation 4.5 Charcoal Gasification 4.6 Summary .
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Contents
8.8 Disposal of Captured Contaminants 8.8.1 Char-Ash . 8.8.2 Tar . . . . 8.8.3 Condensate
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11.8 Spark-Ignition Engine Conversion 11.8.1 Engine System 11.8.2 Gas Mixers 11.8.3 Power Time Lag 11.8.4 Engine Startup 11.8.5 Ignition Timing 11.8.6 Spark Plugs . . 11.9 Two-Cycle Engine Conversion 11.10 Diesel Engine Conversion . . 11.10.1 Diesel Operation with Producer Gas 11.10.2 Starting Diesel Engines . . . . . . . 11.10.3 Throttling at Partial Load . . . . . . 11.11 Increasing Power from Producer-Gas-Fueled Engines 11.11.1 Mechanisms of Power Loss 11.11.2 Engine Breathing . . . . . ' 11.11.3 Efficiency and Power Loss 11.11.4 Blowers and Superchargers 1 1 . 11.5 Other Methods for Increasing Producer Gas Power 11.12 Engine Life and Engine Wear 11.12.1 Engine Life Expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12.2 Sticking Intake Valves 11.12.3 Oil Thickening and Contamination 11.12.4 Tar/Oil Accumulations 1 1 . 12.5 Engine Corrosion 11.12.6 Engine Warranty 1 1 . 13 Exhaust Emissions . . . .
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11.14 Other Devices for Producer-Gas Power Generation 11.14.1 Gas Turbines . . . . . . . . . .
11.14.2 Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . 11.14.3 External-Combustion Devices
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13.3 Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.1 Costs . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.2 Calculating Energy Costs 13.3.3 Equipment Cost 13.3.4 Conversion Efficiency and Fuel Consumption 13.3.5 The Cost of Operating Labor 13.3.6 Maintenance Costs . . . . 13.4 Cost Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4.1 Value of Power Produced 13.4.2 Cogeneration Possibilities 13.5 Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5.1 Government Subsidies in the Form of Tax Incentives 13.5.2 Financial Institutions 13.6 Other Considerations
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References Appendix .
139
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This handbook explains how biomass can be converted to a gas in a downdraft gasifier and gives details for designing, testing, operating, and manufacturing gasifiers and gasifier systems, primarily for shaft power generation up to 200 kW. It is intended to help convert gasification from a practical art into a field of en gineered design. Although the handbook focuses on downdraft gasification as the only method suitable for small-scale power systems, it also gives extensive detail on biomass fuels, gas testing and cleanup in strumentation, and safety considerations that will be of use to all those who work with gasifiers at whatever scale. The combustion of biomass in wood stoves and in dustrial boilers has increased dramatically in some areas, and forest, agricultural, and paper wastes are being used extensively for fuels by some industries. However, more extensive biomass use still waits for the application of improved conversion methods, such as gasification, that match biomass energy to processes currently requiring liquid and gaseous fuels. Examples of s uch processes include glass, lime, and brick manufacture; power generation; and transportation. Biomass, like coal, is a solid fuel and thus is inherent ly less convenient to use than the gaseous or liquid fuels to which we have become accustomed. An over view of various processes now in use or under evalua tion for converting biomass to more conventional energy forms such as gas or liquid fuels is shown in Fig. 1-1 (Reed 1978). The figure shows how sunlight is converted to biomass through either traditional ac tivities (e.g., agriculture and silviculture) or new in novative techniques (e.g., as energy plantations, coppicing, and algaeculture) now being developed. Biomass resources fall into two categories: wet or wet table biomass (molasses, starches, and manures) and dry biomass (woody and agricultural materials and residues). Biological processes require wet biomass and operate at or near room temperature. These proces ses, shown on the lower left side of Fig. '1-1, include fermentation to produce alcohols and digestion to produce methane. Thermal processes function best using biomass feedstocks with less than 50% moisture content and are shown on the right side of Fig. 1-1. The simplest thermal process is combustion, which yields only heat. Pyrolysis uses heat to break down biomass and yields charcoal, wood-oils, tars, and gases.
Gasification processes convert biomass into combus tible gases that ideally contain all the energy original ly present in the biomass. In practice, gasification can convert 60% to 90% of the energy in the biomass into energy in the gas. Gasification processes can be either direct (using air or oxygen to generate heat through ex othermic reactions) or indirect (transferring heat to the reactor from the outside). The gas can be burned to produce industrial or residential heat, to run engines for mechanical or electrical power, orto make synthetic fuels.
In one sense, biomass gasification is already a well proven technology. Approximately one million downdraft gasifiers were used to operate cars, trucks, boats, trains, and electric generators in Europe during World War II (Egloff 1943), and the history of this ex perience is outlined in Chapter 2. However, the war's end saw this emergency measure abandoned, as inexpensive gasoline became available (Reed 1985b). Development of biomass gasification was disrupted in 1946 as the war ended and inexpensive (15/gal) gasoline became available. The magnitude of damage inflicted on gasifier technology by this disruption Can be seen by the fact that it is difficult for even the "ad vanced" technology of the 1980s to achieve on tests what was routine operation in the 1940s. The design, research, and manufacturing teams of that decade have all disbanded. We have from the past only that small fraction of knowledge that has been published, whereas the large bulk of firsthand experience in operation design has been lost and forgotten. Gasification was rediscovered in an era of fuel shortages and higher oil prices, and there are gasifier engine projects under way in more than 20 countries for producing process heat and electrical and mechani cal power (Kjellstrom 1983, 1985). In its rebirth, however, the existing technology has uncovered major problems in connection with effluent and gas cleanup and the fuel supply, which were less important during the emergency of World War II. Today, these problems must be solved if biomass gasification is to reemerge a a fuel source. Apparently, it is going to take a few years for the technology of the 1980s to be effectively applied to the accomplishments of the 1940s. Space-age advan ces in materials and control systems are available for
use in today's process designs, so a continuous development effort and lively open exchange should enable us to incorporate latter-day chemical and chemical engineering techniques to build clean, con venient, and reliable systems. A recent workshop on low-energy gasification tabulates research and development needs (Easterling 1985). The accelerated use of gasification technologies ul timately depends upon their ability to compete with fossil fuels, which in turn depends on unknown factors about resources, economics, and political conditions. At present (1988), gasification and other alternative energy processes are being developed slowly in the United States because of relatively plentiful supplies of low-cost gaseous and liquid fossil fuels. However, political changes could rapidly and dramatically alter this situation, as witnessed during the OPEC oil crises
of the seventies. The U.S. Office of Technology Assess ment (OTA) recently has issued a report calling for a national capability for emergency implementation of gasifiers (OTA 1984).
1015
Btu
Carbon dioxide
1-1 IL
'\
/s
unligh
Water
Land
I
Residues t-
I Needs I I Chemicals
Thermal conversion processes (dry) Fermentation I I and distillation Liquefaction Combustion Pyrolysis 1-------1 I Gasification Ethanol f{ Air I Oil gas Heat Oil gas (sugars) charcoal systems tu L---I I LO';;a I fJxygentI Med.- B tu gas methanol ammonia' I
___
Gaseous fuels
Liquid fuels
Solid fuels
Electricity
Heat
Table 11 . Summary of the Annual Energy Potential of Existing Sources of Biomass in the United States
Crop residues
Resource
106
Dry Tons/Year
Quads/Year
Animal manures Unused mill residuesa Logging residues Munic ipa l solid wastes Standing forests Totals
1000 writers and workers in the field. Unfortunately, massive bibliographies of undifferentiated material can confuse the reader or give an impression of a level of understanding that does not exist for gasification. We hope this manual will help the reader to put this material into perspective.
1 .3.2 Books
There was a great deal of research and commercializa tion directed toward coal and biomass gasification be tween 1850 and 1950. However, cheap and plentiful gas and oil prevented the commercial development of the technology except in times of emergency. The reader is referred especially to a number of excellent historical books. Modern Gas Producers (Rambush 1923) gives an account of experiences with updraft and coal gasifiers. Generator Gas (Gengas 1950) and its se quel, Wood Gas Generator for Vehicles (Nygards 1979), give the reader a complete coverage of all aspects of downdraft gasifiers during World War II. Gas Producers and Blast Furnaces (Gumz 1950) looks at the ther modynamics and kinetics of coal and wood gasifica tion. The article by Schlapfer and Tobler, "Theoretical and Practical Studies of Operation of Motorcars on Wood Gas," (Schlapfer 1937) is the best practical and scientific discussion of small gasifiers to appear during that period. A more general survey of biomass thermal conversion was published during 1979-80 in the SERI three volume Survey of Biomass Gasification (Reed 1981). This work subsequently was published commercially as Principles of Biomass Gasification (Reed 1981). The work Producer Gas: Another Fuel for Motor Transport (NAS 1983) contains an excellent historical perspec tive as well as a projection of coming developments. A monumental work, Small-Scale Gas Producer Engine Systems, is available in the United States and Germany (Kaupp 1984a). In addition to other considerations, this work contains an in-depth treatment of the use of forest and agricultural residues. Finally, several private groups have published or republished gasifier plans or gasifier books and pamphlets (TIPI 1986; Skov 1974; Mother 1982; Nunnikhoven 1984; Nygards 1979).
1 .3.1 Bibliographies
The number of books, articles, and reports on biomass gasification easily exceeds 10,000 (Reed 1985b), with many important studies conducted before 1950. One can easily become discouraged when trying to find the earlier works. Fortunately, much of this early work has been collected; some of it has been summarized, and some of it has been reprinted. We offer here an over view of this body of knowledge in order to help the reader locate required material. In general, the more recent works are still available. Two major collections of the older papers have been made in the past decade. The U.S. National Academy of Sciences published a bibliography of its extensive collection of early papers in Producer Gas: Another Fuel for Motor Transport (NAS 1983). The University of California at Davis acquired an extensive collection of papers while preparing State of the Art for Small Gas Producer Engine Systems (Kaupp 1984a). Most of these papers are also in the possession of A. Kaupp at GATE in Germany and also are on file at SERI. A very recent publication from India, State of Art Report on Biomass Gasification, (Parikh 1985) contains more than 1200 abstracts of articles on gasification as well as an assess ment of its viability and an excellent list of more than
articles of interest, and the proceedings often span many years of research. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has commissioned two studies on the use of producer gas (Miller 1983; Schroeder 1985). Govermnent interest in gasification has tended to focus on large-scale systems. Biomass gasification is perceived by the foreign aid agencies of the developed countries (such as the U.S. Agency for International Development [U.S. AIDlJ as a major potential energy source for many parts of the developing world. The Beijer Institute of Sweden has organized two international conferences for these donor agencies and published three volumes of recent studies of gasification relevant to the problems of developing countries (Kjellstrom 1983, 1985). South Africa is uniquely situated relative to producer gas research because it is highly developed technical ly and produces much of its fuel by gasification. However, it also has a native population of 20 million whose needs match those of less developed couritries. A major world conference in timber utilization in May 1985 included week-long sessions on both wood gasification and charcoal manufacture (NTRI 1985). The European Economic Community (EEC) has shown a great deal of interest in biomass energy in all forms and has been very active in gasification during the last five years (CEC 1980, 1982; Bridgwater 1984; Bioener gy 1985). The EEC has focused on the high-tech aspects of gasification (such as oxygen gasification), but has also funded work in small-scale gasifiers as part of its perceived responsibility toward "associated" develop ing countries (Beenackers and van Swaaij 1982; Carre 1985; Bridgwater 1984; NTRI 1985; Manurung and Beenackers 1985).
research group in producer gas (IGT 1984). In addition, excellent gasification work is proceeding in Canada, Europe, Brazil, the Philippines, New Zealand, and other parts of the world, primarily at the university level.
With this i n mind, FEMA contracted with H. LaFontaine of the Biomass Energy Foundation to build a prototype gasifier that could be made with readily available parts and to write a "craftsman
manual" description of gasifier construction and operation (LaFontaine 1987). The gasifier has passed the test, and the manual is now in the process of being published by FEMA.
regarded as only temporary modifications for wartime conditions. However, a few car makers went so far as to modify the body work for gasifier installation. Soon after the war, low-cost gasoline became available again, and most users went back to burning gasoline because of its convenience.
3.1 Introduction
Biomass fuels occur in a multitude of physical forms. The often-heard manufacturer's claim that a particular gasifier can gasify "any biomass fuel" is a naive state ment, and each form can be expected to have unique problems until proven otherwise. This physical dis parity accounts in part for the large number of gasifier designs available today. The gasifiers used widely during World War II used specially prepared 1x2x2 cm3 hardwood blocks. However, such blocks could repre sent only a tiny fraction of the biomass materials avail able for gasification. Some gasifiers currently are undergoing design evolutions that will enable them to use a wider range of fuels; nevertheless, fuel properties are very important in determining satisfactory operat ing conditions. Therefore, these multifeedstock gasifiers will be able to use only a limited range of biomass with controlled specifications, and anyone in stalling such a gasifier should have tests run on the fuel to b e used before deciding upon a purchase. The ability to specify fuel parameters is very important, and we discuss them in this chapter. Fortunately, a wide variety of tests are available for biomass and charcoal gasifiers that can be useful to those interested in gasification. Green wood can contain up to 50% water by weight, so its properties vary widely with moisture content. The chemical composition of biomass (expressed on a dry, ash-free basis) is more constant than that of the various coals (bituminous, anthracite, lignite) as shown in Fig. 3-1. Furthermore, more than 80% of the biomass is volatile. Coal is typically only 20% volatile; the remaining 80% is unreactive coke, which is more dif ficult to gasify than charcoal. Biomass generally has very low sulfur and ash content compared to coal. However, unlike coal, biomass comes in a wide variety of physical forms, making it necessary to tailor the shapes of the gasifier, fuel-drying equipment, feed sys tems, and ash-removal equipment to each form. There for e, the resulting gasifier design must be very fuel-specific. in detail in the publications of the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM), shown in Table 3-1. The equipment necessary for p erforming elemental analysis is shown in Table 3-2. The proximate analysis
Calorific Value
of the dry f
ue/s
100 80
""
-----
__
__ __
__
-J
1;: 3':
'iii
OJ
60 40 20
'"
J'l
.<::
(a)
E '" iii
:J 0 <:
"'
'" 0 U
::J
<: OJ
" Q.
1ii
'0 0 0
3':
'" .Q
" :J "
.Q 0 a: o
:J .<::
"
.2
0 U
<:
Fig. 3-1. Elemental (ultimate) anal ysis of (a) coals and wood and (b) biomass fuels (Sources: Skov 1974, p. 35. (@1974. Used with permis sion of Biomass Energy Foundation, Inc.) and Kaupp 1984a, Fig. 96)
Gasifier Fuels
Table 3-1 . ASTM Standards Methods for Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of Wood Feedstocks
Method Test No.
MCW = (wet weight - dry weight)/wet weight. (3-1) Sometimes, moisture content is reported on a dry weight basis, MCD, where MCD
Proximate An alys is Moisture Volatile ma1ler Ash Ullimate Analysis C H 0 N S Gross Healing Value
Values given in one form can be converted to the other as shown in Fig. 3-2 according to the relationships: MCD
=
(3-3) (3-4)
MCW
MCD/(l + MCD).
Moisture contents for typical biomass fuels are shown in Table 3-4. The effect of moisture content on heat recovery and combustion efficiency is shown in Table 3-5. Recoverable heat drops dramatically with increased moisture since the heat of vaporization of the water is not normally recovered during combustion (see Table 4-1). Since biomass varies in its properties from day to day and from load to load, it is common to report analyses on a dry basis, and sometimes on a moisture- and ash free (MAF) basis. It is then a simple matter to calculate other specific conditions from this value. The ultimate analysis gives the chemical composition and the higher heating value of the fuels. The chemi cal analysis usually lists the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and ash content of the dry fuel on a weight percentage basis. Ultimate analyses for a num ber of biomass and other solid fuels are given in Table 3-6 and for various chars in Table 3-7. Note in Table 3-6 that biomass is typically very low in both nitrogen and sulfur content relative to fossil fuels. However, selected biomass feedstocks may have much higher values. The sulfur and nitrogen contents of selected biomass fuels are shown in Tables 3-8 and 3-9.
Carlo Erba 1 1 04 Chemical Data Systems (CDS 1 200) Hewle1l-Packard Hp185 Perkin Elmer 240
oxygen oxygen
C,H,N,O
FID & TC
Mn02 added
oxygen
The proximate analysis determines the moisture (M), volatile matter (VM), ash (A), and (by difference) fixed carbon content (C) of a fuel, using standard ASTM tests. Moisture is analyzed by the weight loss observed at 110C. The volatile matter is driven off in a closed crucible by slow heating to 950C, and the sample is weighed again. The high heating rates encountered within an actual gasifier yield a higher volatile content and a lower fixed carbon content than the slow rate used in the ASTM measurement, but char yield from the gasifier is expected to be proportional to char yield from the ASTM test. The proximate analyses for selected biomass feedstocks and other solids are shown in Table 3-3. Note that more than 70% of most biomass material is volatile under the conditions of the test. The proximate analysis generally includes moisture content measured on a wet basis, MCW, where
"' 'in
'" .0
60
"
"
<1>
C o
E- 40
"
"' '0 E
.3 20
l---
200
Fig. 3-2. Wet basis-dry basis moisture content comparison (Source: McGowan 1980, Fig, 1-1)
10
The ash content of biomass is typically much less than that of coals, but some forms have a high ash content, as shown in Table 3-3. This can lead to ash melting (known as "slagging "), which can cause severe problems in some gasifiers. A standard ASTM method is available for measuring the slagging temperature for ash (Table 3-1). The higher heating value of the fuel is determined by reacting the fuel with oxygen in a bomb calorimeter and measuring the heat released to a known quantity of water. The heat released during this procedure repre
sents the maximum amount of energy that can be ob tained from combusting the fuel and is a necessary value for calculating the efficiency of gasification. The high heating value (HHV) is measured in this test, since liquid water is produced; however, the low heating value (LHV) is more relevant to the amount of energy produced, and this can be calculated from the HHV value shown in Table 4-l. The heat of combustion is determined by the composi tion of the biomass and in fact can be calculated with considerable accuracy from
Table 3-3. Proximate Analysis Data for Selected Solid Fuels and Biomass Materials (Dry Basis, Weight Percent)
Volatile MaHer (VM) Coals Fixed Carbon (FC) Ash Reference
33.9 44.4 43.0 84.8 86.2 84.4 87.0 83.5 77.0 74.3 70.6 73.4 73.4 71 .3 86.7 76.2 74.7 65.9 86.3 81.7 69.2 89.1 30.0 23.9 25.8 27.1
55.8 51 .4 46.6 1 5.0 1 3.7 1 3.1 1 2.8 16.1 21 .0 24.0 27.2 24.0 25.9 27.9 13.1 23.5 21 .9 9.1 12.2 12.9 7.3 9.8 67.7 72.0 59.3 55.6
(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (3) (3) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (2) (2) (2) (2)
Western hemlock Douglas fir White fir Ponderosa pine Redwood Cedar
Western hemlock Douglas fir White fir Ponderosa pine Redwood Cedar
Pyrolysis Chars
Redwood (790' to 1 020'F) Redwood (800' to 1 725'F) Oak (820' to 1 1 35'F) Oak (1 060'F)
(1) Bituminous Coal Research, Inc. 1 974. Gas Generator Research and Development, Phase II. Process and Equipment Development. OCR-20-F; PB235530/3GI. (2) Howlett, K. and Gamache, A. 1977. Forest and Mill Residues as Potential Sources of Biomass. Vol. VI. Final Report. McLean, VA; The Mitre Corporation/Metrek Division; ERDA Contract No. E (4918) 2081 ; MTR 7347. (3) Boley, C. C. and Landers. W. S. 1969, Entrainment Drying and Carbonization of Wood Waste. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines; Report of Investigations 7282. (4) Klass. D. L. and Ghosh, S. 1973. " Fuel from Organic Wastes."' Chemical Technology, p. 689. Source: Reed 1981
Gasifier Fuels
11
Biomass Fuel
Reference
Woody biomass, green Woody biomass, dried Straws Stalks, cobs, hulls Bagasse Municipal refuse Peat Air dry feedlot waste
4060 15 15 15 70 35 90 11
(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (2) (1 ) (2 )
0.00 4.76 9.09 13.04 1 6.67 20.00 23.08 28.57 33.33 42.86 50.00 60.00 66.67 71 .43
0.00 4.54 8.33 1 1 .54 1 4.29 1 6.67 1 8.75 22.22 25.00 30.00 33.33 37.50 40.00 41.67
7097 7036 6975 6912 6853 6791 6730 6604 6482 6 1 78 5868 5252 4639 401 9
82.5 81 .8 81.1 80.4 79.7 78.9 78.3 76.8 75.4 71 .8 68.2 6 1 .1 53.9 46.7
particle size and shape particle size distribution char durability and fixed-carbon content ash fusion temperature ash content moisture content heating value.
tion; ERDA Contract No. EX76C012081. bTheoretical values based on a maximum heating value of 8600 Btu/lb, an initial wood temperature of 62F, a flue gas temperature of 450F, an initial air temperature of 62F and 50% excess air. Source: Reed 1981
HHV HHV
=
Silvicultural Biomass Farms, Vol. 5, Conversion Processes and Costs. McLean, VA: Mitre Corpora
[34.1 C + 132.2 H + 6.8 S - 1.53 A - 12.0 (O+N)] kJ/g (3-5) [146.6 C + 568.8 H + 29.4 S - 6.6 A - 51.5 (O+N)]
X
102 Btu/lb
(3-6)
where C, H, S, A, 0, and N are the wt % of carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, ash, oxygen, and nitrogen in the fuel. The calculated value agrees with the measured value with an absolute error of 2.1% for a large number of biomass materials (Reed 1981).
12
Table 3-6. Ultimate Analysis Data for Selected Solid Fuels and
Biomass Materials (Dry Basis, Weight Percent)
Pittsburgh seam coal West Kentucky No. 1 1 coal Utah coal Wyoming Elkol coal Lignite Charcoal Douglas fir Doublas fir bark Pine bark Western hemlock Redwood Beech Hickory Maple Poplar Rice hulls Rice straw Sawdust pellets Paper Redwood wastewood Alabama oak woodwaste Animal waste Municipal solid waste
75.5 74.4 77.9 71.5 64.0 80.3 52.3 56.2 52.3 50.4 53.5 51 .6 49.7 50.6 51 .6 38.5 39.2 47.2 43.4 53.4 49.5 42.7 47.6
5.0 5.1 6.0 5.3 4.2 3.1 6.3 5.9 5.8 5.8 5.9 6.3 6.5 6.0 6.3 5.7 5.1 6.5 5.8 6.0 5.7 5.5 6.0
1 .2 1 .5 1 .5 1 .2 0.9 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.5 0.6 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.2 2.4 1 .2
3.1 3.8 0.6 0.9 1 .3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.3
4.9 7.9 9.9 16.9 19.2 1 1 .3 40.5 36.7 38.8 41 .4 40.3 41 .5 43.1 41 .7 41 .5 39.8 35.8 45.4 44.3 39.9 41 .3 31 .3 32.9
1 0.3 7.3 4.1 4.2 1 0.4 3.4 0.8 1 .2 2.9 2.2 0.2 0.6 0.7 1 .4 0.6 1 5.5 1 9.2 1 .0 6.0 0.6 3.3 1 7.8 1 2.0
31 .67 31 .23 32.87 29.49 24.85 31 .02 21 .0 22.0 20.4 20.0 21 .0 20.3 20.1 1 9.9 20.7 1 5.3 1 5.8 20.45 1 7.57 21 .26 1 9. 1 8 1 7.1 1 9.83
1 3,650 1 3,460 14,170 1 2,710 1 0,712 1 3,370 9,050 9,500 8,780 8,620 9,040 8,760 8,670 8,580 8,920 6,61 0 6,540 8,814 7,572 9,163 8,266 7,380 8,546
(1) Tillman, D. A. 1978. Wood as an Energy Resource. New York: Academic Press. (2) Bituminous Coal Research, Inc. 1974. Gas Generator Research and Development, Phase fl. Process and Equipment Development. OCR-20-F; PB235530/3GI. (3) Wen, C. Y., Bailie, R. C., Lin, C. Y., and O'Brien, W. S. 1974. "Production of Low Btu Gas Involving Coal Pyrolysis and Gasification." Advances in Chemistry Series. Vol. 131. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society. (4) Bowerman, F. R. 1969. Introductory Chapter to Principles and Practices of Incineration. Corey, R. C., editor. New York: John Wiley and Sons. (5) Boley, C. C. and Landers, W. S. 1969. Entrainment Drying and Carbonization of Wood Waste. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Bureau of Mines; Report of Investigations 7282. (6) Sanner, W. S., Ortuglio, C., Walters, J. G., and Wolfson, D. E. 1970. Conversion of Municipal and Industrial Refuse into Useful Materials by Pyrolysis. U.S. Bureau of Mines; Aug; RI 7428. Source: Reed 1981
determine the thickness of the gasification zone, the pressure drop through the bed, and the minimum and maximum hearth load for satisfactory operation. A uniform particle size helps overcome some problems. Improving the grate design, as well as added agitation or stirring, can go a long way to give trouble-free gasifier operation and to broaden the range of fuel shapes suitable for gasification. At the same time, it is important to realize that exces sive agitation results in excess carbon carryover, which in turn reduces the efficiency of the gasifier. In addi tion, carbon carryover reduces the oxygen/fuel ratio, since the carbon requires more oxygen than the biomass for gasification. This in turn reduces the oxygen available for flaming pyrolysis and increases the rate of tar formation.
occurs in dozens of physical forms, both pure (such as diamond and graphite) and impure (such as coke, char coal, and soot). Charcoal refers to the 10% to 30% solid carbon product from biomass pyrolysis. Its composi tion can vary from 50% carbon to more than 80% car bon, depending on the temperature and conditions of pyrolysis (see Table 3-7). Also, since it contains most of the original ash from the biomass, charcoal typical ly contains from 2% to 10% mineral matter (Emrich 1985). Charcoal manufacture dates to prehistoric times and is a well-established industry today with standards for its various uses. Charcoal is simpler to gasify, and it is easier to clean up the gas for engine use than biomass
Gasifier Fuels
13
Table 3-7. Ultimate Analysis Data for Selected Pyrolysis Chars (Dry Basis, Weight Percent)
Material C H N 5 0 Ash Higher Heating Value (kJ/g) (Btu/lb) Reference
Fi r bark char Rice hull char Grass straw char Animal waste char" Municipal solid waste char (high temperature) Redwood charcoal (790' to 1 020'F)
Redwood charcoal (860' to 1 725'F) Oak charcoal (820' to 1 1 85'F) Oak charcoal (1 060'F)
aContains 3.7% chlorine lumped with oxygen (1) Pober, K. W. and Bauer, H. F. 1977. ''The Nature of Pyrolytic Oil from-Municipal Solid Waste." Fuels from Waste. Anderson, L. L. and Tillman, ,D. A" Editors. New York: Academic Press, pp. 73 86. (2) Sanner, W. S., Ortuglio, C., Walters, J. G., and Wolfson, D. E. 1970. Conversion of Municipal and Industrial Refuse into Useful Materials by Pyrol ysis. U.S. Bureau of Mines; Aug; R1 7428. (3) Boley, C. C. and Landers, W. S. 1969. Entrainment Drying and Carbonization of Wood Waste. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Bureau of Mines; Report of Investigations 7282. Source: Reed 1981
gas is because of charcoal's low volatile content. At the beginning ofWorld War II, most gasifiers used charcoal. However, charcoal manufacture wastes approximately 50% of the energy of biomass and usually requires hardwood biomass as a starting material. By the end of World War II, most gasifiers used wood instead of char coal (Gengas 1950). Today, a large number of gasifiers built in the Philippines use charcoal, and charcoal is used in some other countries as well (Foley 1983; Kjellstrom 1983). It seems wise and probable that any long-term development of biomass gasification will ul timately use biomass again, rather than charcoal. As charcoalis converted to gas in a gasifier, the ash con tent rises. We use the term char-ash to describe the end product from char gasification; although the char-ash is still black, it may contain up to 50% ash. The incom ing oxygen/air/steam in updraft gasifiers contacts the char-ash at the grate and burns out the carbon, leaving a white ash. The principal problem in updraft gasifiers is to avoid ash slagging (melting), since it will plug the grate. In downdraft gasifiers, the char-ash reacts with CO2 and H20, and is not contacted by oxygen so the carbon is normally not completely consumed in a downdraft gasifier. The result is black char-ash with 70% to 80% carbon. This carbon gives a good resis tance to slagging. However, fuels with a high ash con tent can cause slagging in the area of the tuyeres, if they are used. Thus in combustion and updraft gasifiers the fuel pas ses through the stages Biomass ..... Charcoal ..... Char-Ash ..... Ash ..... Slag and in downdraft gasifiers this process stops at char ash. Charcoal durability depends on the resistance of the charcoal to powdering (duffing) during transport or char gasification. Ideally, the charcoal should maintain its size until the carbon reaches the end of the reduc tion zone. In practice, a wide range of char particles are produced in the reduction zone, and these can cause a plugging problem if they are not removed. Stirring and augering out char and ash are effective techniques for preventing this plugging problem (Rogers 1985; Kaupp 1984b). Figure 3-3 shows the char ash content as a func tion of particle size and the relation between carbon conversion and char size for a stratified-bed gasifier. The fuel starts as biomass (i-in. birch dowels) on the far right of Fig. 3-3. Ash is 0.5% and carbon conversion is zero, of course. After flaming pyrolysis half of the carbon has been converted yet the resulting charcoal is only slightly smaller than its original size (25% - 35% shrinkage). The char then undergoes gasification reac tions with hot pyrolysis combustion products, which consume the carbon on both the surface and in the in terior of the particle. As interior carbon is consumed the char shrinks, causing fractures, and the particle loses mechanical strength, causing crumbling. The small fragments are swept away by gas velocity. Return ing to Fig. 3-3, we see a plateau after pyrolysis and that the char ash remains between 2% and 3% all the way down to under 1000 m (1 mm) particle size, indicat ing that this size particle has not engaged in much char gasification. Below 500 /1l11 (0.5 mm) we see a second plateau, indicating the end of char gasification, and
14
biomass, depending on the completeness of char gasification. Therefore, it is important to provide for adequate removal of this bulky material. Because charcoal often has a high value, gasifiers are sometimes operated to produce up to 10% charcoal by augering out the charcoal at the end ofthe flaming com bustion zone (Pyrenco). This reduces the requirement for oxygen (air) and increases gas quality to more than 6.8 MJ/Nm3 , but also increases tar content. However, no current commercially successful small-scale char coal production in gasifiers is known to the authors. Charcoal is manufactured all over the world, and stan dards determine the quality and suitability for various uses (Emrich 1985). Recenttests at the Colorado School of Mines have tested char pellet strength at various stages of gasification (Hubis 1983).
