CONSUMER

BEHAVIOUR

It is a segment or part of human behaviour. Human behaviour refers to the total process whereby the individual interacts with the environment. Every thought, feeling, or action that we have as individuals is part of human behaviour.

Definition:Consumer behaviour is the study of how individuals, groups and organizations select, buy and dispose of goods, services, ideas or experiences to satisfy their needs and wants. Importance; It seeks to understand the consumer buying decision process and to answer the following questions;

Who Who What When Why How do they buy?

makes do does do do they the

the buy market consumers they

market? from? buy? buy? buy?

The marketer wants to know how consumers respond to various marketing strategy the company might use. It helps the firm to find better ways to satisfy consumers through creating a suitable marketing mix that will meet customers needs and requirements better than competitors.

Understanding

Consumer

Behaviour:

OS

Framework:

Who what why Who When Where How

is does did participate did do did

the the they in they they they the consumer

customer? buy? buy? process? buy? buy/ buy?

Occupants Objects Objectives Organisation Occasions Outlets Operations

Marketers must study the customer taste, preferences, wants, shopping and buying behavior because such study provides the clues for developing the new products, price, product changes, messages and other marketing mix elements. In understand the concept of buying we have the some of the key questions. They are:
1

Why does the market buying? Who does the market buying? What does the market buying? When does the market buying? Where does the market buying? How does the market buying?

Objective Organization Objects Occasions Outlets Operations

Along with that there are two more questions that are also related with above. They are: How do the buyers characteristics influence the buying behavior? How does the buyer make purchasing decisions?

These are some of questions that solutions help to predict the buying behavior. WAYS OF BUYING BEHAVIOR According to the concept of marketing the buying behavior can be divided in two ways :1. Consumer Behavior: - It includes that user who buys the product for the direct consumption, not to use for further sale purpose. Like as home users. 2. Business Behavior: - It includes those users who buy the product for the further sale purpose. Like as shopkeepers, dealers, and retailers.

TYPES OF BUYING BEHAVIOR There is a great difference between the purchasing of a computer and a car. Buying decisions making varies with the type of buying decision. The types of buying behavior divided are separately divided as per of consumer and business buying.
2

TYPES OF CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOR This is to be extensively divided in four types: 1. Complex Buying Behavior: -- when the consumer are highly involved in the purchase and aware of significant differences among brands. 2. Dissonance Reducing Buying Behavior: -- when the consumer are highly involved in the purchase but sees little differences among brands. 3. Habitual Buying Behavior: -- when the consumer are low involved in the purchase but sees absence of aware of differences among brands. 4. Variety Seeking Buying Behavior: -- when the consumer are low involved in the purchase but sees significant of differences among brands.

Consumer behaviour and factors influencing buyer behavior

It includes all those person who are the direct user of the computers and their processors or for their employees and family member use. They are not indulging in the sale activity of the computer and other Products. i.e. home users, companies for their employees. Consumer behaviour is an attempt to understand & predict human actions in the buying role. It has assumed growing importance under market-oriented or customer oriented marketing planning & management. Consumer behaviour is defined as all psychological, social & physical behaviour of potential customers as they become aware of, evaluate, purchase, consume, & tell others about product & services .

Each element in this definition is important. Consumer behaviour involves both individual (psychological) processes & group (social processes). Consumer behavior is reflected from awareness right through post-purchase evaluation indicating satisfaction or non-satisfaction, from purchases Consumer behaviour includes communication, purchasing & consumption behaviour Consumer behaviour is basically social in nature. Hence social environment plays an important role in shaping buyer behaviour. Consumer behaviour includes both consumer & business buyer behaviour

In consumer behaviour we consider not only why, how, & what people buy but other factors such as where , how often, and under what conditions the purchase is made. An understanding of the buyer behaviour is essential in marketing planning & programmes. In the final analysis buyer behaviour is one of the most important keys to successful marketing.
3

MAJOR FACTORS INFLUENCING BUYER BEHAVIOUR

CULTURAL FACTORS Cultural factors exert the broadest and deepest influence on consumer behavior. The roles played by the buyers culture, sub culture and social class are particularly important.

CULTURE- Culture is the most fundamental determinant of a persons wants and behavior. The growing child acquires a set of values, perceptions, preferences, and behavior through his or hr family or other key institutions. SUB-CULTURE- Sub-culture includes nationalities, religions, racial groups, and geographical regions. Many sub-cultures make up important market segments, and marketers often design marketing programs tailored to their needs. SOCIAL CLASS- Social classes are relatively homogenous and enduring divisions in a society, which are hierarchically ordered and whose members share similar values, interests, and behavior. Social classes do not reflect income alone but also other indicators such as occupation, education, and area of residence.