Alfalfa seed straw Almond shells Barley straw Coffee hulls Corn cobs Corn fodder Corn stalks Oat straw Cotton gin trash Flax straw, pelleted Furfural residue Olive pits Peach pits Peanut husks Peat (Finnish) Peat, ge ne ral Rice hulls Rice straw Walnut she lls Wheat straw Wood, chipped Wood, general Wood, pine bark Wood, green fir Wood, kiln dried Wood, air dried
0.3 <0.02 0. 1 4 0.2 0.001-0.007 0.1 5 0.05 0.23 0.260.31 <0.01 0 .4 0.02 0.04 0.1 0.05-0.2 1 .5-2.0 0.16 0.10 0.03-0.09 0.17 0.08 0.02 0.1
0.06
1 .0 0.08
(1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (2) (1 ,3) (1 ,2) (1 ) (2) (1 ) (1 ) (4) (1 ) (1 ) (4) (5) (6) (1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (2) (1 ) (1 ,7) (4) (4) (4) (4)
(1) Gasification Project Ultimate Chemical Analysis Log, Agricultural Engineering Dept., University of California, Davis, 1979. (2) Partridge, J. R" "Manitoba Crops as an Energy Source," Sixth An nual Conference, Biomass Energy Institute, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, Oct. 1 3, 1977. (3) Payne, F. A" et al., "Gasification-Combustion of Corncobs and Analysis of Exhaust," American Society of Agricultural Engineers Summer Meeting, San Antonio, TX, Paper #80-3025, 1980. (4) Bailie, R. C., "Current Developments and Problems in Biomass Gasification," Sixth Annual Meeting, Biomass Energy Institute, Win nipeg, Manitoba, Canada, Oct. 13, 1977. (5) Ekman, E. and Asplund, D., A Review of Research ofPeal Gasifica lion in Finland. Technical Research Centre of Finland, Fuel and Lubricant Research Laboratory, Espoo, Finland. (6) Rambush, N. E., Modern Gas Producers, New York: Van Nostrand, 1923. (7) Jenkins, B., Downdraft Gasificalion Characleristics ofMajor Califor nia Biomass-Derived Fuels, Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Agricul tural Engineering, University of California, Davis, 1980. Source: Kaupp 1984a
that there is very little additional activity. It is clear that larger particles carry more unreacted carbon with them tban do smaller particles. Therefore, the conversion ef ficiency will be maximized if removal of large char is kept to a minimum. The balance between conversion efficiency and ash removal will be fuel-specific. The final weight of the char-ash residue is usually 2% to 10% of the biomass weight, depending on the char ash removal rate and the char durability. However, the char-ash residue has a very low density and so may occupy up to 20% of the volume of the original
Barley straw Corn cobs Corn fodder Cotton gin trash Corn stalks Flax straw, pell eted Oat straw Olive pits Peach pits Peat Prune pits Rice hulls, pell eted Safflower straw Walnut shells Wood, general Anthracite German and English bituminous coal American coal Brown coal and lignites
Coal Fuels
0.59 0.1 6-0.56 0.94 1 .34-2.09 1 .28 1.1 0.66 0.36 1 .74 0.5-3.0 0.32 0.57 0.62 0.2600.4 0.009-2.0 <1.5 0.5-1 .9 0.5-2 0.52
(1) Gasification Project Ultimate Chemical Analysis Log, Agricultural Engineering Department, University of California, Davis, 1979. (2) Partridge, J. R., "Manitoba Crops as an Energy Source," Sixth An nual Conference, Biomass Energy Institute, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, Oct. 13, 1977. (3) Ekman, E. and Asplund, D., A Review of Research of Peat Gasifica tion in Finland, Technical Research Centre of Finland, Fuel and Lubricant Research Laboratory, Espoo, Finland. (4) Rambush, N. E., Modern Gas Producers, New York: Van Nostrand, 1 923. Source: Kaupp 1984a
15
Gasifier Fuels
1 00
-..... -I --
R g o
" <0
80
"
60
40
20 1'"'""-0-
_ _
-0..
Char-ash content % 50 1 00 200 1 000 500 2000 Char particle size,1i m 5000
1 0000
=c
20000
Fig. 3 3. Char a5h content and carbon content versus char particle size for a stratified bed gasifier (Source: Das 1985)
Barley straw mix Bean straw Corn stalks Cotton gin trash Cubed colton stalks RDF pellets Pelleted rice hulls Safflower straw 1/4" pelleted walnut shell mix Wheat straw and corn stalks
1 0.3 1 0.2 6.4 1 7.6 1 7.2 1 0.4 14.9 6.0 5.8 7.4
Severe Severe Moderate Severe Severe Severe Severe Minor Moderate Severe
Cubed alfalfa seed straw Almond shell Corn cobs Olive pits Peach pits Prune pits Walnut shell (cracked) Douglas Fir wood blocks Municipal tree prunings Hogged wood manufacturing residue Whole log wood chips
6.0
4.8
1 .5 3.2 0.9 0.5 1 .1 0.2 3.0 0.3 0.1
16
such as that shown in Fig. 3-4 (Reed 1978b). They make excellent gasifier fuels and allow the fuel to be stored at much higher densities. Densification typically con sumes only 1% to 2% of the energy contained in the biomass; for some residues, drying may also require ad ditional energy, but drying simultaneously increases the fuel value of the biomass. Some biomass forms, with high ash or dirt contents, are difficult to densify because they cause excessive wear of the die. Also, densification is an additional expense, so its justification will depend on a comparison of the
Wood Straw Alfalfa seed straw Barley straw Bean straw Corn cobs Corn stalks Cotton gin trash Peach pits Olive pits Prune pits Rice hulls Safflower straw Walnut shells Wood, blocks chips Coal Coke Brown coal
loose briquets 1 00 rnrn long 75 rnrn diameter dust briquets 45 x 65 x 60 mm hand cut beech birch softwood blocks softwood slabs mixed 60% hard/40% soft hardwood softwood mixed SO/50 loose bales cube 30 x 30 x 50 mm. 7% moisture cube 30 x 30 x 50 mm. 7% moisture cube 30 x 30 x 50 mm, 7% moisture 1 1 % moisture cube 30 x 30 x 50 mm 23% moisture 1 1 % moisture 1 0% moisture 8% moisture cube 30 x 30 x 50 mm cube 30 x 30 x 50 mm cracked 8 mm pellets 17% moisture 1 0% moisture anthracite bituminous hard soft air dry lumps
177 555 350-440 350620 1 80-400 21 0-230 1 80-2003 150-170 130-150 170-190 330 250 290 80 320 298 300 440 304 391 343 474 567 514 679 203 336 559 256 1 67 830-900 770-930 380-530 360-470 650-670
(1 ) (1 ) (2) (2) (2) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (1 ) (1 )
(1) Rambush, N. E., Modern Gas Producers, New York: Van Nostrand, 1923. (2) Ekman, E. and Asplund, D" A Review of Research of Peat Gasification in Finland, Technical Research Centre of Finland, Fuel and Lubricant Research Laboratory, Espoo, Finland. (3) Generator Gas, The Swedish Experience From t939-1945, Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden, CO, SERI/SP 33-140, 1979. (4) Jenkins, B. M., Downdraft Gasification Characteristics of Major California Residue-Derived Fuels, Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Engineering, University of California, Davis, 1 980. Source: Kaupp 1984a
Gasifier Fuels
17
+ +
and the total moisture input MT is Fuel Moisture + Chemical Moisture Wet Fuel Weight
=
Me +
(100 - Mel MF
100
(3-9)
47 + 0.53 MF
1 0 MJ/Nm3
final fuel cost versus other alternatives (such as dif ferent fuels or other types of gasifiers).
""
. .2 100 , g> 90
eo 60
110
8Schlapler 1937
o HeywQod 1943
Sources
" 70
Charcoal mOisture- % wet biomass
o W
Biomass moisture % - wet basis
50
(b)
Total moisture Input as percentage of maSS input including chemically bound water
Fig. 3-5. (a) Effect of fuel moisture and oxygen on gas heating value (Source: Overend 1982, Rg. 58) (b) Effect of total moisture input on gas heating value
18
where MF is the fuel moisture %. We see then in Fig. 3-5(b) that bone dry biomass corresponds to 47% total moisture input. The chemical moisture in bone dry biomass provides more moisture than is needed for peak heating value, and all fuel moisture reduces gas heating value. Biomass can contain more than 50% moisture (wet basis) when it is cut; it is generally desirable to dry biomass containing more than 25% moisture (wet basis) before gasification. Drying often can be ac complished using waste heat or solar energy. If the temperature of the drying air is too high, the outer sur faces of the chunk will become dry and begin to pyrolyze before the heat can reach the center. For effi cient drying, hot air, which if cooled to 60' -80'C would be moisture saturated, is preferred. The moisture slows feedstock drying (as well as slowing surface pyrolysis). Thus more air is required, improving the drying process (Thompson 1981). During operation of a gasifier and engine combination, l-in. wood chips can be dried from 50% to 5 % moisture content, with drying capacity to spare, using a 20-minute residence time with the hot engine exhaust, tempered with 90% recycle of dryer gases.
Commercial dryers are available in many forms and sizes, and it is beyond the scope of this handbook to recommend such equipment for commercial-scale operations. A simple batch dryer for drying small quan tities in shown in Fig. 3-6 and a commercial dryer is shown in Fig. 3-7.
1
Insu lation Dryer exit tem perature sensor (TE)
Wet biomass
Gasifier Fuels
19
from gasifier systems relative to those from fossil fuel systems. However, the final emissions depend specifi cally on the properties of the gasifier and the sub-
sequent combustion of the gas, so that it is difficult to make a general statement about producer gas emissions.
Breeching seals
NO.1
riding
Trunnion
thrust roll
assembly
Drive assembly
Inlet seal
Combustion furnace
Riding ring
/ ::::"' 30'O"---
Gear mounting
_ _
-/--I 6"
ng!e secl
['
Burner
--v-
;:
W.P.
3'6"
Fig. 3-7. Direct-heat rotary dryer (Source: Perry 1973. Figs. 20-35, 2036)
20
4.1 Introduction
Gasifiers are relatively simple devices. The mechanics oftheir operation, such as feeding and gas cleanup, also are simple. The successful operation of gasifiers, however, is not so simple. No neat rules exist because the thermodynamics of gasifier operation are not well understood. Yet, nontrivial thermodynamic principles dictate the temperature, air supply, and other operat ing variables of the reactors that we build. It is a tribute to the persistence of experimentalists that so much progress has been made in the face of so little under standing. Nevertheless, it has been the experience in related fields (such as oil, gas, and coal combustion) that once the mechanisms at work are understood, the engineer is able to develop cleaner, more efficient processes. Fortunately, much of the knowledge ac quired in these fields can be applied to enhance our understanding of gasification processes. In this chapter, we present a summary of the underly ing processes that occur during biomass gasification. We will attempt to keep the explanation simple be cause each fundamental process is basically simple. Chapter 5 gives a more extensive description of the operation of specific gasifiers. Details are available from the literature for those interested in a more thorough explanation (Reed 1982; Kaupp 1 984a; Reed 1985b). 6-carbon anhydrosugars, and lignin is an irregular polymer of phenyl propane units. In biomass, these three polymers form an interpenetrating system, or block copolymer, that varies in composition across the cell wall. Nevertheless, in large samples, there is a relatively constant atomic ratio of CH1 .40o. 6' (The ratios will vary slightly with species. Coal is typically about CHO. 900.1 but varies more widely in composi tion.) The relationship between solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels is easily seen in Fig. 4-1(a) where the relative atomic concentrations of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are plotted for a variety of fuels. Here it is seen that the solid fuels, biomass, coal and charcoal, lie in the lower left segment of the diagram; liquid and gaseous hydrocarbon fuels lie in the upper left section; CO and H2 are joined by the bisector ofthe triangle; and the combustion products of fuels, CO2 and H20, lie on a vertical line on the right. Thermal conversion processes for biomass are indi cated by the arrows of Fig. 4-1(b). Here it is seen that the conversion processes move the chemical composi tion of biomass to liquid or solid fuel regions, either by biological or thermal means. In some cases (such as oxygen/air gasification), the processes are spon taneous; in other cases (such as steam gasification) con siderable energy must be expended to cause the change.
4.2.1 Introduction
Thermal conversion processes for biomass involve some or all of the following processes:
Pyrolysis: Biomass + Heat -7 Charcoal, oil, gas Gasification: Biomass + Limited oxygen -7 Fuel gas Combustion: Biomass + Stoichiometric' oxygen
-7
Thermal processes typically have high throughputs and can, in principle, operate on any biomass form. (Biological processes only operate on some of the components of biomass, usually the cellulose.)
Cellulose is a linear polymer of anhydroglucose units; hemicellulose is a mixture of polymers of 5- and
All the processes involved in pyrolysis, gasification, and combustion can be seen in the flaming match of Fig. 4-2. The flame provides heat for pyrolysis, and the resulting gases and vapors burn in the luminous flame in a process called flaming combustion. After the flame passes a given point, the char may or may not continue to burn (some matches are chemically treated to prevent the charcoal from smouldering). When the match is extinguished, the remaining wood continues to undergo residual pyrolysis, generating a visible smoke composed of the condensed tar droplets.
Principles of Gasification
21
B CE
= = =
Gasification processes for converting solid fuels to gaseous fuels: o Oxygen process S Steam process H Hydrogen process P Pyrolysis
= = = =
0.5
Combustion products
(a )
0.5
(b)
Fig. 4-1. (a) Phase diagram showing the relative proportions of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels (b) Chemical changes during biomass conversion processes (Source: Reed 1981)
1500'C
Combustion products
Gases from soot (luminous) Oil vapors crack to hydrocarbons and tar Oil vapor and gas Pyrolysis of wood
I
'\
.I
\
' \
( . .
, .
.
\
.,
. \ . .:..
.\
\ .
22
A more quantitative picture of pyrolysis is obtained through thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). In this technique, a small piece of biomass is suspended on a balance pan in a furnace, and the temperature is in creased with time at a known rate. An example of the residual weight change experienced by a small sample of flax shives heated at a rate of 40C/min is shown in Fig. 4-3. One sees that moisture is released first, at 100C, followed by the volatile materials at 250-450C; these temperatures are important in understanding pyrolysis, gasification, and combustion. According to the figure, a fraction of char and ash remains in the end. If air is allowed to enter the system after pyrolysis, the carbon (char) will bum, leaving the ash as the final product. Each form of biomass produces slightly dif ferent quantities of char, volatile material, and ash. Knowledge of these quantities, as well as the tempera ture dependencies of the reaction and associated weight losses, are useful in understanding gasifier operation and design. The results shown in Fig. 4-3 are qualitatively similar to those obtained in a proximate analysis of most biomass but are not identical because heating rates are higher and samples are smaller in TGA (see Chapter 3
and Table 3-3). The curve of Fig. 4-3 represents pure pyrolysis in an inert gas (such as nitrogen or argon). If pyrolysis occurs in air, the curve drops more steeply within the region from 250-400C because the char and products are oxidized also. As the char burns, it even tually reaches the ash line between 400 and 500C. In Fig. 4-3, more than 80% of the total dry mass of the sample is volatilized below 500C, leaving an addition al 10% to 20% of the original mass of carbon for con version to gas. It is now recognized that the volatile matter is composed of monomers (as well as other frag ments) of the cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin polymer that make up biomass (Evans 1984). It is also recognized that up to 65% of the biomass dry weight can be converted to this water-soluble "wood oil," which potentially may form the basis ofnew processes for wood liquefaction (Roy 1983; Scott 1983; Diebold 1984). Unfortunately, these oils are corrosive and high ly oxygenated, so that further processing will be re quired to make a high-grade liquid fuel (Diebold 1986). However, they have been burned successfully in in dustrial boilers and turbines with only minor modifica tions required for the burners (Bowen 1978; Jasas 1982).
1 00
Temperature 80
OJ .!: . c:
:c 60
'iii E
Sample ashed in air at 600 C proximate analysis (%) Wet Moisture Volatiles Char Ash 4.0 59.2 25.7 61.7 26.0 5.5 Dry
5.3
0 40
---
20
Char
---
\ \ \
- - - - -----------
--------
_ _
------
------_=
200
----
Ash
-L------
------
------
600
-------J
Fig. 4-3. Thermogravimetric anal ysis of a typical biomass sample heated in the absence of air (Source: Reed 1981, Fig. 5-2)
Principles of Gasification
23
efficiency of stoves; in Europe the LHV is used. As a result. European wood stoves are typically quoted as 10% more efficient than comparable U.S. wood stoves.)
(4-1)
where CH1 .400 .6 is an average formula for typical biomass. (Actual composition for specific biomass is shown in Tables 3-3. 3-4. 36. and 3-7). The nitrogen is shown in parentheses because it is an inert portion of air and does not take part in the reaction. For oxygen combustion of biomass it would be omitted. This combustion produces 20.9 kJ/g (8990 Btu/lb) when the temperature of the combustion products is low enough for all the liquid to be water. and this is the value that would be measured in a bomb calorimeter and reported as the high heat of combustion or HHV as shown in Tables 3-6 and 4-1. In most practical combus tion devices. the water escapes to the atmosphere as a gas. and the heat of vaporization of the water is not recovered. In this case. the low heating value. LHV. 20.4 kJ/g (8770 Btu/lb). would be the maximum heat that could be generated. The difference between LHV and HHV is small for dry wood but increases rapidly with moisture content of the wood. (In the United States the HHV is normally used for rating the
(4-2)
Unfortunately. there is more energy contained in the CO and H2 than is contained in the biomass. so that this reaction would require the transfer of energy from some external source, which would greatly complicate the process. In practice. some excess oxygen must then be added for gasification (carrying the reaction to point in Fig. 4-1(bll. producing some CO2 and H20 according to
CH1 .400. 6 + 0.4 02
->
(4-3)
Typically a few percent of methane are formed as well. Typical properties of producer gas from biomass are shown in Table 4-2.
41 .7 20.0
aThe high heating value (HHV) is the value that is usually measured in the laboratory and would be obtained during combustion if liquid water was allowed to condense out as a liquid. The low heating value (LHV) is obtained when water is produced as a vapor. The high heating value of typical biomass fuels will be decreased in proportion to the water and ash content, according to the relation: LHV(Net) HHV(MAF)/(1 + M + A) where M is the fraction of moisture (wet basis), A is the fraction of ash, and MAF designates the moisture- and ash-free basis. The air/biomass ratio required for total combustion is 6.27 kg/kg (Ib/lb). The LHV can be related to the HHV and an analysis of the combus tion products as:
HHV LHV + Fm hw
where Fm is the weight fraction of moisture produced in the combus tion gases, and hw is the heat of vaporization of water, 2283 Jig (980 Btuilb). Source: Modified from data in Reed 1981.
= =
22.1 CO 21.0 1 0.2 CO2 9.7 14.5 H2 1 5.2 4.8 H2O 1 .7 1 .6 CH4 N2 50.8 48.4 Gas High Heating Value: 5506 kJ/Nm3 (1 35.4 Btu/scf) Generator gas (wet bas is )b 5800 kJ/Nm3 (142.5 Btu/scf) Generator gas (dry basis) b
Air Ratio Required for Gasification: 2.38 kg wood/kg air (Ib/lb)
8These values are based on ash- and moisture-free bir:-mass with the composition given in Table 4-1. The wet-gas composition is the most important property of the gas for mass and energy balances, but the dry-gas composition is usually reported because of the difficulty in measuring moisture. The heating value of the gas is usually calculated from the gas composition, using a value of 1 3,400 kJ/Nm3 (330 Btu/sc for H2 and CO. and 41 .900 kJ/Nm3 (1030 Btu/sci) for methane. bThese are typical values for downdraft air gasifiers, but they can vary between 4880 and 7320 kJ/Nm3 (120-180 Btu/scf). depending on vari ables such as gasifier heat loss, biomass moisture content, and char removal at the grate. Source: Modified from data in Reed 1981.
24
The ratio CO/COz (or Hz/HzO) is a measure of the producer gas quality. Approximately 30% of the biomass is burned to provide the energy for gasification of the rest. The exact amount of excess oxygen required depends on the efficiency of the process. It can be im proved in practice with insulation, by drying, or by preheating the reactants. A fascinating question in gasification is how the reacting products "know" how much oxygen to use (see below).
<I> of about 0.25 all of the char is converted to gas, and the fraction of energy in the wood converted to gas reaches a maximum. With less oxygen, some ofthe char is not converted; with more oxygen, some of the gas is burned and the temperature rises very rapidly as shown in Fig. 4-4(a), Thus, it is desirable to operate as close to an equivalence ratio of 0.25 as possible. How is it possible to operate exactly at this ratio ofO.25? In a fixed bed gasifier, operation at lower values of <I> would cause charcoal to be produced (as shown for low <I> in Fig. 4-4(c)), and it would build up in the reactor unless it is augered or shaken out. Operation at values of <I> above 0.25 consumes charcoal and the temperature goes up rapidly. Hence, maintaining the bed at a con stant level automatically ensures the correct oxygen input.
Principles of Gasification
25
of combustion with oxygen. If the combustion is ac complished with air. the gas is also diluted with about 50% nitrogen from the air. The principal advantages of direct gasification are that the one-stage process is very simple; the direct heat transfer from the gases to the biomass is very efficient.
and the process is largely self-regulating. If air is used. the resulting gas is diluted with atmospheric nitrogen to a producer gas value of 5800-7700 kJ/Nm3 (150 200 Btu/scf). When oxygen is used for gasification. a medium-energy gas containing 1 1 . 5 0 0 kJ/Nm3 (300 Btu/scf) is obtained (Reed 1982). Medium-energy gas can be distributed economically for short distances
3000
P=1atm
3000
20
18
16
'C
C>
14 12
0-
Energy in Gas
"", ,
P l aIm
300
!!!
u: u
-;: 10 "" 8 6
4
2 0 0
0,
\ Air
\ \
0.2
Energy in Char
Air
0;
::>
III
>
'"
200
Oxygen Air
P = l aIm
c: ."
C> '"
..
J:
-'
i:
0
100
(e)
Equivalence Ratio
0.4 0.6
0.8
0 1 .0
0.2
Fig. 44. (a) Abiabatic reaction temperature forbiomass ofatomic composition CH1.400.6 reacting with oxygen and air, plotted against the equivalence ratio, $, the ratio of oxygen to that required for complete combustion (b) Equilibrium gas composition for reaction with air (e) Energy in solid and gas (d) Energy per volume of gas (Source: Reed 1981, Figs. S-2 - S5)
(d)
Equivalence Ratio
0.4 0.6
0.8
1.0
26
(up to one mile) in pipelines. It is also called synthesis gas. since it can be used as a feedstock for the chemi cal synthesis of methanol. ammonia. methane. and gasoline. The oxygen must be either purchased or produced on-site. making it economically prudent only in larger installations. It has been reported that pipeline distribution of low-energy gas is also economically practical for distances up to one mile if the air used for gasification is compressed. rather than compressing the larger volume of producer gas (McGowan 1984). There are many types of direct gasifiers. each with its special virtues and defects. They will be discussed in Chapter 5 .
Fuel hopper
-'I I
I I
: := :H =l
=;2=' '9 Reduction I I
..-"' ...,
py
ro=f
Ash
I f:: Combustion -1 C + 0,
---
(a)
'-'-:Ai:r "' t -- t _
CO,
Fuel hopper
_ _
..., Gas
Pyrolysis C + 0, CO,
=
(b) Fig. 45. Schematic diagram of (a) updraft and (b) downdraft gasifier showing reactions occurring in each zone (Source: Reed 1981, Figs. 86. 87)
absorbed in the endothermic reduction and pyrolysis reactions above. Depending upon the pyrolysis conditions in a gasifier. one can generate a wide range of vapors (wood oil and wood tar) in the hot gas. If the pyrolysis products are to be burned immediately for heat in a boiler or for drying (close-coupled operation). then the presence of condensible vapors in the gas is of little importance. In
Principles of Gasification
27
fact, the condensible tars represent a high-energy fuel and greatly enhance the energy obtained from each unit volume of biomass. If the volatile materials are condensed, they produce tars and oils known commonly as creosote. These materials collect in the chimneys of airtight wood stoves,the piping of gasifiers, and the valves of engines. Most of the companies advertising and selling updraft gasifiers at a 1979 conference no longer produce them (Reed 1979). If the gas is to be conveyed over a distance in a pipeline, burned in any form of engine, or used as a chemical feedstock, the condensing tars will plug pipes some times in only a few minutes. In these cases, it is neces sary to use a mode of gasification that succeeds in converting the tars to gas. This can be accomplished either by cracking (secondary pyrolysis) or by partial oxidation in flaming pyrolysis.
Although flaming pyrolysis is a new concept in ex plaining biomass gasification, partial oxidation of small and large hydrocarbon molecules to CO and Hz is a standard industrial process. Texaco has used an oxygen gasifier to oxidize hydrocarbons to CO and Hz, as in the following reaction for a typical oil:
C lOHzz + 5 0z
10 CO + 11 Hz
(4-5)
The resulting gas, called synthesis gas, can be used to manufacture methanol, hydrogen, or anunonia. There is some interest in using the Texaco system to gasify biomass (Stevenson 1982).
(4-4)
(The exact 0z-to-vapor-ratio will depend on the exact vapor composition and gasifier conditions.) Downdraft gasifiers usually produce vapors that are less than 1 % condensible oilltar, the reason behind the almost ex clusive use of downdraft gasifiers as an energy source for operating engines.
28
The charcoal yield from a biomass feedstock is highly dependent on the rate of heating and the size of the biomass particles. Industrial charcoal manufacture uses very slow heating rates to achieve charcoal yields of more than 30% of the initial dry weight of the biomass. The intermediate heating rates used in proximate analysis usually produce charcoal yields of 15% to 20% . The very rapid heating rates encountered when small biomass particles are gasified and com busted realize charcoal yields of less than 15% of the initial dry weight of the biomass; larger size feedstocks produce 15% to 25% charcoal. During updraft or downdraft gasification, 10% to 20% of the biomass will remain as charcoal after pyrolysis is complete. In an updraft gasifier, air entering at the grate initially burns this char to liberate heat and CO2 according to the reaction: (4-6) Almost immediately, or even simultaneously, the CO2 and any H20 present in the gasifier react with the char to produce the fuel gases CO and H2 according to the following reactions: C + CO2 C + H20
->
their cooling effect helps to keep the gas temperature from rising 'above this temperature. Below 800"C, the reactions become sluggish and very little product forms. We have modeled the reactions of downdraft char gasification using known kinetic values and find that the temperatures measured in char gasification correspond to those observed in the gasifier (Reed 1983a; Reed 1984). We refer to the process observed in an actual bed of char as adiabatic (no heat input) char
gasification.
The CO and H2 formed in the hot char zone can react below 900"C to form methane according to the reaction: CO + 3 H2
->
CH4
H20
(4-9)
This reaction proceeds slowly unless there is a catalyst present; however, it is quite exothermic and can supply heat if suitably catalyzed. Concurrent with the emergence of biomass as an im portant energy source, it was natural that coal gasifica tion interpretations would be carried over to explain biomass gasification. Even today, most articles on biomass gasification use only Eqs. (4-7) and (4-8) to ex plain biomass gasification and ignore Eq. (4-4), even though Eq. (4-4) applies to the 80% biomass volatiles. Biomass pyrolysis produces only 10% to 20% char coal, and the charcoal is very reactive. Therefore, this cannot be the primary explanation for the conversion of biomass to gas.
2 CO
(4-7) (4-8)
->
CO+ H2
The first reaction is called the Boudouard reaction, and the second is called the water-gas reaction. They have been studied extensively for the last 100 years in con nection with coal and biomass gasification, since the principal product of coal pyrolysis is coke (carbon). The rate of the reaction has been studied by measuring the rate of disappearance of carbon, coal, or charcoal while passing H20 or CO2 over the solid (Nandi 1985; Edrich 1985). Both of these reactions require heat (Le., they are en dothermic reactions) and therefore cool the gas about 25"C for every 1 % of CO2 that reacts. These reactions occur very rapidly at temperatures over 900"C, and
4.6 Summary
In summary, the task of a gasifier is threefold:
to pyrolyze biomass to produce volatile matter, gas, and carbon to convert the volatile matter to the permanent gases, CO, H2, and CH4 to convert the carbon to CO and H2.
These tasks are accomplished by partial oxidation or pyrolysis in various types of gasifiers.
Principles of Gasification
29
5.1 Introduction
Many different designs of gasifiers have been built and are described in the extensive literature on this subject (see especially Gengas 1950; Skov 1974; Foley 1983; Kjellstrom 1983, 1985; Kaupp 1984a; NAS 1983). Much of this material has been collected by A. Kaupp of the University of California at Davis. (Copies of these papers are also at SERI and the German Appropriate Technology Exchange [GATE] in Eschborn, West Ger many.) Anyone interested in design modification and improvement would be well-advised to become ac quainted with this material before repeating tried and tested techniques. However, many of the documented design variations are minOT. We believe that future improvements to gasifiers will be based on a better understanding of the basic proces ses, combined with improved measurements of gasifier behavior and better regulation of fuel properties. Work is under way at various private and public centers to increase our understanding of the gasification process. Consequently, gasifier design is in a state of flux. This makes it difficult to organize a "handbook of gasifier design" without having it out of date before the ink is dry. To avoid this problem, we will first describe the con struction and operation of a number of historical gasifiers described in the literature to aid in under standing various tradeoffs still under development. The reader must remember that the choice of gasifier is dictated both by the fuels that will be used and the use to which the gas will be put. We will then describe some gasifiers currently under development.
Fig. 5-1. Diagram of downdraft gasification (Source: Skov 1974, Fig. 14. 1974. Used with permission of Biomass Energy Foundation, Inc.)
Un fuel Gas
cooling
---oL! ""J
Cyclone
Flaming
a bed of solid fuel particles through which air and gas pass either up or down. They are the simplest type of gasifiers and are the only ones suitable for small-scale application.
Engine suction
Air
inlet
The downdraft gasifier (Figs. 4-5(b), 5-1, and 5-2) was developed to convert high volatile fuels (wood, biomass) to low tar gas and therefore has proven to be the most successful design for power generation. We concern ourselves primarily with several forms of downdraft gasifiers in this chapter. The updraft gasifier (Figs. 4-5(a), 5-3, and 5-4) is wide ly used for coal gasification and nonvolatile fuels such as charcoal. However, the high rate of tar production
shaker
Fig. 5-2. Imbert (nozzle and constricted hearth) gasifier (Source: Gengas 1950, Fig. 75)
30
Hearth Zone
Ash Zone
Fig. 5-3. Diagram of updraft gasification (Source: Skov 1974 Fig. 9. 1974. Used with permission of Biomass Energy Foundation, Inc.)
(5%-20%) (Desrosiers 1982) makes them impractical for high volatile fuels where a clean gas is required.
Fluidized beds are favored by many designers for
gasi fiers producing m OTe than 40 GJ(th)/h * [40 MBtu(th)/hl and for gasifiers using smaller particle feedstock sizes. In a fluidized bed, air rises through a grate at high enough velocity to levitate the particles above the grate, thus forming a "fluidized bed." Above the bed itself the vessel increases in diameter, lowering the gas velocity and causing particles to recirculate within the bed itself. The recirculation results in high heat and mass transfer between particle and gas stream.
Suspended particle gasifiers move a suspension of biomass particles through a hot furnace, causing pyrolysis, combustion, and reduction to give producer gas. Neither fluidized bed nor suspended particle gasifiers have been developed for small-scale engine use.
We have already mentioned that gasifier designs will differ for different feedstocks, and special gasifiers have been developed to handle specific forms of biomass feedstocks, such as municipal solid wastes (MSW) and rice hulls. The manner in which ash is removed determines whether the gasifier is classified as either a dry ash (ash is removed as a powder) or slagging (ash is removed as a molten slag) gasifier. Slagging updraft gasifiers for biomass and coal have been operated at only a very large scale. *The units Hth) and Btu(th) refer to the thennal or chemical energy
produced. This can be converted to electricity with an efficiency of
1 0% to 40%. so the electrical energy content (J or Btu) will be propor tionally lower.
Fire
Outlet -
Gasifier Designs
31
manufacture wastes half of the energy in the wood (Gengas 1950). On the other hand. Australia worked al most exclusively with charcoal during this period be cause of that country's large forest acreage and small number of vehicles. Nevertheless, the simplicity of charcoal gasification has attracted many investigators, and more than 2000 charcoal systems have been manufactured in the Philippines. A large number are not currently working (Kadyszewski 1986).
hearth zone with unpyrolyzed biomass, leading to momentarily high rates of tar production. The fuel size also is very important for proper operation. Cross draft gasifiers have the fastest response time and the smal lest thermal mass of any gas producers because there is a minimum inventory of hot charcoal. In one design, a downdraft gasifier could be operated in a cross draft scheme during startup in order to minimize the startup time (Kaupp 1984a).
Reduction zone
_ _
Gas
5.7.1 Introduction
The nozzle (tuyere) and constricted hearth downdraft gasifier shown in Figs. 4-5(b), 5-4, and 5-5 is sometimes
32
called the "Imbert" gasifier (after its entreprenurial in ventor, Jacques Imbert) although it was produced by dozens of companies under other names during World War II. Approximately one million of these gasifiers were mass produced during World War II, at a cost of about $1000 u.s. (1983) each. It is important to realize that the cost of producing such a unit today would depend primarily on the degree to which it could be mass produced since none of the components are inherently expensive. Air gasifiers can be operated either by forcing air through the fuel (pressurized) or by drawing the air through the fuel (suction). In practice, gasifiers that fuel engines generally use the suction of the engine to move air through the gasifier and cleanup train, and these are called "suction gasifiers." We will describe only suc tion gasifiers here; however, only minor modifications are required to build pressurized gasifiers. (See Chap ter 8, which deals with the topics of blowers, fans, ejectors, and compressors). A large number of descriptive articles on gasifiers ap peared during World War II, but no detailed drawings have been located from that period. Fortunately, for mulas for determining critical dimensions are given in a number of the older references (Gengas 1950; Schliipfer 1937). Renewed interest in biomass gasification has manifested itself in the fact that a number of in dividuals and groups have built modern versions of the Imbert gasifier. Plans and manuals for constructing some of these designs are available from several groups (Mother 1982; Skov 1974; Nunnikhoven 1984; Rissler 1984). Some of these gasifiers have been attached to cars and trucks that have succeeded in traversing the country on several occasions. In particular, Mother Earth News and its subsidiary, Experimental Vehicle News, have performed extensive tests on gasifiers and have published informative articles and plans with photographs of fabrication steps. The plans are suffi ciently detailed so that a skilled welder can fabricate a gasifier for a relatively small expense. In 1978, a number oftests were performed under a SERI contract on a 75-hp "Hesselman" (Imbert-type) downdraft gasifier. This gasifier was built in Sweden at the end of World War II and was imported to this country by Professor Bailie of the University of West Virginia. Professor Bailie used the gasifier in tests during which the gasifier operated on wood, wood pel lets, and oxygen (Bailie 1979). Subsequently, the gasifier was sent to SERI in Colorado for further testing with a 15-kW Onan electric generator. More recently, the gasifier has been used to gasify peat by Professor Goldhammer of Lowell University. The gasifier is now being used by Syngas Systems, Inc., to generate producer gas to test gas cleanup systems for use with its 750-kW power generator. Although much ofthe test
ing was qualitative in nature, the authors have had con siderable experience in running this interesting tech nological antique.
Gasifier Designs
33
tions. Usually, wood contains less than 1 % ash. However, as the charcoal is consumed, it eventually collapses to form a powdered char-ash that may repre sent 2% to 10% of the total biomass, in turn contain ing 10% to 50% ash. Ash contents depend on the char content of the wood and the degree of agitation. The greater the degree of char reduction, the smaller the resulting particles and the higher the ash, as shown in Fig. 3-3. The downdraft gasifier startup and response time is intermediate between the fast cross draft gasifier and the slow updraft gasifier. The Imbert gasifier requires a low-moisture 20% moisture) and uniformly blocky fuel in order to allow easy gravity feeding through the constricted hearth. Twigs, sticks, and bark shreds must be completely removed. The reduction in area at the hearth and the protruding nozzles present hazards at which the pas sage of the fuel can be restricted, thus causing bridging and channeling followed by high tar output, as un pyrolyzed biomass falls into the reaction zone. The
I ron-plate hearth mantle Inside insulation by ashes Cast-iron v-hearth, easily removable
results in a marked cooling of the gas, as sensible-gas heat is converted into chemical energy. This removes most of the charcoal and improves the quality of the gas. Eventually, the charcoal is " dissolved" by these gases and disintegrates to smaller chunks and a fine powder that either is swept out with the gases to the cyclone separator or falls through the grate. Tars that have escaped combustion at the nozzle may crack fur ther in the hot char although tar cracking is now thought to occur only above about 850C (Kaupp 1984b; Diebold 1985). The spaces between the nozzles (shown in Fig. 5-8) allow some unpyrolyzed biomass to pass through. The hearth constriction then causes all gases to pass through the hot zone at the constriction, thus giving maximum mixing and minimum heat loss. The highest temperatures are reached in this section so the hearth constriction should be replaceable. If tarry gas is produced from this type of gasifier, common practice is to reduce the hearth constriction area until a low-tar gas is produced. However, one should remember that hearth dimensions also play a role in the gas production rate (see below). The fine char-ash dust can eventually clog the charcoal bed and will reduce the gas flow unless the dust is removed. The charcoal is supported by a movable grate that can be shaken at intervals. Ash builds up below' the grate and can be removed during cleaning opera
Fig. 5-7. Flat-plate hearth constriction (Source: Gengas 1950, Fig. 76)
34
units. This term enables one to compare the perfor mance of a wide variety of gasifiers on a common basis. The maximum specific hearth loads for a number of gasifiers are shown in Table 5-1. The table was calcu lated from data available on gasifiers that have been thoroughly tested and lists the maximum superficial velocity and heating load reported. Note that in European literature, hearth load is reported in gas volume units; in the United States, it is reported in energy units. In Generator Gas (Gengas 1950) a maximum heartb load (Bhmax) value for an Imbert-style gasifier is about 0.9 Nm3/h-cm2 . In other words, 0.9 m3 of gas is produced for each square centimeter of cross-sectional area at the constriction. This corresponds to a superficial gas velocity Vs of 2 . 5 m/s (8.2 ft/s) calculated at NTP* from the throat diameter and ignoring tbe presence of fuel. This corresponds to a specific gas production rate of 9000 m3 of gas per square meter of cross-sectional area per hour (29,500 scf/ft2-h). If the gas has a (typical) energy content of 6.1 MJ/Nm3 (150 Btu/scf), this results in a specific energy rate of 54.8 GJ/m2-h (4.4 MBtu/ft2-h). The diameter of the pyrolysis zone at the air nozzles is typically about twice tbat at the tbroat, and Table 5-1 shows the hearth load on this basis also. This puts the hearth load for the Imbert type gasifier on a comparable basis to the stratified downdraft gasifier. Knowledge of maximum hearth load permits one to calculate tbe size of hearth needed for various engine or burner sizes. Dimensions for a variety of Imbert-type gasifiers are shown in Tables 5-2 and 5-3. The maximum hearth load is limited by many factors, such as the mechanical integrity of the char bed struc ture witbin the gasifier, degree of agitation, and the time available for conversion. High velocities can dis turb the char and fuel bed, causing instability. If char fragments become dislodged and airborne, tbey may plug tbe bed or form channels. Therefore, a little agita tion can effectively increase tbe maximum specific heartb load. The heating value of producer gas varies witb flow rate, as shown in Fig. 7-20. Notice that the maximum ef ficiency for rice hulls occurs at twice the flow rate tbat produces the maximum heating value from rice hulls. This occurs because the combination oflower tempera tures and low flow rate favors metbane and tar produc tion. Altbough the change in efficiency is small, tbe benefit of reducing tar production is substantial. Closely related to hearth area (Ah) is the cross-section al area of tbe air nozzles (tuyeres) (Am) Early workers
'
Fig. 5-8. High temperature zone of a downdraft gas producer with wall tuyeres (Source: Kaupp 1984a, Fig. 55)
vehicle units of the World War II era had ample vibra tion to jar the carefully sized wood blocks through. In fact, an entire industry emerged for preparing car wood at tbat time (Gengas 1950).
*NTP refers to the European practice of correcting gas volume measurements to a "normal temperature and pressure" of DOC and 1 atmosphere. In the United States it is conventional to correct measured volumes to STP. "standard temperature and pressure." 77F (or 25C) and 1 atmosphere.
Gasifier Designs
35
Table 5-1 . Maximum Reported Superficial Velocity and Hearth Load of Various Gasifiers8
DC Diameter Gasifier Vsd Superficial Vel mls
It s
Im e
b r!"
Typeb
It
Reference
I-A I-A I-A I-A S-A S-O S-A S-A S-A S-O
0.15 0.30 0.30 0.61 0.1 5 0.15 0.61 0.61 0.76 0.76
2.50 0.63 0.95 0.24 0.28 0.24 0.1 3 0.23 1 .71 1 .07
8.2 2.1 3.1 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.4 0.7 5.6 3.5
0.90 0.23 0.34 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.62 0.39
(Graham 1 983)
Buek Roge s
Syn -Gas , Inc.
(Reed 1 982) (Reed 1 982) (Wala ender 1 985) (Chern 1 985) (G a os ki 1 985) (Gra os ki 1 985)
rb b
BData in this table are based on reports on well-tested gasifiers, rather than manufacturers' claims, etc.
b l is the Imbert (nozzle and constricted throat) gasifier of WW II. S is the Stratified Downdraft Gasifier. A signifies operation on air, 0 on oxygen.
c For Imbert type gasifiers (I), the diameter is measured at the throat (upper value) or at the air entry level (lower value). For Stratified Downdraft
Gasifiers (8), the diameter is constant at all levels.
dThe superficial velocity is calculated as the volume of gas (taken at room temperature) passing through the area without regard to the presence of
fuel. It has units of vol/area-time lengthltime "" velocity. eThe hearth load, Bh, is a practical measure of gasifier gas volume throughput (SI units) or energy throughput (English units).
=
observed an optimum relationship between the hearth and nozzle areas. For instance, maximum power was obtained from 130-mm hearths that had five 12-mm nozzles. Any variation of either the nozzle or hearth ring from these dimensions caused a power reduction. Table 5-2 shows successful nozzle sizes for wood fueled Imbert gas producers and the wider variation for nozzles used in successful Imbert and SGB gasifiers. (SGB units were used for 2-cycle pulsating flow engines.) A larger hearth diameter requires either a higher noz zle velocity or some other means to penetrate the deeper fuel bed. This leads to a higher pressure drop for larger hearths. placing an upper size limit on noz zle-fed downdraft gasifiers when gas flow is provided by engine vacuum. If the cross-sectional area of the noz zles is too small. there will be an excessive pressure drop in forming the air jets; if the cross-sectional area is too large, the air jets will have too Iow a velocity and the air will not penetrate the bed. The velocity of the air blast is shown in Table 5-2.
throughput and at low loads become disproportionate ly high. A low specific hearth load may also cause tar formation problems. A high turndown ratio is less im portant for electric generators and irrigation pumps that constantly operate at full capacity. In summary, the Imbert gasifier design has survived the test of time and mass production. It is relatively inex pensive, uses simple materials of construction, is easy to fabricate. and can be operated by motorists with a minimum of training. It supplies low-tar gas from high ly volatile fuels with a high turndown ratio.
36
Range of Gas Output Maximum Wood Consumption kg/h 14 21 30 42 36 45 55 67 57 71 90 110 Air Blast Velocity Vm m/s 22.4 23.0 24.2 26.0 29.4 30.3 31 .5 30.0 32.6 32.6 31 .4 31 .2
d,/dh 268/60 268/80 268/1 00 268/120 300/1 00 300/1 1 5 300/1 30 300/1 50 400/130 400/150 400/175 400/200
dr mm 268 268 268 268 300 300 300 300 400 400 400 400
dr' mm 150 176 202 216 208 228 248 258 258 258 308 318
H mm 256 256 256 256 275 275 275 275 370 370 370 370
A No. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 7 7 7 7
dm mm 7.5 9.0 1 0.5 12.0 1 0.5 1 1 .5 1 2.5 14.0 1 0.5 1 2.0 13.5 16.0
Am x 100 Ah 7.8 6.4 5.5 5.0 5.5 5.0 4.6 4.4 4.6 4.5 4.2 3.9
dh
dr
4.5 3.3 2.7 2.2 3.0 2.6 2.3 2.0 3.1 2.7 2.3 2.0
1 .33 1.19 1 .00 0.92 1 .00 0.92 0.85 0.80 0.85 0.80 0.74 0.73
dh
min. Nm3/h 4 5 8 12 10 12 15 18 17 21 26 33
Variables not given in figure are defined as follows: dm inner diameter of the tuyere. Am sum of cross sectional areas of the air jet openings in the tuyeres. Ah cross sectional area of the throat. A number of tuyeres. Source: Kaupp 1984a. Table 5; Fig. 75.
= = = =
--
dr
I
Gl
o CD 21. co :::J rn
ffi"
_ _
_ _
V> .....
4 6
1 1 0 x 1 36 1 1 0 x 1 36 1 1 0 x 1 36
10.34
5. 1 7 7.75
1 00
50 75
130 1 80
80
Note: At a heavy load, 1 70 mm cross section should be used instead of 150 mm cross section.
Source: Adapted from Gengas 1950, Table 32.
low (usually 5000 ppm), is still high enough to require extensive scrubbing and disposal procedures. Groeneveld has studied the recycle of gases at the noz zle and developed improved understanding of the tar combustion and improved mixing methods shown in Fig. 5-9 to permit scaleup (Groeneveld 19S0a,b). Unfor tunately, there is no overall theory of operation for Im bert gasifiers that would permit sizing the gasifier for fuels other than hardwood blocks. The geometry and flow of fuel and air are quite complex, making any at tempts to model the gasifier very difficult tasks indeed. (More information is provided in later discussions.) Some efforts to scale the Imbert gasifier to larger sizes have realized a disastrous increase in tar production (Goss 1979; Graham 1983). However, researchers have met with more success when the fuel size has been in creased with the gasifier size. Billets that were 8 em in diameter and 15 em long have operated well in large Imbert-style gasifiers used for heating applications (Makray 1984).
Fig. 5-9. Downdraft center nozzle gas producer (Source: Groeneveld 1980a)
38
Biomass + Air/Oxygen
Refractory
10
CH' .400.6=0.402
Flaming 'Pyrolysis. FP
I II I I II
Oxygen in air
TAxis
TSurface
Wt % char
Oxygen
:E
'iii I
01
I
Gas
Char (a)
+
Insulation
Temperature
(K)
(b)
(e)
F;g. 5-10. Schematic of stratified downdraft gasifier showing (a) chemical reaction, (b) temperature profiles, and (c) composition Source: Reed 1984. p. 226)
Air reacts with pyrolyzing biomass in the second zone, and most of the volatile wood oil is burned to supply heat for this pyrolysis as explained in Chapter 4. We have called this process "flaming pyrolysis," and dis tinguish it from "flaming combustion," which occurs in the absence of solids with excess air or oxygen. At the bottom of the second zone, the biomass has been converted to charcoal, and all of the oxygen from the air has reacted. The final gas leaving the second zone contains CO and Hz, as well as the COz and HzO produced in the earlier stages of combustion, as shown in Fig. 5-10. The CO and Hz mixture already is suffi ciently concentrated to be a combustible gas at this point. The hot gases produced in the flaming pyrolysis zone react with the charcoal in the third, or char gasification, zone to convert more of the COz and HzO to CO and Hz, through the Boudouard and water-gas reactions (Eqs. 4-7 and 4-B). We call this process adiabatic char gasification (adiabatic means no heat flows into or out of the section). During the reaction, sensible heat of the gas is converted into chemical energy of the fuel gas. This results in cooling the gas to about BOOC, a temperature at which no further reaction is possible. Finally, there may be a zone of unreacted charcoal below the char gasification zone through which the gas
must pass before it reaches the grate. This last zone has the disadvantage that char and ash from the char gasification zone also must pass through it to reach the grate. However, as we mentioned before, it provides a "buffer" or reservoir of charcoal that is available to accommodate changes in the power level, which otherwise might cause the grate to heat excessively. The stratified downdraft design has a number of advantages over the Imbert gasifier. The open top permits fuel to be fed more easily and allows easy access for instruments to measure conditions within the bed. The uniform passage of air and fuel down the gasifier keeps local temperatures from becoming too high or too low while the average temperature is high. The cylindrical construction is easy to fabricate and permits continuous flow for otherwise troublesome fuels without causing bridging or channeling. Finally, the various strata are more accessible for measuring compositions and temperatures within the bed so that it is possible to compare modeling results with empirical observations. The stratified downdraft gasifier is both conceptually a n d mathematically easier to comprehend. Quantitative descriptions and mathematical models of gas flows through the bed are thus facilitated.
Gasifier Designs
39
Airgitator
/ .,..
c ==.:_
,
I
I
I I I
, I I I I
I
I
I
I ,
I 1
1 1.' 1
I I
I I
r=--=--.:>
,.
Cyclone
Ceramic ballls
.tJl
Fan motor
Grid plate
Fig. 5-11. Buck Rogers gasifier (Source: W alawender 1985, p. 913. 1985. Used with permission of Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc.)
In principle, the gasifier can be scaled to large diameters because it operates as a plug-flow reactor, and the air and fuel are uniformly mixed. A 0.6 m (24 in.) internal diameter gasifier has been operated successfully by the Buck Rogers Co. of Kansas (Walawender 1985; Chern 1985). A 0.77 m (30 in.) internal diameter gasifier to produce 750 kW of power has been developed by Syngas Systems, Inc., (Graboski 1985) and is being operated extensively on air and oxygen (Graboski 1986). We believe that these advantages, coupled with the design's simplicity, may ultimately allow the stratified downdraft gasifier to supplant the Imbert and other ear lier gasifiers, and that a number of design variations will grow from the basic stratified downdraft gasifier described here. Nevertheless, several years of ex
perience with these gasifiers (using both oxygen and air) have uncovered questions that must be understood and resolved in any commercial design.
40
power vehicles, are largely self-purging,) Yet, it is desirable to gasify as much of the char as possible before its packing increases the pressure drop, Minimal char-ash removal can be accomplished automatically by using pressure-sensing switches that activate the removal mechanism only when pressure begins to
build, It is desirable to gasify more than 95 % of the biomass, leaving only 5% char-ash, The ability to remove variable amounts of char with a moving grate adds a second design issue to the stratified downdraft gasifier, Char consumes more than
;; N o OJ
Biomass Silo
0:
til
Insulation
Waler
Pump
Gasifier Designs
41
twice the mass of oxygen required for biomass pyrolysis, and hence high char conversion increases the overall oxygen/biomass ratio. If up to 10% of the biomass is removed as char-ash at the grate, then the oxygen/fuel ratio decreases; in turn,.the temperatures of flaming combustion decrease, and the resulting gas has both a higher energy content and a higher tar con tent. This added control of the oxygenlbiomass ratio has not been well-defined. A third issue in the design of the stratified downdraft gasifier is the prevention of bridging and channeling. High-grade biomass fuels such as wood blocks or pel lets will flow down through the gasifier under the in fluence of gravity. However, other fuels (such as stringy chips, sawdust, and rice hulls) can form a bridge, preventing continuous flow and giving rise to very high temperatures. Obviously, it is desirable to use these widely available biomass residues. Bridging can be prevented by stirring, shaking, or agitating the bed and, since the temperatures in the gasifier are relatively low, it is possible to use a stainless steel central stirring arm such as the one shown in the Buck Rogers gasifier of Fig. 5-11. A fourth issue to be addressed in the design of stratified downdraft gasifiers is bed stabilization. When the gasifier operates at stable steady state, the flaming pyrolysis zone advances into the biomass at the same rate that the char is consumed, resulting in a stationary reaction zone at a fixed level in the gasifier. However, this zone can move up in very dry fuels, consuming the fuel reservoir and emerging at the top of the gasifier. Since no more fuel is available, the gasifier will operate in this "top-stabilized" mode, but there is a substantial heat loss through the open top. This results in lower conversion efficiency and could create a fire hazard. (The SERI and SGI gasifiers operate regularly in this top-stabilized mode with oxygen but have closed refractory tops and pressure-feeding apparatus.) Fuel must be added at a steady rate to prevent alternate pyrolysis and char gasifier operation, which can generate high tar levels. (We have observed higher tar levels from this pulsing pyrolysis process when using oxygen than when using air.) Very wet fuels inhibit the flaming pyrolysis zone from advancing fast enough to keep up with the incoming fuel, and the zone subsequently moves toward the grate, consuming the dead char zone at the bottom. The zone may become "grate-stabilized" at this point. or it may continue to move to the grate and be extinguished. Thus, control of the reaction zone position is very im portant in the stratified downdraft gasifier. A number of mechanisms seem to be effective in stabilizing this position and they are discussed in a recent paper (Reed 1985a).
In summary, both understanding and commercializa tion of the stratified downdraft gasifier have made remarkable progress in only a few years of work, but a great deal of effort still is in progress. It is not clear whether this design ultimately will displace conven tional Imbert and other gasifiers.
--t 1111111
....
7 em
1 1 em
Optional Gas
Insulated shell
-- 1 5 cm
Fig. 5-13. Stratified downdraft gasifier design (Source: Reed 1984, Fig. 6)
42
Fw
p g/cm3 g/cm3 cm cm cm cm cm3 cm2 m W/cm2 kglh kg/m2h
.90 .10 .01 .20 .40 .20 .50 1 .00 1 .00 .20 4.41 .20 2.80 .15 2.00 10 566
.803 . 1 88 .009 .027 .40 .15 .63 2.00 2.00 .50 1 .56 2.00 12.00 .15 2.00 10 566
.90 .10 .01 .05 1 .00 .50 .50 5.00 3.00 3.00 4.41 45.00 78.00 .15 2.00 10 566
Fv
V A Dg q M m
Heat Transfer
tp vf
Ip
cm/s cm
73 . 1 05 7.64 1 00 1 0.50
te
Notes: Calculations based on the following equations and assumptions: Time of pyrolysis: tp (hp + Fw hw) P VIA q Fuel velocity: VI m/DgP (1 -Fv) Flaming pyrolysis zone length: Ip vf tp Temperature of pyrolysis 60Qoe Heat of pyrolysis: hp 2081 Jig Heat to vaporize water to 60Qoe: hw 3654 Jig Char reaction time: Ie 1 00 5 Char zone length: Ie (lcHvl) Source: Reed 1984
= = = = = = = =
Ie
cm
of gasifiers that convert the maximum quantity of tar to gas during gasification.
In his thesis, Groeneveld used cold flow models to in vestigate the flow of gases around a nozzle. He found that the incoming air stream entrains and burns tar laden gas as shown in Fig. 5-9 if the gasifier is proper ly designed (Groeneveld 1980a,b). After publication of these results, a gasifier using this principle (a central air nozzle promotes recirculation and combustion of the volatiles produced in pyrolysis) was designed and marketed in the Netherlands. The DeLaCotte tar-recycling gasifier (Fig. 5-15) was the first tar-burning gasifier. It has two solid-fuel chambers and a gas-combustion chamber on the side. Fuel is pyrolyzed in the upper part of the fuel chamber. Pyrolysis products are aspirated out the top to the side combustion chamber using the flow of combustion air in an ejector, where they burn completely at high
Gasifier Designs
43
Temperature (K)
COICO,
1000 0 2 r4 rE
1200
.'
1 400
-
____ -T ,
1:{
.. 0
, ,,
\0
R " 0 "
m
6 f8 r-
2-
'" <;; is 1 0
<D C> c
/ ; :tr
/* ,,
100 s
E i=
<D
100o
100 s
Key
200..
- -
-- Ref 2
0 -
Fig. 5-14. Observed and calculated temperature and composition in abiabatic char conversion zone (Source Reed 1984, Fig. 5)
temperature in the absence of solids. (Combustion with air generates producer gas; combustion with oxygen could generate synthesis gas.) The hot combustion products (1000'-1100'C) are reinjected at the center of the gasifier. One-fourth of the gas rises through the upper chamber to assure pyrolysis of the biomass fuel. The remaining three-fourths travel down through the lower chamber containing the char produced from the biomass in the upper chamber. The char is gasified by reacting with the CO2 and H20 produced by combus tion, as in other gasifiers. The high-temperature com bustion chamber may permit more thorough destruction of the tars; in any case, this gasifier claims to produce very low tar levels.
Fuel .i
-ll-
'"
Air
R g 0 "
m
),
Pyrolysis zone
Capacity kg/h Specific Tar Throat Load Content Diameter kg/hm2 g/Nm3 m
Gasifier
Kromag KS-12 Kromag K-4 Semmler Danneberg Leobersdorfer TH . Twente Forintek Canada Mini Gasifier
Source: Susanto 1 983
0.01
Fig. 5-15. DeLaCotte tar recyclmg gasifier (Source: Kaupp 1984a, Fig. 133)
44
Susanto and Beenackers have developed a gasifier that recycles tars internally in a similar manner, as shown in Fig. 5-16. In this case, the combustor is contained centrally in the lower (char) section ofthe gasifier and, therefore, has very little heat loss (Susanto 1983). Without recycle, this gasifier produced 1400 mg/Nm3 (approximately 1400 ppm). With a gas/air recycle ratio of 0.85, the tars were reduced to the very low level of 48 ppm of tar as shown in Fig. 5-17. The high degree of tar destruction in these two units is due to the high tar combustion temperature promoted by the positive circulation of tars upward away from the reduction zone and also to the more complete combustion that takes place in the absence of solids.
1 .5 ,.----,
1 .3
.:I
E 1 .0
z ,
0>
:I I I -0- Water
I I I I
A!
D
lB
"
m
0 -- 0.5
o -2.0 1 .0 -- 1 .5 R
. .. ..
Legend: wood input B air i nlet C " product gas outlet D recycle gas E injector F combustor G combustor outlet stirrer I " ash grate J " ash bunker
= = = = =
Fig. 5-17. Water and tar content in producer gas (dry basis) versus recycle ratio (Source: Susanto 1983, Fig. 2.7. 1983. Used with permission of the 8eijer Institute)
Fig. 5-16. Gasifier with internal tar recycle (Source: Susanto 1983, Fig. 3.2. 1983. Used with permission of the Beijer Institute)
Gasifier Designs
45
shown in Fig. 5-19. The results for three catalysts are shown in Table 5-6. The variation of cracking rate with temperature is shown in Fig. 5-20 for a dolomite lime catalyst, a refinery silica-alumina cracking catalyst, and a silicalite molecular sieve type catalyst.
5.1 0 Summary
A large number of gasifiers have been developed over the last century using both experience and intuition. The most successful of these has been the Imbert downdraft gasifier, which produces relatively low levels of tar gas from uniformly high-grade fuels. We are in a new period, during which the principles of combustion science are being applied to develop a better understanding of gasification. New gasifiers, such as the stratified downdraft gasifier and the tar-reburning gasifier, promise to expand the range of usable fuels and to produce an even cleaner product gas. Only time will tell whether this increased understanding will result in cleaner, more versatile gasifiers at an acceptable cost.
Catalyst: SiAI Catalystd 0.51 432 0.51 432 0.56 552 41 5 0.48 343 0.49 287 0.51 Catalyst: Crystalline Silica SlSSe 416 0.59 406 0.39 0.34 469 505 0.48 0.47 613 81 2 0.42
HAverage temperature over a 20 em length of furnace. bRate calculated from k -In(C1/C2)/t C1.03 kg of dolomite lime contained in 20 em length of 5 em i.d. stainless pipe. Bulk density 3346 kg/m3; void volume 0.25 cm3tg. Dolomite lime stone decomposes to dolomite lime in the range 600-1 OOOC. Particle size 5 mm. dSi-AI cracking catalyst (Davison Chemicals, Gr 980-13) 5 1 0 9 sample, bulk density 7655 kg/m3 ; void volume 0.85 cm3/g. Particle size 1mm d x 5 mm long cylinders. eCrystalline silica catalyst S 155 (Union Carbide) 543 9 charge; bulk density 0.76 g/cm3 ; void volume 0.80 cm3/g
= = = = = = =
46
Steel spacer
o. 9 '" O. 7
.2
0>
o.8 o. 5
f'.
;...I-... ..
"
*- Char
O. 6
"I-...
"I-...
1'4t--- 1 nsulation
Steel holder
O. 3
O. 4
"-
i'- ,
"
0.8 0.84 0.88 0.92 0.96 ' 1 .00 1 .04 1 .08 1 . 1 2 1 .16x103 Temperature (1fT K) (a) 0.4
7 iI c- r. I I
c. rI
I'....
.......
II I : =-=-==-===c=-=i
, Ii '
. -
.::tt:. 0>
......
,
.......
.2 0.1 0
.......
"-
Fig. 5-18. Transparent gasifier and tar reformer (Source: Reed 1985d. Vol. I. p. 210)
0.05 0.00
-0.05
-0. 1 1 .2
(b)
.......
,
1 .4 1 .6 Temperature (1fT K)
,
1 .8 x 1 03
Sealed
Feeder
Gas sample
(!)
0.45 0.4
.......
"-
.......
0.2
Settling Chamber
======:':::;f/
Cyclone
0.15
O. 1
.......
, ,
r-...
....... 1 .5x1 03
(e)
Fig. 519. T ar cracking apparatus (Source: Reed 1985c)
Fig. 5-20. Kinetic rate of tar cracking for (a) dolomite lime, (b) Si-AI cracking catalyst, and (e) silicalite cracking catalyst
Gasifier Designs
47
6.1 Introduction
Gasifier construction is a relatively simple task and can be accomplished in any wellequipped shop using basic sheet metal and welding assembly techniques. In deed. the task is so simple that it was possible for the countries of wartime Europe to construct almost one million gasifiers in just a few years in spite of wartime shortages (Egloff 1943; Gengas 1950). Nevertheless. a number of new materials and fabrication techniques have become available since World War II, and we shall call attention to these improvements in this discussion. According to Kaupp (1984a), "the construction of a small gasifier, including the purification system, does not require sophisticated equipment or highly skilled mechanics. It can be built in workshops comparable to the auto repair shops found in most third world countries. "
Fabrication refers to the construction of a single gasifier for use or for an experiment. Manufacture com mences when one undertakes the construction of a number of identical units.
Some of the mild-steel components may suffer chemi cal corrosion in certain parts. Corrosion is likely to occur in areas where water condenses or collects since gasifier water often contains organic acids. Water col lection is especially a problem in regions such as the upper magazine of Imber! gasifiers, as well as in some wet-scrubber systems. In these instances, the steel should be replaced by corrosion-resistant materials such as copper, brass, epoxy lined steel, or stainless steel as required. Stainless steel usually costs two to three times as much as mild steel and requires inert gas welding techniques. Copper and brass cost five times as much as mild steel but can be joined by brazing or hard-soldering using an acetylene torch. Aluminum is particularly vulnerable to corrosion in alkaline environments, and its use should be avoided there. Some wartime gasifiers, particularly the stationary ones, contained massive but fragile firebrick insula tion. We are fortunate today to have lightweight in sulating materials based on spun alumino-silicate that are capable of withstanding temperatures up to 1500C, far beyond the requirements of gasifiers. The a1umino silicate insulation also offers many times the durability and heat-flow resistance of firebrick, at a fraction of the weight (Perry 1973). It is relatively inexpensive and is available in a wide variety of forms. The 2- to 5-cm thick felt blankets and vacuum preformed cylinders (or "risa sleeves") are particularly recommended for in sulating the reaction zone. "Moldable ceramics" that come as a wet putty can be shaped to corners and edges, and thus are also very useful. Finally, plastics can be used in certain applications. Some plastic pipe will perform acceptably up to the boiling point of water, is more flexible than rrietal pipe, and will not corrode. Plastic liners, such as epoxy paints. can sometimes provide the corrosion resistance needed in critical areas, provided temperatures are not greater than 120C.
A general discussion of drilling, welding, and assem bly procedures pertinent to gasifier fabrication and manufacture is beyond the scope of this manual. In stead, we shall comment upon specific techniques of fabrication, as well as the wide range of materials specifically applicable to gasifiers.
ing tasks, but an arc welder is preferred for mild-steel welding. When aluminum, stainless steel, or inconel is
48
used, it will be necessary to use either TIG (tungsten inert gas) or MIG (metal-inert gas) welding tecbniques. All seals must be made gas-tight; threaded and welded fittings are preferred at all points , and exhaust-pipe-type gaskets can be used if necessary. High-temperature, anti-sieze pipe dope should be used on all pipe joints. High-temperature applications will require ceramic fiber or asbestos gaskets. Silicone sealant is appropriate at temperatures below 300C and rubber or Viton "0" rings and gaskets will perform excellently at room temperature. The system should be leak-tested before the initial startup, as well as after mo difications. Leak-testing is accomplished by plugging the system and pressurizing it to 25 em (10 in.) of water with a blower. A thick soap solution is applied to all fittings and joints, and they are checked for emerging soap bubbles. Leak-testing should also be performed as a standard test in the regular maintenance schedule.
a later time. After a unit has been thoroughly tested and is in production, such provisions can be omitted.
6.5.1 Temperature
Thermocouples (such as chromel-alumel type K) should be used to measure various gasifier tempera tures, especially below the grate, as a check for normal or abnormal operation. Temperatures at the grate should not exceed 800C; higher temperatures indicate abnormal function. Consequently, the signal from the thermocouple can be used by a control system or an alarm system.
6.5.2 Pressure
Manometers are required to measure pressure drops across the bed, cyclone, filters, and other components. (Usually, these pressure drops amount to only a few centimeters of water pressure.) The manometers are available as tubes filled with colored liquid or, more conveniently, bellows manometers (such as a Dwyer Magnehelic gauge). Both types give a direct reading of the pressure drop and can be equipped with limit switches that will sound an alarm to warn when preset flow levels have been violated, and/or activate control valves to regulate those flows. Also, electrical transducers are available that convert pressure dif ference into an electrical signal suitable for readout or control processing.
The conveying velocities in pipes are dependent upon the na ture olthe contaminant. Recommended minimum gas velocities are:
Contaminant Velocity
Smoke, fumes, very light dust Dry medium density dust (sawdust, grain) Heavy dust (metal turnings)
49
Finally, we can look forward to gasifier systems of the future that will use inexpensive microprocessors to in tegrate the signals from these sensors into the
automatic and unattended operation of highly efficient gasifiers, making gasifiers as simple to use as a car or home furnace.