SOCIAL FACTORS

REFERNCE GROUPS- A Persons reference groups consist of all the groups that have a direct or indirect influence on the persons attitudes or behavior. Groups having direct influence on a person are called membership groups. FAMILY- The family is the most important consumer buying organization in society, and has been researched extensively. Family members constitute the most influential primary reference group. ROLE AND STATUSES- A persons position in each group that he participates throughout his life family, clubs, and organizations can be defined in terms of role and status. A role consist of activities that a
4

person is expected to perform. Each role carries a status. Marketers are aware of the status symbol potential of products and brands. PERSONAL FACTORS A buyers decisions are also influenced by personal characteristics. These include the buyers age & stage in the life cycle, occupation, economic circumstances, lifestyle, personality & self concept.

AGE & STAGE IN THE LIFE CYCLE- People buy different goods & services over their lifetime. They eat baby food in the early years, most foods in the growing & mature years & special diets in the later years. Peoples taste in clothes, furniture & recreation is also age related . OCCUPATION- A persons occupation also influences his or her consumption pattern. Marketers try to identify the occupational groups that have above average interest in their products and services. A company can even specialize its products for certain occupational groups. ECONOMIC CIRCUMCTANCES- Product choices are greatly affected by ones economic circumstances. Economic stability consist of their spend able income (its level, stability andtime pattern), saving and assets (including the percentage that is liquid), debts , borrowing power, attitude toward spending versus saving. LIFESTYLE- People coming from the same subculture, social class & occupation may lead quite different lifestyles. A persons lifestyles the persons pattern of living in the world as expressed in the persons activities, interests & opinions. PERSONALITY AND SELF-CONCEPT- Each person has a distinct personality that influences his or her buying behavior. By personality, we mean a persons distinguishing ps ychological characteristics that lead to relatively consistent and enduring responses to his or her environment. Personality can be a useful variable in analyzing consumer behavior, provided that personality type can be classified accurately and that strong correlations exist between certain personality types and product or brand choices.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS A persons buying choices are influenced by four major psychological factors -motivations, perception, learning, beliefs and attitudes.

MOTIVATION- A person has many needs at any given time. A need becomes motive when it is aroused to a sufficient level of intensity. Motivational researchers hold that each product is capable of arousing a unique set of motive in consumers. LEARNING- When people act they learn. Learning involves changes in an individuals behavior arising from experience. Learning theory teaches marketers that they can build up demand for a product by associating it with strong drives, using motivating cues and providing positive reinforcement. PERCEPTION- Perception is the process by which an individual selects, organizes, & interprets information inputs to create a meaningful picture of the world. A motivated person is ready to act. How the motivated person actually acts is influenced by his or her perception of the situation. BELIEFS & ATTITUDES- A belief is a descriptive thought that a person holds about something. Through doing & learning, people acquire beliefs & attitudes. These in turn influence their buying behavior. Particularly important to global marketers is the fact that buyers often hold distinct disbeliefs about brands or products based on their country of origin. An attitude is persons enduring favorable or unfavorable evaluations, emotional feelings, and action tendencies towards some object or idea. People
5

have attitude toward almost everything: religion, politics, clothes, music, food, and so on. Attitude put them into a frame of mind of liking or disliking an object , moving toward or away from it. BUSINESS BUYING BEHAVIOR: It includes all those person who are not the direct user of the computers and their processors or for their employees and family member use. They are indulging in the sale activity of the computer and other Products. They can also be authorized from companies i.e. Intel. i.e. hp, HCL, Assemblers.

FACTOR AFFECTING BUSINESS BUYING BEHAVIOR

Environmental Economic Organizational Objective Political Authority Policies Cost of Money Procedures Competition Structure Technological Empathy Status Age Education Income BUSINESS Individual Inter Personal

BUYER

External Determinants of Consumer Behaviour:

Consumers are social and cultural human beings. Their behaviour is affected by the social setting they find themselves in as well as the cultural practices of the community they live in. 1) Culture: It refers to the ways of life of a people. It is a set of socially transmited beliefs, attitudes, norms and customs. Culture is learned from parents, teachers, and society in general. Culture describes the prescribed acceptable behaviours and norms of a society. Marketers has to understand the changes in cultural shifts in a society in order to capture opportunities to serve them in a better manners. Any marketer must be familiar with the culture of the people they wish to sell to. 2) Social classes: It is the division of the society into groups. It is also known as social stratification. Social functions have to be performed by a society for it to survive. Stratification in the world is done on the bases of education,
6

occupation, income or economic and political station. In some societies eight to nine strata were found but in most of the society three classes were found i.e Upper class, middle class and lower class. A social class is an open aggregate of people with a similar social ranking. It is open since people can move in and out of the group. Mobility may take the form of education, occupation, talent, marriage, etc. Within a social class, people will to a certain extent have the same patterns of behaviour, similar attitudes, values, possessions, etc. Characteristics of social classes; People within the same social class exhibit similar behaviour. People are ranked as occupying an inferior or superior social position according to their social class. A social class is not indicated by any single variable, but is as a result of the weighed function of an individuals occupation, place of residence, wealth, education, values, e.t.c.

The marketer has to identify the class differences due to the following reasons; Each class will have certain products that appeal to them and others that do not appeal to them. The marketer has to concentrate their marketing effort on specific social classes. In the same social class, there may be individual tastes that the marketer needs to take into consideration. The kind and quality of the product selected may vary from one consumer to another. Difference in classes may also show in marketing areas the consumers frequent. Certain classes may have a preference for a given shop, club, restaurant etc. The media habits of different classes will also differ. Some members of a class may read different newspapers and listen to different programs or watch different stations on T.V.

) Reference groups: Reference group is a group of people who have direct or indirect influence on the individuals behaviour. It acts as point of comparison or refence point/frame of reference for an individuals behaviour. Reference groups can be classified in to many Types; based on the degree of involvement we can classify into two groups i.e primary and secondary groups. Primary groups: - these are groups that are small and very close to the consumer. The consumer has direct contact with group members and often has face-to-face communication with them. They include the family, coworkers and those one spends his leisure time with. Secondary groups: - are larger and less intimate than the primary group. The consumer contact with this group may not be as frequent as those of the primary groups. They include religious organizations, professional organizations, clubs, unions, etc. Rationale groups; - these are membership groups that a person may join. They engage in activities which interest the consumer to express his idea, be guided and influenced in the type of goods consumed. They include YMCA, YWCA, scouting movement, etc. The reference group has norms that the members abide by. These norms promote conformity within the reference group. A reference group may influence the decision to buy in two ways;
7

Being a member of a group, a person may buy a product or service since all those in the group have done so. A person may buy a product or service for the reason of wanting to belong to or be associated with the group. Some products can be sold by appealing them to a reference group. The consumer will use others as a point of reference; If he lacks specific experience in the purchase or use of a product, service or idea. When available sources of marketing information are judged as biased or inadequate. When the outcome of a consumers decision is highly visible and therefore open to disapproval from others. When the products are in high risk category e.g. are expensive.

4) Role of Opinion leaders: These are the pace setters or trend setters. They are the people who will first venture into sampling a new product before the others. They would then give information to the others before they commit themselves to buy the product or service. The opinion leaders or the pace setters are respected and serve as a source of advice to the rest. Characteristics of opinion leaders are; They are more interested and better read in areas they influence. They are more self confident and sociable. They are slightly more innovative i.e., they take risks but cautiously so. The word of mouth becomes an important tool for the spread of information here. The opinion leaders are the first to receive advertising messages and then pass them on to the others. Marketers should identify the opinion leaders first and focus information on them so that they can then influence others.

5) The Family A Family comprises of two or more persons living together connected through blood or marriage or adoption and stay together. Different family structures were observed in the socieity i.e married couples, nuclear family (parents and children) and extended family(parents+children+grandparents+uncles). Members of a family have a role in the buying process and the roles will depend on the product purchased. There are three important players in the family, they are husband, wife and children. These roles may be grouped as; A) Wife dominated decisions. B) Husband dominated decisions. C) Joint decisions.

Consumer buying behavior-process( model) The consumer buying process is a complex matter as many internal and external factors have an impact on the buying decisions of consumers. Consumers do not spend much time thinking about the purchase of low value products which are bought on impulse. Manufacturers of such products will need to implement strategies that encourage consumers to buy on impulse from them instead of their competitors. When consumers purchase high value products or non-impulse products, they often go through a set process. Research suggests that customers go through a five-stage decision-making process in any purchase. This is summarized in the diagram below:

This model is important for anyone making marketing decisions. It forces the marketer to consider the whole buying process rather than just the purchase decision (when it may be too late for a business to influence the choice!) The model implies that customers pass through all stages in every purchase. However, in more routine purchases, customers often skip or reverse some of the stages. For example, a student buying a favorite hamburger would recognize the need (hunger) and go right to the purchase decision, skipping information search and evaluation. However, the model is very useful when it comes to understanding any purchase that requires some thought and deliberation. 1. Need Recognition and Problem Awareness The buying process starts with need recognition. Without recognition of a need, consumers have no reason to consider a purchase decision. At the first stage in consumer buying behavior, a person begins to recognize a problem or desire. At this stage, the buyer recognizes a problem or need (e.g. I am hungry, we need a new sofa, I have a headache) or responds to a marketing stimulus (e.g. you pass Starbucks and are attracted by the aroma of coffee and chocolate muffins). Successful marketing often begins with need stimulation, whereby marketers attempt to create or help consumers recognize a need rather than waiting around for consumers to figure out they have one. 2. Information Search An aroused customer then needs to decide how much information (if any) is required. If the need is strong and there is a product or service that meets the need close to hand, then a purchase decision is likely to be made there and then. If not, then the process of information search begins. A customer can obtain information from several sources:

Personal sources: family, friends, neighbors, etc Commercial sources: advertising; salespeople; retailers; dealers; packaging; point-of-sale displays
9

Public sources: newspapers, radio, television, consumer organizations; specialist magazines Experiential sources: handling, examining, using the product

The usefulness and influence of these sources of information will vary by product and by customer. Research suggests that customers value and respect personal sources more than commercial sources (the influence of word of mouth). The challenge for the marketing team is to identify which information sources are most influential in their target markets. Each person uses different criteria and different importance weights for those criteria. Individual buyers can also change criteria for the same purchase in two different buying situations. Information searches include external research as well as internal research through memory recall of past purchases. Ultimately, you try to identify the best value for your money. 3. Evaluation of Alternatives In the evaluation stage, the customer must choose between the alternative brands, products and services. Need to establish criteria for evaluation, features the buyer wants or does not want. Rank/weight alternatives or resume search. You may decide that you want to eat something spicy, Indian gets highest rank etc. If not satisfied with your choice then, return to the search phase. Can you think of another restaurant? Look in the yellow pages etc. Information from different sources may be treated differently. Marketers try to influence by framing alternatives. An important determinant of the extent of evaluation is whether the customer feels involved in the product. By involvement, we mean the degree of perceived relevance and personal importance that accompanies the choice. 4. Purchase After a comprehensive review of solutions and specific products and services, the consumer makes a purchase decision. At this point in the buying process, supporting information needs to be provided to reinforce the decision to buy. High-involvement purchases include those involving high expenditure or personal risk for example buying a house, a car or making investments. Low involvement purchases (e.g. buying a soft drink, choosing some breakfast cereals in the supermarket) have very simple evaluation processes. 5. Post-purchase evaluation The final stage is the post-purchase evaluation of the decision. It is common for customers to experience concerns after making a purchase decision. This arises from a concept that is known as cognitive dissonance. The customer, having bought a product, may feel that an alternative would have been preferable. In these circumstances that customer will not repurchase immediately, but is likely to switch brands next time.

10

To manage the post-purchase stage, it is the job of the marketing team to persuade the potential customer that the product will satisfy his or her needs. Then after having made a purchase, the customer should be encouraged that he or she has made the right decision. Model Of Consumer Behaviour (Stimulus-Response Model Of Buyer Behaviour)

Consumers make many buying decisions every day. Most companies are interested to know what consumers buy, where they buy, how and how much they buy, when they buy, and why they buy. But learning about the consumer buying behavior is not easy task The central question for marketers is how consumers respond to various marketing stimuli The company that understands how consumers will respond to different product features, prices, and advertising appeals has a great advantage over its competitors. The starting point is the stimulus-response model of buyer behavior This figure shows that marketing and other stimuli enter the consumers black box and produce certain responses.

Marketing stimuli consist of the four Ps: product, price, place, and promotion. Other stimuli include major forces and events in the buyers environment: economic, technological, political, and cultural. All these inputs enter the buyers black box, where they are turned into a set of observable buyer responses: product choice, brand choice, dealer choice, purchase timing, and purchase amount. The marketer wants to understand how the stimuli are changed into responses inside the consumers black box, which has two parts. First, the buyers characteristics influence how he or she perceives and reacts to the stimuli. Second, the buyers decision process itself affects the buyers behaviour.

Stages of the consumption process: Pre-purchase: problem recognition & information search Purchase: mental evaluations & making of decision Post-purchase: The activities that the consumer undertakes after the purchase and includes; how he uses the product, his degree of satisfaction, and actions taken after the purchase is made. The Consumer Buying Decision Process It is made up of the following five steps;