Pressure drop due to friction t. P' F Liquids: L Turbulent region D iameter, actual inside diameter, in. D' , 50 40 30 20 15
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
__ _
Gases:
t.p'F L
1 0,000 5000
2000
1000 500 200 100 '50 ,20 10
5 2
Q)
Q)
" 2
Q)
a::
A
0;
Q)
" '"
.0
100 :c
OJ Ib/in.2 in. water Q)
2 50 1ft. pipe 1ft. pipe ;: 4
14 100
6 :J 50
1 000 Gases 8
" 20 1 0
13
500
0 10
10" 20
:;;; - --'-- - . , - 5
1 00
12
"30 40
50 .5
1
60
/
.80
11
0.5 10
/ 100
2
5
/ 200
0.1 / 10
0"05 1 / 0.5 0"5 0"01 / 9 0.005 0.1
/ 0.05 8 0.2 0.001 / 0.0005 0.01 0.1 7/ 0.005 / 0.0001 0.05 .6 0.00005 0.001 0"0005 0.00001 0.02 '5 0"000005 0"0001 0.01 0.00005 ' 4 0.000001 0.005 0.00001 '3 0.002 2
Mercury 0"001 . 15 ;1
rG=
Lb ft3:at 1 atm.
JicO. 1 6
Li q uid s
0C
100
200
300
300
- 250 400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
200
150
,100 50
0 -30
Fig. 61. Piping flow chart (Source: Adapted from Perry 1973, Fig. 5"27)
50
7.1 Introduction
It is relatively simple to build a gasifier and operate an engine for a short time. However, the commercial suc cess of gasification ultimately depends on long-term, reliable operation of gasifier systems. Many gasifier systems have failed after less than 100 h of operation because of tar buildup in either the system or the en gine. Destroying an engine is a costly method for deter mining whether a gas is sufficiently clean for engine operation. A quantitative knowledge of gas quality and cleanliness is necessary for the designer, developer, buyer, and user of gasifier equipment. This chapter will describe simple and inexpensive tests of the physical and chemical properties of producer gas. Using these tests will allow one to determine whether the gas is suitable for its intended purpose.
7.3.2 Particulates
Some particulate levels reported for wood and charcoal gasifiers are listed in Figs. 7-2 and 7-3. In order to remove particles with the appropriate equip ment, it is necessary to know their nature and size dis tribution. Particle size distributions shown in Fig. 7-4, Table 7-3, and Fig. 7-5 were obtained by mechanical screen separation of the cyclone contents for SERI and Imbert tests. The results of both tests are plotted in Fig. 7-4 on log probability paper for ease of analysis, displaying the distinctive slope common to most fine powders produced by fragmentation. The potential particle-size range of a wide variety of particles and their characteristics are shown in Fig. 7-6,
Gas composition: The volume percent of CO, CO2, H2, H20, CH4, C2 and higher hydrocarbons, and N2 to calculate the gas energy content or to analyze gasifier operation. Gas energy content: Can be calculated from gas com position, or it can also be measured calorimetrically without the need to know composition. The gas must have an energy content greater than 4 MJ/Nm3 (100 Btu/scf) for most applications. (See Appendix for definition of scf and Nm3.)
Physical Composition
Quantity of tars: The quantity of condensible or ganics in raw gas is a measure ofgasifier performance and determines whether the gas can be cleaned. Above 5000 mg/Nm3 tars, the gas is difficult to clean up and is suitable only for close coupled direct com bustion. Gas cleanup equipment should reduce the tar level to below 10 mg/Nm3. Quantity and size of particulates: The nature and quantity of char-ash and soot entrained in the gas stream can help to design filters. Particles larger than 1 0 /11Il must be removed to a level below 10 mg/Nm3 for engine applications.
Chemical Composition 1 9 Vol % x 322 Btulsel 1 4 Vol % x 0 1 7 Vol % x 325 Btu/sc! 2 Vol % x 1 031 Btu/sc! N2 48 Vol % x 0
61 55 20
= =
1 36
Water content of gas: The water content of the gas helps to calculate cooling requirements.
Gas Testing
51
along with the equipment appropriate for separation of each size range. It is important to distinguish between the various forms of particulates that result from biomass combustion and gasification. Starting with full-sized biomass fuel and 0.5% ash. we can use this ash as a tracer to follow conversion in the gasification process.
Although combustion and updraft gasifiers leave a white ash. downdraft gasifiers do not produce this white mineral ash because there is no oxygen present When the final charcoal breakup occurs. Freshly produced charcoal. just after it has finished flaming pyrolysis. is only slightly smaller than it started out and should not be able to pass through the grate. As gasification of the charcoal proceeds. carbon is
,; Z
rr?-?-r-'-----
1 80
47----f7
160
<ii > OJ co n;
1 40
1ii z
1 20
1 00
10
15
20
25 700
800
1 000
1 200
!
1 400
!
1600 , I , 180
I , I
1 20
I , I I I 140
I , I 160
'" E z 3 .9
co 0
co 0
1:: Q) "
:> 0
o o
0 (f)
" "
co 0
20
"" 20
-:;.?
40 Load 60
80
Fig. 7-2. Dust concentrations for wood gas generators of various makes as a function of load (Source: Gengas 1950. Rg. 87 )
Fig. 7-3. Dust concentration related to the load in wood and charcoal gas generators (Source: Gengas 1950, Fig. 86)
52
removed from both the surface and interior of the char particle by motion of the hot gases. The char particle cracks and crurables as carbon is converted to ash. The term char-ash refers to the black dust that falls naturally through the grate in a downdraft gasifier when gasification is as complete as it will go. Char-ash is produced during the final breakdown of the charcoal mechanical structure as the charcoal reacts with pyrolysis gases. Char-ash from downdraft gasifiers still contains 50% to 80% carbon (Fig. 3-3], which is enough carbon to give char-ash a black color. Char-ash usually is collected below the grate or in the cyclone separators.
If the fine char-ash from downdraft gasifiers is about 20% ash, then this represents a 95% mass conversion of the fuel since we started with 0.5% ash biomass. We can also see from Fig. 3-3 that it is desirable to keep the char larger than 500 iJ1ll (0.5mm) in the gasifier to boost efficiency. Also, particles under 500 11m have completed their task and should be removed as thoroughly as possible.
1 0,OOO ------
,; 8
"
m
0 2060100150--200---250
E
"-
:s
Co
'" -0 Q)
1 00
200
Fig. 7-5. Residue CUNe for the screening of Imben generator gas (Source: Gengas 1950, Fig. 88)
u t
Q.
'"
10
5
Although the unconverted carbon found in char-ash represents an energy loss, it also has several benefits. The final ash from combustion is less than 1 iJ1ll in size and can be captured only in expensive bag house filters. The char-ash holds the ash in a 10 iJ1ll matrix which is captured by cyclones. The char-ash may have considerable value as a charcoal or as a soil conditioner. Char-ash particles smaller than the cyclone separator's cut-point pass through the cyclone separator. Smaller particles normally are higher in ash content, as shown by Fig. 3-3. Higher ash content is more abrasive; however, solids smaller than the oil film thickness do not cause major engine wear. Ash that has been sub jected to slagging is much harder and more abrasive than nons lagging ash, which crurables easily. All biomass contains some ash (typically a few per cent), but some fuels, such as rice hulls or MSW, can
1 0.01 0. 1
1 10 50 95 99.99 C u m u lati ve mass % less than diameter (dp) o l m bert Gengas oSERI woo d chips
Fig. 7-4. Imbert and SERI downdraft particle size distribution of producer gas char dusts
Component
Symbol
HHVb (MJ/Nm3)
HHVc (Btu/sci)
LHVb (MJ/Nm3)
LHVC (Btu/sci)
Hydrogen
1 1 .2 13.1 37.1
Btulscf 8.26 kcallNm3 40.672 kJ/Nm3 bStandard conditions, OC and 760 mm Hg Dry
=
CStandard conditions, 60F and 30 in. Hg Dry Source: Adapted from Perry 1 973, Table 9-18.
Gas Testing
53
Equivalent
sizes
U"_"ic"' '"
_,..:..::. Oil
I smokes I -dusts and . I
'-ime
'
Typical
particles
and
gas dispersoids
+--
,,
"
, - -
1 '"
I
Sieving
"
i l
'I';
Types of
gas cleaning
equipment
I ols o
Ia
'
. coliper ,
elel
Termina l
gravitational
settling'l
for s eres specific gravity 2.0
R:J ::::
10"! 'p"" !
1 ! 1
'f
"
"
1 ! !
i-'7";1 'i\ '7\ '70 '9' , '9' 'p' fl1 1 1 '9"''l !I 'p"'n ! ?"'1! I 'pop '9' 'p' 1 ! ' '9' "
1
,
'a,'
q !
.'
!
".' ! .
Fig. 7-6. Characteristics of particles and particle dispersoids (Source: Adapted from Perry 1973, Fig. 20-92)
54
Over 1 000 Jlm (1 mm screen) 1000 - 250 Jlm 250 - 1 02 Jlm 102 - 75 Jlm 75 - 60 Jlm Under 60 Jlm Losses Water conte nt Ash content, dry sample Loss due to burning, dry sample Content of Fe203 in the ashes Content of Si02 in the ashes
1 .7 24.7 23.7 7.1 8.3 30.3 4.2 100.0 3.2 10.6 15.7 1 1 .0 7.7
distribution as well as the total quantity of particles. Relatively little information is available in the litera ture (Gengas 1950), so complete gas cleanup design necessitates measurement or knowledge of particle size distribution. Particle-size measurement is discussed further in Section 7.8.
7.3.3 Tars
Initial biomass pyrolysis can produce up to 60% "wood oil," composed of the monomers, oligomers, and frag ments of the biomass polymers cellulose, hemicel lulose, and lignin. Subsequent high-temperature cracking (over 700'C) of these large molecules results mostly in gas, but also polymerization to form 5% to 10% of heavier polynuclear aromatic molecules that are similar to coal tars. Up to 20% of these tars and oils can be carried through with the gas from updraft gasifiers. In downdraft gasification, oxygen is available to burn these oils during pyrolysis. Although flaming pyrolYSis burns most of the tars and oils, 0.1 % to 1 % (depending on the gasifier design) can be expected to survive. These tars and oils are troublesome in the gas-processing system and the engine, so they must be thoroughly removed by scrubbing. Tars occur mostly as a mist or fog composed of fiue droplets that may be less than 1 !lm in diameter (see Fig. 7-6). Tar mists continually agglomerate into larger droplets and tend to saturate and coat solid particles. If not removed, tar mist forms deposits that cause en gine intake valves and other moving parts to stick. Before a gasifier is considered suitable for operating an engine, it is imperative that one test the producer gas for tars and particulates.
C + CO2 .
(7- 1)
This carbon, known as Boudouard carbon, is slippery to the touch and nonabrasive. Below about 500'C, the reaction is very slow. Normally, Boudouard carbon does not form in gasifiers because the gas cools quickly through this temperature range. Char-ash, because of its high mineral content and abrasive potential, is the main cause of engine wear in engine systems and understandably is a main focus in gas cleanup. Similarly, soot and Boudouard carbon are inherently ash free, nonabrasive, and possibly lubricat ing. Despite their small size and difficulty of capture, they are not seen as a significant factor in engine wear. Typically, the largest particles that pass through the grate can be extracted mechanically, for instance, with an auger. Subsequent to that step, removing the suspended small particles is the principal problem in gas cleanup. The particulates in Table 7-1 were collected after the cyclone separator, which caught 50% of 50-1lID particles. These smaller particles are composed of very fine char-ash, soot, and tar mists. The type of gas cleanup equipment required is deter mined by the particle sizes that must be removed, and therefore it is important to determine the particle-size
A temporary or permanent port must be provided at each point on the gasifier where samples are desired, as shown in Fig. 7-7, such as downstream from the cyclone and before the burner or engine, as well as at each stage along the gas cleanup train when it is desired to determine the effectiveness of each system component. It is important that the gas sample is representative of the gas at each point. The port and tap may need to be heat traced to prevent premature condensation (see below). Permanent sampling ports should be closed off with gate or ball valves, which provide a straight through passage. Needle valves and sill cock type water valves should be avoided, since much of the material being sampled will deposit within the twisted passages of these types of valves.
Gas Testing
55
Approximate results can be obtained by comparing the volume of sample required for a particular depth of color deposit such as 50% grey measured on a standard grey scale such as that used for smoke testing (Dwyer 1960). Tests at SERI found that a color of 50% grey on a 47-mm filter disc, taken from a standard grey scale, represented approximately 0.12 to 0.5 mg of collected contaminants (Das 1985). A quantity of gas for chemi cal analysis can be collected at the same time as the sample to be used for physical analysis.
Fig. 7-7. Static tap sampling port (Source: ASME 1969, Fig. 1)
The temperature, pressure, and moisture content of gas at the nozzle must be accounted for when designing a sampling train, and measurements should be reduced to standard conditions. For average samples, the test duration should be long enough to average the reading over at least one cycle of the equipment being tested for instance, the fuel-feed cycle, the scrubber service cycle, or the shaking cycle. For snap samples or where a transient phenomenon is being observed, then the most rapid sampling method and small samples should be used. Hot, raw gas emerging from any gasifier will contain tar, char-ash, soot, and water vapor, and it is relatively simple to measure these quantities in a small sample of raw gas. After the gas has been cleaned and condi tioned, the measurements become more difficult. Im purity levels are much lower, so it is necessary to handle much larger gas samples in order to accumulate a measurable-sized sample. The principles of measure ment remain the same, but the measurements require more time to accomplish, The physical analysis of producer gas is based on the weight of tar, particulates, and water in a measured quantity of gas. Therefore, a positive-displacement gas testing meter (such as those made by Singer, Rockwell, and the American Gas Association) should be available for calibrating flowmeters, pumps, and similar com ponents. An analytical balance capable of weighing to 0.1 mg is also required for accurate measurement oftars and particulates.
56
The subscripts n and p refer to nozzle and pipe. respectively. The flow rate of a dirty-gas stream can be measured ir respective of temperature and molecular weight of the gas by using a balanced-tube, null-type apparatus. Such a system in effect measures chamber flow by col lecting a portion of the gas flow through a sampling tube, cleaning it, and measuring it. The mass flow through the entire chamber is then calculated, using the ratio of chamber area to sampling tube area. Measurements are made once the velocity in the sam pling tube has been adjusted (via a vacuum pump in the system) to be equal to that in the flow chamber. Velocities within the tube and chamber are equilibrated by using a differential manometer to balance the static pressures for the tube and chamber. The best placement for the probe within the chamber can be checked by testing the flow profile across the chamber. The probe should be located where the flow is average for the chamber. Where necessary, flow straighteners should be used to ensure accurate readings. Balance-tube, null-type sampling, without gas-cleanup equipment, can be used for clean gas.
2 0 min.
straight le n9th
I u1
''
tIt
Lor------I I
"B"
,
,1
;"
/"
(
'
0.25 mm
30 '
r-xi-x-I ' :
"A"
End view
"B"
(b)
Sampling train options for measuring the range of levels oftar, char-ash, and water are shown in Fig. 7-12, and gasifier test-train component options are presented in Tables 7-4, 7-5, and 7-6. Certain basic procedures must be followed whenever sampling producer gas-be it for tar, particulates, heat content, etc.:
==
Side view
Notes: 1. T he area upstream of this 900 sector shall be free of obstructions between planes A-A and B-B.
Sampling
nozzle entrance within a distance from nozzle centerline of 1 5 em or 5 nozzle diameters, whichever is greater. R
o
= c
'is
'
Probe tUbe
()
'
: /
mete,
A
;;; N 0
'" OJ
a,ve
<:
T a suction fan
Y X
c c
x 0 6 x 0
(minimum) (minimum)
UnCleaned Qoses
r r i
57
Fig. 7-8. (a) T y pical holder for flat round filters and (b) recommended design for sampling nozzle tip (Source: ASME 1980)
Fig. 7-9. Large particle sampling probe (Source: Strauss 1975, Fig. 2.9. 1975. Used with permission of Pergamon Press)
Gas Testing
The gas, being noxious, should be either burned off or returned to the pipe downstream from the sam pling point. The gas should be cleaned. The gas should be dried.
Figure 7-12(a) shows a setup for measuring particulates and tar, or moisture, or gas composition, or gas production rate. Figure 7-12(b) is a setup for continuously measuring change in water content and change in heat content. It
r- Pa rticles
Particle lost
T\
J rH-t+lH--n
Fig. 7-10. Gas stream lines at the entrance to sampling probes (Source: Adapted from Strauss 1975, Fig. 2.12. 1975. Used with permission of Pergamon Press)
Taronly measurements permit any suitable fitting with pipe thread access Tar and particulates require tubing with 900 bend facing the gas stream Ball Valve 1/4 in. 47 mm reusable holder Polycarbonate Aluminum Stainless Glass fibers 99.9% efficiency at 0.3 flm Hand operated rubber bulb Plastic piston pumps (36 cm/stroke) Water-powered aspirator pump Motor driven vacuum pump Flow meter, 2 i n scale, 4% full scale Gas flow indicator
.
1 2
1 2 3 1 3 2 4 2 1
58
also can be used to measure gas flow and to collect moisture and tars and particulates over a measured time. Figure 7-12(c) shows a system train for measuring gas flow and tars and particulates. The ball valve at the sample port (Fig. 7-12(a) and (cll permits changing the filter disc without danger of releasing gas or admitting air. The filter holder in Fig. 7-12(a) and (c) must be maintained, by electric heating or locating close to the hot gas pipe to keep the filter hot enough, above the water dew point, typically 80'C, to avoid water condensation in the filter disc. The desiccant-drying section (Fig. 7-12(a)-(cll should be constructed so that it can be disconnected for weigh ing. We have found that an indicating desiccant as sembly can be fabricated by containing the desiccant between two glass-wool plugs in Tygon or glass "U" tubes (Fig. 7-12(bll. (Drierite is a commercial form of anhydrous CaS04 containing cobalt sulfate, which changes from blue to pink when it becomes hydrated.)
10 9
t; 4
=>
i2 iP
I
Gas
velocity.
m/sec
-g
Fig. 7 11. Errors in concentrations of 5 and 10 Jlm particles (Source: Strauss 1975, Fig. 2.13. 1975. Used with permission of Pergamon Press)
Table 7-S. Additional Components for Continuous Gas Quality Test Train
Function Specifications Manufacturer
1/4 in. FPT Fitting 1/4 in. MPT .... 1/4 in. tube compression Cross fitting bushed down to accept 114 in. tubing Water reselVoir in bottom 2 hole stopper with thermometers Dry bulb bare Wet bulb wrapped with wicking that dips into water reselVoir Indicating desiccant Drierite or silica gel in a container large enough for several hours sample time 1 .5 cm dia x 40 cm U-tube Aquarium pump modified for suction and pressure selVice capable of 50 in. WG, 0.01 scfm Floating ball rotameter-RMA Diffusion flame non-mixed 1/4 in. tubing with 1/8 in. ID opening Chromel-alumel thermocouple
Dryer
User fabricated
Whisper (User modified) Dwyer See Fig. 7-16 or user fabricated Omega, etc.
Gas Dryer
For small sample moisture determination 8 in. length of 3/8 in. tubing with fittings filled with indicating desiccant weighed before and after each test For large sample pump protection 250 ml flask filled with indicating desiccant or ice bath, bubbler, impinger, condenser
2 3 1
Filter H eater
To prevent condensation at probe Heater tape around sample lines and filter holder heated chamber
Gas Testing
59
Ball valve
Filter holder
Desiccant bulb
Rubber joint
a. Raw Producer Gas Sampling Train for Tar, Particulate and Moisture
b. Continuous Readout Sampling Train for Gas Quality and Moisture (clean gas only)
Pump
Gas
::
Ball valve
Hot filter
= cant
Desic-
Oven 1 00 C
-
I- - .
0 o
0
Final filter
Ball valve
Ice bath
60
The desiccant container should be sealed for transport and weighing. Raw-gas moisture measurement is essential to mass balance calculations. Finally, where volume is measured (Fig. 7-12(a) and (cll, means must be provided to pull a known quantity of gas through this train. Hand-held positive displace ment vacuum pumps are made by a number of sup pliers (e.g., Mine Safety, Draeger, and Gelman). We have also used a hand-held rubber aspirator bulb and found that 70 strokes collected 3 L of gas (0.1 ft3). We also have used a Dwyer smoke test pump. The gas meter is required only for initially calibrating the sampling train and pump, since counting strokes yields adequate precision for measuring the test-gas volume. A decision on the amount of gas to be sampled should be based on the anticipated impurities in the gas and the con taminant sample quantity required for the specific analysis methods available. For instance, 50% grey scale analysis requires a 0.5 mg sample on a 47 mm filter disc. Weighed samples require a 5 to 30 mg sample size for analytical balances with 0.1 mg readability.
1f<===4 =",5i
Type C Type
When possible, the sample cylinder should be evacuated or. alternatively, should be very thoroughly flushed. The cylinder should be filled to at least a small positive pressure from the pump (Fig. 7-14), so that air cannot leak in before analysis. A positive pressure sample can be collected without a pump by chilling the cylinder before the gas is taken, so that a positive pres sure develops as the gas in the cylinder warms to room temperature. Gas samples should be drawn from a point as close as practical to the gasifier outlet, in order to avoid errors due to air leaks in the gasifier piping. Usually, any oxygen found in the gas can be attributed to air leaks, since oxygen is completely removed in the gasifier. When oxygen is found in the gas, the composi tion can be converted to an "air-free" basis by subtract ing the oxygen and the corresponding ratio of nitrogen (the Nzl02 ratio in air is 79/21). Some gas sample containers are shown in Fig. 7-13. A rubber septum is a desirable feature that permits one to extract the gas sample with a hypodermic syringe for injection into a gas-chromatograph without opening the stopcocks. The hypodermic syringe for injecting samples into the gas chromatograph should have a valve at the needle that can be closed between filling the syringe and analysis. Valved syringes are available as accessories from gas chromatograph manufacturers. The metal cylinder of Fig. 7-13 can contain gas at a much higher pressure than the glass system. It is iro portant to use leak-proof valves rather than needle valves on this container and to avoid stopcock grease, which has a high hydrogen solubility. A syringe also can be used to collect a gas sample. If standard gas
7.6 Chemical Gas Composition 7.6.1 Gas Samples for Chemical Analysis
The gas composition can be measured either con tinuously (on-line) or through discrete samples taken periodically from the gas stream. These methods will be discussed separately. Before the gas is analyzed, it must be drawn from the system and cleansed of tar and particulate contaminants, as described previously. Batch-sampling requires collecting a sample of gas in a suitable container (e.g., glass cylinder, metal cylinder. Tedlar gas sample bag or syringe], as shown in Fig. 7-13. The subsequent analysis is only as good as the sample. and it is easy for gas leaks to spoil a sample after it has been taken. Therefore, it is important to use extra care to avoid leaks either into the sampling train while the sample is being taken or out of the sample bulb before the analysis is made.
Gas Testing
61
sample containers are unavailable, gas samples can be collected in glassbottles by water displacement, insert ing a stopper while the bottle is submerged and sealing by dipping the stoppered opening in p araffin. Whichever container is used, the samples should be tested as soon as possible, since hydrogen can rapidly diffuse through rubber seals and stopcocks, thereby changing the gas composition in a few hours.
(c)
- - - - s - - ---
(e)
(b)
Fig. 7-14. Apparatus fordrawinggas samples: (a) Filling sample containers byliquiddisplacement; (b) hand-operatedpiston vacuum pump; (e) motor driven rota!}, vacuum pump; (d) rubber bulb hand aspirator; (e) Chapman filterpump (Source: (a, d, e) ASME 1969, Figs. 6 and 7 )
62
slowed to a greater extent, and water and CO2 are slowed to the greatest degree. The gas sample is mixed with a carrier gas; usually, helium is used because it does not occur naturally in the sample. A detector, which is inserted into the gas stream at the end of the column, records on a chart recorder both the time of passage and the quantity of each component. The presence of a particular gas component is indicated by
co
a peak. The quantity of that gas is then determined by integrating the area under the peak in the curve and compared with that in a calibration gas of koown com position. More advanced recorders include automati cally controlled valving, integration of the response curves, calculation ofgas quantity from calibration fac tors, and a printout of the composition results. Such a printout is shown in Fig. 7-15.
.....
'"
.
'" '" . '" .... '" '" '" ....
0 " m
N
<;
.J:
'" '"
"-.J\
'"
'" '"
'"
'" ....
....
V'
15 : 49 AMOUNT 2 5 . 723 0 . 15
,J -- Lr
FEB 7, 1984
NAME HYDROGEN PROPYLENE TRANSBUTENE C02 ETHYLENE ETHANE ACETYLENE OXYGEN N I TROGEN METHANE BACKFLUSH
[HPJ
27:
MANUAL
INJECT I ON AT
RUN E 7
SAMPLE W6
RUN T I ME 2 . 87 4 . 25 9 . 46 15 . 2 6 15 . 8 4 16 . 37 17 . 09 18 . 41 18 . 76 19 . 5 8 23 . 92
Gas Testing
63
The most common GC detector performs analyses by measuring the thermal conductivity of the gas (TC detector) and is the most suitable for producer gas measurement. With this type of detector. helium (or a hydrogen-helium mixture, see below) is often used because of its abnormally high thermal conductivity relative to other gases. The flame-ionization detector (FID) measures the num ber of ions produced in a flame and is particularly use ful for detecting hydrocarbon species. The FID is not particularly useful for producer gas, since producer gas contains few hydrocarbons other than methane. The response of the TC detector to low levels of hydrogen in the inert carrier gas is nonlinear, and this leads to ambiguous results. There are two effective solutions to this problem. A heated palladium tube at the inlet can be used to selectively diffuse the hydrogen out of the sample into a separate nitrogen gas stream; in this secondary stream, hydrogen yields a linear response (Carle method). Alternatively, adding hydrogen to the helium carrier gas will move the baseline onto the linear region of the TC-detector resp onse curve. The position of a peak on the time scale of the recorder chart indicates the time of retention and is characteris tic of each particular gas component. The area under the peak, obtained by analog or digital integration, in dicates the volume of each gas present. Although reten tion times and sensitivities are listed for each adsorbent material, aging and drift are common to column pack ings, so it is necessary to calibrate the instrument daily to obtain an accuracy on the order of 1 %. For this pur pose, it is necessary to have a cylinder of previously analyzed standard gas. These cylinders are available from GC equipment manufacturers. Although samples are usually collected as needed, it is possible to use automatic sampling with the GC to give a measurement of gas composition at regular intervals. The GC analysis cycle time depends on both the reten, tion time of the columns used and the number of species analyzed. This time is typically 30 minutes, but nore that the warmup time for the GC is one day. A number of companies, including Carle, Hewlett Packard, and Perkin-Elmer, manufacture satisfactory units for $3000 to $30,000 and provide excel1ent instruction and service.
The Orsat analysis depends on the ability of certain chemicals to react selectively with each gas component of the producer gas mixture. The components are ab sorbed in the order of CO2, O2, CO, then H2 and CH4, and the analysis reports the volume percent of each component directly. Orsat analysis equipment is portable, does not require AC power, has no warmup time, and can be purchased (along with the required chemicals) from scientific supply houses for $500 to $1000.
64
adequate capacity for prolonged use and adequate efficiency for equipment protection.
Exit thermometer
absorb,ing air
7.6.3.1 Psychrometry
Water content can be determined by measuring the wet and dry-bulb temperature ofthe gas as in Fig. 7-17. The moisture content i s then calculated from a psychrometric chart (Fig. 7-18 or 7-19, depending on gas temperature) to find the moisture as absolute humidity. Moisture wt %
=
rner cap
(7-3)
Gas tu be ---1r-tt<Hl
Burner jacket Combustion tube Heat exchanger Dry bulb
-
,
Gas and primary air
Secondary air
r
=;:i
lair
Products of combustion
Fig. 7-16. Gas calorimeter combustion chamber (Source: Adapted from ASTM 1977)
experience, the flame can reveal a good deal on the functioning or malfunctioning system. One author (Das) has used a small burner/thermo couple monitor shown in Fig. 7-12(b), which produces a temperature signal roughly proportional to the heat content of the clean gas. The accuracy of continuous sampling equipment is subject to accumulation of gas contaminants, so prefiltration should be used as in Fig. 7-12(b) of
60 50
" Y 0.024 / '1
O", .> I I V / I/ [....,. Wet bulb temperature, 0 F ) . 0.021 / t... / / Dew point temperature. 6 / / / / ....... 0.018 , 0.015 / .... // 1t " Relative > 0.012 oe humidity, % '0 "","> / ....,. .... ' 0 '!...... 7 / / /- b-IH.L.t-+--I''''' 4'' <:J/ --l 0.009 "' , ()</,./,./::5< //....... ..... 0.006 ' A ()";:"",-: : ...-:: ::,;>C-. '0.003
100 80
"0
30 40 50 60
70 80
90 100 1 1 0
..... 1-....
'E I"
:J
0F
Fig. 7-18. Psychrometric chart for medium temperatures (Source: Adapted from ASHRAE 1981)
Gas Testing
65
'n
...
'"
'"
'" '"
'. '-' {
" " "' 0 .
". \ 1\ I \ II'
1\
::. "
os,
0.'0 g,41
00
4"-
...
i=
no N n
1 \ 1'\ \ \ \ \'" bI".; r\'"1-: r "\ 1\ \ \ ' 1'1'1... f " f " , \ . \'- E- ZC \!; 1\ 1\ 1'1 I'.. \ . .. , .1'-/.... !0\ E-- 1 \ r:\t', 'v !- l w -I\I \ j\ I\-. 1\ 1\ 1\ ;:! ' "\ E1\ 1\ \ 'I'.. 1\ I'-us \:'. '\ . ...I 1\ \ 1 \ '" ", 1\1'\ 3 , N 1 \ 1'-1\ 100* 1\ I t\ \ -&,.t- . '" \ . " E\ ['\; Ie- . " '. l'-< r' \ 1\ 1\ f'-., f-"" 1!'-.. 1,\ ,.. " \ ,&-.I:\ I'. r-..:: Ri" 1\ ' I I\ ". '" 1 ": 1'1+ " " ''' '\. '" \ \ '- \ " f:'.. '-\ r'\,. "'f.-.\ '"i'.. :- ''' ,\ 1\ 1\ \ S ,l\ I . 1\ " " i'o.. "" .\ \' "''\ " "\ "'" \ t",\ \ I'-... ,\ , " \ '" ::,,:r-::::, " It I fili.. \. t>.. L. "'" , 1,\, ,'" ,'" "" '" '" "" "'" '''''' ,,,,, "'" "" "'" "'" ,
H' ,
'"
n.
'.
. '
'.
"
h,t'\: 1 \ 1 \ \ 1'1
\
".
I I I I \ "" ",
Barometric Pressure
=-
'"
'00 u.
: \I
t,
---
0.32 0 2:1
034
0 )0
'n
100'"
. _ .."
G l'\
I\ N
f\1\
Q, f4 022
1\
0,10 0.11
t'i1\
f\ 1:s
l\
0 11 "" 0.12
F::
'
'
0,10
00'
Fig. 7-19. Psychrometric chart for high temperatures (Source: ASME 1980, Fig. K-3) 7.6 .3.2 Gravimetric
Gas moisture also can be determined by passing a measured volume of gas through a preweighed dryer assembly containing desiccant. Moisture can be calculated as Moisture wt % 100 x Weight gain (74) Sample vol. x Gas density
an exact balance indicates either an error in measure ment, or that some important flow has been overlooked. The total inlet and outlet mass flows must not only balance each other, but also the inlet and outlet mass flows of each element (in this case, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen) must balance. This elemental mass balance is a more rigorous test of measurement procedure; the sources of error in the global (overall inlet and outlet) mass balance may be pinpointed by the elemental mass balance. Table 78 shows an energy balance, which is obtained by tabulating the energy associated with all input and output streams. The law of conservation of energy, which requires that energy be conserved, therefore provides a means for evaluating efficiency, finding in strumental errors, or calculating quantities that cannot be measured directly.
66
p. 918.
fuel economy should be sized with higher hearth load to coincide with the peak efficiency curve. Engine ap plications should be sized for maximum hearth load to coincide with peak of the efficiency curve in order to allow maximum room for turndown.
Mass and energy balances have only been applied oc casionally to gasifier development because of the dif ficulty and expense of measuring all flow streams. Detailed mass and energy balances usually can be per formed at universities in chemical engineering laboratories or at major research laboratories, and only a few have been performed on air gasifiers. If gasifica tion is to become a developed field, it is necessary to perform mass and energy balances.
The distribution of large solid particles greater than 40 flIIl may be determined using sieves. Table 7-10 lists actual sieve size for various mesh size.