11

STEPS IN CONSUMER BUYING DECISION PROCESS: 1) Problem recognition; It is the stage when the individual recognizes a need or problem to be satisfied or solved. The need can be triggered by either an internal stimulus (hunger, thirst, or sex), or external stimulus (bread, car, or ad) 2) Information research; Of key interest to the marketer are the major information sources: Personal source- family neighbours, acquaintances Commercial sources- sales persons, dealers , packaging displays Public sources- mass media, consumer-rating organizations Experiential sources- handling, examining, or using the product The relative amount and influence of these information sources vary with the product category and buyers characteristics. 3) Evaluation of alternatives; The consumer develops a set of brand beliefs about a brand, which make up the brand image. The brand image will vary with his/her experiences as filtered by the effects of selective perception, selective distortion and selective retention. The consumer may evaluate brands on the basis of price, product design, colour, packaging, after-sales service, etc. 4) Purchase decision; Having evaluated various solutions, the buyer may develop a predisposition to make a purchase. However, two factors can intervene between the purchase intention and the purchase decision that may change the purchase intention, e.g. The attitude of others Unanticipated situational factors In executing a purchase intention, the consumer may take up to five purchase sub-decisions; A brand decision (brand A) Vendor decision (dealer 2)
12

Quantity decision (1 computer) Timng decision (weekend) Payment method decision (cash/credit) 5) Post purchase behaviour; The consumer will experience some level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Buyers do not follow the general decision sequence at all times. The procedure may vary depending upon;

The time available Levels of perceived risk The degree of involvement a buyer has with a product.

Marketers should provide after sales service and support to assure customer satisfaction. Involvement Involvement may be in terms of relevance and importance and is of two types; a) High involvement; This occurs when a consumer perceives an expected purchase which is not only of high personal relevance but also represents a high level of perceived risk. Cars, washing machines, houses and insurance policies fall in this category. b) Low involvement; This suggests little threat or risk to the consumer. Low priced items such as washing soap, cooking oil, and breakfast products are bought frequently, and past experience of the product class and the brand cues the consumer into a purchase that require little information or support.

Buyer Behavior Black Box Model The aim of buyer behavior models is to take complex interrelated variables involved in purchase decisions, and simplify them to be of use to the marketer. Buyer behavior models describe the characteristics affecting purchases of goods and services as well as giving insights into potential outcomes of marketing strategies. Many buyer behavior models have been developed from a black box model. The information that is processed by the buyer is not explained by the model. Below diagram represents the black box model of buyer

Sets of stimuli enter the buyer black box and then produce certain responses. Marketing must try to work out what goes in the mind of the consumer, as it is difficult to read ones mind this is ter med as black box.

13

The black box model shows the interaction of stimuli, consumer characteristics, decision process and consumer responses. The black box model is related to black box theory of behaviorism, where the focus is not set on the processes inside a consumer, but relation between stimuli and response of the consumer. The marketing stimuli are planned and processed by the companies; whereas the environmental stimuli are by social factors based on economical, political and cultural circumstances of a society. This basic model has been developed into more complex models. In this model, the process and influences on the buyers decision are not explained. Multivariate models try to explain in more deta il what is going on in the buying decision. Most of these models view the buyer as a problem solver and concentrate on the influences upon behavior and the processes involved in purchase. Awareness of a problem arises from some stimuli (e.g. recognizing the need for a new item of clothing), information is processed, environmental and individual influences are evaluated and there is an output of purchase or non-purchase. Models have been developed for consumer, family and organizational buying. Discussions of the most popular models can be found in Schiffman and Kanuk. Criticisms have been made regarding the practicality of these models because of the difficulty in testing them empirically. Tuck criticized multivariate models as they were not operational. He suggested that the approach took the basic black box and merely broke it into many black boxes so the prediction criterion for a good model was not fulfilled. However, although this criticism is legitimate, most agree that multivariate models give valuable insights on the influences and processes involved in buying decisions and it is our view that these are fundamental to an understanding of customers. They provide a framework that marketers can use to evaluate important marketing opportunities in the buying process. Despite the contributions of multivariate models, in recent years the trend has been towards modeling specific aspects of buyer behavior using partial models such as for example Damparat and Joliberts model of buyerseller relationships or Talluri et al. and their model of buyer/supplier negotiations.

Participants in the buying process (The D.M.U.-Decision Making Unit) The marketer needs to know which people are involved in the buying decision. People might play any of several roles in the buying decision process; Initiator: the person who first suggests or thinks of an idea of buying a particular product or service i.e. who initiates the buying decision. Influencer: a person whose views or advices carries some weight in making the final decision. Decider: is the one who ultimately makes a buying decision or any part of it, i.e. whether to buy, what to buy, where to buy. One or more people may be a decider. Buyer: the person who makes the actual purchase. User: the person who uses or consumes the product. A company needs to identify who occupies these roles because they affect product design, promotion, and other marketing strategy
14

BUYING ROLES IN BUYING BEHAVIOR In the buying behavior there are different roles played in each of consumer and business. Those are involved in the buying decisions. CONSUMER BUYING ROLES In the consumer buying there are different buying roles; i.e. Initiator: -- A Person who first suggest the idea of buying. Influencer: - A Person who influence the buying decision. Decider: - A Person who takes decisions regarding buying Buyer: - A Person who actually buys the products. User: - A Person who is the user of the product.

Types of consumer problem solving behaviour: Consumer decision-making varies with the type of buying decision. More complex decisions are likely to involve more buying participants and more buyer deliberations. There are three types of consumer problem-solving behaviour: 1) Routine response behaviour; This occurs when consumers buy low cost, frequently purchased items. The buyers have very few decisions to make. They know a lot about the product class and the major brands available and they have fairly clear preference among the brands. In general, consumers do not give much thought, search or time to the purchase. Marketers must satisfy current consumers by maintaining sufficient quality service and value. They must also try to attract new buyers by introducing new features and using point of purchase displays and price deals. 2) Limited problem solving; Buying is more complex when buyers confront an unfamiliar brand in a familiar product class (e.g. a new brand of radio or toothpaste). E.g. people thinking about buying new music equipment may be shown a new brand with a new shape and new features. They may ask questions and watch adverts to learn more about the new brand. This is described as limited problem-solving because buyers are fully aware of the product class but are not familiar with all the brands available and their features. 3) Extensive problem solving; Sometimes buyers face complex buying decisions for more expensive, less frequently purchased products in a less familiar product class. For these products buyers do not often know what brands are available and what factors to consider in choosing between brands. E.g. suppose you want to buy an expensive stereo component system, you would probably spend time visiting several shops collecting information and comparing various brands before making the final decision.

15

TYPES OF CONSUMER BUYING BEHAVIOUR From the understanding of general decision making process, perceived risk and involvement theory, it is possible to identify the following buying behaviours; 1) Complex buying behaviour; It involves three- step process; The buyer develops beliefs about a product, Then develops attitude, Then makes thoughtful choice Consumers are highly involved in a purchase and are aware of significant differences among brands. Products are highly expensive, bought infrequently, risky and highly self-expressive e.g. automobiles.

2)

Dissonance-reducing buyer behaviour; where the consumer is highly involved in a purchase but sees little difference in brands. Purchase is expensive, infrequent and risky. If the consumer finds quality differences in the brands, he might go for the higher price. If he finds little difference, he might buy simply on price or convenience.

3)

Habitual buying behaviour; Is characteristic with low involvement and the absence of significant brand differences Common with low cost, frequently purchased products e.g. salt Consumers reach for the same brand out of habit but there is no strong brand loyalty.

4)

Variety seeking behaviour; Low involvement but significant brand differences A lot of brand switching Marketing communication should reinforce past decisions by stressing the positive features of the product or by providing more information to assist its use and application.

Organizational/ Industrial Buyer Behaviour

Businesses ask themselves the same questions as consumer marketers i.e. who are our buyers and what are their needs. How do buyers make their buying decisions and what factors influence these decisions? What marketing programs will be most effective? Definition: industrial buying is the decision making process by which formal organizations establish the need to purchase products and identify, evaluate and choose among alternative brands and suppliers. Types of organizational markets; 1) The industrial market; It consists of all organizations acquiring goods and services that enter into the production of other goods and services that are sold or supplied to others. It is the largest organizational market.

16

2) Reseller market; It consists of all individuals and organizations that acquire goods for the purpose of reselling them to others for a profit. Resellers buy products for resale and for conducting their operations e.g. wholesalers. 3) Government market; It consists of government units from central and local government that purchase or rent goods and services for carrying out their main functions. 4) The institutional market; It is made up of hotels, hospitals, schools, colleges and other institutions that also buy goods and services.

Differences between Organizational and Consumer markets In some ways organizational markets are similar to consumer markets- both involve people who assume buying roles and make purchase decisions to satisfy needs. But there are differences stemming from market structure, demand, product characteristics, promotion, distribution channels, price, nature of buying unit, and the decision process. 1. Market characteristics () Size: usually industrial consumers are few in number but purchase larger volumes on a repeat basis. (b Geographic concentration: industrial consumers tend to concentrate in specific areas especially urban areas. (c Competition: industrial organizations are more directly involved in international purchasing. 2. Product characteristics; In industrial markets products are purchased as component parts of other products. More emphasis is given to the technical aspect of the product. Purchases of industrial products are usually governed by customer specifications. Buyer characteristics; Typical consumer buyers have little knowledge of the product they purchase as contrasted with industrial buyers who are professionally and technically trained. Many industrial purchases involve large sums of money; technically complex products and decisions to purchase take longer and involve several people. 4. Reciprocity; Industrial buyers often select suppliers who may also buy from them e.g. a paper company that buys needed chemicals from a chemical company that in turn buys the companys paper. 5. Channel characteristics; In industrial markets, channels are direct where buyers often buy from producers rather than through middlemen. 6. Promotional characteristics; Personal selling is the dominant mode of promotion in industrial markets and advertising may only be used to lay a foundation for personal selling. Sales people act as consultants. 7. Price; Generally in industrial buying, price takes less prominence. Factors of interest are quality, product consistency, certainty and timeless of delivery, service and technical support. 8. Demand; Demand for industrial products is derived demand. It ultimately comes from demand for consumer goods. A cloth manufacturer buys cotton because consumers buy cloth. If consumers demand for cloths declines, so will the demand for cotton and all other products used to make cloth. The demand is also inelastic in organizational markets i.e. total demand is not much affected by price changes especially in the short-run e.g. a drop in the price of leather will not cause shoe manufacturers to buy more leather unless it results in lower shoe prices that in turn would increase customer demand for shoes.