5 4
"0
; . f- 3
Fig. 7 20. T ar versus flow for rice hu/J gasifier (Source: Kaupp 1984b, Fig. 10-88)
Gas Testing
67
CJ) co
Dry chip rate (kg/h) Chip moisture (%wet basis) MatI . balance closure (%) Dry gas HHV (MJ/m3) Gas yield (m3/kg DC">
I III
::J
a. C' 0 0
'"
Run
en en
III
0' 3
9-
(D
0 0 :;;
::J a.
III "" Gl
III
en :;; ::J
ro' m <0 S
'(ji
3
CD
en
CD
en
98 910 920 927 922 1 01 929 1011 1015 924 1 06 123 1 04 1 1 29 121 1119 1117 1110 1221 all mean data <95% mean
aDC
26.7 26.7 33.6 41 .2 47.8 48.7 48.8 49.5 52.3 53.7 54.3 54.3 63.7 68.9 72.5 74.6 85.4 1 1 9.7 1 25.5
1 6.52 1 6.52 6.01 8.1 1 5.75 6.99 7.41 7.31 7.95 5.50 6.67 1 4.61 7.72 14.27 1 5.07 1 6.32 1 1 .26 1 1 .56 1 0.67
98.9 98.3 96.6 85.4 85.1 98.6 99.5 91 .6 88.8 91 .8 95.4 94.2 92.6 91 .9 80.4 97.3 97.0 91 .0 98.2
5.33 5.1 8 5.33 5.63 5.44 5.59 5.63 5.44 5.33 5.66 5.48 5.51 5.55 5.59 5.63 5.74 5.78 5.74 5.44 5.51 0.15 5.51 0.19
2.22 2.28 2.48 2.54 1 .43 2.1 8 2.1 0 2.55 2.73 1 .62 1 .95 1 .90 2.61 2.85 1 .39 2.1 1 2.30 1 .79 2.10 2.1 7 0.41 2.19 0.14
3.28 3.21 4.06 3.08 2.76 3.45 3.72 3.94 4.69 2.79 2.18 4.27 2.71 3.82 3.57 3.96 2.92 1 .67 3.25 3.33 0.72 3.34 0.54
2.55 4.59 2.71 3.30 1 .90 1 .86 2.79 4.59 5.21 2.54 1 .67 3.35 2.85 3.96 3.76 3.65 2.13 3.03 4.34 3.20 0.99 2.92 0.99
1 370 2003 977 1 1 80 1 1 99 777 1205 1 607 1679 1 426 776 1 594 989 1 254 2445 1 567 830 1 544 1 803 1380 424 1256 433
1 .61 1 .69 1 .85 1 .75 1 .05 1 .56 1 .52 1 .88 2.08 1 .1 3 1 .42 1 .35 1 .90 2.04 0.99 1 .50 1 .64 1 .27 1 .61 1 .57 0.31 1 .60 0.12
0.277 0.277 0.212 0.438 0.186 0.273 0.250 0.321 0.381 0.209 0.1 99 0.236 0.307 0.281 0.169 0.264 0.268 0.206 0.345 0.268 0.067 0.263 0.039
1 1 .82 1 1 .82 1 3. 1 4 14.31 7.76 12.19 1 1 .82 13 .84 14.52 9.1 1 10.68 1 0.44 14.50 1 5.89 7.81 1 2.08 1 3.31 1 0.23 1 1 .42 1 1 .93 2.25 12.03 0.76
315 315 441 590 370 594 576 685 759 490 579 567 924 1 094 567 901 1 1 36 1 224 1 434
87.7 87.5 94.7 98.1 74.9 89.8 88.5 96.1 97.5 80.9 86.5 83.0 96.2 98.1 70.8 86.0 92.2 81 .6 87.9 88.3 7.5 87.9 2.1
70.2 70.2 78.1 85.0 46.1 72.5 70.2 82.2 86.3 54.2 63.5 62.1 86.2 94.4 46.5 71.8 79.1 60.8 67.9 70.9 13.0 71 .5 4.5
dry chips
droplets are collected inertially as a function of their aerodynamic size. Once they have been separated by size, there is no need to prevent the droplets from coalescing. Quantities, and therefore distributions, are subsequently determined by the relative masses represented in each size grade.
/ .
'
'
11
"
e:.
.
70
19
I / /
" '" Q; c T0
c !!:?
"
>-
;'
tI
10
E ro
5.5
65
18
0 0 oi E :J 0
5.0
>-
17
4.5
>
" c W
..
55
16
4.0
L_ 3
50
15
__ __
__ __
__ __
__ __
---
---
--8
--9
6 10
3.5
Dry-sieve analysis Wet-sieve analysis Optical microscope Microscope with scanner and counter Dry gravity sedimentation Wet gravity sedimentation Electrolyte resistivity change Light scattering Cascade impactor Wet centrifugal sedimentation Ultracentrifuge Transmission electron microscope Scanning electron microscope
Tyler Ro-Tap, Alpine Jet sieve Buckbee-Mears sieves Zeiss, Bausch & Lomb, Nikon microscopes Millipore IIMC system Roller analyzer, Sharples Micromerograph Andreasen pipet Coulter counter Royco Brink, Anderson, Casella, Lundgren impactors M.SA-Whitby analyzer Goetz aerosol spectrometer Phillips, RCA, Hitachi, Zeiss, Metropolitan-Vickers, Siemens microscopes Reist & Burgess system
0.2-20
0.01 -1 0
*This table gives examples of specific equipment. It is not intended to be a complete listing, nor is it intended to be an endorsement of any instrument. Source: Perry 1973, Table 20-33.
Gas Testing
69
"g equal to
cyclone cut diameter, dp so, with a standard deviation, 2.5, which is characteristic of cyclones, gravity separators, and all Stokes ' law particle movement.
standard deviation " as indicated by the slope. Note that both distributions shown in Fig. 7-4 have the same overall slope. This slope is typical of large materials that have been broken up into a wide range of smaller particles. It will be helpful for us to express this slope as the geometric standard deviation, "g
"g
dp84/dpso
dpso/dp16
(7-5)
where dpso is the diameter for which 50% of the total particles are captured. The other subscripts denote sinlilar cumulative percentages of particles smaller than the respective particle diameter d. The solid particles that pass through a cyclone can be expected to have a mean particle diameter near the
70
8.1 Introduction
respective capabilities and suitability, and some approaches for overall cleanup systems. The basic cleanup system design strategy should be based on the required cleanliness goals (determined by the application], the order of removal, temperature, and the intended deposit site for collected materials. In addition, size, weight, cost, reliability, the need for ex otic materials, water consumption, effluents disposal, the time between cleaning cycles, and the ease of equipment servicing must be considered. The first step toward producing clean gas is to choose a gasifier design that minimizes production of tars and particulates to be removed, such as a downdraft or other low-tar gasifier, and to make sure that the gasifier is operated in a manner that will minimize particulate production by proper sizing (see Chapter 5). Develop ment of cleaner gasifiers is proceeding in the United States and Europe at a good pace (see Chapter 5). The next step, which simplifies the handling of cap tured contaminants, is to remove particulates, tars, and water in the proper order and at the right temperature. If the gas is immediately cooled and quenched in one operation, then char, tars, and water all are removed at one location to form a sticky, tarry mess. Ifparticulates are removed first at a temperature above the dewpoint of the tars (-300C), tars are removed next at inter mediate temperatures (above 100e), and water is removed last at 30-60C, then each separated con taminant can be handled much more easily. The rela tion between gas temperature and each operation is shown in Fig. 8-1. The final step of effective gas cleanup is to wisely choose a site for depositing the collected materials. Devices can be classified as either "in-line" or "off line." In-line devices, such as fabric bags and packed fiber filters, cut off the gas flow as they become filled with the tar or particulate material that they have
If the gas is to be used in a burner application, an updraft gasifier can be used, and no cleanup will be needed. However, if the fuel gas will be fed to an engine, then a downdraft or other tar cracking gasifier must be used; and the gas must be cleaned and conditioned before it is fed to the engine. The gas emerging from a downdraft gasifier is usually hot and laden with dust, containing up to 1 % tars and particulates. If these materials are not removed proper ly, they can cause maintenance, repair, and reliability problems much more costly and troublesome than operation of the gasifier itself. In fact, it is likely that more gasifier engine systems have failed because of im proper cleanup systems than for any other cause. In particular, the gas is very dirty during startup and should be burned at the gasifier until the system is fully operational. (See Sections 9.3.3, 9.3.4 and 9.4.1 for blowers, ejectors, and flares.) In 1983, the Minneapolis Moline Engine Company be came the first contemporary engine manufacturer to offer a 5000-h warranty on its engine-based on a fuel gas at the engine containing less than 5 mg/Nm3 of total combined tars and particulates (Mahin, June 1983). This amounts to 99% removal of all dust particles. Prior to 1950, manufactured gas was widely distributed to homes, and the technology for gas cleanup was used extensively and well understood at that time. The chemical and energy industries of today routinely use the methods that will be described in this chapter. In order to design effective gas cleanup systems, one must determine the magnitude, size, and nature of the contaminants, and then couple that information with knowledge of methods available for their removal. This chapter presents the principles of gas cleanup, the available types of separation equipment and their
T > 700 c
It---
71
captured. The pressure drop across the cleanup system steadily rises with the accumulation of captured materials, requiring frequent or automatic cleaning or replacement. Collection efficiency is low for a clean, in-line filter but climbs steadily with the increasing pressure drop as the filter becomes plugged. Collection efficiency measurements of in-line filters should clear ly indicate loading effects or be averaged over a full cleaning cycle in order to be meaningful. Off-line devices, such as cyclone separators, wet scrub bers, and electrostatic precipitators, deposit captured materials outside of the flow path. These devices separate the contaminants into one stream and the gas into another stream. The pressure drops and efficien cies associated with these devices are predictable and independent of the amount of captured materials, eliminating the slow buildup of pressure drop with use. Off-line methods are preferable in applications where they can be used.
99.9 99.8 99.5 99 98 95 90 80 ,;; " 70 60 50
c Q) '0
0 0
Cyclone and cloth loaded Part loaded Venturi scrubber (40 in. wg ) Packed bed (6 i n . deep, 30 Ips " 'h in. spheres) 5 - Wet impi ngement scrubber 6 - Karbate 7 - Disintegrator 8 - Packed bed (6 in . deep, S Ips , V , i n . spheres) 9 - I m pi ngement scrubber 1 0 - Cyclone 1 1 - Wire mesh (n 2) 1 2 - Wire mesh (n 1 ) 1 3 - Wave plate 1 4 - Cyclone and cloth clean
= =
1 234-
20
50
1 00
Fig. 8-2. Scrubber performance and sharpness comparison (Source: See reference in T able 8-1)
72
Scrubber Type
Reference
Gravity Settling Chamber Single Cyclone Cascade Cyclones n in series identical n=2 n=3 n =4 Disintegrator Karbate 1 in. lip Wire Mesh (0.01 1 in. wire) 2 layers 3 layers
50
2.5 2.5
1 .8 0.65 0.55 2.5 1 .3 2.5 2.5 Perry 1 973 Perry 1 973 Perry 1 973 Perry 1 973
Packed Bed 6 in. deep 1/2 Spheres + Saddles Velocity 5 Ips Velocity 30 Ips Venturi Scrubber 40 in. lIpWG Sieve Plate 1 .5 in. lIpWG Hole Velocity Vh 75 Ips
=
Impingement Scrubber 4 mbar/Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage Fabric Filter Spray Cyclone Dia. 24 in. lip = 2-10 in. H20 Vi 57 Ips Droplet 40-200 I'm
=
1 .5 0.076 0.015
..
Spray Tower 24 Ips Droplet 500-1 000 I'm 53 It high Wave Plate 90' 7 waves 7/1 6 in. radius 0.1 5 in. spacing
*Cyclone cut diameter is determined by design, down to 1
2.5
Perry 1 973
5
m.
11
Perry 1973
**Fabric filter collection efficiency is above 90% for all particle sizes.
the dpc value are captured with 80% efficiency, and those with diameters triple the dp c value are captured with 90% efficiency. In other words, dpBo and For example, a cyclone rated at dp 50 = 1 0 can be ex pected to capture 50% of particles having 1 0
(8-2)
=
20
2 dp 5o ,
(8-1)
Note that gravity settling chamber, cyclone, disin tegrator, wire mesh separator, and spray tower all have the same standard deviation-characteristic of inertial and gravitational separation mechanisms. Sharper par ticle separation as indicated by smaller standard devia tion involves the benefit of other or additional capture mechanisms such as condensation, cascading dif fusion, or mass transfer. Similarly, poorer separation
73
sharpness indicates that particle separation is degraded by some mechanism such as reentrainment or fragmentation. The minimum particle size and typical pressure drops are shown for various scrubbers in Table 8-2. The scrubber selection parameters are the particle size to be removed, the desired collection efficiency, and the maximum pressure drop.
gasifier, especially during startup, idling, and when wet fuel is used.
Gas cleanup goals should be based on the degree of con tamination, the size, distribution, and nature of the contaminants, as well as the degree of cleanliness re quired by the equipment. Both solid and liquid con taminants are present in producer gas. The solids are char, ash, and soot, and they cover a wide range of sizes. The liquid is initially a fine mist or fog composed of droplets smaller than 1 iJlIl , but the droplets agglomerate to increase in size as the gas cools.
On a probability plot of the size distribution of the dust shown, for example, in Fig. 7-4, we then find the par ticle size d where cumulative mass % less than dp 1:tis dp50 is then the cyclone cut diameter equals a. 1required for solids cleanup. A useful rule of thumb is that the cut diameter (dp50) required for a cyclone or scrubber will be about the same as the diameter at the cumulative fraction cor responding to the maximum permissible penetration (Calvert 1972).
(8-3)
100 mg/Nm3 ofparticulates with mean diameter dp50 100 iJlIl, a geometric standard deviation crg 3.5, and tar contamination of 1000 mg/Nm3.
A typical specification for dirty gas might be
Spray towers Cyclone spray scrubbers Impingement scrubbers Packed- and fluidized-bed scrubbers Orifice scrubbers Venturi scrubbers Fibrous-bed scrubbers
74
dp 50 (1/2) d 80 (1/3) d 90 = (1/4) d 95 (8-4) p p p All collectors using the same capture mechanism will be characterized by the same slope (Fig. 8-2) and standard deviation (Table 8-1).
= =
The details, including the mathematics, of separation can be found in Strauss (1975). However, it is interest ing to note that the relation between any separator's 50% capture cut-particle diameter and the capture rate for other sized particles is:
Engine
Insulation
Gas Cooler
Air
Blower
Filter
Shaker linkage
Centrifugal Filter
Fig. 8-3. T y pical vehicle gasifier system showing cyclone andgas cooler (Source: Adapted from Skov 1974)
75
cyclone inlet width b for a given pressure drop as shown in Fig. 8-6. Notice that the effect of temperature
De: 0,/2 Lc = 2 Dc Z c : 2 0c
Be = Dc/4
He = 0,/2 De/8
Sc =
SeclK)n A-A
100
c-- .
50
/'
LJ
Dust l out
"" 0
>u z
....
U
10
""....
/
II
II
0.50
" 8
" rn
ie
0.1
/
0.5
I 2 3 4
"
'" '"
PA R T I C L E S I Z E R A T I O , D p / D p c
Fig. 84. Cyclone grade effi iency curve (Source: Kaupp 1984a, Fig. 138)
Fig. 8-5. High-efficiency cyclone proportions (Source: Perry 1973, Fig. 20-96. 1973. Used with permission of McGraw Hill Book Co.; Kaupp 1984a, Fig. 134)
76
r-------
Temperature ( 0 C)
T
::t
., <: o
::J U
1 00
;J!.
o ll)
O o----L --
0.02
--L ---
--
---
--
---
0.08
--
---
0. 1
Fig. 8-6. High-efficiency cyclone - cyclone cut size versus inlet width
on cyclone cut size is minimal. This is due to the counterbalancing variations of density and viscosity with temperature. If coarse particles are introduced into a fine-particle cyclone separator, then two detrimental effects may occur. First, the large particles may block the small inlet. Second, the high velocities within the separator may break up the coarse particles by erosion, impact, and attrition. This latter effect can generate fine particles that may be harder to capture than anything previously present in the gas (Perry 1973). For this reason it is preferable to provide a gas-disengagement space for gravity settling within the gasifier rather than two stages of cyclones. This will allow the coarser particles to settle out prior to the cyclone separator. Settling velocities are related to particle size as shown in Figs. 7-6 and 8-7.
quate solids-conveying velocity within the pipe. Typi cal solids-conveying velocities for light materials range from 10 to 15 m/s (30-50 fils), as shown in Table 6-I. One should select the cyclone inlet pipe width (b) equal to the gasifier outlet pipe diameter or set the cyclone inlet velocity equal to the pipe velocity and design the cyclone according to the proportions in Fig. 8-5. The equations that appeared previously then can be used to predict particle cut size and pressure drop.
77
100 r---------80 60 50 40 30
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
Relationship between particle size and terminal velocity for solid spherical particles of various specific gravities Based on Stokes' Equation rp 0' (p ,-p,) V ----lB
Specific gravity
..: "
B.O
10
U "
8:. 5
4 3
B '0 t 6
II
----i
I I I I I
V = Terminal velocity = iameter of particle cp = Gravitational constant p , = Density of particle p, = Density of fluid = Viscosity of fluid
o
0.3 0.4
0.6
O.B 1
B 10
20
30 40
-60
BO
100
-- 200 300
30 .Nm3/h
(8-6)
We wish to reduce solid particulates to 10 mglNm3 from raw gas that exits the gasifier at 700C. The gas cools within a few feet of pipe to 300C, which we will consider as the cyclone inlet temperature. Screening analysis of airborneshar (Fig. 7-4) shows a mass mean particle diameter dp 1 0 0 fll11 with a geometric standard deviation O'g 2.5. Particulate sampling indicates that total dust load at peak flow is 5000 mg/Nm3, For a turndownratio requirement of4:1 , the maximum dust penetration at peak flow rate is P'D = 100 x [(10 mg/Nm3)/(5000 mg/Nm3)] = 0.2%. Derating by square root of turndown, the maximum 0.1 % . penetration for turndown is PD = 0.2%/
= =
V =
"D2
4(63 m3/h)
3.14 (2.5 cm/l00 cm/m)2 (3600 s/h) 35 m/s (7000 pm) (8-7)
which is well above the minimum, Selecting the cyclone inlet width equal to the gas pipe diameter, the cyclone is designed by the proportions from Fig. 8-5, For inlet width 2.5 cm (1 in.) and inlet height 5 cm (2 in.) then the cyclone inlet velocity will be
On Fig, 7-4 we follow the particle size distribution line for an Imbert gasifier to the data point where the cumulative fraction equals the maximum penetration allowing for turndown PD (0.1%). The corresponding particle diameter dp = 3 11m is the cut point we will require. d 50 3 11m, as shown by the dotted line. p The recommended minimum gas velocity for convey ing medium density dust is 15 mis, and for heavy dust (metal turnings) is 25 mis,
=
Q v =
A
=
(63 m3/h)(104 cm2/m2) (2.5 cm)(5 cm)(3600 s/h) 14 m/s (2755 pm) (8-8)
Cyclone cut size is the size particle that will be col lected with 50% efficiency. Then we calculate, using the viscosity and density of producer gas from Fig. 8-8 and assuming ash density 2.0 (2000 kg/m3) and char
78
400
0
:2
'w 0 .
?:'
" "'
300
.....
Viscosity 1 .0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 20 100 200 400 300 Gas temperature (0 C) 500 600 700
> ;:>
<1> " :J "
01 '"
"
E "
iii
c. >I-
"
a.
'" CL
01 0
'w c: <1> 0
?:'
0
o
density 0.2 (200 kg/m3), that the cyclone cut size will be
removal. Also, any tars in the gas stream must still be removed by other means.
2.5 J.lm
(8-9)
The most common errors encountered in cyclone design are a low intake velocity caused by an oversized cyclone, and reentrainment of solid particles caused by improper cone design or faulty design of the discharge receiver. Reducing the flow rate decreases the separator's perfor mance, but it has only a slight effect on gas cleanliness because the dust load entrained in the inlet gas to the separator is also lower at the reduced flow rate. The resulting effect is that this outlet dust load slowly in creases with a decreased flow rate by the inverse square root of gas flow rate (Gengas 1950; Calvert 1972; Perry 1973). It is tempting to reduce the cyclone inlet width with an inlet vane; however, the upset cyclone proportions have been found to reduce the effective number of gas rotations Nt to as low as two and to increase reentrain ment (Perry 1973). Therefore, to remove finer particles using cyclones at a lower pressure drop, it is preferable to reduce the individual cyclone diameter using multiple parallel cyclones (multi-clones) if necessary. Air leaking into the char-ash hopper at the bottom of a cyclone separator deteriorates performance substan tially. Similarly, removing the gas through the bottom improves the efficiency of the cyclone separator.
8 J.lffi
9(259 X 10-7 kg/m-s)(0.025 m) '4 2(5)(14 m/s)(200 - 0.489 kg/mo) (3.14) (8-10)
for char.
The cyclone pressure drop will be
Ll.p
_
31 mm (1.22 in.) H 0 (8-11) 2 We can see that this cyclone should achieve the desired particulate removal without excessive pressure drop.
=
However, there is still a finite possibility of large par ticles passing through a cyclone, so it is not advisable to use a cyclone as the sole method of particulate
79
G" "
Skirt
C::::>
capture element is the dynamic cake that forms on the filter surface. This cake, which consists of captured particles, presents a circuitous path that effectively captures fine particles, while coarser captured particles maintain an open cake structure to promote high gas permeability, When a new filter fabric is inserted, the main mechanism of particle collection is physical sizing as determined by the openings in the weave. At first, small particles may pass uncaptured until some buildup accumulates on the filter. From this point on, the gas must effectively pass through a packed bed of micrometer-sized particles. Interception and impaction then emerge as significant collection mechanisms.
Liquid out
Fig, 8-9, Wet cyclone (Source: Calvert 1972, Fig, 3, 1-6)
Collecting entrained droplets from wet scrubbers with a cyclone separator requires an outlet skirt to prevent reentrainment of liquids that have impinged on the outlet tube, as shown in Fig, 8-9,
Solenoid
compressed -, -,ai r supply i'i o = = != ;p= -" 60 psi " --1r---""---'i"-o"k: Nozzle Induced flow
"ill =
__ I'"
""'"
air
Material discharge
Note: This schematic is intended to describe function and is not necessarily typical of actual construction
Fig, 8-10. Cloth bag filter with intermittent reverse pulse cleaning (Source: Wort< 1955, p, 483)
80
ash that otherwise was present in condensate or scrub water. The fabric filter is no doubt the most efficient device for fine cleaning; but for wood gas. extensive precautions against condensation of tar or water are necessary (Gengas 1950). Note in Table 8-3 that the cylinder wear is less for producer gas with a fabric filter than for diesel oil alone. During operation. the previously described filter cake grows steadily in thickness. collection efficiency climbs. and the pressure drop across the filter rises. When the filter cake has reached optimal thickoess for removal. the filter cake must be removed by one of the following methods: momentary flow reversal to collapse the bag and dislodge the cake as shown in Fig. 8-10. a pulse jet of compressed gas or air to create the momentary bag collapse. or dismantling and manually shaking the bag (Breag 1982). After cleaning. the filter efficiency is lower until the fil ter cake reforms. It is wise to use a conservatively designed fabric filter (5-10 cfm/ft2 ). or even larger bag area. to maximize the interval between bag cleanings so as to maintain clean gas fiow. Bag filters are suitable only for removing dry particu lates; sticky or tacky materials do not release from fil ter bags. Therefore. special provisions and precautions are required to maintain the bag filter temperature in order to prevent water vapor or tars from condensing on the filter bag. In particular. since tar-laden start-up gas should not be drawn through a cold bag filter. the design should locate the flare outlet upstream from the bag filter and provide means for preheating the bag filter assembly. Materials that have been used for bag filters include natural and synthetic organic fiber. glass fiber. ceramic fiber." and stainless steel. The properties of these materials are outlined in Table 8-4. Organic-fiber bag
>.
0.. -- 0- _
1> "
_
14: O
"
-<-"
. --
.'"
/'
",
...... .
1 ", Q.
/j
.
I' -<-"
/
/'
..,
0.1
0 0 ..
10
Particle size, pm Cyclone-cloth (loaded) Cyclone-cloth (partially loaded) Cyclone-cloth (clean) Cyc l o n e-a lon e
Fig. 8-11. Fractional efficiency curves of cyclone-alone and cyclone cloth collectors (Source: Peterson 1965, p. 48)
filters are limited to low-temperature operations re quiring accurately controlled gas cooling. Various cloth filters were used on gasifiers between 1939 and 1945. but these proved to be a continual source of difficulty because they could catch fire if they became too hot. or would get wet (from condensate) if they became too cold. Polyester felt bags. the most widely available. are rated for 135"C continuous service temperature. Stain less steel. glass-fiber. and ceramic-fiber bag filters have been used successfully at higher temperatures and show good promise (Johansson 1980). Unfortunately. the abrasion and flexing resistance of glass and ceramic fibers can be low; after installation. and especially once they have been heated. these materials should be han dled as little as possible. High-temperature bag materials are not as widely available as other materials.
Table 8-3. Cylinder Wear for Gas Cleaned with Wet Cleaning and Fabrics Filters
Diesel Oil Dual Fuel Diesel Oil/Producer Gas Fabric Filter Wet Cleaning System
Cylinder wear 1 000 h Tractor 01 02 03 06 08 Oil contamination expressed as amount of insoluble products i n benzene after 100 h
co '"
Fiber
Composition
Abrasion
Alkali
Cost Ranke
S. 15' 3
o :::l 0. OJ
Cotton Wool Nylond Orion Dacrond Polypro iylene Nomex Fiberglass Teflond
bp
poor,
G G E G E E E P-F F
P F P G G E F E E
G F F G G E E E E
G P G F G E G P E
1 7 2 3 4 6 8 5 9
m,
el :;;
<ii' G:> m :::l (Q S' CD (J)
fair,
good,
eCost rank,
* 3
Ul
"",,
-Ili
:1 I';
'
Ii
1'
To the mixer
A small precipitator (20 cm in diameter and 1 m in length) was operated at SERI to clean gas produced by a 75-hp Hesselman gas generator powering a 15-kW electric generator. The initial results were very
dramatic. and the tar mist at the flare could be seen to disappear instantaneously when the voltage was applied. However. the electrodes and insulators soon became coated with soot and tar. and formed a short-circuit path that supported an arc. A means for cleaning the electrodes must be provided. along with a means to warm the insulators to prevent a water-condensation short-circuit. These problems are being investigated. For tar-mist removal. wire and tube electrostatic precipitators are preferred over the plate-type electro static precipitator (Strauss 1975). Typical performance
Earthed plate
iJ 1,(9 -,
h I, .
II ,I II
f'
_.j
r'
t t dl
t cll t
1,-
.Ji.lL.
Fig. 8-13. Electrostatic precipitator examples (Source: Strauss 1975, Figs. 10-19, 10-20. 1975. Used with permission of Pergamon Press)
83
Peat gas producer Cracking plant for natural gas Producer gas from lignite briquettes Producer gas from sembituminous lignite Shalegas cleaning plant Coke oven town gas cleaning Coke oven town gas cleaning Coke oven gas cleaning Oil carburetted water gas cleaning Tar carburetted water gas cleaning
Source: Perry
5.34 0.224 37.7 28.7 40.0 24.15 17.0 28.0 4.73 1 0.0
0.008 0.002 0.20 0.10 0.006 0.010 0.003 0.078 0.039 0.050
702 120.4 652 602 903 903 1 605 752 1 404 1 805
characteristics for electrostatic precipitators are shown in Table 8-5, indicating high capture efficiency. The precipitator tube diameter should be small enough to allow the corona discharge to be established at a reasonable voltage and large enough so that its volume will provide the necessary residence time with a reasonable length. Low flow rates result in a higher residence time and higher collection efficiency. Multiple parallel precipitator tubes, as shown in Fig. 8-13, permit a more compact precipitator design and use a lower voltage than a single larger tube. The sparldng voltage for tube precipitators is shown in Table 8-6. In practice, precipitators are operated at the highest operating voltage without excessive sparking (Perry 1973). One-second delays between sparks have been found to result in effective precipitator operation. Application of a negative (rather than positive) voltage on the center electrode is favored because this arrange ment results in a more stable corona and less sparking. The typical current through the electrode is low: 0.1 to 2 0.5 mA/m of collecting surface (Perry 1973). Half wave rectification of a 50 to 60 Hz electric supply provides adequate time for extinguishing sparks. The power consumed by an electrostatic precipitator is very low, typically 1.5 W/hp (Strauss 1975). and the pressure drop also is very low, at considerably less than 1 in. of water. High-voltage equipment requires rigorous safety measures. In addition, unforeseen power failures may cause a loss of the electrostatic precipitator 's cleaning ability, with a subsequent release of tars to the engine.
Pipe Diameter, in. Sparking Potential,a volts Root Mean Square Peak
4 6 9 12
aFar gases at atmospheric pressure, 10QoF, containing water vapor, air, C02 and mist, and negative-discharge-electrode polarity. Source: Perry
from a hot surface and toward a cold surface. This phenomenon is called "thermophoresis." Wetted particles tend to stick together better when they collide. thereby assisting agglomeration. Wet scrubbers have been used widely. especially in stationary ap plications for cleaning and cooling the gas. A scrubber operates by creating conditions for maximum contact between the gas to be cleaned and a scrubbing liquid medium. Basic scrubber types and performance characteristics are summarized in Tables 8-1. 8-2. and 8-7. and grade efficiency curves are shown in Fig. 8-2. Scrubbers can be divided into impingement-plate. packed-bed. sieve plate. spray tower. and Venturi scrubbers. Small. difficult-to-capture droplets may be made to grow in size with time until they are large enough to be captured by simply providing adequate residence time in the scrubber volume. Particles grow in size by ag glomeration and condensation. Agglomeration is par ticle growth through particle collision. Almost all high-concentration clouds tend to have the same particle concentration within 1 min after formation. A novel method to capture 0.2-llID mist is to provide water fog nuclei and ample residence time. Water fog
is introduced at a concentration of 0.25 LlNm3 at 30 psig spray pressure. and in a high intensity sonic field of frequency 600 to 800 Hz. A 12-s residence time permits the particles to agglomerate to a size large enough to be captured with 94% efficiency by a 5-llID cyclone (Calvert 1972). If a condensation nucleus is absent. but the degree of supersaturation (S) exceeds 200% to 400 % . then homogeneous self-nucleation occurs. Self-nucleation produces extremely small droplet sizes. The droplet growth rate is inversely proportional to the droplet radius. so it proceeds slowly at first. accelerating with droplet size. Nucleated condensation dominates over homogeneous self-nucleation when nucleation sites are present. Vapor condenses more readily within concave sur faces. filling the void fraction of solid particles. Soluble aerosol particles nucleate even more readily by boiling point depression in solution. A small droplet grows slowly by chance agglomeration until it reaches its critical size; after that. it grows rapidly by acting as a nucleation site. Soluble particles behave as nucleation sites without having to achieve critical size. The char ash dust particles present in the producer gas stream at temperatures below the tar dew point will act as nuclei
Method
Comments
Gravity Settling Massive Packing Fiber Packing Preformed Spray Gas Atomized Spray Venturi and Sieve Plate Scrubbers Centrifugal Baffle Plate Impingement Entrainment Separator Mechanically Aided Moving Bed Fabric Filter
>30 >5
Coarse separator; very large and bulky Free draining coarse demister Viscous materials can cause plugging High water consumption Good for sticky materials
>5 >5 >2 >1 Submicron 1-2 20 (solids) 5 (mist) 2-3 5 1-2 0.3
Low 0.002 (0.001) 5.7 (2.2) 22.6 (8.9) 91 (35.9) 7.5-20 (3-8) 2.5-7.5 (1-3) 1 0-50 (4-20) 32 (5) Acts as a blower 7.5-1 5 (3-6) 1 3 (5)
Compact; good for preliminary cleanup Large coarse collector Recoil bounce; can reentrain Can be clogged High power and maintenance Good mass transfer Excellent; can be clogged
85
for tar condensation, thereby reducing the amount of very fine and persistent self-nucleated tar mist (Calvert 1972). The design of a good scrubber must maximize the gas liquid contact area while minimizing the pressure drop through the scrubber. For instance, the gas-liquid con tact area for a foam is much greater than for a spray, given equal energy inputs. If a gas stream enters a liquid-filled chamber at high velocity through a small hole at the bottom ofthe cham ber, then all of the entering gas must experience the subsequent impaction and diffusion environments. When water enters the gas stream as a high pressure spray, only a small fraction of the gas is close enough to the nozzle to receive the benefit of impaction with the high-velocity droplets. Spray droplet agglomera tion proceeds rapidly, causing the gas-liquid contact area to drop off sharply within a short distance from the nozzle. This effect seriously limits the collection ability of spray scrubbers.
Sprays
,. , .
';"" U quid i n
' __
# .
Gas i n
c;::/ ' +
L.JJ1
-- .. _c
Liquid out
Fig. 8-14. Spray tower scrubber (Source: Calvert 1972. Fig. 3.1-4)
86
<; N 0
"
ro
A typical sieve-plate scrubber can attain 90% efficien cy for 1-llm particles using 3/16-in. sieve holes, at a specific velocity of 15 mls (50 ft/s). Typical perfor mance characteristics of sieve-plate scrubbers are discussed in Kaupp (1984a),
Liquid in
The Venturi scrubber (Fig. 8-17) captures large particles by impaction and impingement, and also rinses away any deposits that might otherwise form. Some fine par ticles are also captured here by diffusion. High-velocity flow through the low-pressure throat area atomizes the droplets. The low pressure at the throat causes conden sation, and the high relative velocity of the droplets with respect to the gas captures most larger particles by impaction.
_ ..
0JI>.rl-- Wei r
The atomized droplets present a considerable surface area for fine particles to be captured by diffusion. Fur thermore, condensation in the throat improves capture through diffusion because ofthe phenomenon ofStefan motion. The atomized droplets rapidly agglomerate in the diffuser section, where collection through diffusion continues, Entrained droplets containing captured contaminants are separated inertially from the cleaned gas. Liquid recycle requires cooling and removal of captured materials, or disposal and replenishment. The collection efficiency and droplet size are deter mined by the pressure drop: efficiencies may be in creasedby reducing the throat area to raise the pressure drop. The efficiencies of Venturi scrubbers are discussed in Calvert (1972).
/P'ot\..o.---t-- Gas in
-2::==--+- Liquid
out
Fig. 815. Sieve plate scrubber (Source: Kaupp 1984a: Figs. 141, 146)
87
.-, , ' . .
Baffle su pport
" ... ..
\"'
. ,,_#,
.
'. . .. '
"
Inpingement plate
-..'
...... .'
Bubble caps
Fig. 816. Impingement plate scrubber (Source: Kaupp 1984a, Figs. 142, 143)
scrubbers have no moving parts and are especially well-suited for very dirty, corrosive, or abrasive materials that might otherwise damage a blower impeller (Calvert 1972).
man problem for wet scrubbers in gasifier systems. Gas contaminant testing is advisable for all unproven designs.
88
to 70% of the total energy contained within the initial fuel. The heat losses from surfaces vary from 1 to 5 Btu/ft2-h-'F, depending on the geometry of the gas cooler and the temperatures involved. Thus, a great deal of the cooling at higher temperatures can be accomplished in the pipes and at the surfaces of the gasifier itself, as well as in the cyclone separators or other cleaning equipment. However, as the gas approaches ambient temperature, additional cooling surface through some form of gas cooler is required. Gas coolers exchange heat between the gas and the sur rounding air, or between the gas and a liquid. A typi cal radiator used in vehicle applications is shown in Fig. 8-3. Here, the motion of the vehicle increases air flow around a gas cooler, so that more cooling air is available at the higher speeds when the heat load is greatest. In stationary applications, forced ventilation is required to move air through the gas cooler. As the gas cools, tars begin to condense at temperatures below 350'C. As the temperature passes below the dew point of the gas (typically 40' -50'C), water also will condense. Water condensation helps to remove tar par ticles but yields a contaminated water condensate in the process. If tars and particulates are removed from the gas before it enters the gas cooler, thenthe gas cooler will be able to operate longer between cleanings. All heat-exchange and gas-cooling surfaces in contact with
inlets
Centrifugal entrainment
separator
Venturi
1_ Dirty t water
Fig. 8-17. Venturi scrubber with centrifugal entrainment separator (Source: Calvert 1972. Fig. 5.3.6-1)
Liquid in
When the gas leaves the char gasification zone at about BOO'C. the sensible heat of the gas accounts for about 15% of the initial energy in the wood. If the gas is burned while it is still hot. then the sensible heat can be utilized. However, if the gas is to be used in an internal-combustion engine, it must be cooled to prevent preignition, to improve the engine volumetric efficiency, and to facilitate gas cleanup. The thermal energy in the raw gas may be either dis sipated, used for low-temperature applications such as drying, or recycled into the gasifier by using the ener gy to preheat the incoming air. Each method has been used on gasifiers. Airblast preheating was used exten sively in European vehicle gasifiers to improve the gas and to permit wetter fuels to be gasified (Schliipfer 1937; Egloff 1941; Lutz 1940). Using sensible heat to do more than preheat the air blast
. or heat the fuel hopper is hardly justified because the
gas is dirty and only a small quantity of heat (15%) is
involved. If usable heat is desired, then the engine ex
haust gas and engine coolant fluid are much cleaner
and more abundant sources of heat, representing 50%
"
Gas
Fig. 8-18. Ejector Venturi scrubber (Source: Calvert 1972, Fig. 3. 1-4)
89
the raw gas are subject to ash and tar buildup, so ample cleanout ports should be provided to clean these surfaces without requiring extensive disassembly.
value of the dry gas (HVd) and the moisture fraction where Fm water vapor partial (Fm) from Fig. pressure/total (absolute) gas pressure.
8-22,
(8-12)
Gas out
11'
'!F=r='""'iF"
Liquid in
Raschig ring
Berf saddle
Lessig ring
Tellerette
Pall ring
Intalox saddle
1 00 Collection efficiency for 6 Jim o i l droplets 50 in 6" deep bed of 2" spheres
-
'0
'ti
"' , "
a "
N
;;
m
(/)
Fig. 8-21. Power loss due to moisture saturated producer gas for 150 Btu/sef dry basis gas
90
140 26 1 20 24
OJ I E
22 1 00 20
E 1:'
=> "' "'
18 3 80 1 6 2 c: 0 " 14 60 1 2 " . 10 40 8 6 20
o -20
"'
Q.
1:'
C 1:'
ro ..
Q.
(; in ro s
'" >
Q.
I j j / I / /L V II f -- /
g/m3 mm Hg g/m3
o
I 0.24
0.20
OJ '"
c o
"
removal. For example, Fig. 8-24 illustrates that a 6-in. deep bed packed with 1/2-in.-diameter spheres will capture 50% of2.5- m diameter droplets from a super ficial gas velocity at 1.5 mls (5 ft/s). Deeper beds and finer packings will increase collection performance; however, excessive gas velocity may cause reentrain ment, deteriorating overall performance. The mini mum packing size is limited by the fact that smaller packings more rapidly become plugged by viscous tar deposits. In these cases flow can be restored by stirring or replacing the packing. It was common practice during World War II to pass the gas through wood chips, cork, or other fibrous materials to remove tars. Some of these materials subsequently can be used as fuel in the gasifier and thus dispose of the pollutants. Fiberglass filters have been used to clean gas (Johansson 1985) as has char (Humphries 1985).
Fiber-type demisters have limited applications be
<;; 6 E
<.'J
1:' =>
Dewpoint (0 C)
20
40
60
cause viscous tar deposits on fine wire mesh do not drain freely and are prone to plugging.
Fig. 8-22. Water content ofsaturatedproducer gas (Source: Gengas 1950, Fig. 82)
ment separation. However, these units have not yet been proven reliable for continuous operation with producer gas.
(The moisture fraction Fm is approximately the same value for either mass fraction or volume fraction of water, since 1 Nm3 of water and 1 Nm3 of producer gas each weighs approximately 1 kg.) The effect that water vapor dilution has on the heating value of a 150-Btu gas is shown in Fig. 8-21. Methods of measuring gas moisture are presented in Chapter 7. To minimize the power loss from water vapor dilution, the necessary cooling surface can be roughly determined from Fig. 8-23. Ample ventilation must be provided to cool and condense the gas with a 60'C dew point from 700'C down to 40'C.
1 00 rTTn-.-.--'--.--r-'--Y-'
u 1:'
80 60
\\--1--+---t--r -t--+--t
"' 40 -20
1\
imum spray velocity of 45 ft/s (15 m/s), are good for removing large mechanical entrainment drops more than 100 j.Ull in diameter but have low efficiency for fine mist particles less than 1 0 m in diameter.
L--+o 4
"':--.r' .:
\\t\_'<?
8
\i \;
-1--+--t-'k
-1--+--t
+ ---j--+-+-+---j-++--I
f--+ -+-+---1r----1 -+-I__
Dewpo.int..+_+ I
+,,' 1 12
--.
r--
Cooling surface, m2
16
20
24
Fig. 8-23. Gas cooler surface requirements for various Qutputs at 700C (Source: Gengas 1950, Fig. 99)
91
;g
>.
0.6
ID OA
0.2
f-+ -f I I
// 30 fps
-
8/' 8
./
/
t:.
, .... ,; ...
,/ /
'/
/
0 ,
B 9-.... /
- ...
"
//
5 f ps
glee
.....
stances and should be treated with due caution, Col lected tars that cannot be recycled to the gasifier or burned on site may need to be treated as hazardous wastes. They should not be dumped on the ground or released into waterways. Prevention through low-tar gasifier designs is the best cure for tar (see Chapters 4 and 5).
8.8.3 Condensate
The liquid condensate from producer gas may contain substantial amounts of tars and phenols. Phenols are well-known germicides and will kill soil bacteria if spread on the ground. If released into waterways, the condensate could damage lifeforms supported by those waterways. For condensate water, as with tars, prevention is the best cure. Methods of minimizing condensate forma tion should be considered fully early in the design and selection of the system (see Chapter 5). Gas moisture content may be minimized by using dry fuel (the drier, the better) and by recycling heat back into the gasifier through an air-blast preheater. Condensation from the gas may be minimized by limiting the amount of gas cooling so as to use the gas above its water dew point (40'-60C). The loss in engine power or the costs of larger engines may be more than offset by the savings in the cost of condensate disposal.
0.3
L-
0.6
_ -L
2 3 Diameter (microns)
-L
-L
LL
10
-L
20
Fig. 8-24. Entrainment separator collection efficiencyofpacked bedfor droplet removal (Source: Perry 1973, Fig. 18-142)
8.8.1 CharAsh
The char-ash removed from producer gas is free of dangerous materials and can be burned or safely disposed of in a landfill. When burned to white ash, char-ash contains valuable minerals that may be beneficially returned to the soil. Charcoal is a valuable, clean-burning fuel, worth several times the value of wood. Alternate uses and possible markets definitely should be examined. Larger char material may be saleable for further charcoal gasification, combustion, or briquetting. In addition to valuable soil minerals, charcoal has been successfully used as a soil conditioner in Japan, result ing in improved crop yields (Kishimoto 1985). It also has been used as a livestock feed supplement to reduce digestive problems and meat hormone levels (Taylor 1986). Charcoal has long been considered a premium cooking fuel in many developing countries.
Engine
8.8.2 Tar
A gasifier that produces more than 0.5 g/Nm3 oftar can not be suitably cleaned for engine applications due to the large amounts of tar that must be captured and dis posed of. For a worst-case tar production scenario of 2 g/Nm3 (0.2%), up to 2 g oftarper hp-hmay arise with each horsepower. Thus, a 1 00-hp engine would produce up to 4,8 kg of tar in 24 hours, or about 5 L. At room temperature, tar is a viscous, slow-flowing, molasses-like fluid. It may contain carcinogenic sub-
.- . Exhaust - i._.!i' ('C3: ': I -"---' . pipe -. V Note: The . , ' II pipe runs Starting alongside the fan exhaust pi pe , Secondary air valve
I'\.::
= =:::==r'l --,::::= Gas valve . 'I From gasifier
. _
J:s;J
I
__ _ '
Fig. 8-25. Heating ofsecondary airby exhaustgas heat from the engine (Source: Gengas 1950, Fig. 85)
92
A complete system also requires instruments to measure pressure, flow rates, and temperatures at cru cial points, and controls to establish the required con ditions. Instruments and controls will be discussed in Chapter 10.
9.2.2 Storage
A closed bin, silo, or hopper must be supplied to hold the biomass feedstock (chips, cobs, pellets, etc.), to prevent it from getting wet. In many cases, industrial or agricultural containers are available in appropriate sizes at low cost.
Flare
Biomass storage
I I I
I
L_J
---0--
Cyclone
meA
E L T AP m
ejector
= =
t h e rm o cou p l e
level control
Fig. 9 1. Gasifier system showing means of moving solids and gases and positions for various instruments and controls
Gasifier Systems
93
Fig. 9-2. Batch fed gasifier with lid (Source: NAS 1983, p. 68)
There are two basic types of solids feeding and sealing devices-mechanical seal type where the seal mechanically prevents gas passage, and plug seal where the fuel acts as its own plug and seal such that fuel velocity into the gasifier is greater than gas velocity out through the fuel plug. It should be noted that rotary valves and gate valves are also good firestops for flash back or explosion prevention. Inert or air purge gas should be used in pressurized gasifiers to offset leakage through rotary valves. Additionally, there is the stratified charge gasifier where air enters through the top at atmospheric pressure such that for operation above a minimum gasification rate, all smoke is drawn down into the fuel bed, and a lid is unnecessary. In many cases, the biomass feed can help to act as a seal in a long auger or vertical pipe. However, the pressure drop through the fuel is small, and the technique will not work if the gasifier fuel inlet is under a positive pressure of more than 2.5 cm (1 in.) water gauge. Various solids feeding devices are shown in Fig. 9-3. Star valves, which rotate to feed the fuel, are available commercially. Ifa gasifier is to be operated at high pressure, it becomes exceedingly difficult to feed biomass through a single seal. Lock hoppers that use two slide or bell valves supplying a metering feeder as shown in Fig. 9-4 have been used with biomass at pressures up to 30 atmospheres for making medium-energy gas for
94
(a)
(b) (e) (a) Slide valve. (b) Star valve. (e) Table feeder. (e/)
Screw
{dl
(e)
Fig. 9-3. Solids feeding devices (Source: Perry 1973, Fig. 20- 79. 1973. Used with permission of McGraw Hill Book Co.)
9.3.2 Fans
Propeller-type fan blades usually generate under 1.25 em (0.5 in.) of water gauge pressure and are used in gasifiers only to move air through heat exchangers and radiators. They are not suitable for moving gas against any resistance.
. == Ai r CYIJ
GAirCYI.]::=G
Meter bin Meterin9 screws :E/Il - -",-jJ +
ate valve
(if?) 1 I
I
j :=: rJ screw ;
I II I II I II I I
I I
I 1-,
Gasifier I
-W- -
I I : I I
Fig. 9-4. Lock hopper for high-pressure fuel feeding (Source: Miles 1982)
Gasifier Systems
95
9.3.3 Blowers
Centrifugal blowers (Fig. 9-5) can generate pressures on the order of 100 cm (40 in.) of water gauge pressure and are quite suitable for gasifier testing. To generate these pressures, the blowers must either rotate very fast or have a large diameter, since it is the centrifugal force that creates the pressure. The blower can tolerate, and in fact will remove, a certain amount of tar and particu lates, but a means for draining and cleaning the blower should be provided. Blowers can be used either to push the air into the gasifier or to pull the hot gas through the system at negative pressure. Considerably more power is required to pull the gas through the system than to push air because there is necessarily more mass to manipulate and the gas is less dense. In addition, suction fans must be capable of handling a higher temperature than fans pushing air into the gasifier. Most blower breakdowns occur due to deposits on shaft seal and impeller or erosion of the case. Reliability is limited by deposits.
9.3.4 Ejectors
Ejectors are a very convenient and simple means for moving dirty gas. No moving parts are exposed to gas contaminants. Ejectors (Fig. 9-6) use the motion of a small amount of one gas to move larger quantities of a second gas, often at negative pressures. During startup, the gas produced initially is very tarry and may quick ly clog cleanup and engine. Therefore, one should use a fan or ejector during startup to send this gas to a product-gas burner until low-tar operation is reached. Compressed air, nitrogen, or steam can be used to drive the ejector. Water jets can also be used to move, cool, and clean the gas.
Ejector design is based on the principle of the conser
vation of momentum of the driver gas as it aspirates
Backwarcl-curved-blade fan..
...'00 '" , . 90 I . 80 r- froi gll1 blod - - : 7o- Forward-curved blade .t 80 -',- Bockward-curwd blade --
I:"
"
- -
, -
50 ,ij 4Q .1' 30
. .0
.\' '
, ,
'" -
" I'\.
,
'....
"
1 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
CD
SuctIon gas
140
160
"b"
/IU
I
--
I '...
CD
M IXing section
i
'
--
Outlet
18 "0"
1
I ;: g
< m
I @
Fig. 9-5. Centrifugal blowers (Source: Perry 1973, Figs. 6-37, 6-38, 6-39, 6-41. 1973. Used with permission of McGraw Hill Book Co.)
Fig. 9-6. E jectorpump for moving gas (Source: Perry 1973, Fig. 6-73. 1973. Used with permission of McGraw Hill Book Co.)
96
and mixes with the driven gas. Optimum ejector dimensions are discussed in Perry (1973).
=771 "
m
g:
9.4.1 Flares
Flares sometimes may be seen at oil wells or refineries in which excess gas burns with a luminous flame. In order to produce a nonluminous flanle, it is necessary to provide enough air and residence tinle to burn the soot in a hotter, nonluminous flame. This is called a gas incinerator. Raw producer gas contains up to 40% carbon monoxide and up to 20% volatile tars, making it absolutely essential that a reliable incinerator be available during testing to burn the gas. The incinerator must be sized to fit the gasifier. Most of the principles discussed below for incinerators also apply to developing burners for producer gas. The three essential elements necessary to combust any gas are residence time, temperature, and turbulence (the three "T's" of gas combustion). Residence time re quires a sufficently large chamber for combustion to proceed to completion. High temperature is achieved by using a refractory lining on the burner. Turbulence can be generated by high-velocity mixing of the com bustion air or fuel (for instance, by passing it through a nozzle) or by tangentially mixing air with the gas. The reader is referred to books on combustion and burners for a more complete discussion (e.g., Perry 1973). Incinerators for toxic chemicals and gases require a pilot flame to assure combustion operated on methane or propane, an ignitor to start the flame, a flame sensor to shut down the burner if the flame is extinguished, and a control system to regulate the air mixture and stack temperature.
Sliding':vane type of rotary blower.
Screw-type rotary compressor.
Sliding vane
Inlet
port
Fig. 9-7. Positive displacement rotary blowers and compressors (Source: Perry 1973, Figs. 6-49, 6-50, 6-51. 1973. Used withpermis sian of McGraw Hill Book Co.)
Gasifier Systems
97
i"'1-f--- 1 2 in . ---3.1
G as
--= I ."'-rr
===h
. Air
JJ
....
Pilot
Propane torch
A small flare, suitable for burning up to Btuth of producer gas, is shown in Fig. 9-8. It is made from a 5-gal can lined with an 8-in.-JD ceramic fiber risa sleeve. (Risa sleeves are used in metal foundries, high temperature flue lines, and oil-burning furnaces.) A propane torch or suitable pilot flame injected tangen-. tially at the bottom maintains a high temperature on the wall. Producer gas is injected tangentially upstream from the propane flame and mixes with the propane flame as a source of ignition. Air is drawn through the bottom port to permit complete combustion. Smaller or larger flares can be built on this principle, or com mercially available burners and gas incinerators can be used.
200,000
than the costs of replacing the unit with a solid fuel burner. Close coupled gasifier burner systems are able to meet emission requirements with no expensive pollution abatement equipment. Updraft producer gas is an excellent fuel for high quality heat applications. The high tar content does not need to be removed, and adds to the heating value. Fur thermore, the sensible heat ofthe gas adds to the flame temperature and overall heat output. TIPI workshop (Das 1986) has been using updraft producer gas from wood chips to fuel a melting furnace, melting copper and bronze at high efficiency using to Ib wood chips per pound of bronze poured and a rapid heat cycle to min) to reach pouring temperature.
2 3
9.4.2 Burners
Close coupled gasifier burners offer improved clean, high efficiency burning of solid fuels compared with conventional solid burners. Gas-air mixture and mixing are more easily controlled than are convention al solid fuel burners, resulting in more complete com bustion. Equipment costs for retrofitting an existing gas or oil unit for close coupled gasifying are generally less
30
(20
The flame inside the forge is very different from any other kind of wood burner. It has the intensity and fury of a jet engine and the clean invisible flame of a high quality fuel. Direct combustion of producer gas lends itself to a wide range of applications (e.g., ceramics, glass, steam, drying, blacksmithing, and process heat).
98
The gasifiers of World War II were batch-fed, and gas flowed to the engine in response to the vacuum created in the engine. As a resuit, usually there were no con trols or instruments other than those of the engine and vehicle. The corresponding tradeoff was that a great deal of operator expertise was required in order to know when to shake the grate, stir the fuel bed, fill the fuel hopper, and clean the system, as well as how to operate the vehicle on hills and in traffic. Just as the modern automobile has a number of instru ments, sensors, warning lights, and controls, gasifiers built today should incorporate instruments and con trols to improve performance, convenience, and safety. During research and development, many measure ments are required to determine operating parameters and to determine where controls should be applied. However, a production gasifier system (like a produc tion car) should require relatively few key instruments and controls. Ideally, gasifiers of the future will operate automatical ly and unattended. A working gasifier system requires the integrated operation of a number of components. It is desirable to have automatic controls and warning systems on production gasifiers in order to keep the system in balance and to warn the operator when a par ticular component needs attention. Although such a degree of automation would have been impossible to implement on the gasifiers of World War II, reliable, in expensive sensors, instruments, and controls are wide ly available today in much of the world, due largely to the development of the modern automobile and solid state technology. This chapter deals with the methods and equipment that have been used to measure each physical quantity critical to optimal gasifier operation. Since these measurements are commonly used by chemical engineers, the reader is referred to chemical engineering texts, and especially to handbooks such as the Chemical Engineers' Handbook (Perry 1973). meters (see below), the gas cleanup system and com ponents, and any components that are prone to plug ging, as shown in Fig. 9-1. The total pressure with respect to atmospheric pressure (known as "gauge" pressure) may also be measured at the gasifier outIet, the cleanup outlet, and (if the gasifier is operated at a pressure above atmospheric pressure) the air inlet. In locations where occasional measurements are suffi cient, connections should be capable of being closed off when they are not in use. The pressures within the gasifier will be close to atmo spheric pressure (except for high-pressure gas producers) and generally will be measured in cen timeters (inches) of water column. * Pressure drops and differential pressures can be measured by a U-tube manometer filled with colored liquid. Liquid-filled manometers are simple devices that use a fluid-filled (usually colored water or light oil) tube to measure pressure. For convenience and portability, they can be made from flexible, transparent plastic tubing and a meter stick. Commercial units are available in a wide range of accuracies, from 0.25% to 3% of the full-scale reading. For more sensitive measurements, an inclined-tube manometer may be used (Dwyer 1960). Typical inclined-tube scales can be read to 0.1 in. water gauge, and curved-tube manometers (e.g., the Dwyer Mark II) provide high resolution over a wide range of readings. Commercial units are available for as low as $10, dual range vertical inclined manometers start at $30, and stationary high-resolution manometers can cost as much as $400. Special handling is required to avoid losing or blowing out gauge fluid because of excessive pressure. Accurate leveling is important for all manometers. Diaphragm-type differential pressure gauges give a needle-pointer reading of the differential pressure. They are available in full-scale accuracies of 2% and full-scale ranges from 0.25 to 150 in. water gauge (e.g., those manufactured by Dwyer). These gauges are rugged and can be used in all positions with positive and negative pressures. For nondifferential pressures in excess of a few pounds per square inch, the well known Bourdon gauges should be used.
*1029 em water = 1 atm; 406.8 in. water gauge = 1 atm;
=
99
Pitot Tubes. The standard Pitot tube shown in Fig. 10-1 is recognized as a primary standard for velocity measurements. When properly designed, it has a unit calibration factor, K ; 1. For pipes under 10 em (4 in.) in diameter, the average velocity is 90% of the center-stream velocity, 5%. For air, the gas velocity (ft/min) is given by the equation:
(10-1)
where:
The subscripts std and test refer to standard conditions and actual test conditions, respectively. The standard Pitot tube shown in Fig. 10-1 introduces the smallest pressure drop of any pressure-sensing flow
..
5 1n.
160
"A "
--,
_I"
-j
2 1 /2 I n . - 80
1 /2 In.
- l /4 in .
..A..
...J
5/16 in . OD.
It
5/32 i n . A .
HEMISPHERICAL TIP
t,:
8 HOLES, 0.04 i n . dia. EQUALLY SPACED AND SECTION "A-A" STATIC PRESSURE I N N E R TUBE 1/6 in. O. O. x 21 B & S GA. TUBING OUTER TUBE 5/16 in. O. O.
x
TOTAL PRESSURE
Fig. 101. Standard Pitot tube (Source: ASME 1980, Fig. 1-1)
1 00
method. However. the small openings are easily clogged by dirty gas. The "s" type Pitot tube shown in Fig. 10-2 is more suitable for dirty gas. Its calibration factor is approximately K 0.83 for velocities up to 50 fils. For more accurate work, the individual probe should be calibrated against a primary standard.
=
RUBBER WBlNG
MANOMmR
U" GAUGE
SCALE
..
"-RUBBER TUBING
The low pressure signal characteristic of Pitot measurements requires a sensitive and delicate readout. A typical gasifier pipe velocity of 20 fils will show a pressure drop of 0.09 in. water gauge. This pressure drop can be measured by a Dwyer Magnehelic 0-0.25 in. water gauge pressure gauge, which has a resolution of 0.005 in. water gauge, a pressure readability of 5%, and a velocity readability of 2.7%. The velocity of a gas in a pipe is highest at the center and zero at the wall. The gas velocity can be used to measure flow by traversing the velocity profile and in tegrating the result.
Orifice Meters. The orifice meter shown in Fig. 10-3 gives a much higher pressure reading than a Pitot tube, but it does so at the expense of creating a slightly higher
I I L-.D-----l---',.D::J
"- PI"
DRIfIC' PlAIE
pressure drop in the system. If the added pressure drop can be tolerated, then the orifice meter is usually preferred over the other alternatives because it is low in cost, can use more rugged, less sensitive readout, and is not sensitive to small amounts of tars and particu lates. An orifice meter consists of a washer-shaped plate with a hole diameter d that is placed in the gas line, with a plate thickness at the orifice edge of no more than 3% of the pipe diameter, D. If the orifice is an accurately centered, round opening of diameter d, the diameter ratio, diD, should be between 0.3 and 0.6. A means for measuring the differential pressure drop across the plate, as shown in Fig. 10-3, must be provided. The calibration can be predicted from the gas proper ties and dimensions of the pipe and orifice using for mulas given here and in more detail in chemical engineering texts and handbooks, such as the Chemi cal Engineers' Handbook (p erry 1973). The location of pressure taps on an orifice meter will significantly af fect the calibration. For an accurate measurement, the orifice meter should be calibrated against a primary standard such as a Pitot tube or dry gas test meter. Al though small deposits of tars will not plug the meter, they may alter the calibration; frequent cleaning or recalibration may be required. To prevent fouling from char or condensate, the orifice opening may be moved to the bottom of the pipe to permit free passage of solids and liquids. Calibration is advisable against a standard orifice meter or other known standard. If the gasifier uses a cyclone, then it can be used as a convenient flow meter by locating temperature and pressure taps at the cyclone inlet and outlet. Calibration again may be predicted from gas properties and cyclone dimensions or calculated against a known standard. Flow is related to pressure by the equation
PIPE COUPLING
TUBING ADAPTOR
Fig. 102. "S"-type Pitot tube for dirty gas (Source: ASME 1980, Fig. 1-1)
Q=K
ApTo = a D2 TG
ApTo TG
(10-2)
101
where: To TG
=
calihration temperature
operating gas inlet temperature
Flow (Q) scfm
..
Q flow rate
= =
K
a
Ll
=
d D/2
bop
r- D--l ?2
Pipe I D (D) in. 5/8 1 -1/2 2
'X
rr
T
D
orifice diameter
K'
scfm/in. 1 .75 8.53 1 3.65
Rotational flow caused by pipe fittings can cause serious metering errors. It is good practice to provide at least eight pipe diameters upstream and three pipe diameters downstream of the orifice to minimize rotational errors .
1.1 ,-------, 1 .0
u-
0. 9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 d Ratio of orifice/pipe diam. 0
ro
a 1)
ro u-
1 02
P2
Optical pyrometers can be used from about 300'C (in frared) or 700'C (visible) to 4000'C. They require a viewport and are generally hand-operated. They are useful for spot-checking surface temperatures. Of these methods, thermocouples are best suited to most gasifier measurements. Thermocouples are avail able with either analog or digital readouts, and the sig nal can b e recorded electronically. Analog thermocouple meters may cost as little as $50, but they require a fixed lead resistance. They are used widely in pottery and foundry trades. Digital pyrometer readouts start at $200. They read to greater precision than analog, and due to their high input impedance, lead length is not critical.
a1
02
::: :::
19 - 230 5 - 1 5
Fig. 10-6. Herschel-type Venturi flowmeter (Source: Perry 1973, Fig. 5-13. 1973. Used with permission of McGraw HIli Book Co.)
1 0.3 Controls
For commercial application, gasifiers must be safe, de pendable, and convenient. Automatic and unattended operation, an eventual necessity, will require suitable control and warning sensors and mechanisms.
9-1.
Alternatively, the gasifier itself may be weighed to record both the entry and consumption rates of fuel. Flexible connections on the gasifier are needed, so that the gasifier can be weighed free from the variable forces of the connections.
1 03
1 04
1 1.1 Introduction
Producer gas technology is useful to provide clean combustion heat, shaft power, and electricity from widely available biomass fuels. Historically, engine shaft power generation has been the major application of small gas producers. Large producers, on the other hand, made "town gas," which was piped for cooking, lighting, and heating.
The major use of small producers during World War IT was for transportation, especially trucks and buses. Al though vehicles could become a major use of producer gas again, especially during a liquid fuel emergency, the added difficulty of using solid fuels for transporta tion does not make producer gas competitive with gasoline today. If programs for making synthetic liquid fuels (methanol, gasoline, or diesel) from biomass or coal are successful, producer gas may never be needed for transportation applications.
1 05
For a 55-mph cruising speed and a fuel-conversion fac tor of 10 hp-h/gal (a typical value for spark engines), the fuel consumption rates for various sizes of liquid fueled engines are shown in Table 11-1. Gasifiers typically require about 10 kg (22 Ib) of wood or 5 kg (11 Ib) of charcoal to replace one gallon of gasoline. Thus, it is possible to calculate wood con sumption rates from the data in Table 11-1. In addition, the maximum gas production from Imbert gasifiers is determined by the maximum hearth load-typically 0.9 Nm3/h of gas is produced per square centimeter of hearth area (see Section 5.8). In this way, the power re quirements given above determine the hearth size, as shown in Table 11-2. See Table 5-1 for sizing of other gasifier types. Retaining the liquid-fuel carburetor in conjunction with a gas mixer for dual-fuel operation realizes the best advantages of both fuels, saving liquid fuel for occasional full-power bursts while making economical use of producer gas during normal operation. A gas producer sized to provide cruising power as shown in Table 11-2 should cover at least 90% of expected driving conditions.
cylinder-wall thickness is inadequate to accommodate cylinder-wall sleeves, limiting the number of times that the light-block engines can be rebuilt.
1 1 .6 Engine Selection
Because engines are mass produced for vehicles, the vehicle engine is the most likely candidate for build ing small systems. Larger systems can use natural-gas engines, which in many ways are more suitable but also are more expensive.
Fuel Economy (mpg) Fuel Use Rate (gal/h) Engine Output (hp)"
Diesel engines also are suitable for large installations but have special problems, discussed in Section 1 1 . 10.