17

Participants in the industrial buying process- The buying centre

This is the group of people who make the buying decision. The group consists of all people who influence, whether positive or negative, at one or more stages of the purchasing process. The Decision Making Unit (D.M.U) has people playing the following roles; The gate keeper: he controls the flow of information, ideas and instructions. Such roles may be played by the receptionist/secretary who controls the buying organizations diary. A gate keeper could also be a specialist who can feed relevant information to the rest of the D.M.U. Influencers: are people such as engineers, accountants or the board of directors. They help define product specifications and provide information for evaluating alternatives. Technical personnel are particularly important influencers. Users: are members of the organization who will use the product. In many cases they initiate the buying proposal and help define product specifications. Buyers: they are people with formal authority to select the supplier and arrange terms of purchase. They negotiate with the selected supplier on issues such as price, delivery time, mode of delivery, etc. Deciders: are people who have formal or informal power to select or approve the final suppliers. In routine or straight buying, the buyers are often the deciders. The buying centre concept presents a challenge to the industrial marketer who must learn the following; Who is involved in the decision? What decisions do they make? What is their relative degree of influence? What evaluative criteria does each participant use? Only when the above questions have been answered can the supplier plan the campaign to inform the key persons within the D.M.U. A multi-faceted attack may be necessary, involving direct mail, personal contact, as well as the use of advertising.

1.

2.

3. 4. 5.

Industrial Buying Situations (classes): / TYPES OF BUSINESS BUYING BEHAVIOR 1. Straight re-buy; it is where the buyer knows his own requirements and the products on offer. The items tend to be regular purchases and the process is in most cases repeated frequently. A buyer would most likely purchase from the same supplier and it is often hard for another supplier to break into such a market. 2. Modified re-buy; in this category would fall the purchase of either a new product from an existing or known supplier, or the purchase of an existing product from a new supplier. It usually involves more decision participants. 3. New task; involves the purchase of new unfamiliar products from previously unknown suppliers. In this situation the buyer must obtain a lot of information about alternative products and suppliers. He must determine the following; Product specifications, price limits, delivery times and terms, service terms, payment terms, order quantities, etc. The buyer makes the fewest decisions in the straight re-buy and most in the new task situation. The new task situation is the marketers greatest opportunity. He tries to reach as many people with key buying influences as possible, and providing useful product information.
18

1. Straight Rebuy: -- In this buyer approves the purchasing on the basis of the past buying records and satisfaction with suppliers. 2. Modified Rebuy: -- where the buyer wants to modify product specifications. Prices, delivery requirements. 3. New Task: -- when the buyer approves the purchasing of product for the first time by consisting of the good and efficient salesperson. So, that its the types of the buying behavior of consumer as well as business buyer. Industrial Buyer Decision Making Process

In the industrial buyer decision making process, buyers facing a new task buyer situation will usually go through all stages of the buying process and those making straight or modified re-buys may skip some of the stages. They are;

1.

Problem recognition; The process begins when someone in the firm recognizes a problem or need that can be solved by acquiring a specific product. The company may decide to launch a new product and need new equipment and materials to produce it or a machine may break down and need new parts etc. 2. General need description; This is description of the general characteristics and quantity of the needed item. Emphasis here is on reliability, durability, price and other attributes desired in the item. 3. Product specification; The items product specifications are analyzed and the purchasing team (D.M.U.) decides on the best product characteristics and specify them accordingly. 4. Supplier search; This is carried out to find the best suppliers. Some suppliers may not be considered because they are not large enough to supply the needed quantity or because they have poor repu tation. The suppliers task is to get listed in major directories and build reputation in the marketplace. Salespeople should watch for companies in the process of searching for suppliers and ensure their firm is considered.
19

5.