1 1 .7 Cogeneration
Cogeneration involves using part of the greater than 70% offuel energy that is otherwise lost as exhaust heat and engine heat during engine operation. If one has a use for this heat, then a water-cooled engine is both convenient and safe. The hot air from air-cooled
100 50 25 10
1 06
1 00 50 25 10 5
200 1 00 50 20 10
'"
16 1 1 .3 8 5 3.6
40.5 29 20.5 13 9
a1 kg (2.2 Ib) of wood is required per hp-h for a 7000-Btu/lb average fuel heating value (Gengas 1950).
cA maximum stratified bed hearth load of hmax = 1 M Btu/h-ft2 is typi al for wood chips. Stratified hearth diameter is given by D = 1.6 -{Pin.
engines requires safety precautions for heating because it may contain dangerously high levels of carbon monoxide so it should be vented. Heat from the exhaust gas can be recovered with a compact water-cooled heat exchanger or put to direct contact uses. A particularly attractive application for the waste heat from engines is the drying of biomass feedstock before using it in the gasifier. The 50% moisture contained in fresh wood chips can be removed effectively by drying the chips with the engine's exhaust gas. There is drying capacity to spare if high-efficiency drying methods are used. Because the engine's exhaust gas is hot enough (600_ 700C) to decompose biomass, it must be tempered (substantially diluted with cooler gases) before being used. One of the best ways to dilute is to take the warm, humid gas leaving the outlet ofthe biomass dryer, add about 10% by volume of engine exhaust gas, and recycle the mixture to the gas entry port of the dryer. Reusing the outlet gas from the dryer instead of using ambient air to temper engine exhaust gas offers several advantages: (1) Because the gas coming from the dryer is already warm, more of it must be used to dilute (and cool) the engine exhaust gas to a given tempered temperature. Therefore, more gas is available for drying the feedstock; more gas increases the capacity of the feedstock drying process. (2) The humidity in the dryer flume gas reduces the chance for pyrolysis of the feedstock when the gas recycles to the dryer. (3) Last ly, the gas from the dryer is essentially engine exhaust gas; as such, it is nonoxidizing and tends to quench any incipient fires in the dryer.
cleaning system, and into the gas mixer where air is mixed with the gas.
*The stoichiometric combustion ratio is that fuel-air mixture that al lows the gas to burn completely, with no surplus air remaining after the fuel supply has been exhausted.
1 07
Carburetor
Insulation
-,
I,
Intermediate filte r
-
The butterfly valve often used in throttles and chokes has been found to respond to adjustment very nonlinearly and, therefore, can be a troublesome method for controlling the gas-air mixture, A gate valve provides much finer control of the air inlet than does a butterfly valve, so the narrow power peak is broadened out over one-half to one turn of the gate valve, Conversely, the entire range from too rich to too lean occupies only a few degrees of arc on a butterfly valve and is easily missed altogether, However, a butterfly valve can be used satisfactorily for throttle and gas-inlet control. If it is essential to prevent gas from being released into the engine compartment after shutdown, then an addi tional gate valve should be used for positive gas shutoff. If idling is desired, a metering idle valve leading from the gas inlet around the throttle may be used to enrich the mixture during idle, without changing the running mixture, as shown in Fig, 11-4,
be reduced by adjusting the fuel-air ratio to maintain a peak-power mixture, but this requires operator ex perience. One improvement that today's technology might bring to gasifier designs is automatic mixture control, employing a feedback signal from the engine exhaust. This type of control is already in use on feed back fuel-injection systems, and it should be adaptable to producer gas systems. Gas-fueled buses, which necessarily make frequent stops, overcome the fuel-air problem with a bag in flated with gas by a blower, which maintains gas flow during stops. The surge of power needed for accelera tion is then provided mostly by gas from the bag.
."
13
"
" - '"
15 " "' m
ID ro
8 76
r
a.
5 60
/.
;O"o Oo%
"'" v " $
80
&
"
160
Fig. 11-2. Power versus gas mixture (Source: Kaupp 1984a, Fig. 198)
1 08
Producer gas
----;ll====t==jltj ::::;;
="'--- 6
Engine manifold Legend 1 Cable 4 Gasoline choke 2 Air control valve 5 Gasoline carburetor 3 Gas valve 6 Gasoline throttle
Air
Gas
Driving through hilly country in a producer-gas-fueled vehicle requires special skills. Often the driver races the engine while going downhill in order to build up the gas quality, so that high-quality gas is available when climbing is resumed. Traffic accidents increased in Sweden during World War II because drivers of producer-gas-fueled vehicles operated those vehicles at high speeds while running at hills (Cengas 1950).
starting procedures. When the gas is less tarry and can support combustion on its own, the blower is turned off, and the gas valve is opened. Then, the producer gas air/throttle is slowly opened; simultaneously, the gas air mixture is adjusted to obtain maximum power out put. At the same time, the fossil fuel throttle is slowly closed until the changeover is complete. Once the mix ture has been initially adjusted, repeated changeovers can be made quickly. The liquid fuel supply should then be securely closed to prevent liquid-fuel con sumption. This type of dual-fuel capability permits rapid changeover between solid and liquid fuels. One novel and simple alternative to a rotary blower for startup is to use the engine exhaust gas as the propel ling gas for an aspirator ejector, as shown in Fig. 11-5.
1 09
Air
Fig. 11-4. Gas mixer showing idle enrichment (Source: Adapted from Heywood 1944, Fig. 22)
This technique allows a considerable saving in battery power at the expense of only a little extra liquid fuel.
11-7.
In the Bolinder Munktell system shown in Fig. the lower crankcase served as an air pump to supply air to pressurize the gasifier and supply pressurized air to the gas mixer. In the two-cycle conversion, either the head must be fitted with both intake and exhaust valves, or the piston-porting system must be isolated from the crankcase to prevent gas deposits from interfering with lubrication. Similarly, the Pulsator prevents producer gas from passing through the crankcase. A side-chamber is and connected to the provided, as shown in Fig. crankcase through a butterfly valve and to the gas sup ply and intake manifold through check valves. The pul sating movement of air in the crankcase alternately sucks in and mixes air and gas, and then delivers the mixture to the combustion chamber. A check valve
11-8,
The "ping-sensor" and "electronic ignition" timing controls used in many late-model automobiles may be helpful in automatically providing the ideal spark advance for producer gas, while permitting dual-fuel operation.
11-9,
T-connection
I Gr
!!:- --
Air
I
'- .
_____
Fig. 11-5. Exhaust pipe ejector for start-up fanning (Source: Gengas 1950. Fig. 151)
110
leading from the air control into the crankcase permits air flow through the engine. The volume ofthe pulsator mixing chamber necessarily prevents gas from being sucked all the way into the crankcase. The third method of two-cycle conversion, the two cycle crank case system shown in Fig. 11-10 is the simplest. Mixed gas is drawn through check valves into the crankcase, where the gas enters the combustion chamber through the piston ports. Engines popular for use on today's motorcycles use this same principle.
The power lost when diesel engines are converted to operate on producer gas is less than that lost by spark ignition engines for three reasons. First, some diesel fuel is introduced; second, diesel engines operate at a higher compression ratio; and third, diesel engines operate with a large excess of air, so the energy per
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Fig. 11-7. Ignition advance forproducergas operation. Shaded area is range ofproducer gas operation; solid line is typical operating condition (Source: Gengas 1950, Fig. 198)
From )\'_J---J
... _ p
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"-
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P
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75
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Fig. 11-6. Flame speed of various gases versus mixture (Source: Kaupp 1984a, Fig. 182)
111
engine knock, a single-cylinder, direct-injection, slow speed (1000-1500 rpm) diesel engine was able to run on 100% producer gas for extended periods (Cruz 1984).
Pulsating chamber
Ignition reliability is better with pilot injection than with spark ignition. The minimum injector quantity for stable pilot ignition and efficient combustion is given by a diesel fuel-mixed gas ratio of 10 mg/kg. Increasing this ratio will boost power output, up to a ratio of 20 mg/kg; above this injection rate, thermal efficiency falls with no significant power increase. Partial load operation is complicated by the fact that a full inlet charge is required to develop ignition temperature. Throttling for no-load operation must lean out the gas mixture and reduce the injection quantity to as low as 5 mg/kg (Anon 1944). Diesel engines also can be converted completely to producer gas by reducing the compression ratio, add ing a spark-ignition system, and replacing the injectors with spark plugs. The modification expense is hardly justified, considering the successes of pilot injection, except in situations where complete replacement of diesel fuel is required. The compression ratio should be reduced to 9.5-10:1. For antechamber diesel engines, the heads must be replaced. Pilot injection helps the producer gas-air mixture to ig nite. Very stable and reliable ignition has been ob served using pilot injection; in fact, it has been shown to perform better than spark ignition. The power out put from weak gas (e.g., 118 Btu/scf) can be 90% of that from straight diesel fuel with 40% excess air (Anon 1944). Minimum pilot injection is limited by its ability to provide stable ignition at roughly 10% to 20% of the regular idle injection.
stroke is very close to the heating value of producer gas air mixtures. Furthermore, full diesel operation can be achieved readily by simply increasing the quantity of diesel fuel to normal levels when needed. This can be accomplished easily by using the existing governor on many diesel engines. The brake thermal efficiency is higher for dual-fuel operation than it is for straight diesel fuel operation, as shown in Fig. 11-11. Standard diesel engines inject the liquid fuel into the compressed-air charge in order to start combustion at a time preset relative to the crank position. When using producer gas, it is necessary to advance the injection timing angle with engine speed especially at high rpm. The optimum injection timing for one engine is shown in Fig. 11-12. An engine with an improperly set timing angle will run roughly at low speed and expel smoky exhaust at high speeds.
It has been reported that when operating conditions al lowed producer gas-air mixtures to self-ignite without
GaS miXer Shutoff e Valve Damper for secondary air Startin9 fan I
Distrubutor Throttle
'\ Secondary
air intake
Safety valve
Fig. 11-10. Two-cycle crankcase system (Source: Gengas 1950, Fig. 185)
112
produced. The engine itself is started and warmed up on diesel fuel. As the producer gas-air mixture is ad mitted, the governor automatically reduces the liquid fuel feed. Fuel savings up to 90% over straight diesel operation have been reported (Kjellstrom 1983). The governor can automatically boost the injection rate in the event of an increased power demand or a variation in the quality of the producer gas.
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o L---t---+----+--!
<.0 ,, 150 !5 !5 '.0 BRAKE HORSEPOWER
.,
Fig. 11 11. Diesel dual-fuel efficiency andfuel savings (Source: Cruz 1983, Fig. 14. 1973. Used with permission of the Beijer Institute)
35 30
1 500 1 200
1800
rpm
1 1 . 1 1 .2 Engine Breathing
A producer gas engine must handle roughly twice the volume of intake gases as gasoline engines. The engine's breathing ability therefore begins to limit en gine power at lower rpm. The peak power output, shown in Fig. 11-14, operating on producer gas, occurs at roughly two-thirds of the rpm for gasoline fuel. Im provements in the intake induction system can both raise the speed attained during the peak-power output and decrease the overall power loss at each rpm rate. One might ask how producer gas containing 150 Btu/scf can produce more than 150/1000lhs of the power of methane containing 1000 Btu/scf. The reason is that engine power depends on the mixed-gas/air
W
;:
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Fig. 11-12. Optimum in jection timing forpilot diesel dual fuel (Source: Kaupp 1984a, Fig. 210)
113
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4.1
ENGINE SPE E D , r p m
1500
Gas h e a t i n g v a l u e
Gasoline-air m i x t u r e
2000
2.3 MJ/Nm3
Fig. 11 13. Power versus rpm compared with gasoline (Source: Kaupp 1984a, Figs. 186, 187, 188)
heating value, not on the pure-gas heating value. The mixed-gas heating values are shown in Fig. 11-15.
The Roots blower uses engine shaft power for compres sion and necessarily reduces engine efficiency. The tur bosupercharger uses the pressure of the exhaust gases to operate a turbine compressor, thereby recovering most of this lost energy. Since engines are designed to withstand a particular combustion pressure (BMEP, or brake-mean-engine pressure), power increases must be limited to restoring the original peak-combustion pressure.
80
70
a:
...
,. 0Q.
eo
lIO
20
10
oo
Z OO I OO E N G I N E S P E E D, r p m
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114
" z
o z
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on generator gas during World War II are given in Generator Gas (Gengas 1950). Further work in engine adaptation would be beneficial. In particular, combustion chamber design for improved swirl and squish can lead to better combustion efficien cies, and microprocessor controls using signals from pressure, temperature, ping, and oxygen sensors can be applied to provide continuously optimized, unat tended engine operation, to follow changing gas quality and variations in solid fuels.
, ,
>
o J 0
GClloIj'lf
-E
__
LGoo
p, opane
Natural
__
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Fig. 11-15. Heat values for stoichiometric fuel air mixtures (Source: Kaupp 1984a, Fig. 177 )
A portion of the power loss can be recovered even for a naturally aspirated engine by increasing the compres sion ratio, as shown in Fig. 11-16, advancing the spark, and improving the intake systems. Producer gas has a higher octane rating than gasoline, so the power can be increased by increasing the compression ratio to be tween 1 1 : 1 and 14:1. Increasing the compression ratio, however, may prevent dual-fuel operation on lower octane fuels because of excessive knocking and detona tion. One method for adapting high-compression-ratio modified engines to operate at a partial load on lower octane fuels is to recycle some exhaust gas back to the intake manifold. The mixture of gasoline, air, and ex haust gas burns more slowly, minimizing knock and permitting partial power operation. ' Cam shaft design may be optimized for producer gas by faster valve opening, higher lift, and no overlap, with valve timing-duration optimized for producer gas. Synchronous generators require engine speeds of1800, 1 200, or 3600 rpm. Cam shaft design has been overlooked so far in the lower rpm region. Power levels also have been increased to near-super charged performance by improving the intake system through installing larger inlet valves, or especially by using tuned ram induction and larger intake manifolds. Additionally, intake manifolds may be improved with flow straighteners after each bend, shell-casting tech niques to give smoother inlet surfaces, and carefully tuned long ram intake manifolds to give a sharper peak pressure at the optimum rpm rate. The decrease in power can be made more acceptable if one increases the engine speed by lowering the final drive-gear ratio. Full power cannot be recovered com pletely by increasing the rpm rate alone. Many inter esting details for converting piston engines to operate
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115
may allow 5 years of engine life). No known property of clean producer gas should shorten engine life. One truck, which has been driven 100,000 km on producer gas without any unusual maintenance problems, is shown in Fig. 11-17. Many of the clean-up mechanisms outlined in Chapter 8 have yet to be applied to producer gas cleanup, and the gas in the bulk of today's test and production sys tems is far from clean enough for reliable operation, much less long-life operation. We will discuss the ef fects of dirty gas on engine life in the following sections.
lubricating ability, but it also increases cranking requirem nts. Dirty gas can introduce tar particulates and corrosives into the oil through cylinder blowby. Particulates in the oil, arid ash and char accumulation in crankcase oil can increase engine wear. Particles larger than the oil-film thickness may scratch bearing surfaces; however, char and ash tend to be easily crushed to smaller particles , minimizing this problem. If ash slagging occurs, harder abrasive particles are produced that could cause severe wear. Small amounts of sodium from ash in either the lubricating oil or the fuel gas can lead to engine valve corrosion. It becomes obvious that particulate removal is very important to engine life at many levels.
Fig. 1 1-17. Swedish logging truck that operated 100,000 km on producer gas without any unusual maintenance (Source: NAS 1983, p. 46)
116
o o o
0.031 0.023
remains the most attractive cure. (See the discussion on low tar designs and drying in Chapter 5.)
VVear dependent on
0.008
a a
> U
l40 80
o i l consumption
Wear
nearly i n d ependent::;
of o i l consumption
1 20
1 60
200
240 280
Fig. 11-18. Engine life versus cylinder wall temperature (Source: Kaupp 1984a, Fig. 211)
1 1 . 1 3 Exhaust Emissions
Carbon monoxide exhaust emissions from a properly running producer-gas-fueled engine can be expected to be inherently lower than emissions from gasoline fueled engines because maximum power is achieved from a mixture that is lean of the stoichiometric com bustion mixture, whereas the maximum power from gasoline is achieved by burning a rich mixture. Hydrocarbon emissions also can be expected to be lower than those from gasoline because of the relative absence of hydrocarbons in the producer gas. The lower flame temperature of the producer gas, along with the excellent antiknock characteristics and low prompt nitrogen content of producer gas, suggests that NOx emissions should be lower as well. The major pollutant source from producer gas is the necessary disposal of cleaning condensate, which may be high in tars, especially phenols. This source can be minimized by using the driest fuels possible and using the best low tar gasifier design available to prevent tar and condensate production. If the fuel is dry enough to render condensate removal unnecessary, then the gas can be used above its dew point, eliminating conden sate collection altogether. This scheme has been used in a few recent designs. Another approach to conden sate removal is evaporation, coupled with recycling the residue to the gasifier. Still another approach applied to an especially tarry system is incineration of the con densate tars outside ofthe gas producer. However, this approach consumes additional fuel. Prevention
117
steam engine also uses external combustion in a boiler to produce high-pressure steam for use in piston or turbine steam engines. When clean producer gas is available, external combustion devices are not necessary.
118
1 2.1 Introduction
During the emergency development of gasifiers during World War II, various dangers were discovered in con junction with gasifier operation, These dangerous areas were divided into toxic hazards, and fire and skin burn hazards. In addition, we have since recognized the potentially damaging effects that our activities can have on the environment, and we shall point out areas that may be affected by widespread gasifier use. Seventeen people were killed in Sweden between December 1939 and March 1941 because of careless gasifier operation (Foley 1983). More recently. two re searchers at a Midwestern university died from CO in halation when they climbed inside of a gasifier fuel bin. CO occurs widely in our industrial civilization in small quantities. Smokers typically inhale concentrations of several thousand parts per million. and some smokers can have as high as 20% hemoglobin blood saturation (Kjellstrom 1981). Gasoline-fueled automobile ex hausts used to contain as much as 5% CO. and after a decade of improved pollution controls on cars, CO is still a major contributor to pollution in our cities. However, until the advent of natural-gas pipelines, CO was the primary fuel component of manufactured city gas, coal, and blue water gas. These were widely dis tributed and used around the world and are still used in many countries. evidence that CO can be handled safely when proper procedures are followed.
Move the poisoned person to the open air or a room free of CO. Prevent the victim from exerting himself.
0-1 0 1 0-20
None None
None During exertion, dizziness. heart pounding. and difficulty in breathing may occur. In case of exertion. pressure at the forehead. Mild headache. In case of exertion, dizziness. fainting. possibly unconsciousness are added.
Headache may occur. Headache in the forehead or back of the head. pulse increase, heartbeat, nausea. All symptoms more pronounced. nausea. vomiting. dizziness, increased tendency for unconsciousness. Deep unconsciousness with increased breathing and pulse rate. Deep unconsciousness with slow pulse and low breathing rate; possible death. Respiratory failure and death.
119
Loosen clothing around the neck and throat, and check for the presence of an adequate airway in the throat. If the person is unconscious, administer artificial respiration immediately. Administer oxygen or mixed resuscitation gas (7% CO2 in oxygen) as soon as possible; see Fig. 12-1. Summon medical aid but not at the expense of leav ing the victim unattended. Keep the victim warm. Keep the victim under surveillance, as relapses often occur.
bogen) gas (02 + 7% CO2) or pure oxygen, with two face masks and shoulder harnesses to free the hands of the rescuers. The Karbogen gas removes CO as much as three times as fast as pure oxygen alone since the CO2 in Karbogen gas stimulates the vagus nerve, causing more rapid breathing and, hence, faster CO removal. Chronic CO poisoning symptoms, which often "sneak up" on the victim, cause him to become tired, uncom fortable, and irritable, and also induce sleeping dif ficulty. Sex drive virtually disappears, and urinary and heart problems have been common. Memory and eyesight may be temporarily impaired. More extensive mental symptoms may occur, including impaired memory, reduced concentration and perseverance, and possibly brain damage. The effects of chronic CO poisoning may go undiagnosed or be attributed to other causes by the uninformed victim.
Exertion presents two profoundly dangerous effects on CO poisoning victims. First, increased exertion in creases the speed of CO absorption into the blood stream, as shown in Fig. 12-2. Second, physical exer tion increases the impact of CO that has already been absorbed, as shown in Table 12-1. Removing a person suffering from CO poisoning to fresh air should be done as quickly as possible, but preferably without the victim's active participation. If possible, the person should be carried. Over-exertion on the part of the rescuers should also be avoided. Every second is valuable, and the difference may have a life-saving effect. Any producer gas installation should include two bottles of mixed resuscitation (Kar
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From a safety standpoint, the best gasifier systems operate at negative pressure (suction gasifiers), so that leaks result in air being drawn into the system (possibly causing gas explosions, which the equipment should be designed to handle without harm) rather than CO being expelled into the workshop. If the gasifier is pressurized or if there is an outlet blower, then the gas will be under positive pressure and leaks will release CO. The importance of achieving a leak-tight system cannot be overemphasized. The entire system should be leak-tested upon installa tion and regularly with engine service thereafter. The pipes carrying producer gas should be provided with fittings to close off and pressurize the system to 4 in. water gauge. and the entire system should be checked with soap bubbles, especially at fittings, valves, welds, lids, and seals. Where possible, generators should be used outside, with adequate ventilation. Indoor installations should provide adequate ventilation that effectively changes the inside air supply every 1 to 2 minutes. Alarms are available for measuring and signaling excessive CO
Time (min.)
Inhalation of
----- a i r
- - - - - oxygen - - - - - ai r
_______
oxygen
+ 7% CO2 + 7% CO2
Fig. 12-1. T reatment ofcarbon monoxide poisoning (Source: Gengas 1950, Fig. 265)
1 20
1 00 r------.-----'r--'---.
Parts per million carbon monoxide i n air
o
80--------+Deat
_ "0
:0 .,
" "-
2' c _ .
l" E OJ c o Q) W ro
g g 60
o x o
--------t---------
--
40 I'---------
=-
200 1 00
O -L-L
L-
1 /4
1/2
3/4
1 1 /4
__
__ __
Hours of exposure
__
__ __ __ __ __ __
Fig. 12-2. Absorption of carbon monoxide in the blood (Source: Gengas 1950, Fig. 264)
levels in ambient air. Mini (Peeper) CO models I, II, and III (MSA catalog nos. 465398, 465530, and 466523, with ranges of 0-100, 0-500, and 0-250 ppm, respective ly) indicate CO levels, while model IV (MSA catalog no. 468572) indicates the CO level and sounds an alarm (MSA). These precautions should be observed and en forced for the protection of all who run the risk of inhaling gas.
1 2.2.2 Creosote
Although downdraft gasifiers usually convert less than 0.1% of the input into tars and oils, these heavy products still must be scrubbed from the gas and dis posed of. In earlier days, they were probably flushed down the sewer or buried. Today, such practices have come under close scrutiny, and neither can nor should be tolerated. Man has always lived with the smoke and tars from fires, and we know that these materials can be tolerated in reasonable quantities. We also know now that the smoke from wood cooking can cause cataracts and that some tars contain dangerous carcinogens, so they should be handled with care. Furthermore, the tars contain phenols that are potent bacteriocides. Relatively small amounts can interfere with the proper operation of septic tanks and municipal sewage systems. In Sweden during World War II, the maximum permissible phenol content of water released to sewers was 10 g/m3 (10 mg/L), ap proximately 10 ppm. The phenol content of typical gasifier or gas-cooler condensate is from 1500 to 3000 mg/L. Dumping these condensates onto the ground or into the sewers or waterways is not accept able. It should be mandatory that we determine safe disposal for these materials. The best way to solve this disposal problem is preven tion at the source; in other words, gasifiers must be designed to convert the maximum amount oftars to gas.
121
Table 1 2-2. Maximum Carbon Monoxide Concentrations in Work Places - Internatiomil Standards
Country mg/m3 ppm Year Fraction of Hemoglobin (%)
Australia Belgium Bulgaria BRD Czechoslovakia Denmark DDR Finland Hungary Italy Japan Netherlands Norway Poland Romania Soviet Union Sweden USA Yugoslavia
Source: Kjelistrom 1981
55 55 20 55 30 40 55 55 30 55 55 55 40 30 30 20 40 55 58
50 50 17 50 26 35 50 50 26 50 50 50 35 26 26 17 35 50 51
1973 1 974 1971 1 978 1976 1978 1978 1 972 1 974 1 975 1 975 1973 1 978 1976 1976 1 977 1 978 1 979 1 971
(See Section 5.9.) Some gasifiers now incorporate catalysts that claim to eliminate the problem entirely (Ekstrom 1985). Others employ a high degree of tar recycle to eventually crack the tar thermally (Susanto 1983; Groeneveld 1980b; Kaupp 1984a). Other methods for disposing of these materials depend on the method of gas cleanup. In some cases, wood chips or burnable filter materials are used to filter the tars. The chips used in this type of process can be dried and used as a fuel; ifthe tar is collected on solid filters, the filters can be incinerated. If the tars are collected in water, waste heat can be used to concentrate the tars and they can then be gasified with the gasifier fuel. Well-dried biomass fuel minimizes condensate production and eliminates the need for condensate removal for the purpose of improving gas quality. In this case, the gas can be used above its dew point, thus largely eliminating condensate collection. Finally, it should be noted that there are neither ac counts nor any evidence of damage occurring from draining the nearly one million vehicle gasifiers that were in operation worldwide between 1939 and 1945 (Kjellstrom 1983).
Flammable and explosive gas mixtures are usually present inside a cold gasifier. When a flame is intro duced to start the gasifier, care should be exercised to prevent explosions. Proper precautions include the following:
Always fan a cold gasifier before igniting it, to remove residual producer gas; in this way, one ensures that the gasifier contains only fresh air. Always stand to one side when igniting the gasifier; never look into the ignition opening while applying a flame. If the gasifier has a tight-fitting lid, it should be equipped with a safety release valve that will harm lessly lower the pressure resulting from a gas explosion. A flame arrestor, as shown in Fig. 8-12, should be placed at the gas mixer to prevent explosions. The flame arrestor can also serve as a safety filter, since it will plug rapidly when the cleanup system fails.
Openings through which fuel is loaded should be designed to provide spill shields that will prevent spilled fuel from falling onto hot surfaces and possibly causing a fire. During installation, one should install insulation, heat shields, or warning signals for workers around the hot surfaces of a gasifier. Hot metal surfaces can cause nasty skin burns at temperatures well below those that will cause the metal to glow. Widespread gasifier use would require insurance and local fire inspectors to advise users on proper precau tions that might not be evident to the inexperienced.
1 22
fast-growing vegetation, accompanied by effective programs of forest management and reforestation (Kaupp 1984a). Removing excessive quantities of biomass from agricultural land depletes the soil, removing not only nutrients but also reducing tilth, water permeability, and storage ability, and leaving the bare soil exposed to erosion by wind and water. Good soil conservation practice requires careful regional determination of maximum acceptable biomass removal rates, coupled with cultivation methods that make best use of the biomass left on the field (Lowdermilk 1975). Erosion is more destructive than drought because erosion destroys the soil's water permeability. Typical ly, 99% of rainfall soaks into healthy soil, but only 50% of rainfall may soak into deteriorated soil. The other 50% becomes runoff, thus making the soil twice as arid with the same rainfall and simultaneously accelerating the erosion process (Carter 1974).
1 23
1 3.1 Introduction
Gasifiers are technically practicable. But other criteria also factor into decisions about their use. These criteria include gasifier application, the availability of suitable equipment, biomass fuel availability and fuel-source reliability, regulations, operator availability, and of course cost and financing. housing development (fewer than 2 0 homes). a moderately sized industrial complex, or a good-sized farm. The equipment may consist of all "home-made" com ponents, all individual purchases of manufactured parts, a combination of "build and buy," or a turnkey purchase. Money, the availability of suitable equip ment, use of the equipment, and local talent enter into decisions affecting equipment makeup and mix. Where there's need for an uninterrupted gas supply, choices may include multiple small gasifiers or fewer large ones with attendant gas storage.
1 3.2.4 Regulations
Local and federal regulations may influence decisions regarding the type, form, and size of a gasifier installa tion. The federal government's PURPA legislation should cause planners to recognize the potential to be earned by selling energy to utilities and then balance advantages against liabilities. Other regulations (e.g., environmental) may mandate use of particular (e.g., ash-disposal) equipment.
1 24
All equipment should be checked as being of proven design, which can be underwritten by long-term ser vice contracts and warranties for prime power application. Systems engineering should be certified by a reputable engineer. A long-term fuel purchase agreement at a firm price with assured supply (multiple sourcing is preferred) should be secured as critical to the project's success. All zoning questions should be resolved, and all permits, licenses, and approvals acquired. Liability insurance should be available and assured. A long-term power sales contract should be in place, with a levelized power-price or fuel-cost escalator, if the project includes utility buyback.
design life of the equipment between overhauls or replacement the value of the power produced the cost of ash and tar disposal after cleanup retail cost of buying electricity benefits of using renewable energy.
1 3.3 Economics
Logistics is only part of the equation determining the practicality of gasifier implementation. The other part is economics. Determining the economic feasibility of a gasifier project in a specific situation involves realistic and site-specific estimates of capital, feedstock, labor, and maintenance costs; the value ofthe electricity and heat produced; net fossil-fuel and energy savings; and ex perience with similar systems. Naturally, costs can be measured by using low-cost and no-cost burnable wastes (provided they are available on a reliable basis), low-cost equipment options, renewable energy tax credits, reduced-rate financing, automatic operation, and reduced maintenance and longer overhaul cycles. The intent of the information that follows is to provide a basis for understanding the elements entering into an economic decision about investing in gasification facilities. Potential users of gasifiers are referred to a number of excellent references for economic assess ment of gasifiers (Hodam 19S3; NYSERDA 19S0; ErA 1 9 S 3 a ; ErA 19S3b). The circumstances affecting economics, however, are in constant flux, and only general rules are noted here.
(13-1)
where M is the fraction of moisture and A is the fraction of ash in the biomass. Freshly harvested biomass often contains a moisture fraction of 0.5. The internal ash content of most wood is less than 0.01 (1%), but as-delivered it may contain extraneous matter in fractions up to 0.05 (5 %). Agricultural residues contain 0.05 to 0.20 ash fractions, so the normalization equation clearly is important in calculating biomass costs. The actual costs of various forms of biomass, shown in Table 13-1, vary from a negative $20/dry ton (depend ing on landfill tipping fees) for landfilled burnable residues and municipal waste to more than $100/ton for firewood delivered in a city. Costs, in fact, depend on many factors, which include
13.3.1 Costs
An assessment of the overall conomic feasibility of using biomass to generate electric power should con sider the following factors when considering a specific project:
the cost of biomass fuel the cost of the gasifier system, including fuel storage bins, fuel feeding devices, gas cleanup systems, a utility connection, switchgear, and installation costs the cost of money at prevailing interest rates the cost of operating labor overhaul and replacement costs
quantities available . whether the biomass is a byproduct or principal product distance that the biomass must be hauled amount of pretreatment, sizing, drying, and storage needed
Decision Making
1 25
Table 13-1. Typical Fuel Costs for Various Forms of Biomass (1 986 $)
Form Shape
Wet chips from tree service Demolition hammer milled dry Dry chips - whole tree Densified biomass (pellets, cubes) Cord wood Municipal solid waste Refuse-derived fuel
Chips with twids and bark Chips with sl ive rs Uniform cubes
Cost ($/ton)
Cost ($/MBtu)
$01 .25 1 .25-2.50 2.50-3.75 6.25-10.00 Credit -(0-1 .25) (0-1 .25)
Large 2 ft long irregular diameter Very irregular shape with high-ash, mixed composition
Irregular shape, composition more more predictable than MSW
MSW or refuse-derived fuels (RDF) appear to be the most inexpensive biomass fuels. However, they are technically the most difficult fuels to gasify (or burn) because of their high ash, heavy metal, and plastic content.
expensive fossil fuels because a boiler or other fuel-requiring device already exists. In these cases, the economic analysis is greatly simplified because the operation and economics of existing equipment are already well understood. If the gas is to be burned directly, then an equipment comparison should be based on the cost per million Btu per hour. A compilation of local energy costs similar to those in Table 13-2 gives a good idea of the economic attractiveness of a gasifier-for-heat project. Many of the factors discussed for power generation will also apply to heat generation. The cost of a gas producer and the cleanup portion of the gasifier system primarily should be the cost of fabricating these units from sheet, plate, bar, and tube stock. As tlie production volume for a particular design increases, there may be some benefit from using cus tom stampings, spun domes and cones, and custom castings. However, tooling costs are significant for spe cialized, single-purpose components, so the effect of mass production methods can be considered minor. Fabrication costs can be estimated by tabulating the costs of material (e.g., pounds of sheet metal, as well as accessory hardware and fittings), fabrication (based on factors such as the length of cuts, number of welds and bending operations, and amount of assembly), and overhead expenses (Perry 1973). In addition, there will be extra costs for completely automatic systems and for
fuel storage bins fuel drying, screening, and pretreatment systems devices to deliver and meter fuel fed to the gasifier the gasifier itself ash removal a gas cleanup system gasifier operational controls.
These factors are specific to the application, and they must be evaluated economically and technically for each application. In many cases, a gasifier might be considered simply as a retrofit to provide low-cost gas in place of more
1 26
graph in Fig. 13-1. If the gasifier requires continual monitoring by a skilled attendant, this cost introduces a significant economy-of-scale factor against very small systems. It should be possible in many situations to operate batch-fed gasifiers with minimal attention. However, if round-the-clock operation or minimal attendant labor is desired, then automatic operation may be more snitable. Automatic fuel feeding and ash removal require addi tional equipment. The necessary materials and eqnip ment and reliable controls can add to the equipment costs on a one-time basis. The costs of automatic material handling can be compared with the expected savings in operator labor costs using Fig. 13-1 to evaluate whether to install the automatic equipment.
- -
C,nt . -
Equipment Cost $!kW)(Loan Interest %/yr) (Duty Cycle %)(365 days/yr)(24 h/day)
For wood chips at $24/ton, 10% H20 + Specific Fuel Consumption of 3 Ib/kWh, we get Fuel Cost
Cfuel
(Fuel Price $/ton)(Specific Fuelponsumption Ib/kWh) (24)(3) . - (2000)[1-(1011 00)] 4 0!kWh.' (2000 Ib/ton)[1'(moisture %11 00)J
_
The cost of engine wear for a 50 kW engine with 2000 h engine life and $1000 rebuild cost
Cwear -
1 .0/kWh
Clabor
(5)(0.5) (50)(8)
0.625/kWh
Normal Maintenance $6.25 for 5 qt oil capacity, $15 oil analysis, $15 plugs, $8 points, 1 h labor, 200 h maintenance interval
. Cmalnt
0.5/kWh
Total Cost of Electric Generation is the sum of the above components of production cost.
Decision Making
1 27
Furthermore, the supply of parts and service is more limited, usually only through dealers.
10
Gint 5 <l:/kWh Gluel <l:/kWh
10
;: 5 <N '0
m
==$30
o
10
15
20
25
Gwear 15 /kWh 10
20
10 5 o
5 (thousands) 1
2 3 4 Engine life.h
10
15
:ao
Cmainf /kWh
10
Fig. 131. Electricity generation costs: graphic calculators for interest, wear, maintenance, fuel, and labor
1 28
disparities between states. It is prudent to seek long term power purchase agreements only when and where buyback rates are favorable. If sale of power to utilities is being considered, it is im portant to determine the optimum size for a gasifier electric-generation project. If the buyback rate is low and the retail rate is high, then a prospective gasifier should be downsized. If, however, the buyback rate is high enough, the decision may be to choose a much larger project with expectations of making money by selling power. Certain system sizes may be allowed more favorable buyback rates; this therefore should be explored. For instance, some states offer full retail value to renewable electricity projects under certain sizes. Thus, it is necessary to investigate thoroughly the PURPA and state power-generation structure before making binding decisions on an electric power project. The state utility commissions are listed in Table 13-4. Optimum-size considerations for a biomass gasifier electric project also should include available fuel sup ply, fuel transport equipment, and the PURPA climate.
t:::*
Recoverable energy
1 3.5 Financing
Several potential funding sources exist for implement ing a gasifier project.
Decision Making
1 29
equipment operation and maintenance. Engine overhaul and investment earnings also may be retained in some local economies. In such cases, virtually all the expenses of electricity generation may generate local
wages and income to the benefit of the local economy. From 30% to 70% of the value of electricity sales could result in local wages in addition to earning a 15% return on equipment investment.
Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Institute for Local Self Reliance
PSC PUC ACC PSC PUC PUC DPUC PSC PSC PSC PSC PSC PUC ICC PSC ISSC KCC KURC PSC PUC PSC DPU PSC PSC PSC PSC PSC PSC PUC BPU PSC PSC UC PSC PUC OCC PUC PUC PUC PSC PUC PSC PUC PSC PSB SCC UTC PSC PSC PSC
205-832-3421 907-276-6222 602-255-4251 501-371-1 792 41 5-557-1 1 59 303-866-4300 203-827-1553 302-736-3233 202-727-3062 904-487-2740 404-656-4141 808-548-3990 208-343-3456 21 7-785-0326 31 7-232-271 1 51 5-281-5701 91 3-296-5468 502-564-3940 504-342-1403 207-289-3831 . 301 -659-6021 61 7-727-9748 51 7-373-81 71 61 2-296-8662 601 -354-7265 31 4-751-3234 406-449-2649 No Authority 702-885-3409 603-271 -2437 201 -648-3448 505-827-3361 51 8-474-6515 91 9-733-2267 701 -224-4078 61 4-466-7750 405-521 -2335 503-378-7998 71 7-783-1373 401 -277-3500 803-758-5632 605-773-3201 61 5-741-2125 51 2-458-0202 801 -533-3247 802-828-2880 804-786-4932 206-753-1 096 304-348-2174 606-266-5620 307-777-7472 202-232-41 08
Wallace Tidmore Judy White Jim Apperson Dana Nixon John Quinley Mike Homeac Research Division Leon Ryan Bonnie Davis Sam Weaver Leroy Yuen William Drummond Joseph Gillan William Boyd Robert Latham Eva Powers Richard Heman Arnold Chauviere Paul Daniel Fuel Charge Div. Donald Johns Stuart Mitchell Keith Howle Ted Otis Sarah Voll Steve Gable Tom Halpin Craig Indyke Tim Carrere Steven Kahl Alan Pound Jim Winters Leon Hagen Tim Clift Doug Hartley Randy Watts Walter Washington Mike Williams Douglas Kirk Perer Zamore Bill Stevens Dick Bostwick Rich Hitt Jennifer Fagen Dave Walker David Morris
1 30
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Estes Park, Colo., October 18-22, 1982. Proceedings edited by RP. Overend, T.A. Milne, and L. Mudge, Elsevier, 1985. (Emrich 1985) Emrich, W., "Handbook of Charcoal Making," Series E, Vol. 7 of Solar Energy in the European Community, D. Reidel, Boston, Mass., 1985. (Evans 1984) Evans, R.J., Milne, T.A., and Soltys, M.N., "Fundamental Analysis Studies," in Proceedings of the
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Proceedings of the 6th Industrial W ood Energy Forum, Forum '82, 1983. See also previous and subsequent
Graboski, SERI CP-234-1590, 1982. (Gumz 1950) Gumz, w., Gas Producers and Blast Furnaces, J. Wiley and Sons, New York, 1950. (Haaland 1968) Haaland, H.H., Methods for Determina tion of V elocity, V olume, Dust, and Mist Content of Gases, Bulletin WP-50, Western Precipitation-Joy and
(Freeth 1939) Freeth, E.E., "Producer Gas for Agricul tural Purposes," Journal of the Department of Agricul estern A ustralia, Vol. 16, No. 4, December ture of W 1939, pp. 371-415. (Gengas 1950) Gengas: Svenska ErfarenheterFran Aren 1 939-1 945, Stockholm, 1950; Translated as Generator Gas: The Swedish Experience f rom 1 939-1945 by M. Geuther (T. Reed and D. Jantzen, eds.) by the Solar Ener gy Research Institute, SERIISP-33-140, 1979; reissued as Gengas with index added by A. Das, TIPI Workshop Books, P.O. Box 84, Allenspark, Colo., 1982 (see TIPI 1986). (Giono 1976) Giono, J., "Trees," Coevol ution Quarterly, Summer 1976, pp. 54-59. (Goldman 1939) Goldman, B. and Jones, C., "The Modern Portable Gas Producer," Journal ofthe Institute ofFuel, Vol. 12, No. 63, Feb. 1939, pp. 103-140. (Goss 1979) Goss, J.R, An Investigation of the Down Draft Gasi fication Characteristics of Agricultural and Forestry Residues, Interim Report, California Energy Commission P 500-79-0017, 1979. (Graboski 1985) Graboski, M. "t aI., Oxygen Blown fication of W ood, report to the Solar Downdraft Gasi Energy Research Institute, contract ZK-5-05058-1, Syngas Systems Inc., 1985. (Graboski 1986) Personal Communication, Mike Graboski, Syngas Systems Inc., Golden, Colo., 80401. (Graham 1983) Graham, R.G. and Huffman, D.R.,
Gasi fication of W ood in Commercial-Scale Downdraft Gasifiers, Research Paper (no number) from Forintek
Cox Div. Anderson Samplers, Inc., 4215-C Wendell Drive, Atlanta, Ga., 30336.
(Heywood 1941) Heywood, H., "Loss of Power in Petrol Engines Running on Producer Gas," Engineering, Jan. 24, 1941, pp. 61-63. (Heywood 1944) Heywood, H., Tests on T ransport Producer Gas Units (with Discussions), Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Journal and Proceedings, Vol. 151, Jan.-Dec. 1944, pp. 192-208. (Hodam 1983) Hodam, R.H., Williams, RO., and Lesser, M.C., Engineering and Economic Characteris
tics of Commercial W ood Gasifiers in North America,
SERI/TR-231-1459, Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden, Colo., 1982. (Hubis 1983) Hubis, M.J., The Mechanical Behavior of Biomass Pellets During Gasi fication, Masters thesis, Colorado School of Mines, 1983. (Humphries 1985) Humphries, J. P., "Biomass Gasifica tion," in Symposium on Forest Products Research International, 22 April 1985. (IGT) This reference is to the Proceedings ofthe 1 1 tech nical symposia on biomass energy organized and presented by the Institute of Gas Technology, Chicago, Ill. They are "Clean Fuels From Biomass, Sewage, Urban Refuse, Agricultural Wastes," January 27-30, 1976, Orlando, Fla.; "Clean Fuels From Biomass and Wastes," January 25-28, 1977, Orlando, Fla.; "Energy from Biomass and Wastes," August 14-18, 1978, Washington, D.C.; "Energy from Biomass and Wastes
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1 33
IV," January 21-25, 1980, Lake Buena Vista, Fla.; "Ener gy from Biomass and Wastes V," January 26-30, 1981, Lake Buena Vista, Fla.; "Energy from Biomass and Was tes VI," January 25-29, 1982, Lake Buena Vista, Fla.; "Energy from Biomass and Wastes VII, " January 24-28, 1983, Lake Buena Vista, Fla.; "Energy from Biomass and Wastes VIII," January 30-February 3, 1984, Lake Buena Vista, Fla.; "Energy from Biomass and Wastes IX," January 28-February 1 , 1985, "Energy from Biomass and Wastes X," April 7-11, 1986, Washington, D.C., and "Energy from Biomass and Wastes XI," March 16-20, 1987, Orlando, Fla. (Jasas 1982) Jasas, G. and Kajpak, J. "Gas Turbine Demonstration of Pyrolysis-Derived Fuels," in
tion ofPapers on Producer Gas W ith Emphasis on Ap plications in Developing Countries, Producer Gas
(Kjellstrom 1983) Kjellstrom, B., Stassen, H. , and Beenackers, A.A.C.M., Producer Gas 1 982: A Collec
Conference, Sri Lanka, ISBN:91-86618-00-8, The Beijer Institute, Stockholm, Sweden, 1983. (Kjellstrom 1985) 2nd International Producer Gas Con f erence, 19 March 1985, Bandung, Indonesia, Edited by B. Kjellstrom, (To be published) (LaFontaine 1984) Personal Communication, H. La Fontaine, The Biomass EnergyInstitute, 1995 Keystone Blvd., Miami, Fla., 33181, 1984. (LaFontaine 1987) FEMAiDOEiMartin Marietta Con tract No. 98x-6446-7V to H. LaFontaine, Miami, Fla.
of Gases Produced from Gasi fication of Agricultural Biomass, prepared for the USDA, Grant No. 59-2481-0
Proceedings of the 1 4 th Biomass Thermochemical Contractors Review Meeting, Oct. 1982, Arlington, Va.,
Pacific Northwest Laboratory, PNL-SA-10646, CONF 820685. (Johansson 1980) Johansson, E., Swedish T ests of Otto and Diesel Engines Operated on Producer Gas, Nation al Machinery Testing Institute, Upsala, Sweden, 1980. (Johansson 1985) Johansson, K. G., "Wood Gas Engine Applications in Southern Africa," in Symposium on Forest Products Research International, 2 2 April Pretoria, South Africa, National Timber Research In stitute, 1985. (Kadyszewski 1986) Personal Communication. J. Kadyszewski, U.S. Agency for International Develop ment, Arlington, Va., 1986. (Kaupp 1984a) Kaupp, A. and Goss, J.R., State-of-the Art for Small (2-50 kWj Gas Producer-Engine Systems, Final Report to USDA, Forest Service, Contract No. 53 39R-0-141, (March 1981). A bibliography of the 800 papers used by authors has been prepared and can be computer accessed by title, subject, or author. Published as Small Scale Gas Producer Engine Sys tems, by Deutsches Zentrum fur Entwicklungstech nologien - GATE, Vieweg, Wiesbaden, 1984 (see TIPI 1986). (Kaupp 1984b) Kaupp, A., Gasification of Rice Hulls: Theory and Praxis, published by Deutsches Zentrum fur Entwicklungstechnologien - GATE. Vieweg, Wies baden, 1984 (see TIPI 1986). (Kishimoto 1985) Kishimoto, S. and Sugiwa, G., "Char coal as a Soil Conditioner" Article 12-23, Vol. 5 in Sym
2-092-9 by Department of Agricultural Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Tex., 1983. (Lowdermilk 1975) Lowdermilk, J.C., Conquest of the Land Through Seven Thousand Y ears, Agriculture In formation Bulletin No. 99, USDA Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Supt. of Documents, Stock No. 001-000 03446-4, 1975. (Lutz 1940) Lutz, R., "Die Verbesserung des Fahrzeug Rolzgaserzeugers durch Wiirmetichnische Massnah men," ATZ Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift, No. 23, 1940, pp. 589-595. (Mahin) Bioenergy Systems Report, Published quarter ly by D. Mahin, International Energy Projects, Box 591, Front Royal, Va., 22630. (Makray 1984) Makray, Z.T., Gasification ofBiomass in a Downdraft Gasifier, Post Graduate Thesis at the Faculty of Engineering of Campina, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Unicamp, Brazil. (See also, Termoquip, Alternate Energy Ltd., Campinas, Brazil.) (Manurung 1985) Manurung, R. andBeenackers, A. , An
AE Enschede, The Netherlands, 1985.
Open Core Rice Husk Gasi f ierfor Small-Scale Applica tion, Twente University of Technology, Box 217, 7500
(MASEC) Woodstove Reliability Standard. Mid America Solar Energy Complex, Minneapolis, Minn., n.d. (Masuda 1980) Masuda, T. and Fisher, T.F., "Purox Sys tem Demonstration Test on Simulated Japanese Refuse," in Jones, J.1. and Radding, S.B., Thermal Con version of Solid Biomass W astes, ACS Symposium Series #130, Am Chern. Soc., Washington, D.C., 1980. (McGowan 1980) McGowan, T.F., Bryson, F., and Leverette, J.T., A State Demonstration Program in
2 2 April, Pretoria, South Africa, National Timber Research Institute, 1985. (Kjellstrom 1981) Kjellstrom, B., Producer Gas 1980: Local Electricity Generation f rom W ood and Agricul tural Residues, FV-80-0035i01, The Beijer Institute, Stockholm, Sweden, 1981.
1 34
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Ga., 1980. (McGowan 1984) Personal Communication, T. Mc Gowan, Western American Combustion Co., Atlanta, Ga. (Miles 1982) Miles, T.R, "The Preparation of Biomass for Gasification," in Biomass-to-Methanol Specialists Workshop, T amarron, CO, 3-5 March 1 982, edited by T.B. Reed and M. Graboski, SERIICP-234-1590, Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden, Colo., 1982. (Miles 1983) Miles, T. R and Miles, T. R Jr., "Biomass Preparation for Thermochemical Conversion," in 1st 1983.
ood Gasifica (Miller 1983) State of the Art Survey of W tion T echnology, prepared by Fred C. Hart Associates,
The Onan Corp., 1400 73rd Ave. NE, Minneapolis, Minn., 55432, 1981.
orking Environments (OSHA 1982) Standards for W Maximum E xposure Limits 1 982, Occupational Safety
(Onan 1 9 8 1 ) Manual for Professional Engineers, Electric Generating Set Speci fications 1 . 75 to 1000 kW,
and Health Administration, Washington, D.C., 1982. (OTA 1980) Energy f rom Biological Processes, OTA-E 124, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C., 1980. (OTA 1984) U.S. Vulnerability to an Oil Import Curtail ment, OTA-E-243, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C., 1984. (Overend 1982) Overend, R. Wood Gasif ication Review of Recent Canadian Experience, National
European Workshop on Thermochemical Processing of Biomass, U. of Aston, Birmingham, U. K., April 12,
Research Council (Canada) Report NRCC 20094, March 1982. (Parikh 1985) Parikh, P.P. , State of Art Report on Gasi fication of Biomass, Interim Report of DNES
Inc. (B. Miller, Principal Investigator) for the Electric Power Research Institute, AP-3101, Project 986-9, 1983. (Mother 1982) Personal Communication, R Freuden beger, Mother Earth News, Box 70, Hendersonville, N.C. (MSA) Mine Safety Appliance Catalogs 465398, 465530, 466523, 468572, Data Sheet 08-01-02-TLV Standards, MSA Inc., 600 Pen Center Blvd., Pittsburgh, Pa., 15235, n.d. (Nandi 1985) Nandi, S.P. and Onischak, M., "Gasifica tion of Chars Obtained from Maple and Jack Pine Woo d s , " in Fun damentals of Thermochemical
(201/20/84-BM), Dept. of Mech. Eng., Indian Inst. of Technology, Bombay 400 076, India. Vol. I in print; Vols. II and III in press. (Perry 1973) Perry, RH. and Chilton, C.H., Eds. Chemi cal Engineers' Handbook, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1973. (Peterson 1965) Peterson, C.M. and Whitby, K.T., "Frac tional Efficiency Characteristics of Unit Type Cyclones," ASHRAE Journal Vol. 7, p. 42, 1965. (PNL) Annual Proceedings of the Biomass Ther mochemical Conversion Contractor's Review Meeting; Edited by Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Wash. These proceedings, describing work supported by the U.S. Departroent of Energy, are available from the National Technical Information Service (NTIS), U.S. Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Rd., Springfield, Va. , 22161. (Pyrenco) Company Brochure, The Pyrenco Co., Box 903, Prosser, Wash. n.d. See also U.S. Patent 4,421,524, Dec. 1983. (RAC) RAC Staksamplr Bulletin 2343-R3, Sales Bul letin of Research Appliance Company, 4215 Wendell Dr., Atlanta, Ga., 30336. n.d. (Rambush 1 9 2 3 ) Rambush, N . E . , Modern Gas Producers, Benn Bros. Ltd., London, 1923. Microfiche copy available at Energy Branch Library, CISTI, Nation al Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, KIA OR6. (Reed 1978) Reed, T.B., "Biomass Energy - A Two Edged Sword," presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Solar Energy Society, Denver, Colo., Aug. 28, 1 9 7 8 , SERI DDS-O l l , Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden, Colo., 1978.
Estes Park, Colo., October 18-22, 198il. Proceedings edited by RP. Overend, T.A. Milne, and L. Mudge, Elsevier, 1985
(NAS 1983) Producer Gas: Another Fuel for Motor T ransport, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1983. A companion bibliography with 421 references is also available from NAS. (NTRI 1985) Symposium on Forest Products Research International, 22 April 1985, Organized by the Nation al Timber Research Institute (NTRI), CSIR Conference Centre, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa, 1 1 Volumes. Volume 5 is titled Carbon from Biomass and Woodgas
in Practice.
(Nunnikhoven 1984) Plans for Vehicle Gasifier, Nunnikhoven Industries, Oakville, Iowa. (Nygards 1979) Wood Gas Generatorfor Vehicles, trans lated from Swedish by Nils Nygards, available from PURWACO International, Minneapolis, Minn., 1979. (NYSERDA 1980) Site Owners Manual for Small H ydro, New York State Energy Research and Develop ment Authority Report 79-3, 1980.
References
1 35
(Reed 1979) Retrofit 79: Proceedings of a Workshop on Air Gasif ication, Seattle, WA; 2 Feb. 1979, SERI/TP-49 183, edited by T. ll. Reed and D. Jantzen, Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden, Colo., 1979.
ication, V ol. 1(Reed 1981) A Survey of Biomass Gasif III, SERI/TR-33-239, edited by Solar Energy Research
unpublished. This reference is to such unpublished results. (Reed 1986b) Reed, T.ll., "Moving Bed Air and Oxygen Biomass," in Proceedings of the 1 985 Biomass Ther mochemical Conversion Contractors' Meeting, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, PNL-SA-1 3 5 7 1 , CONF 8510167. 1986. A more complete report is presently being prepared with a similar title, covering the six years of work on oxygen gasifiers at SERI and SGI. (Reines 1983) Personal Communication, R Reines, Open University, London, England, 1983. (Rissler 1984) Personal Communication, R Rissler, Missouri Gasification, Inc., RD. 3, Box 198, California, Mo., 65018, 1984. (Rogers 1985) Personal Communication, The Buck Rogers, Co., 150 Industrial Parkway, Industrial Airport, Kans., 66031, 1985. (Roy 1983) Roy, C. et aI., "Design et Construction d'un Reacteur de Pyrolyse sous Vide," in Comptes Rendu de Proceedings of the 3rd Liquefaction Experts Workshop, Sept. 2 8 , 1 9 8 3 , Sherbrooke University, Quebec, Canada, NRCC 23130. (Schliipfer 1937) Schlapfer, P. and Tobler, J., "Theoreti cal and Practical Studies of Operation of Motorcars on Wood Gas," originally published in 1937, translated to English by H. Stassen in 2nd International Producer Gas Conf erence, 19 March 1985, Bandung, Indonesia, B. Kjellstrom, ed., to be published. (Schroeder 1985) Biomass Gasif ication for Electric Utility Diesel Generating Units, prepared by Burns & McDonnel Engineering Company, Inc. (Schroeder, RJ., Ege, H.D., and Hunt, F.E., Principal Investigators) for the Electric Power Research Institute, AP-3865, Project 1438-16, 1985. (Scott 1983) Scott, D.S. and Piskorz, J. "The Continuous Flash Pyrolysis of Biomass," in Comptes Rendu de
L'Aatelier de T ravail sur la Lique f action de la Biomasse.
Institute, Golden, Colo., 1979. Published in hard cover as T. Reed, editor, Biomass Gasif ication: Principles and T echnology, Energy Technology Review No. 67, Noyes Data Corp, Park Ridge, N.J. 1981. (Reed
Biomass-to-Methanol Specialists Workshop, T amalTon, CO, 3-5 March 1982, edited by
1982)
T.B. Reed and M. Graboski, SERI/CP-234-1590 Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden, Colo., 1982.
(Reed 1983a) Reed, T.B. and Markson, M., "A Predic tive Model for Stratified Downdraft Gasification," in Progress in Biomass Conversion, edited by D. Tillman and E.C. Jahn, Vol. 4, pp. 217-254, Academic Press, New York, 1983. (Reed 1983b) Reed, T.B., Levie, B., Markson, M.L., and Graboski, M.S., "A Mathematical Model for Stratified Downdraft Gasifiers," in Symposium on Mathematical
Modeling of Biomass Pyrolysis Phenomena, August 1 983, W ashington, D.C., Preprints of the American
Chemical Society, Division of Fuel Chemistry, 28, 5, 1983. (Reed 1984) Reed, T.B. and Levie, B., "A Simplified Model of the Stratified Downdraft Gasifier," in The In edited by Paul F. Bente, Jr. The Bio-Energy Council, 1625 Eye St. NW, Suite 825A, Washington, D.C., 1984, pp. 379-389. (Reed 1985a) Reed, T. and Markson, M. "Reaction Velocities in a Downdraft Gasifier," in Fundamentals
of Thermochemical Biomass Conversion: An I nterna tional Conference, Estes Park, Colo., October 18-22, ternational Bio-Energy Directory and Handbook 1 984,
1982. Proceedings edited by RP. Overend, T.A. Milne, and L. Mudge, Elsevier, 1985. (Reed 1985b) Reed, T.B., "Principles and Technology of Biomass Gasification," in Advances in Solar Energy, V ol. 2, K. Boer and J. Duffie, eds, Plenum, 1985. (Reed 1985c) Reed, T.B., "Role of Carbon Saturation in Thermal Conversion Processes," in Proceedings of 1 6th
Proceedings of the 3rd Liquefaction Experts Workshop, Sept. 2 8 , 1 9 8 3 , Sherbrooke University, Quebec, Canada, NRCC 23130. (Singer 1958) Singer, G.J., History of Technology, Vol. IV, p. 252, Oxford, 1958. (Skov 1974) Skov, Niels A. and Papworth, Mark L. The Pegasus Unit: The LostArt ofDriving W ithout Gasoline, Pegasus, 1974; now available from H. LaFontaine, Biomass Energy Foundation, Inc., 1995 Keystone Blvd., Miami, Fla., 33181. (Stevenson 1982) Stevenson, W.A., "Large Wood to Methanol Plants," in Biomass-to-Methanol Specialists
Biomass Thermochemical Conversion Contractors Review Meeting, Pacific Northwest Laboratory, PNL
SA-12403, CONF-8405157, 1985. (Reed 1985d) Reed, T.B., Levie, B., and Das, A. "Under standing, Operating, and Testing Fixed Bed Gasifiers," in Bioenergy '84, Proceedings of a World Conference, Goteborg, Sweden, June 21, 1 984, Elsevier, 1985. (Reed 1986a) Reed, T., The authors have had more than 10 years' experience in gasification, much of which is
1 36
W orkshop, T amarron, CO, 3-5 March 1 982, edited by T.B. Reed and M. Graboski, SERI/CP-234-1590. Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden, Colo., 1982.
(Strauss 1975) Strauss, W., Industrial Gas Cleaning, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1975. (Strom 1985) Strom, E., Liinanki, L., Sjostrom, K., Rensfelt, E., Waldheim, L., and B lackadder, W., "Gasification of Biomass in the MinD-Process," in Bio Energy '84, edited by H. Egneus and A. Ellegard, Vol. III, Elsevier, London, 1985. (Susanto 1983) Susanto; H., Beenackers, A.A.C.M., and van Swaaij, W.P.M., "Moving Bed Gasifier with Inter nal Recycle of Pyrolysis Gas," in Producer Gas 1 982: A Conference, Sri Lanka, ISBN:91-86618-00-8, The Beijer Institute, Stockholm, Sweden, 1983. (Taylor 1986) Taylor, L., Personal Communication, Gentronix, Inc., Albuquerque, New Mex., 1986. (Thompson 1981) Thompson, S.P., Fuel Preparation Systems Using a Rotary Dryer, Bulletin 8006, Rader Companies Inc., Box 20128, Portland, Oreg., 20128, 1981.
(TIPI 1986) The TIPI Workshop Books (A. Das, Direc tor) publishes a number of books dealing with gasifica tion. Write for list of current publications to TIPI Workshop B ooks, P.O. Box 84, Allenspark, Colo., 80510. (Walawender 1985) Walawender, W.P., Chern, F.M., and Fan, L.T. in Fundamentals of Thermochemical
Biomass Conversion : An International Conference,
Estes Park, Colorado, October 18-22, 1982. Proceedings edited by R.P. Overend, T.A. Milne, and L. Mudge, Elsevier, 1985. (WESI) WESI Engineering Bulletin WE12832M, Waukesha, 17803 S. Santa Fe Ave., Compton, Calif., n.d. (Work 1958) Work, L.T., "Size Reduction," Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 50, No. 3, Part 2 , p . 483, 1958. (Yellott 1955) Yell ott, J.I., Broadley, P.R., Meyer, W.M., and Rotzler, P.M., "Development of Pressurizing, Com bustion and Ash Separation Equipment for A Direct Fired Coal Burning Gas Turbine Locomotive," ASME Paper 54A 201, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1955.
Collection of Papers on Producer Gas W ith Emphasis on Applications in Developing Countries, Producer Gas
References
1 37
1 38
Although it was our intention to present the collected data within a consistent framework of acceptable metric units, this goal could be only partially achieved, The still widespread use of English units did not in all cases allow transfer of the reported data to metric units. The internationally established gram (g), meter (m), second (s), and joule Ul system (SI) is therefore oc casionally replaced by units that may be more familiar and more convenient to the reader. Conversion factors are from the Handbook ofChemistry and Physics, 67th edition, CRC Press.
Length
1 in.
=
2.54 cm
=
1 micron (micrometer)
1 J.Ull
10-6 m
Volume compressible gas (1 atm dry) 1 Nm3 WC) 38.55 scf (77F) 37.32 scf (60F) 37.90 scf (68F)
= = =
Weight
1 kg
= =
2.204 1b 15,432 grains 32.105 oz (troy) 0.984 X 10-3 ton (long) 1.1023 X 10 3 ton (short)
= = = .
1 fi3
0.02831 m 3
=
7.48 gal
=
3.785 liters
=
0.1336 fi3
=
231 in. 3
=
Pressure
1 atrn
= =
0.353 fi3
0.2642 gal
33.82 fl oz
61.02 in. 3
1.0133 bar 101.33 kPa 14.7 psia 29.921 in. Hg 1419 in. HzO 760 mm Hg
= = = =
Velocity
1 mls
=
3.281 fils
3.6 km/h
2.237 mph
Area 1 mZ
10.76 fiz
1550 in. z
1.30 ydZ
Energy
1 Btu 1 Cal
=
252 Cal
778.2 foot-pound-force
1 kWh
=
3413 Btu
Hearth Load (for 130 Btu/scf gas) 0.9 Nm3/h-cmz 537 scfro/fiz 3.73 scfro/in. z 4.2 MBtulh-fi3
= = =
Density 1 g/cm3
1 Ib/fi3
1000 kg/m3
62.43 Ib/fi3
=
0.01602 g/cm3
16.02 kg/m3
Fuel Energy
1 Btu/lb
=
Power
1 watt
= =
0.5555 Cal/g
=
2.326 JIg
0.2389 Calls
3.6 kJ/h
1 Cal/g
1.8 Btu/lb
4.187 JIg
Temperature
K
=
Fuel Consumption
C + 273.15
oR
of
of + 459.67
1.80 K
1.8C + 3 2
1 39
Standard conditions for gas measurements vary wide ly depending on the organization setting the standards. Since gas properties can be measured to a precision considerably finer than the error introduced by a misunderstanding in standard conditions. expressions of gas volume and heating value must specify the measurement conditions. Two often-used references (Kaupp 1984a; Gengas 1950) use gas measurement conventions different from corn man gas practice. The following table is provided to
indicate the sources of gas measurement conventions. However, the reader should exercise extreme caution in all conversions using the term "sc." If the gas measurement conditions are not specified or cannot be safely presumed. then gas heating value is subject to 3 % uncertainty. We have used 1 atrn 101.32 kPa 760 mm 29.92 in. Hg for a standard pressure and a temperature of 20C 68F in our data reporting.
= = = =
EPA Method 5 American Gas Association Compressed Gas Institute NTP = STP Standards Council of Canada Environment Canada Air Pollution Control Directorate
(1)
(2)
29.92 in. Hg
scf
29.92 in. Hg = 101 .325 kPa 760 mm = 1 atm dry gas 1 atm
1 atm dry 1 atm dry
( 1 ) Environmental Protection Agency. "Determination of Particulate Emissionsfrom Stationary Sources," Codified Federal Register 40, Pt. 60, Appendix A,Method 5.
echnical T erms, 3rd Ed. New York: McGraw-Hili, 1 984. (2) Dictionary of Scientific and T (3) International Standards Organization, Measurement Conditions for GaseousFuels, ISO STO 5024-TC2B, 1979.
(4) ENFOR Proiect C172, DDS File No. 4155, KL229-1 -4117, 1979. (5) Environment Canada Air Pollution Directorate, EPS 1 AP.74-1, 1 974. (6) Calorific Value of Gases in Natural Gas Range by Continuous RecordingCalorimeter, ASTM 0 1 826, 1 977. (7) Determining the Properties of Fine Particulate Matter, ASME PTC-28, 1 965. (8) Kaupp, A. and Goss, J.R. State-of-the-Art for Small (2-50 kW ) Gas Producer-Engine Systems. Final Report to USDA, Forest SeNice, 1981. (9) Generator Gas: The Swedish Experience from 1939-1945. SERI/SP-33-140, 1 979 (Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden, Colo).
1 40