Proposal solicitation; The buyer invites qualified suppliers to submit proposals. When the item is complex or expensive, the buyer will need detailed written proposals from each potential supplier. 6. Supplier selection; The buying centre (D.M.U.) reviews the proposals and selects a supplier. They will consider the technical competence of various suppliers, their ability to deliver the item on time and also deliver the necessary services. The following attributes have a strong influence on the relationship between the supplier and customer; Quality of products, on time delivery, competitive prices, and delivery terms. 7. Order routine specification; This involves preparing the final order with the chosen supplier, listing the technical specifications, quantity needed, expected time of delivery, e.t.c. 8. Performance review; Here the buyer reviews the performance of the supplier. The buyer may retain, modify, or drop the supplier in future hence the supplier should ensure that he is giving the expected satisfaction.

Personal Determinants of Consumer Behaviour These are needs, motivation, perception, learning, beliefs, and attitudes. 1. Needs and Motivation A motive is a need that is sufficiently pressing to drive a person to act. Needs are either physiological-(hunger, thirst, comfort), or psychological-(recognition, self-esteem, etc.). Marketers study motivation theories for consumer analysis and marketing strategy. Three of the best known theories are those of Sigmund Freud, Abraham Maslow and Fredrick Herzberg. Freuds theory 1. Assumes that the psychological forces shaping peoples behaviour are largely unconscious, and that a person cannot fully understand his/her own motivation. When a person examines specific brands, he/she will react not only to their stated capabilities, but also to other less conscious cues. Shape, size, weight, colour and brand can all trigger certain associations and emotions in the consumer. Motivation researchers often collect in-depth interviews to uncover deeper motives that trigger the purchase of a product. Maslows theory In order of importance, they are physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs and selfactualization. A person will try to satisfy their most important needs first, after which he will then try to satisfy the next higher need. The theory helps marketers to understand how various products fit into the plans, goals, and lives of consumers.

2. 3.

20

Herzbergs theory He developed a two- factor theory that distinguishes dissatisfiers (factors that cause dissatisfaction) and satisfiers (factors that cause satisfaction).Satisfiers must be actively present to motivate a purchase. The implications are that sellers must do their best to avoid dissatisfiers e.g. poor instructions manual. The manufacturers should identify the major satisfiers and motivators and supply them to buyers.

Perception Perception is a process by which an individual selects, organizes and interprets stimuli into a meaningful, coherent image or picture of the world. simply said it is how an individual views a particular product. A motivated person is ready to act and how he acts is influenced by his or her perception of the situation. Two people in the same motivated state and objective situation may act quite differently because they perceive the situation differently. People can emerge with different perceptions of the same object because of three perceptual processes: selective attention, selective distortion, and selective retention.

Learning Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour tha t occurs as a result of experience or reinforced practice. Most human behaviour is learned. Two main approaches to learning are: Behavioural-association, reinforcement and motivation. Cognitive-processing information in order that problems can be resolved. Learning theory teaches marketers that they can build up demand for a product by associating it with strong drives, using motivating cues, and reinforcement.

Personality Theories Personality is, essentially, concerned with the inner properties of each individual, those characteristics that differentiate each of us. Freudian theory of personality; psychoanalytic theory: It assumes that the needs which motivate human behaviour are driven by primary instincts- life and death. The life instincts are considered to be predominantly sexual in nature, whereas the death instincts are believed to be manifested through self-destructive and/or aggressive behaviour. The personality of an individual is assumed to have developed in an attempt to gratify these needs, and consists of the id (pleasure seeking), super ego (acts within the rule of the society) and ego.

21

Trait theory: Traits are distinguishing, relatively enduring ways in which one individual differs from another. Personality is measured and quantified e.g. the degree of assertiveness, responsiveness to change or level of sociability. Marketers identify specific traits and then develop consumer profiles which enable a distinct market segment to be determined. For example, Aspirers seek status and self- esteem (materialism) and are targeted with products which act as symbols of achievement e.g. designer clothes, latest hi-fi etc. Consumers are likely to choose brands whose personalities match their own. For example; Tommy Hilfigeryouthfulness, Levis- ruggedness. Brand personalities can attract consumers with the same self-concept (how somebody views himself). Beliefs and attitudes An attitude is a learned predisposition to behave in a consistently favourable or unfavourable way with respect to a given object. Through doing and learning, people acquire beliefs and attitudes. Attitudes relevant to purchase behaviour are formed as a result of direct experience with the product, word of mouth information acquired from others, or exposure to mass media advertising. A company can fit its products into existing attitudes rather than trying to changing them. Attitude change strategies include: Changing the consumers basic motivational function, i.e., making particular needs promin ent. Associating the product with an admired group or event e.g. social support events, celebrities, e.t.c. Resolving two conflicting attitudes e.g. moving from negative to positive. Altering components of a multi attribute product e.g. toothpaste (regular and herbal, etc.). Changing consumer belief about competitors brands.

22